INTEGRAL CALCULUS

FOR BEGINNERS

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
FOR BEGINNERS

WITH AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

BY

JOSEPH EDWAEDS,

M.A.

FORMERLY FELLOW OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

MACMILLAN AND
AND NEW YORK
1896
All rights reserved

CO.

First Edition, 1890.

Reprinted 1891, 1892, 1893.

With additions and corrections, 1894

GLASGOW

reprinted 1896.

PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE

AND

CO.

PREFACE.
THE

present volume

is

intended to form a sound

introduction to a study of

the Integral

Calculus,

suitable for a student beginning the subject.

Like

its

companion, the 'Differential! Calculus for Beginners,

does not therefore aim at completeness, but rather

it

at the omission of all portions of the subject

which

are usually regarded as best left for a later reading.

It will

be found, however, that the ordinary pro-

cesses of integration are fully treated, as

also

the

principal methods of Rectification and Quadrature,

and the calculation of the volumes and surfaces
of

solids

of

revolution.

Some

indication

is

also

afforded to the student of other useful applications

of the Integral Calculus, such as the general
to

be

employed

in

obtaining

Centroid, or the value of a

As

the

Moment

method

position

of

of Inertia.

seems undesirable that the path of a student

in Applied Mathematics should be blocked by a

want

it

of acquaintance with the

methods of solving

M298720

PREFACE.

vi

elementary Differential Equations, and at the same

time that his course should be stopped for a sysstudy of the subject in some complete
and exhaustive treatise, a brief account has been

tematic

added of the ordinary methods of solution of the

more elementary forms occurring, leading up to and
including

all

such kinds as the student

meet with in his

Dynamics

reading

of a Particle,

of

is

likely to

Analytical

Statics,

and the elementary parts of

Rigid Dynamics. Up to the solution of the general

Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients, the subject

has been treated as fully as

is

consistent with the scope of the present work.

The examples scattered throughout the text have

been carefully made or selected to illustrate the
articles which they immediately follow.
A considerable

number

of these

examples should be worked

by the student so that the several methods explained

"
"
in the
book-work
may be firmly fixed in the

mind before attacking the somewhat harder

sets at

the ends of the chapters.

These are generally of a

more miscellaneous character, and call for greater

originality

and ingenuity, though few present any

considerable difficulty.

large proportion of these

examples have been actually set in examinations, and

the sources to which I am indebted for them are
usually indicated.

PREFACE.

My

vii

acknowledgments are due in some degree to

many of the modern writers on the

the works of
subjects

treated

of,

but

more

especially

to

the

and Todhunter, and to ProTreatises

fessor Greenhill's interesting Chapter on the Integral
of Bertrand

Calculus,

which the more advanced student

may

consult with great advantage.

My

thanks are due to several friends

who have

me

valuable suggestions with regard to

the desirable scope and plan of the work.

kindly sent

JOSEPH EDWARDS.
October, 1894.

CONTENTS.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
CHAPTER

I.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

......

Determination of an Area,
Integration from the Definition,

Volume

4
10

of Revolution,

CHAPTER
GENERAL METHOD.

II.

.......
......

General Laws obeyed by the Integrating Symbol,

n
l
Integration of x x~

Table of Results,

CHAPTER

14

19

20

21

22

METHOD

13

STANDARD FORMS.

Fundamental Theorem,
Nomenclature and Notation,
,

PAGES
1
3

2326
2628

III.

OF SUBSTITUTION.

......

Method of Changing the Variable,

The Hyperbolic Functions,

29

32

33

36

Additional Standard Results,

3741

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

IV.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
Integration

"by Parts"

of a Product,

....

PAGES

4347
4849
5052

Geometrical Proof,
Extension of the Rule,

CHAPTER

V.

PARTIAL FRACTIONS.

........

Standard Cases,
General Fraction with

Rational

55

57

Numerator and De-

5861

nominator,

CHAPTER

VI.

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

...

f^L

Integration of

6568

J \/K
Powers and Products of Sines and Cosines,
Powers of Secants or Cosecants,
Powers of Tangents or Cotangents,

.....
.....

a + cos x
/rfv

75

76

77

78

7983

etc.,

6974

CHAPTER

VII.

REDUCTION FORMULAE.

m
Integration of x

-l

XP, where

Reduction Formulae for

Reduction Formulae for

....

dx,

8789
90

93

94

95

IT

j"z
/

dx,

sin^a; cos^a:

7T

Evaluation of

X = a + bxn

x m ~ l Xp

sii\

xdx,

-i

ain^x cos^x dx,

96

102

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

xi

VIII.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS.
Integration of

x
/ ^).f
J X. i\f

.......

Integration of some Special Fractional Forms,

Some Elementary

Definite Integrals,

Differentiation under an Integral Sign,

CHAPTER

....
....

General Propositions and Geometrical Illustrations,

PAGES

109117
118

119

120

124

125

127

128

129

IX.

RECTIFICATION.

.......
.....
........
........
........

Rules for Curve-Tracing,

Formulae for Rectification and Illustrative Examples,

135137
13S

Modification for a Closed Curve,

Arc

of

an Evolute,

Intrinsic Equation,
Arc of Pedal Curve,

CHAPTER

139

140
143
144

149
150

X.

QUADRATURE.

........
.......
.......
.....
.........
........
.......

Cartesian Formula,
Sectorial Areas.
Polars,

Area of a Closed Curve,

Other Expressions,
Area between a Curve, two Radii

'.''-.

of

153

157

158160
161163
164165

Curvature and the

Areas of Pedals,

166167
168175

Corresponding Areas,

176

Evolute,

CHAPTER

177

XI.

SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION.

Volumes

of Revolution,
Surfaces of Revolution,

.......
.......

183184
185187

CONTENTS.

xii

.......
......

Theorems

of Pappus,
Revolution of a Sectorial Area,

CHAPTER

188

PAGES
191

192

XII.

SECOND-ORDER ELEMENTS OF AREA.

MISCELLANEOUS

APPLICATIONS.

.....
.....

Surface Integrals, Cartesian Element,

Centroids ; Moments of Inertia,
Surface Integrals, Polar Element,
Centroids, etc., Polar Formulae,

195

198

199

201

202203
204

207

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
CHAPTER

XIII.

EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER.

Genesis of a Differential Equation,
Variables Separable,

.....

211214
215

Linear Equations,

CHAPTER

216

219

221

226

XIV.

EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER (Continued}.

Homogeneous Equations,
One Letter Absent,
Clairaut's

227229
230233

Form,

CHAPTER XV.
EXACT DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND ORDER.

EQUATIONS.
Linear Equations,
One Letter Absent,
General Linear Equation.

235

236

237238
Removal

Exact Differential Equations,

of a

Term,
.

239

240

241242

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

xiii

XVI.

LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH CONSTANT

COEFFICIENTS.
PAGES

General

Form

of Solution,

The Complementary Function,

The Particular Integral,

An

.....

243244
245

251

252263

Equation Reducible to Linear Form with Constant

264265

Coefficients,

CHAPTER
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES.

XVII.

MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.

Orthogonal Trajectories,
Some Important Dynamical Equations,
Further Illustrative Examples,

....

266269
270

271

272277

278308

Answers,

ABBREVIATION.
To

indicate the sources from

which many

of the

examples are

derived, in cases where a group of colleges have held an examination

in common, the references are abbreviated as follows
:

(a)

= St.

Peter's,

Pembroke, Corpus

Christi, Queen's,

and

St.

Catharine's.

= Clare,
= Jesus,
(7)
(d) = Jesus,
= Clare,
(e)

(j8)

and King's.
Magdalen, Emanuel, and Sidney Sussex.
Christ's, Emanuel, and Sidney Sussex.
Caius, and King's.

Caius, Trinity Hall,

Christ's,

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER

I.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

Use and Aim of the Integral Calculus.

1.

The Integral Calculus is the outcome of an endeavour to obtain some general method of finding the
area of the plane space bounded by given curved
lines.

In the problem of the determination of such an

it is necessary to suppose this space divided up
into a very large number of very small elements.
We then have to form some method of obtaining
the limit of the sum of all these elements when
each is ultimately infinitesimally small and their
area

number

infinitely increased.
It will be found that when

once such a method of

discovered, it may be applied to other
problems such as the finding of the length of a curved
line, the areas of surfaces of given shape and the
volumes bounded by them, the determination of
moments of inertia, the positions of Centroids, etc.

summation

E.

i.

c.

is

<E

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

Throughout the book

coordinate axes will be

all

angles will be supposed

measured in circular measure, and all logarithms
supposed Napierian, except when otherwise stated.

supposed rectangular,

all

2. Determination of an Area.
be Summed. Notation.

Form

of Series to

Suppose it is required to find the area of the portion

bounded by a given curve AB, defined by
of
its Cartesian equation, the ordinates AL and
A and B, and the cc-axis.
of space

BM

0,0,0,0,
Fig. 1.

LM

Let

be divided into

equal small parts,

LQ V

eacn f length A, and let a and 6 be

QiQz, Q^Qv
and
Then b a = ?i/L Also if
the abscissae of
y (f)(x) be the equation of the curve, the ordinates
>

$2^2* e ^ c -' through the several points L,

are of lengths <j>(a), ^(a+K), ^(a+2A), etc.
Let their extremities be respectively A,
etc.,
1?
2
and complete the rectangles
V PjQg, 2 Q3 etc.
Now the sum of these n rectangles falls short of
the area sought by the sum of the n small figures,
Let each of these be supposed
J2 2 2 etc.
1
1

LA, QiPp

Q v Q2

etc.,

P P

AQ

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

.4

to slide parallel to the o>axis into a corresponding

n _^Qn _iMB.
position upon the longest strip, say
Their sum is then less than the area of this strip,
i.e. in the limit less than an infinitesimal of the first
order, for the breadth Q n .iM is h and is ultimately
an infinitesimal of the first order, and the length

MB is supposed finite.

Hence the area required is the limit when h is

zero (and therefore n infinite) of the sum of the
series of n terms

The sum may be denoted by

a+rh = b-h

a+rh=b-h

<>(a

+ rJi.h

or

where S or 2 denotes the sum between the

limits

indicated.

a+rh as
may be

a variable x, the infinitesimal

It is
written as to or dx.
customary also upon taking the limit to replace the

Regarding
increment h

symbol S by the more convenient sign

limit of the above

summation when h

is

and the

diminished

indefinitely is then written

f
I

<f)(x)dx,

and read as "the integral of <j)(x) with regard to x

= a and x = b"
[or of (f>(x)dx] between the limits x
"
or more shortly from a to b."
"
"
"
b is called the upper or superior limit."
"
"
"
a is called the lower or inferior limit,"
The sum of the n + l terms,
differs

from the above

series

merely in the addition of

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
the term h(f>(a+nh) or A0(6) which vanishes when
the limit is taken.
Hence the limit of this series
may also be written
f

<t>(x)dx.

Integration from the Definition.

This summation may sometimes be effected by
elementary means, as we now proceed to illustrate
3.

Cb

Ex.

1.

Calculate

Here we have

e*dx.

to evaluate

Lth==Qh[e a + e a+h + e a+

+
b = a + nh.

where

. . .

=Lth ^h^p\ea =Lth ^(eb - ea)-^-=e* - e\

This

&

&

[By

Diff.

Calc. for Beginners, Art. 15.]

r=n-l

/bxdx we have to find

Now

and

Lt

r=

(+rA)A, where

2(a + rh)h =

in the limit

becomes
2
6

/a $x we
indefinitely diminished of

22'

have to obtain the limit when h

is

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

>
b+h

a-h

&'

and when h diminishes without

limit, each of these

becomes

II
a

Thus

b'

f*JL2 /&==*.*
.r
a b

Ex.

4.

Prove ab

initio that

sin

# ofo? = cos a - cos

6.

/&

We now are
[sin

to find the limit of

a + sin(a + k) + sin(a + 2A) +

sinf
\

a+n

. . .

to

terms]A,

l- Jsin n2,
2/

sin

*
This

expression =

cosf

cos <
J

a + (2n -

1)-

2JJ sinj-

smwhich when A

is

indefinitely small ultimately takes the

cos

cos

b.

form

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.
Prove by summation that

2.

/
/

sir
sinh

xdx

cosh b

cosh

a.

3.

/b

cos

OdO = sin 6

m
Integration of x
As a further example
4.

the limit of the

h[a

m+

(a

sum

we next

+ h} m + (a + 2h)m +.
a
6
-n

h=

made

is

propose to consider

of the series

where

and n

sin a.

indefinitely large,
fy
v>/

I\m+l

m+1

not being zero.

_ yin + 1

2
is m + 1 when A is
m
Ay
indefinitely diminished, whatever y may be, provided it be of
finite magnitude.
For the expression may be written

[Lemma.

The Limit

of

-1
y
and

since

less

than unity, and

/

Theorem

to

is

to

be ultimately zero we

expand

we may
+l

^\7?l
1 -J-J

may

consider - to be

therefore apply the Binomial

whatever be the value of m+l.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

Thus the expression

(See Dif. Gale, for Beginners, Art. 13.)

"becomes

-x(a convergent series)

y
when A is indefinitely diminished.]

m+I
In the result

put

i/

success! vely

= a, a+h,

a+2h,etc....a + (n

l)h,

and we get
l

-am +
~

_ r,

- (a + n^

h(a+n-Ui)

or adding numerators for a new numerator and denominators for a new denominator,

fe[a

w+

(a

/t)

w+

(a

+ 2h)m +

+ (a + n^l

or

Lt h=Q h[am + (a + A) m + (a

m+1

'

In accordance with the notation of Art.

be written

may

'

xmdx=
7

m+1

2,

this

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

8
The

a and

letters

may

represent any finite quantities what-

xm does not become

ever, provided

infinite

x=a

between

and

When
is

a is taken as exceedingly small and ultimately zero, it

necessary in the proof to suppose h an infinitesimal of higher
it has been assumed that in the limit V
the values given to y.

order, for
all

When

=1

is

zero for

and a = 0, ultimately the theorem be-

comes

xm dx=

if

m+1

be positive,

= oo

or

This theorem

may

if

m + 1 be negative.

be written also
r

according as

or,

which

differs

and

m+1

is

positive or negative.

is

the same thing,

-Lst

n= oo

from the former by

therefore also

positive or negative.
be discussed later.

limit

M4-'

1
is

The

-?, or

The

i.e.

oo

case

by

in the limit,

according as

when

m+1

m + l=0

is

will

Ex. 1. Find the area of the portion of the parabola 7/ 2 =4a#

bounded by the curve, the #-axis, and the ordinate xc.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

Let us divide the length c into n equal portions of which
th
is the (r+l)
and erect ordinates NP, MQ. Then if

NM

PR

be drawn parallel to

when n

is infinite

of the

Lt^PN.NM

i.e.

the area required

NM,

sum

of such rectangles as

is

the limit

PM (Art.

2),

[By Art.

4.]

or

where nh = c.

Now

Area =f
of the rectangle of which the
of the area are adjacent sides.

=f

extreme ordinate

arid abscissa

2.
Find the mass of a rod whose density varies as the
power of the distance from one end.
Let a be the length of the rod, o> its sectional area supposed

Ex.

with

Divide the rod into n elementary portions each of

uniform.

length
of
1

Its

of the

(r+l)th element from the end

w-, and its density varies from

n
* *"
mass is therefore intermediate between

zero densitv

m
(7+la\
\

The volume

-.

is

coa** 1 -

and

**

to

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

10
Thus the mass

of the

whole rod

lies

between

and
and in the

limit,

when n

increases indefinitely, becomes

ra+1
5.

Determination of a Volume of Revolution.

Let it be required to find the volume formed by

the revolution of a given curve AB about an axis
in its own plane which it does not cut.
as the cc-axis, the
The
be described exactly as in Art. 2.

Taking the axis of revolution

figure

may

Fig. 3.

AQ

V P-fy^ 2 Qz> etc., trace in

their revolution circular discs of equal thickness, and
The several
of volumes <jrA L 2 LQ19
etc.
annular portions formed by the revolution of the
portions
P^R^P^ 2 3 3 etc., may be conelementary rectangles
.

AR^^

nrP^ Q&,
PEP
.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

11

sidered made to slide parallel to the #-axis into a

corresponding position upon the disc of greatest radius,
say that formed by the revolution of the figure
Pn-iQn-iNB. Their sum is therefore less than this
disc, i.e. in the limit less than an infinitesimal of the
first order, for the breadth Qn -\N is h, and is ultimately an infinitesimal of the first order, and the

length

NB is supposed finite.

Hence the volume required

zero (and therefore

or as

it

may

the limit, when h is

the sum of the series

be written

Cb

7r\

is

infinite), of

Cb

or

2
y dx.

1.
The portion of the parabola y 2 = 4a,r bounded by the
# = c revolves about the axis. Find the volume generated.

Ex.
line

Let the portion required be that formed by the revolution of

the area APN^ bounded by the parabola and an ordinate PN.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

12
Then dividing

as before into elementary circular laminae,

we

have
re

4a:r

/cy^dx

xdx

[Art. 4.]

AN

'

=J
[Or

if

cylinder of radius

PA and height AN.

7

expressed as a series
[c

Volume = 4a?r

x dx

r
.

Ex.

2.

= 2a?rc 2.]

[Art. 4.]

Find the volume of the prolate spheroid formed by the

revolution of the ellipse

=l
~+^2
*

about the

#-axis.

Fig. 5.

Dividing as before into elementary circular laminae

axes coincide with the #-axis, the volume is twice
/

Try^dx.

-a
a

Now
which, according to Article

4, is

equal to

5[a*.(-0)-^]
and the whole volume

is

- x*)dx

or

whose

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

[or

if

desirable

we may

13

obtain the same result without using

the sign of integration, as

EXAMPLES.
Find the area bounded by the curve
the ordinates #=a, #=&.
1.

^^ the #-axis, and

2. If the area in Question 1 revolve round the ,#-axis find the

volume of the solid formed.
3. Find by the method of Art. 2, the area of the triangle
formed by the line y=x tan 0, the #-axis and the line x = a.
Find also the volume of the cone formed when this triangle
revolves about the #-axis.
4. Find the volume of the reel-shaped solid formed by the

revolution about the y-axis of that part of the parabola

cut off by the latus-rectum.
5. Find the volume of the sphere formed
the circle x2 +y 2 = a 2 about the .r-axis.

y^^ax

by the revolution

of

6. Find the areas of the figures bounded by each of the

also the
following curves, the #-axis, and the ordinate x = h
volume formed by the revolution of each area about the #-axis
;

Find the mass

(a)

7/3

(8)

aty

= a *a

which the density at

each point varies as the distance from the centre.
8. Find the mass of the prolate spheroid formed by the
revolution of the ellipse ^ 2 /a 2 -f^/ 2 /6 2 = l about the #-axis, supposing the density at each point to be //x,
7.

of a circular disc of

CHAPTEE

II

GENEEAL METHOD. STANDAED FOEMS.

6. Before proceeding further with
applications of
the Integral Calculus, we shall establish a general
theorem which will in many cases enable us to infer
the result of the operation indicated by

n
I

<p(x)dx

without having recourse to the usually tedious, and

often difficult, process of Algebraic or Trigonometrical

Summation.
PROP. Let </)(x) be any function of x which is
and continuous between given finite values a
and b of the variable x let a be < 6, and suppose the
difference b
a to be divided into n portions each
equal h, so that b a = nh. It is required to find the
limit of ike sum of the series
7.

finite

ft[0O) + <p(a + h) + 4>(a + 2h)+... + 0(6 h) + 0(6)],

when h is diminished indefinitely, and therefore
increased without limit.
[It may at once be seen that this limit
be the greatest term the sum is

is finite,

- a)<t>(a + rh) + h<$>(a +

for

if

<$>(a+rh)

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

which is finite, since by hypothesis
x intermediate between b and a.]

is finite four all

<(#)

Let \fs(x) be another function of x such

its differential coefficient, i.e. such that

15

values of

that

<j)(x)

is

We shall then prove that

Lth ^[<fa)+^a+h)+^
By

definition

and therefore

^a)*
a

where a :

is a quantity whose limit

diminishes indefinitely thus

is

zero

when h

=\/s(a+

h(j)(a)

7i)

+ha

t/r(a)

lt

Similarly
h<f>(a

etc.,

=
Ih) \[s(a + nil)

where the quantities a 2 a 3 ..., a n are all, like a v

quantities whose limits are zero when h diminishes
,

indefinitely.

By

addition,

h[<f>(a)

+ 0(a + h) + <f>(a

Let a be the greatest of the quantities a v a 2

then

Afoi+ag+^.+On]

is

<nha,

and therefore vanishes in the

limit.

i.e.

<(&

Thus

. . .

a)a,

an

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

16

The term

is in the limit zero; hence if we

added to the left-hand member of
may then be stated that

fc</>(6)

desire, it may be
this result, and it

.e.

This result
notation

</)(x)dx

\[s(b)

= \ls(b)

frequently denoted

is

\fs(a)

\ls(a).

by the

p\/r(a3)

this result it appears that when the form of

the function ^fs(x) (of which </>(x) is the differential
coefficient) is obtained, the process of algebraic or

From

rb

trigonometric summation to obtain

avoided.

The

letters b

<j)(x)dx

may

be

and a are supposed in the above work

We shall now extend our

to denote finite quantities.

notation so as to

let

express the limit

<f>(x)dx

when

becomes

infinitely large of
I

^(6)

= Lt b=x

(j)(x)dx

^js(a), i.e.

<j)(x)dx.

(j)(x)dx

we

shall be understood

to

fb
-\I,(a)]

Ex.

Hence

1.

if

The

or

Lta=00

coefficient of

differential

fb
\

<f>(x)dx.

is

m
plainly x

m
<$>(x)=x we have

df(x):L^ '

m+l

and

m+1 m + \

m+l

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

Ex.

The quantity whose

Hence

2.

known

cos

Ex.

x dx = sin

The quantity whose

Hence

3.

Ex.

differential coefficient is cos

a?

is

to be sin x.

itself e

17

x
.

sin a.

differential coefficient

is

e* is

4.

EXAMPLES.
Write down the values of
rl

1.

X CiX)
/Vdr,

2.
2i,

/b
a

,-2

X Cf/JCm
/Vcfo?,

3.
o.

4.

cfo,
d/X^

1
ir

it

rA

cos

/2

x dx,

6.

r4

sec 2^; dx^

7.

ia

8.

Geometrical Illustration of Proof.

The proof

of the above theorem may be interpreted geometrically thus

Let
be a portion of a curve of which the ordinate is finite
and continuous at all points between A and B, as also the
tangent of the angle which the tangent to the curve makes
with the a?-axis.
Let the abscissae of A and
be a and b respectively. Draw
ordinates A N, BM.
Let the portion
be divided into n equal portions each
of length h.
Erect ordinates at each of these points of division
cutting the curve in P, Q, R, ..., etc. Draw the successive
tangents AP^ PQi, QRi, etc., and the lines
:

AB

NM

AP ,PQ QR ,...,
2

parallel

to

the

y = ^r(x\ and
then

let

<f>(a\ <$>(a

E.

I.

C.

,r-axis,

and

2J

let

the equation of the curve be

V^') = <M>
<$>(a + Zh\ etc., are respectively
tanP.JPj, taii^Pft, etc.,

+ h\

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

18
and

-h), ...,

Now

it is

P P,

clear that the algebraic

2

are respectively the lengths

R R,
2

is

...,

sum

of

MB-NA,

i.e.

Hence

s,

L
Fig.

6.

Now

the portion within square brackets may be shewn to

For if
for instance be the
diminish indefinitely with h.
etc., the sum
greatest of the several quantities PjP,

R^
Q^

[P1 P+Q 1 Q+...]

But

if

the abscissa of

is

<nR R,
1

be called

#,

and

(x)
[Diff.

R^R =

so that

and
which

(6
is

=
"(x 4- <9A)

i.e.

<(b-a)-}~.

then

+ -^"(x + Qh\

Calc. for Beginners, Art. 185.]

(x

+ Oh),

a)

an infinitesimal in general of the

first order.

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

19

Thus
Lth=0
or

Also since

9.

Z^=

A^(6)

= 0, we

have,

by

addition,

Interrogative Character of the Integral Cal-

culus.

In the differential calculus the student has learnt

to differentiate a function of any assigned character with regard to the independent variable conIn other words, having given y = \f^(x)
tained.
methods have been there explained of obtaining the
form of the function \[s'(x) in the equation

how

The proposition of Art. 7 shews that if we can reverse

this operation and obtain the form of ^(x) when \l/(x)
is

given

we

shall

be able to perform the operation

fb
I

cf)(x)dx

i.e.

fb
I

\l/(x)dx,

by merely taking the function

\fr(x\ substituting

and a alternately for x and subtracting the

result from the former thus obtaining

latter

We shall therefore confine our attention for the

next few chapters to the problem of reversing the
operations of the differential calculus.
Further, the quantity b has been assumed to have
any value whatever provided it be finite; we may
therefore replace it by x and write the result of the
proposition of Art 7 as
fx
I

<j)(x)dx

= \ls(x)

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

20

10. When the lower limit a is not specified and

we are merely enquiring the form of the (at present)
unknown function \fr(x), whose differential coefficient
is the known function
$(#), the notation used is

the limits being omitted.

11.

Nomenclature.

The nomenclature

of these expressions

is

as follows

r (p(x)dx
is

or

called the "definite" integral of

b ;

<f>(x)

between limits

a and

fx
I

<j)(x)dx

or

where the upper limit is

a "corrected" integral;
<f>(x)dx

\{s(x)

left

or

\[s(a)

undetermined

is

called

-^(x)

without any specified limits and regarded merely

as the reversal of an operation of the differential
"
"
calculus is called an "indefinite" or
unconnected
integral.
12.

Addition of a Constant.

It will be obvious that if <p(x) is the differential

coefficient of ^]s(x\ it is also the differential coefficient
of \lr(x)
C where C is any constant whatever for
the differential coefficient of any constant is zero.

Accordingly

we might

This constant

is

write

however not usually written clown,

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

21

but will be understood to exist in all "cases of

definite integration though not expressed.

in-

processes of indefinite integration

for
frequently give results of different form

13. Different

will

instance

I-

dx

sin' ^ or

is

cos~%, for

}*/I-x 2
is

Vl

the differential coefficient of either of these exYet it is not to be inferred that

pressions.

sin" 1

^^

But what is really true

by a constant, for

is

cos' 1 ^.

that sin" 1^ and

cos" 1 ^

differ

so that

or

Vl-a
,

J/s/l-a;

dx =

sin

dx=

cos-^

the arbitrary constants being different.

14.

Inverse Notation.

Agreeably with the accepted notation for the inverse Trigonometrical and inverse Hyperbolic functions, we might express the equation

or

and

j5^)
it is

= ^);

occasionally useful to employ this notation,

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

22

which very well expresses the interrogative character

of the operation we are conducting.
15.

General Laws satisfied by the Integrating

Symbol

\dx.

(1) It

will

be

plain

from the meaning of the

symbols that
s

but that
(2)

is <j>(x)
l-y- (fi(x)dx

+ any arbitrary constant.

The operation of integration

w be any functions of x,

is

distributive;

of integration is

commutative

for if u, v,

-T-j

|u^+l^^+l^^r

and therefore (omitting constants)

JurZ#+
(3)

|i;cfe-f

The operation

\wdx =

with regard to constants.

(I'll

For

if
-j

= v,

and a be any constant, we have

d
so that (omitting

du

any constant of integration)

au =
or

which

\av dx 9

a\vdx=\avdx,
establishes the theorem.

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

23

We

now proceed to a detailed consideration of

16.
several elementary special forms of functions.

By

xn

Integration of

17.

differentiation of -

n +^1

d x
_
dx n +

n+l

Hence
Art.

7,

we

obtain

nrfll

(as has been already seen in Art. 4 and in

Ex. 1)

Thus the rule for the integration of any constant

power of x is, Increase the index by unity and divide
by

the

index

so increased.

For example,

/nA

X X = ~''

X
}

x=

11

if

r
;

x~^ =

T4

EXAMPLES.
TTn'^e

down the

integrals of
1.

^"J

#"

a
O.

999

^7

#1000

-^"Jf

"4^4-

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

24

The Case of x~\

18.

remembered that x~ l or x
coefficient of log x.
Thus

It will be
ential

is

the differ-

fl

\-dx = logx.
Jx
This therefore forms an apparent exception to the
general rule
f
^n+l
n dx =
\x
19. The result, however, may be deduced as a limiting
Supplying the arbitrary constant, we have
n

/x dx

=
n+l

A = C+

where

+ C= ~

-I-

n+l

case.

n+ l

and is still an arbitrary constant.

Taking the limit when n + l=0,

takes the form log x,

[Diff. Calc.

and

as

tively

for Beginners, Art. 15.]

arbitrary we may suppose that it contains a negainfinite portion together with another arbitrary
is

7i

~\~ J.

portion A.

Lt n== -i {xndx = log x + A.

Thus
20.

In the same

as in the integration of x n

way

we have
1

and

= (n + V)a(ax + b)n

+ 6) =
^-log(a%
&v

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

IA n 7
(oo5
and therefore f/
\(ax+o) dx =
/

+ &)n+1
'

(n+l)a

and

'r

Jax + b

we

fFor convenience
printed as

25

-r,

Jax + b'

= -\og(ax
+ b\
6V
a

shall

Jja +x*

dx

often
as

,-

find

jdx
Jax + b
o,

J*Ja* + x*

etc.]

EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals of
of a+x, a
1. ax,
a x_ a+x
1

ax?

3.

a+x

'

a?

x,

a-\-x

bx

(a-#)

2>

n*

(a

a+x a-x* x+a x d

21.

We may next remark

n+l

coefficients of

x)

(a+x)

xY

(a

that since the differential

and of log $(x) are respectively

[<f>(x)]

and
n

we have

{[<t>(x)] <t>'(x)dx

and

The second

of these results especially

be put into words thus

any fraction of which the numerator
coefficient of the denominator is
use.

It

may

log (denominator).

For example,

is

of great

the integral of
is the differential

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
=
/co\,xdx
.#

dx

*"

/tan

Sill

x
dx
X
-a?^

log sin #,

log cos x = log sec x-

cosx

EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals
n x
e ,

of

~-,

(a

~\~ Ct

22. It will now be perceived that the operations of

the Integral Calculus are of a tentative nature, and
that success in integration depends upon a knowledge of the results of differentiating the simple
functions.
It is therefore necessary to learn the table
It is
of standard forms which is now appended.
practically the same list as that already learnt for
differentiation, and the proofs of these results lie in
differentiating the right hand members of the several
results.
The list will be gradually extended and a

supplementary

list

given

later.

PRELIMINARY TABLE OF RESULTS TO BE COMMITTED

TO MEMORY.

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

r,X

tUj

(e

U/^

dx

cos

x dx

27

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

28

The reason is obvious. Each of these functions decreases

increases through the first quadrant ; their differential coefficients are therefore negative.
Also it is a further help to observe the dimensions of each side.

them.
as

For

x and a being supposed

instance,

linear,
i

is

va

of zero

X"

There could therefore be no - prefixed to the ina

C dx
is of dimensions -1.
Hence the result of
2
Again / 2

dimensions.
tegral.

integration

d~" -\-

must be

of dimensions -1.

not be tan" 1 - (which

is

Thus the

of zero dimensions).

integral could

The student should

therefore have no difficulty in remembering in which cases the

factor -

is

to be prefixed.

EXAMPLES.
Write down the
tions

indefinite integrals of the following func-

'

2.
*

3.

cos -,
2

4.

cot

cos s# sin #,
.

x + tan x,

#e + e*

'

cos^f

V
-+-^snr^/

\sin^7

log sin x

^sec- 1^. \/^-i*

CHAPTER

III.

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
Change of the Independent Variable.
The independent variable may be changed from x
to z by the change x = F(z), by the formula
25.

V being any
Or

if

we

function of

write

x.

V=f(x),

the formula will be

To prove

this, it is

only necessary to write

u = \Vdx\
then

=F.
dx
du
r dx
-- = du-_-=
dz
dz dx dz V-j~r

But

whence

u=

-j-.
dz

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

30
Thus

to integrate

1
-dx, let tan~ #=;s.

dx

and the

Then

integral becomes

*
dz

26.

In using the formula

after choosing the form of the transformation x = F(z\

is usual to make use of differentials,
writing the

it

equation

j^=F'(z)

as

dx = F'(z)dz]

the formula will then be reproduced by replacing dx

of the left hand side by F'(z)dz, and x by F(z).
Thus

may

in the preceding example, after putting tan~ 1^t =0,

i

*=d*

and

I+x*

l+.r

We next consider the case when the integration

a definite one between specified limits.
The result obtained above, when x = F(z) is

27.
is

we

write

Let
then

and

if

the limits for

a;

be a and

b,

we have

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
x = a,
x = b,

Now when
and when
Also

z = F~ \a)

31

z = F~ \b}.

f{F(z)}=-j^,{F(z)},

and

whence

so that the result of integrating f{F(z)}F'(z) with regard to z between limits F~\a) and F~\b) is identical
with that of integrating f(x) with regard to x between
the limits a and 6.
Ex.1.

Evaluate

cos \Txdx.

J N /a?

Let xz^^ and therefore dx=Zzdz

^x

Ex.

2.

Let ^

cosfjxdx

J z

Evaluate

=2;,

/.

Put ^?=tan

cos z dz

= 2 smz

.Aos x^dx.

cos x*dx

= llcoszdz = ^smz=^ sin x\

then dx=sec 2 0d6

when # = 0, we have

e,

and therefore 3xPdx=dz

2

-cos2. 2-2(^2=2

= 0,

when # = 1, we have 0=. T

4

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

32

ir

:.

f-T^=- dx =

ir

\J\+*

P *?| sec
sec#

= fsec
Ex.4.

Evaluate
x

dB

= sec - - sec = V2 - 1.

_x

[i.e.

\ Tsech^^].
j

fsec B tan
{

dx

f ex
'

Let 6^ = ^, then
3=e. Hence

dB =

dx = dz.

When #=0,

0=1, and when #

= rtan-'/V= ten- - tan-1 = t

>

Ji

The

indefinite integral

is

tan~V.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate

cose

- cos(log x)
x
2.

(Pat log x =

Evaluate \-=-,dx
(Put x*=z\
"
4

1+^

acos# + -

reintegrate

Evaluate f

^=4

(Put

-,

a^sin

I*
J
e

l-f#6

(Put
a*=z).
v

+ b tanh x.

(Put

^+1=4

5.

Evaluate

/"

6.

Evaluate

7.

Evaluate

dx
-

(Put

a*
(Put x-\=z).
da?

/*

J
8.

Evaluate [

9.

Evaluate

2V^(1+^)
-

2W# - 1

dx.

dx.

(Put

^=0 2).

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.

33

NOTE ON THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.

28.

Definitions.

For purposes of integration it is desirable that the

student shall be familiar with the definitions and
fundamental properties of the direct and inverse
hyperbolic functions.

By

analogy with the exponential values of the

_ _ __

sine, cosine, tangent, etc.,

&

-*

ex

the exponential functions

ex

+e~ x
2

-e~ x

PTP

e?+e-*'

are respectively written

cosh

tanh#,

x,

29.

Elementary Properties.

We

clearly

etc.

have

tanh x

coth x

-,

C/
-

CJLJ.iJ.l

e~ x

sinho?

t&rihx

-=cosh
2 sinh x cosh x = 2

AM
^

-^

^
^

with many other results analogous to the

formulae of Trigonometry.
E.

i.

c.

= sinh2#,
common

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

34
30.

Inverse Forms.

Let us search for the meaning of the inverse

function sinh" 1^.

Put
x = smh y =

then

and

&=x

Thus

y = log(x

and we

with a positive

shall take this expression

viz., log (& + >v/l + #

31. Similarly, putting cosh~ 1 x

and

cosh y ==

= y, we

have

ty+e-y
JL

e*y

= x*Jx*-l,

and

ey

whence

y = log

and we

shall take this expression

(x

*Jx l

/# 2

as

l
Again, putting i&nh- x

x = tanh y =
e2

and therefore

y,

whence

tanh

-l

we have

y=1

1),

with a positive

viz.,

32.

sign,

as sinh" 1 ^.

x = 4-" log
S^
1

05

sign,

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
coth

Similarly
33.
.

sinh"

x = J log ---r-.
X
JL

We
,

~ l

shall thus consider

,x
1
-

.,,

synonymous with

log

cosh" 1 - synonymous with

"

tanh

35

X
-

log"
Ct"^~X

synonymous with J log

and
coth" 1- synonymous with ^ log

34.

C ""

Cfc

The Gudermannian.

Again, the function cos^sechu

of u and written

is

called the

Guder-

mannian

^=c

If

sin

a
and

sech 2 u = tanh

\/l

tan x =

tanh u
-,

seen

it,

= sinh u.
.

Hence

gd u = cos

sech

35. Further, if

sin

Hanh u = tan ~ x sinh u.

u = log tan( -r + ^ ),
\Qf

we have

"

+ tan|
;

2t/

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

36

whence

x c u -l
tan- =

2 tan

tan a; =

and

^TTT

=2

0_ e ~2~

Hence

Thus

~4^-

^ = tan

-l

.e!

u = gd u.

sinh

logtan(j+|)=gd-^

the inverse Gudermannian of

x.

EXAMPLES.
Establish the following results
1.

2.

/cosh#cfo?=sinh#.

4.

xdx = cosh x.

5.

sinh

sm

3.

/cosech 2.rc^= -coth#.

2
(sech A'dr=taiihtf.

.^ o?.r

sech x.

cosh%

6.

J
7.

Writing sg x for sin gd x,

results

(a)

etc.,

establish the following

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.

37

,*

and

Integrals of

36.

X -4-

The

differential

.,

dx

bimilarly

..

Jx/^

= log

-^

= smh .

-a

= logx + \/x
,

of log e

coefficient

a?

1l

-.
=cosh -1^
a
,

In the inverse hyperbolic forms these results

37.

resemble that for the integral

and the analogy

is

Va -*
I

^, viz.,

sin' 1 -*

an aid to the memory.

We

might have established the results thus

f
dx
=. put oj = a sinh it, then
To find
t
38.

)*Jx*+a^
dx = a cosh u du and

Hence

W^ +
2

Similarly

dx

f
!

tt

\/x 2 + az = a cosh u.

= leZu = t6 = sinh"
J

putting a? = a cosh u, we
/

Jx/x 2

=
a2

I-

39.

Let

To integrate

*A

-tf 2

= a sin
dx = a cos
a?

-.

have

u du = f
11^
laK =u = cosh~ 1 -.
ri
a
sinh u
J

Fa sinh

Integrals of

then

is

d$,

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

38

{+/tf-^dx =

and

0+

ia sin 6 a cos
.

or

40.

sin-

To integrate

Let
then

-^

= a sinh z,
cf^ = acosh0
2
2
1 + sinh = cosh z,
cc

then since

we have

J^^dx = a

2
\

cosh 2 z dz

= |a sinh

a cosh "z + -^-

.....

Va

2-smhx

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
41.

39

To integrate
x

Let

a cosh z,

dx = a sinh z dz

then

then since

cosh%

2
1 = sinh 0,

2
2
Jsif^cPdx = a sinh dz
J

= Ja sinh z

or

C62?

a cosh

a2

^-,

-log42. If

we put tan# =

and therefore

we have

__
[by Art. 40.]
tan x sec 05

or

.,

h J log(tan a?

_snce_ +
&1
2 cos 2 # J log^
n

-,

+ sec ^),

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

40
43.

Let tan ^ = z
2t

2tan

Thus

sec x.

taking the logarithmic differential

x7
dz
^dx =
^
2

or

dx

dz

-;

smx

cosec

In this example

xdx\

= log z = log tan

^.

x = -= + y.

let

2*

dx = dy,

Then
and

Hence

44.

x and

Integrals of cosec

We

sec

ydy = log tan (T + 9)-

sec

xdx = log tan ( r+s)

or

&

~*

have now the

ADDITIONAL STANDARD FORMS,

f

dx

.
,

Jx/^+o
f

x+\/x*+a?
a

dx

,x

JTP^l

+/x

=1

x 2 dx =

4 a 2 die =

a2 dx =

\\/a

l+Jx

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
I

cosec

x dx = log

Isecsccfo

tan^.

=log tanf ^-

EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals of

3.

4.

5.

7.

8.

cosec 2#, cosec(a#+&),

^'

10.

Deduce

/
/

11.

-sin2^'

tanV 3sin^-

a sin ^7+ 6 cos x

cosec#cfo?=logtan - by expressing cosec x as

^j

Find \SQexdx by putting sin x=z.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

42
12.

Show

13.

Integrate

that

/
/

sec x dx

= cosh

1
tflogtf'

when

represents log log log

... ^7,

the log being repeated

r times.
15.

Prove
[ST.

PETER'S COLL.,

etc., 1882.]

CHAPTER

IV.

INTEGEATION BY PARTS.
45,

"

Integration

u - +v-,

d
(uv}
,

Since

it

"

by Parts of a Product
= dv du
t

uv = u^- dx +

follows that

dv

lu-j-dx = wu
J dx

or

f
\

du

v-j- dx,
7

v-j~ dx.

dx

If

u = <f>(x) and

above rule

may

\<}>(x)\ls(x)dx=

the
so that
^- =\{s(x),
^=jT/r(#)cfe,

be written

$(x)\ \\ls(x)dx\

or interchanging

0'(oO| J^H[aj)da5Jcte;

and Vr( a; )>

^(35)

'

J^(oj)^(a?)dte=^(aj)

<f>(x)dx

j^'(^)

\dx.
:

J0(a?)efcB

Thus in integrating the product of two functions, if

the integral be not at once obtainable, it is possible
when the integral of either one is known, say ^(x), to
connect the integral
\<t>(x)\ls(x)dx

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

44

with a new integral

which

may be more

0'(#)

lx/r(#)cfo

dx

easily integrable than the original

product.

The

rule may be put into words thus

of
the product <j>(x)\{s(x)
Integral
1st function x Integral of 2nd
46.

-the
Ex.

1.

Here

Integral of

Integrate

[Diff.

Co. of 1st

of 2nd].

x cos nx.

important to connect

it is

x Int.

if

xcosnxdx with

possible

another integral in which the factor x has been removed.

This
may be done if x be chosen as the function $(x\ since in the
second integral <$(x\ i.e. unity, occurs in place of x. Then

Thus by the

rule

(x vxnxd**,*!*?- /"l.5
J

- n

'

sin 9^7

sin
'

If

cosn&N

"~~~~\

nx

n\

cos nx

47. Unity may be taken as one of the factors to aid

an integration.

Thus

log

xdx

log x dx

= x log x

=x log x

\dx

-(log x)dx

INTEGRA TION B T PARTS.

48. The operation of integrating
repeated several times.
mt.

Thus

f
/

# 2 sin nx
n

?
#29cos nx dx

f
/

2#

45

by parts may be

nx 7
dx.
n

sin

and

n
finally,

Hence

x^ nx dx =****n
_

_^ COS
-*\
nL
n

#2 sin
nx
~

Zx cos nx

2 sin nx

T9

7^

49. If one of the subsidiary integrals returns into

the original form this fact may be utilized to infer the
result of the integration.

Ex.

1.

and
therefore,

if

and
whence

sin bx dx

sin

bx-~\

e^cos bx dx,

ax

cos bx dx

cos

bx+-l

e^sin bx dx

P and
/

we have

ax

ax

Q stand

respectively for

$m bx dx and

ax

cos bx dx,

aP +bQ = eaxsin bx,

-bP+aQ=eftxco8bx
n
nr ct
ax
P=e

>

sin bx

b cos

bx

a 2 +or?2

and

w+v
(a

+6

)~ e

ax

cos ( bx
\

tan" 1 -

).

aJ

INTEGRAL CALCUL US.

46

The student will observe that

we should obtain by putting n=

these results are the same that

I in the formulae

^)>& t^<^(^+^)'
ss < i

[Diff. Gale,

And this is otherwise

sm /j^,\
g fag game as to
/
pnsi^

rx

increase the angle

inverse operation,

>

>

a
must divide out again the

_ ^=

to

if

differentiate

Va2 + 6 2 and

1
by tan" -, the integration, which

2
Integrate \/a

2.

For

obvious.

multiply
by a factor
r

and diminish the angle by tan"

Ex.

for Beginners, Art. 61, Ex. 4.]

factor

is

Va2 +6 2

-.

x l by the

rule of integration

by

A/o2^2

[Note this step.]

%
a2 sin~ l - -

CL

whence, transposing and dividing by

which agrees with the result of Art.

Ex. 3

Integrate

Here

e*

v a2

2,

39.

sm x cos ^.
2

sin% cos 3# =

3x

-=

(1

_(2e

3a:

to

the

cos -x -

cos 4#)cos x

parts.

INTEGRA TION B Y PAR TS.

Hence, by Ex.
I

47
^

1,

e^siiA cos 3# dx

= cos

-j

tan~ r

- J_ cos(3^-^--^cosf5^-tan- 1 |)l
V
3/J
4/ ^34
V
3\/2
,:

[Compare Ex. 16,

n= l in the result.]

p.

55, Diff.

Gale, for Beginners, putting

EXAMPLES.
Integrate by parts
x
z
1. xe , x^e*, x e?) x cosh #,
:

5.

2
^?COS^7, ^ COS07, ^?COS2
x sin x cos #, ^ sin x sin 2# sin 3^.
#2logtf, ^nlog^7, ^n (log^) 2
e^sin^costf, e*sin x cos ^ cos 2#.

6.

7.

Calculate

8.

Show

9.

Integrate

2.

3.

4.

ax

50.

sin^ sin qx sin r^?.

*x sin 2^p c?^

|^sin^^,

that

Isin" 1 ^^,

/^sin" 1 ^^,

Geometrical Illustration.

PQ be any arc of a curve referred to rectangular

axes Ox, Oy, and let the coordinates of
be (XQ y Q ),
and of Q (x v y^).
Let PN,
be the ordinates and
the
V
1
abscissae of the points P, Q.
Then plainly
Let

PN QM

QM

area

But

PNMQ = rect. OQ - rect. OP - area

area

PNMQ = f

48

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

and

area PN^M^Q =

x dy.

cv\

Thus
ri

y
M,

N,

INTEGRA TION B Y PARTS.

so that the equation above

may

49

be written

and thus the rule of integration by parts

is

'*

established

geometrically.

Integrals of the

51.

Form

a^sin nx dx,

#mcos nx dx.

Reduction formulae for such integrals as the above

be found. Denote them respectively by
Then, integrating by parts, we have at
once

may readily
Sm and Cm
.

m~

cos nx

and(7m =
Thus

and Om =

cosnx
____

+m^
,

_---

,sin7i#

m(m
-----

- l,cosnx

and Cm =

Thus when the four integrals

= l are found, viz.,
and
n
I

sin

nxdx=

J
E.

I.

C.

1)

for the cases

>S n

v___

771(971

cos

me

m=

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

50
xv

GT

f
I

cos

at.
=
Ice

o\

sin

\x cos

7
=
nx dx

t
\

sinrac

7
=
nx dx

T^CC

eosnx

sinnx

^
=
ax

all others can be deduced

the above formulae.

by

successive applications of

Extension of the Rule for Integration by

52.

Parts.
If

u and

v be functions of x and dashes denote

differentiations and suffixes integrations with respect

to x we may prove the following extension of the

rule for integration

\

where

by

uvdx = uvl

u^ n

~ 1^

u'v

written for

is

TI

=uvl

\u\dx,

Vufv^dx

=u'v 2

\u v^dx,

dx =u"vz

u'"v Bdx = ufv^

etc.

u(n -

u with

\uvdx

\vtf'v

parts,

l)

dashes; for

rf

Vuf'Vzdx,

u^'v^dx,

= etc.

Vn _ 1 dx = u(

n ~ Vv

- I vf^Vndx.

INTEGRA TION B Y PARTS.

Hence adding and subtracting alternately
1

Ex.

If

1.

u v dx = uvl

we apply

u'v 2

+ u"vs

(xmea*dx=xm

Ex.

-mxm-

\x m e axdx, we immediately

this rule to

a2

It will be at once seen that the integrals

2.

#msin nx dx

of the last article

may be

and

m cos nx dx

treated in this way.

EXAMPLES.
"Write
1.

down

x*e*,

the integrals of

^coshtf, ^sinh^.

2. .r2 sin a, ^?3 sin #,

3.

Evaluate

^3 sin 2^;, ^4 sin x cos x.

^sin^o?^,

x^co^xdx^

*0

53.

The determination

of the integrals

l# n e aa; sin bx dx,

may

be at once

Ja3

n e aa; cos bx
dx,

effected.

For remembering
n

where

r=

va + 6
2

and

u'"v4 +...

obtain

51

tand>=-,
ct/

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

52

we have
I

xne axsm bx dx =

e ax sin

(bx

d>)

e axsin (bx

r2

^^~

r3
n\

e ax {P sin

or

bx

Q cos

where

3- COS

Q=

xn

sin

xn ~ l
^-

sin

20 + n(n

1)

30

xn ~^
^- sin 30

...

...

Similarly

L^a*cos i x dx = eP*{P cos bx+Q sin bx}.

Ex.

1.

Since

Integrate

ix^smxdx.

\e*smxdx

S^e^sinf

we have f^3 e

.r

-^J,

sm^^=^ 2'^e sm('.r - ^ - 3^ 2~Vsin^ 3

a:

a;

2" Vsinf .77

- ? V4

2~VsinCr- TT)

=etc.

Ex.

2.

Prove

/r=n
^Vto^ito-^-iy^j^^
^|

- rjQ

^s

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate (a)

~
femai lxdx.

(5)

(sfaitr^xdx.

(c)

Ixv&Pxdx.

(d)
(e)

/"

'(/) /"cos-

^.

INTEGRA TION B Y PARTS.

2.

Integrate (a) [

(&)

x sm " 1

fdx.

(c)

/^5^&'.

(d)

/sin- 1

'

r pin tan - l x

tan - l x

53

-dx.

dx.

(c)

/ptn

*-*

dx.

4.

5.

../*..

(b)

xefsm^x dx.

(c)

cosh ax sin bx dx,

Integrate

Integrate

7.

Integrate

8.

Integrate

9.

Integrate (d)

log

/cos

10.

11.

Prove that

Integrate

(a) \x

(e)

(/)

^ 2 2*sin

cos

c?

(a

dx.

\dx.

- sin' 1 ^ dx.
x

201og(l+tan

0)dO.

^^

1-cos^
/"

2.

b log

-j

J*4|^.

(&)

T-

..

e(suix + cosx)ax.

6.

i /\

...

Integrate (a)

v
2

dx=u

TKJPOS) 1892<]

[a, 1892.]

c?v

sin% + 26

du

d^u

+ v-dx.

sin x cos

x + c cos 2^)e*^
[a,

1883.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

54
12.

Show

where the

that

if

u be a

rational integral function of x,

within the brackets

series

is

necessarily finite.
[TRIN. COLL., 1881.]

13. If

ax

cos bxdx, v

and that
14.

(a

ax

sm bx dx, prove

that

+ &2 )0*2 + v2 = era

*.

Prove that

m+L

m+1
Also that

where
15.

(m+1)
(-ir-^! ?

^"-

stands for log x.

Prove that
(i.)

{e^w
J

ax
)&2 le ^
+^""j
J
a?+ri
2

n -'2

bxdx.

b'

[BERTEAND.]
16.

Evaluate

x* log(l

iT5

- x^dx, and deduce

that

+ 277 + 3T9 + - == 9""3 10ge2

'

[a,

1889.]

CHAPTER

V.

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS,

PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS.
54.

Integration of

or

and

a?

Either of these forms should be

Thus
Fractions.

a2

x2

___a

2aj\x

1,
= slog
&
2a

Ja 2

^
a;

a# 4- a

a^

9
2

(x<a\

thrown into Partial

x+a

F=
L

i^"l

.1

coth" 1

aJ

!f(-J-+_J_Yfo
a x/
2aJ\a4-a)

= ^1

2a

losr
to

a+oj
a a;

l,i

T^l

=-tanh" La
aj
1

INTEGRAL CALCULUS,

56

Compare the forms

of the results in square brackets

1

with the result before tabulated for -=

viz.,

dx
C
= -1 tan' 1 x\
o
!~n
a/
Jcr+or a

55.

Integration of

Let

f-H
a
J

=1

f
6

dx
dx
f.

aJ

a^a

AV_-

"

2J
^2a/

4a 2

dx

or

we take the former or the latter arrangement ac2

cording as b is > or < 4ac.
Thus

>

if 6 2

or
If b 2

<

coth" 1

4>ae,

I=

or

4ac,

--

tan

"

cot

-.-

These expressions differ at most by constants, but in

any given case a real form should be chosen.

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS. 57

56. Integrals of expressions of the

form

px + q
can be obtained at once by the following transformation

pb

px + q

_p

(2ax+b)

~~

the integral of the

first

2a

part being

^
Za log (ax

+bx+ c),

and that of the second part being obtained by the

last

article.

[The beginner should notice

how

the above form

is

It is essential that the numerator of the

Jirst fraction shall be the differential coefficient of the
denominator, and that all the #'s of the numerator

obtained.

are thereby exhausted.]

T?

'

= J log(^2 + 4*7 + 5) - 2 tan57.

Although the expression px + q

form

^+

may

2).

be thrown

into the

by inspection, we might proceed thus

Let
pa?+gsX(2oaj+6)+/i,
where X and /x are constants to be determined.
:

by comparing

coefficients,

giving

X=

and

pb
--

Then

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

58

EXAMPLES.
Integrate
1.

xdx

4.

5.

^ a^

/7/y.

//y>
x* + 2x+l
3.

58.

^t

fo+ 1 )^

c^

I \2

f/v

/"

Jfl-LZ-^p.
x2 +?

6.

General Fraction with Rational Numerator

and Denominator.
Expressions of the form A~4, where f(x) and

9w

</>(#)

are rational integral algebraic functions of x, can be

integrated by resolution into Partial Fractions.
The method of putting such an expression into
Partial Fractions has been discussed in the Differential
Calculus for Beginners, Art. 66. When the numerator
is of lower degree than the denominator the result
consists of the sum of several such terms as

Ax+B

Ax+B

and

And when

the numerator is of as high or higher

than
the
denominator we may divide out until
degree
the numerator of the remaining fraction is of lower
The terms of the quotient can in that case
degree.
be integrated at once and the remaining fraction may
be put into Partial Fractions as indicated above.
A

Now any partial fraction of the form

at once into

Any

A log (x - a).

fraction of the

-.
i

integrates

form

rl

^~*

A
(xa) r

a)

~v

integrates into

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS.

fraction of the
cussed in Art. 56.

Any

-- has been

g4
ax*+bx+e

form

59

dis-

And when any

2
2 r
[(x

repeated quadratic factor such as

occurs in <j>(x) giving rise to partial

+ a) +b ]

fractions such as

YT~+

\2

7>2ir

#) ~rfr

[_(#

we may integrate such

a fraction by the substitution x + a = b tan

Art. 67 or Art. 83.

6,

by

aid of

But it is frequently better to factorize (x+a)2 +b 2

into its imaginary conjugate factors x
a-\-ib and
tb, and obtain conjugate pairs of partial frac/~\
S~\

x+a

T)

tions of the

form

T)

--^r\ir which may

r^r^.+7
r

(x+a+ib)

then be integrated and the result reduced to real form

aid of De Moivre's Theorem, as in Art. 63, Diff.

by

Gale, for Beginners.

Ex.1.

59.

Integrate

We have

*2+

..

^+?

J[ (x-a)(x-b}(x-c)

a2 +pa+q

(b-c)(b-a)~^b

(x-a)(x-b)(x-c)~(a-b)(a-c)x-a
c*+pc + q

dx.

_ y a?+pa + q 1
^(c-a^c-b^x-c-^a-b^a-c^x-a:
and the integral

is

a' +
]g

ggg

log(^7

-^-

- a).

(a-b)(a-c)
Ex.

2.

Let

Then
Thus

,dx.

J(^-l

A(x* + 4) +

whence
and

Integrate

^1=1

^+

<?)(#

J5=-^,

- 1) = x.

(7=f,

_-^=1 J__l^li=i_L_i__?^.
~2

i_

'

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

60
and the

Ex.

integral

3.

is

Integrate

Put

Hence the

is

?/.

= Aj/

fraction becomes

3
Dividing out until y

Hence the

-dx.

a factor of the remainder,

+ 2y

fraction

1311111
and therefore

^2

and the integral

Ex.4.
Let

a?

is

Integrate

= 1 +y

then

"We now divide out

by

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS.

To shorten the work we

until y 4

is a factor of the remainder.

use detached coefficients
t

2+3+3+

1+2+1
l + f+f+

i-i-i
j+t+

-f-f-i

f++f
+tf +if +

tt-A-A

551

Now

11

-5j/-5y
and by Rule 2, p. 61,

of the Diff. Gale, for Beginners,

1

and

^.2

ijj

(a?

- 1)4 (^3 + 1)

l+#

2(^7

-L

is

- 1)4 ^ 4(tf - I)3

^-1)

and the integral

3(^

I!
i

\(x)

x+1

Thus

ll-5y-

= ll- 5(^-1) -5(^-l)2

5#2

plainly

48

A7

61

8(^7

- 1) 2

+1

(2a?-l)-3

^2-

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

62

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate with regard to x the following expressions

v11 *'

(iii.)

w'

^+

T~\*

a)-

^ + b)~\

V11 V

?T7

\7

~f~

"a

*--&)

(viii.)

(iv)
-/

>

"^

2.

Evaluate

3.

Integrate

W
(i)

4.

f
J (^2 +a

dx

2+62 y

(iii)'

f
J

Integrate
(i.);
v

xd*

J^+^ + l

(iii.)
v

J^+l

(iv.)

f A4
-^2 +l
J^

['

a?2

do?.

(v.)

(vi.)

/"(^-

"t

cto.

\'

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS. 63

5.

Integrate
/.

xdx

dx

dx
(vii.)

(iiL >

(^&T4)-

W ^<**>

()
(
V

x
A */\

~(~&

i\/

(x*+ lX-^-4)'

6.

Integrate
J~.

~3,J~*

(VI.)

d^t?
~

/T

\o/i

~t

o\'

-7

V*-'"^*^

(viii.)

''

(#-l)

(#2

+ iy

/Vtan~^(9 and P\/c

7.

Evaluate

8.

Obtain the value

c
o

9.

10.

cos x dx

Investigate

Show

^2 + 1)3

that

r. _f^
fa
o

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

64
11.

Prove that

dx

[+*
J

(x*

a+b

2?r
_2?r
~~

ax+ 2X^2

bx + b'2 )

V3

ab(d>

[COLLEGES
12.

Show

that the

sum

7, 1891,]

of the infinite series

can be expressed in the form

and hence prove that

[OXFORD, 1887.]

CHAPTER

VI.

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS,

f doc

60,

i.

Integration of

Case

I.

When a

-y=

Positive.

is

positive

we may

If

may

+&\

arrange as

._.

aJ 7/

+2bx+c.

dx

If ______.^= dx
=_..___^_^==
I

write this integral as

which we

R = ax

where

Qp

-ac

_If
__

dx
.

x/J

2
according as 6 is greater or less than ac, and the real
form of the integral is therefore (Art. 36)

+
= cosh ~ *
2
^
Vo ac
,

.,

ax

or

2
according as &
E.

T.

C.

is

>

or

<

7^

Va

smh ~ 1
.

ax + b
,

x/ac

62

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

66

In either case the integral

logarithmic form

be written in the

may

~T= log (ax + b + *Ja*Jax 2 + 2bx+c),

^

the constant

T= log
*J a

Also since

cosh

and

sinh
1

and

v6

= cosh ~ l
,

-7=.
V^

sinh

"

,
1

~ ac
being omitted,

~l

z = sinh

~l

z = cosh

ax + b
ax + b
7--

\/z

=.

sinh

"

= 17^ cosh
,

b2

\/ac

\/z

1,

1,

\/aR

T
1
-

x/aJi
7

\/a

\/ac

b2

which forms therefore may be taken when a is positive

and b 2 is greater or less than ac respectively,
61.

Case

a Negative.

II.

If in the integral

dx

'

)*Jax
write

a=

A.

Then our
1

ZJ

or

or

7=:

sin

+2bx+c

integral

dx

a be negative

may

be written

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

67

or omitting a constant
- ,1

ax-+
---b

-^

n,

for

2J'
Also since

we have

cos

= sin ~

x/l

cos~

V&
when ^R
R = ax +
2

ac

\/b*
It thus appears
s that

7?

negative,

ac.

positive.

/ac^P'
and the
Ex.

real

form

to be chosen in each case.

is

^
1.

Integrate

We may

-7-

write this
cfo?

= - smh- i#._,
.

v/2

p=. v/UJSIl

\/2

i.e.

\/23

'

\/23

the integral = -i= log(4# + 3 + 2 V2 V2^ 2 + 3# + 4)

V2

ing the constant

log

).

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

68
Ex.

dx
2.

Integrate (
J

This integral

may

be written

dx

and therefore

= sin" -^^
1

is

which may

\/41

\/2

also be expressed as

-F=>

-^cos

V2

*/41

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate

--^

dx

{
JV^
+ 2a? + 3

{
J

dx
2.

Integrate

dx
-,
A/2- 3.* -2#2

/"

62.

3.

Integrate

4.

Integrate

which,

>Ja + Zbx+cx*dx

/\/a + 2&#

Functions of the

be integrated by

or

may

first

cyPdx

Form

putting

(c

positive).

(c positive).

-=====
may
x/a^
-.

+26^+c

Ax+B into the iorm

be done as in Art. 57, either by inspection

coefficients we obtain

by equating

Ax+B
ex/

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

The

integral of the first fraction

69

is

A
and that of the second has been discussed in Articles
60, 61.

EXAMPLES.
Integrate

2.37

+3

x+b

POWERS AND PRODUCTS OF SINES AND COSINES.

Sine or Cosine with Positive

63.

Odd

Integral

Index.

Any odd positive power of a sine or cosine can be

integrated immediately thus
:

To

integrate

sin 2n+1# dx, let cos

.'.

smxdx=

x = c,

dc,

Hence
fsin^+^cfo

=-

((I-c

2
)

dc

__

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

70

=
Similarly, putting since s,

and therefore cosxdx=ds,

we have
I

cos* n+l x

dx =

s 2 ) n ds

(1

nn

L_

'

>

Product of form sin^ cos?#,

\7l.

or q odd.
form
Similarly, any product
admits of immediate integration by the same method
whenever either p or q is a positive odd integer, what64.

of

the

ever the other be.

For .example, to integrate

sin 5# cos 4# dx,

put cos#=c, and

xdx= dc.

- sin

therefore

Hence

cos% sin 5^? dx

c4 (l

cos

^7

~5~'

2 2

c )

9J

dc

cos 7^;

cos 9^?

^f~

"T"'

/^
sin

^ cos 3# dx we proceed thus

2
sin^(l sin x)d (sin x)

is a negative even integer, the

65. When
expression sin*to cos% admits of immediate integration
in terms of tan x or cot x.
For put tan x = t, and therefore sec2^ dx = dt and let

p+^

p+q=

2n,

being integral.

Thus

)
|

^
8

a5

p+i

Irf

4- n ~*-(j
,

__

tan^ +6 a5

I-

4--

n ~ l dt

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

Similarly,

we put

if

cot

x = c, then

71

cosec 2 ^

dx

dc,

and

\&DPxco&xdx= -

a result the same as the former arranged in the opposite order.

Ex.

1.

Integrate f?^<fo?.
J

This

may

sura

be written

and the

It

result

may

therefore

is

also be integrated in terms of tan

CcosPx
sPx

-r-^-dx =

6
J sin ^?

f
I

/T

o
2

6
J taii

\,, an

x=-

x thus

5
tan~
#
-

the result being the same as before,

Ex.

2.

/sec" (9 cosec"

66.

d<9

ftan~*0rftan0

-f tan~%=

- f cot*0.

Use of Multiple Angles.

positive integral power of a sine or cosine, or

positive integral powers of sines and
cosines, can be expressed by trigonometrical means in
a series of sines or cosines of multiples of the angle,
and then each term may be integrated at once; for

Any

any product of

f
\

cos

7
=
nx dx

siunx

cosnx
if-sin nx dx= --7

and

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

72
r

J} x
x. 1 .

Ex.

2,

Ex.

3.

/-t-UU^^

/^^2^^r^,_
cos x c/Lx =:

Sin

2.27

cos% dx=
/

j=

(|

<**

+ J cos 2# + J cos 4dc)dx

1
%x + J sin 2# + g ^ sin Ax.

has already been shown that when the index

odd no such transformation is necessary, thus in
the second example
sm x
3
- sin 2
=
sin = sin x
67. It

is

cos

# dx

(1

.2?)a?

which presents the result in different form.

The
method we are now discussing will therefore be of
more especial value for the case of sin^cos ?#, where
neither p nor q are odd.
Ex.

4.

Integrate

Let cos x + c sin x =y

I8m9xdx.
;

then

2 cos x

2t sin x

=y

-,

2i sin

nx

Thus

= 2 cos 8^- 16 cos 6# + 56 cos4o?- 112 cos 2^+70.

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

= l(cos 8x - 8 cos 6# + 28 cos 4# - 56 cos 2# + 35),

sin 8.??

Thus

73

irsiii8#
-

and \$n$xdx=
2i
J

Ex.

5.

Put

L_

Integrate

and

^=

6^+8

cos'8#
7

sin4#
-

Kc
-56

sin2^?

Q * "1
+35#
.

_J

2^

then

8 cos

sin 6^cos 2

sin 6a7 cos 2^ o?^.

cos .#+t sin ,#=y

= 2 cos 8#

OQ
-8O sin6^ + 28

cos

4#+ 8 cos 2^;

+ 4 cos 6^

4 cos kx

10,

4 cos 2^7 +5

V,

whence

68. NOTE.
It is convenient for such examples to remember
that the several sets of Binomial Coefficients may be quickly
reproduced in the following scheme
:

121

1331
14641
1

10

10

15

20

15

21

35

35

21

28

56

70

56

28

etc.,

number being formed at once as the sum of the one immediately above it and the preceding one. Thus in forming
the 7th row we have
each

0+1 = 1,

+ 5=6,

5 + 10

= 15,

10 + 10=20,

etc.;

INTEGRAL CALGUL US.

74

and in multiplying out such a product as (y

1\ 6 /

(;*/

+-

occurring above we only need the coefficients of (1 t) (l + t)

all the work appearing will be
are 1 - 6 + 15 - 20+ 15 - 6 + 1,
coefficients of (1 - t) Q
G

and

coefficients of

(1-/)

(1

are

- t) G(l + 1)*

coefficients of (1

are

1-5+ 9- 5- 5 + 9-5 + 1,
1-4+ 4+ 4-10 + 4+4-4 + 1,

each row of figures being formed according to the same law as

The student will discover the reason of this by per2
3
forming the actual multiplication of a+fo + cZ +cfa +... by l +
in which the several coefficients are a, a + 6, 6 + c, c+c?, etc.
4
2
Similarly if the coefficients in (1 +0 (1
O were required, the
work appearing would be
before.

1+4 + 6 + 4 + 1,
1+3 + 2-2-3-1,

1+2-1-4-1 + 2 + 1,
and the last row are the coefficients required.
The coefficients here are formed thus
:

1-0=1,

4-1=3,

6-4 = 2,

4-6=-2,

etc.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate

doing those with odd indices in two ways.

2.

Integrate

3.

Integrate

4.

Evaluate

5.

2
Integrate sin 2.# cos .r,

6.

Show

ir

ir

ft
/

sin^ctr,

cos 5^?c?^,

^0

*0

7.

that

sin x sin 2.# sin

Show
/

(i.)

si

3# dx=-\ cos 2# - $ cos 4# + ^\ cos 6#.

that
f
I

7
=
sm wia? cos w^ a^7
.

cos(m+?iV
v
!

cos(m

),

72-V
y
.

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

... x

(11.)
'

/...

(in.)

/*

- ---

mx sin nx dx = sin(m
.

sin

[
/

n)x

sin(

-)

2(m-n)
cos mx cos

75

2(

--

7
= sin(w
dx
-)

ft.2?

%).

2m-7i)

Deduce from

(ii.)

verify the results

and

(iii.)

Isirfimxdx and Ico^mxdx^ and

by independent

integration.

INTEGRAL POWERS OF A SECANT OR COSECANT.

69. Even positive integral powers of a secant or
cosecant come under the head discussed in Art. 65.

Thus

sec 2#

dx

= tan x,

sec 4#

dx

=1(1+ ta,n x)d tan x

SQCQX

dx

f
I

4
=1(1 + 2 tan%c + tan #) d tan x

= tan x+2

and generally
where

Similarly

dx

cosec 4^ (i^

(1

cot

cosec 2^

cot x,

+ cot x)d cot x

2

=, eta

etc.,

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

76

and generally
2w+2aj

^3

= -cc = cot x.

dx

where

-W

C- ~
s>5

/>2n-fl

70. Odd positive integral powers of a secant or

cosecant can be integrated thus
:

By

we have

differentiation

at once

d
and
(n + l)cosec

n+2&

n cosec

7l

o?

x cosecna

-7-(cot
doc

whence
w+2 ^j dx
(n + 1 ) sec

tan x sec n#

+^

se

and
(ti

+1

xdx =~coix cosecnx + n

Thus

as

and

sec

we may

= log

x dx

tanf^ + ^

cosec # c?x = log

tan^

by

successively putting
formulae.

. .

n = I,

3, 5, etc.,

= J tan x sec x + ^ log tan

sec 3# dx

sec 5^? da7= J tan

# sec 3^+ 1

infer at once the integrals of

cosec 3aj, cosec 5#,
;

sec 3#, sec 5#, sec7 cc,

Thus

cosec n# dx

cose.c n+2

-+

etc.,

in the above

sec 3^

= J tan x sec3#+f tan ^7 sec x + f log tanf -+etc.

),

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

77
"

"

are called
REDUCTION
will meet with many others
in Chapter VII.
postpone till that chapter the
consideration of the integration of such an expression
as sin^cos^ except for such cases as have been
already considered.

Such formulae as
formulae, and the student
71.

We

72. Since a positive power of a secant or cosecant

a negative power of a cosine or sine, and a positive
power of a cosine or sine is a negative power of a
secant or cosecant it will appear that we are now able
to integrate any integral positive or negative power
of a sine, cosine) secant, or cosecant.
is

INTEGRAL POWER OF TANGENT OR COTANGENT.

Any

73.

may

integral

power

of a tangent or cotangent

be readily integrated.
~2

tannx dx = tan n

For

l)dx

x(sec?x

= Itann - 2a3c?tan#
idM.n

~l

n -^1

And

since

and

we may

tan #

cfc == log sec #,

tan%c

dx =

(sec

f,

tan ?l

tan 3#cfo?=

#cfe.

l)dx = tan x
5

integrate tan #, tan ^, tan #,

Thus we have

-2

ltan w

etc.

tan x(sec 2x- l)dx

x,

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

78
[

By

continuing this process

we

shall evidently obtain

2^-3

2?i-l

+ (-l)w ~
and

tan-+^=^^

tan # + (-l) nff,

t

_ tan^^

Similarly
I

coi nx

dx

cot n

^~
-711
cot 71

=
whilst

and

icot^^aj
cot 2 ^

~2

-1

r-

n-2
#CfcE,
|COt

= log sin x.

^=

2
I

(cosec

1 )dx

cot

and therefore we may thus integrate

cot 5 ^,
cot 3#
cot 4#,
etc.
3

Hence any integral power of a tangent or cotangent

admits of immediate integration.

74.

Integration of

dx

a+bcosx

We may write a + b cos x

etc.

as
s

- sin

|j,

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

79

(a

or

(fa

Thus

-AgU-j
6

or

(1)

CASE

I,

If

>

b this

becomes
tan

a- 6

/a+6

tan ?|
,

or

2J-

Since

we may

write this as

1-

1
=5-

COS

b,

g+ b

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

80

or

COS"

CASE

II.

If

<

b,

*-

+ bcosx

writing the integral in the form

(K

dian.~

(2)

in place of the

form

(1)

we have

UjiAj

fti _1_

in this case

n
a

A
b

IT.

Ib

+a
17

Ib

>

lo g

/6 2

we may

may

-a

be written

tanh~

~l

z = cosh

~1

further exhibit the result as

b
1

:cosh~

-L-^

or

2'

1
still

a tan

+a vb

2 tanh

'

\J~b

Art. 33 this

+a

V6^~ tan 2

v6 + a + \/b

or, since

Art. 54

J.

A
f*na sv*
bcosx

Vf^

By

by

a.
nX
tan 2 ^

+a

^b+a

rjr>

a tan ^

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

We

81

therefore have
b,

i.e.

dx
bcosx
a+

er

or

cosh-

< b.

a+bcosx

Jl?-

These forms are all equivalent, but one of the real

forms is to be chosen when the formula is used.

75.

The

be im-

-r
a+ b cos x + c sin x may

integral of

mediately deduced, for

b cosas-fc

smx = \/b 2 -{-c

tan~V

cos(x

),

b/

and therefore the proper form

once be written
less

down

of the integral can at

in each of the cases a greater or

than ^/5*+c*.
dx

Ex.
13

4-

in
3 cos x H- 4 sin

dx

f
[

13 + 5 coe(# - a)

12
1

$.

I.

C.

(where tana = ^)
:-a)

/13 2 - 5 2

or

--

-i/2

.'T

a\

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

82

76.

The

dx --

integral

Ja + 6sm#
,

may

be easily deduced

by putting

then

dx
o sin x
a + j.

and therefore its value

the cases a^b.

dv

f
=B IJ

o cos y
a + ^-

be written

may

Of course it may be investigated

by first writing a + b sin x as

+
a(cos |
2

cos 2

or

The

^(

sin 2

|j

down

in both

also independently

+ 26 sin | cos |,

a + 26 tan - + a tan2

^ J.

integral then becomes

2

and two cases

77,

arise as before.

The integral

x
I

may

treated.

dx

dx

be similarly

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS,

ifb> a

this =

a,,x

lb

which further reduces to

3

and

if b

<

a the integral
2

*~

+ a cosh #
a + fccosha'

,6

A___

is
,

7-27-2
62
'a 2

tanh "

la

b,

tanh
V^a+o
4.
z
r,

/)

9'

which further reduces to

7===- cosh

a + b cosh x

78. Similarly the integrals of

and of

a + bsinhx

may

a + bcoshx + csmhx

be easily obtained.

EXAMPLES.
,

1.

2.

Integrate

8ecxdx
Integrate

(i.)

(ii.)

3.

Vtan# ax.
7
sm#cos#

Integrate

(i.)

a + b tail x
-.

J (a sin

r-

x + o cos xy9

83

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

84
Prove

4.

with certain limitations on the values of the

that,

constants involved

=L= -

/"%=
J

J(a-x)(x-(3)

.-(3

and integrate

____

v (x

a)(/3

x)dx.

a
5.

Integrate
,. v

(')
/

U11 '-'

dx

>}

.r

'

}
(

Ou27

cos a

3(l-s

v -)

^'''^

J cos a + COS.T'

(viii-)

(1

(vii.)

and

r"

SC &^%

2^2 4- cos a? + sin

r

+ cos x

prove
o

6.

Integrate

(i.)

(ii.)

(iii.)

7.

8.

9.

10.

Integrate

Integrate

Integrate

Interate

f-

^/

dk

____

C?Jt'

V a(^ - b) + V 6(^ - a)

<**

f
7

-+^-

fsm^

sm2^

cos +shl
fcos201og COS0-S1TL0
^
fa.

1+cosx

^^
2

siii

<9

+6

cos 2 ^'

.77

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

11.

Integrate

12.

Integrate

13,

sm x
_dx.
VI + sin x
sec ^

Integrate

J 1

14.

dx.

+ cosec x

/- f^fl_f_.
v a + b tan 2#

Integrate

15.

^'
fVr^
1 + sin x

Evaluate

16.

[****"****&,.

Integrate

log tan ^7

J
17.

Integrate

Vsin 2(9
18.

19.

Integrate

Integrate

fcot0-3cot30
J

20.

Integrate

Wo?

/" 7

J (x si
21.

Integrate

22. Integrate

f-^

V cos

~ CQS ^

f A /_

'

(9(1

+ cos

6>)(2

+ cos 6>)

23.

Integrate

24. Integrate

.
"

Integrate

sin ^?

(sin

+ cos

f-

25.

f
J

sin

a?

mg-coeg

6y

85

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

26.
.

Integrate

sin" 1

27.

28.

Integrate

l+x2

?
J

Integrate (
J

sin

^,
2#

sin

sin&r

dx.

'

and prove that

[*-3^-dx, J{^^dx,
sin 4^7

J sin

+
[THIN. COLL., 1892,]

CHAPTER

VII.

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
functions occur whose integrals are not
to one or other of the standard
reducible
immediately
forms, and whose integrals are not directly obtainable.
In some cases, however, sucft integrals may be linearly
connected by some algebraic formula with the integral
of another expression, which itself may be either immediately integrable or at any rate easier to integrate
than the original function.
79.

Many

For instance

it

will be

shown that

(a

+#

)^fe can

2
be expressed in terms of
+ # 2 )^fe, and this latter
J(a

itself in

terms of

J(a

+ ar)^cfe,

which being a standard

form the integral of I(a 2 + # 2 )^cfc

may

Such connecting algebraical

Reduction Formulae.

relations

80.

The student

be inferred.
are

called

will realise that several reduction

methods have already been used.

For instance the

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

88

of Integration by parts of Chapter IV., and

It is proposed to consider
the formulae
of Art. 70.
such formulae more fully in the present chapter, and
to give a ready method for the reproduction of some
of the more important,

method

the integration of x m lX* where

for anything of the form a+bxn
81.

On

X stands

In several cases the integration can be performed

directly.
I. If

be

a positive

expands into a finite

integer, the binomial in

series,

and each term

is

integrable.

/v

Next suppose p fractional = -, r

and

and

being integers

s positive.

II.

Consider the case

777/

when

is

a positive integer.

X = a + bxn = z

Let
.'.

n ~ l dx

bnx

and

is

s
,

dz
zs

r
bn)

\x

and when

= sz

~l

a positive integer, this expression

directly integrable by expanding the

integrating each term.
III.

When

is

is

binomial and

a negative integer, the expression

(z

-a)~

n+

'

REDUCTION FORMULAE.

may
may

be put into partial fractions, and the integration

then be proceeded with (Art. 58).

TD

IV. If

may

89

an integer positive or negative, we

is

proceed thus

rn _

rn

and by cases

II.

and

III. this is

integrable

when

m-\--

is either a positive or a
negative integer by the
substitution b
ax~ n =-zs
That is, the expression is

integrable

when

777

\-- is

integral, positive, or negative.

Three cases therefore admit of integration immediately or by simple substitution.

(1)

p a positive

(2)

integer.

an

integer.

[-p

an

777

(3)

Ex.

1.

integer.

Integrate (^(c

Here m=6, n = 3, and

=an

integer.

Let
so that

Then the

%x*dx= 2zdz.
integral becomes

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

90
Ex.

2.

Here

The

Integrate

m=

n = 3,

integral

is

x*(a?

p=b

+ x^dx.

and

n +p

is

an

integerc

'

Let

-3-.

then

XT

and the integral becomes

9
*

which might be put into

= sec 6,

partial fractions.

however,

If,

be put

the process of putting the expression into partial fractions will be avoided and the final integration may be quickly
effected (Art. 70).

82.

Reduction formulae for \xm ~\a

Leta + 6x H = ^C; then

\x m

X^dx can be connected

with any of the following six integrals

x m \X

P-

1^

xm-n- IXPdx,
xm

n - lX? +l

dx,

m+n Xm+n

according to the following rule

Let

P=

indices of x

X+1

JTya+1

and

~1

where A and

JUL

are the smaller

X respectively in the two expressions

whose integrals are

to be connected.

Find

dP

-p.

Re-

arrange this as a linear function of the expressions

whose integrals are to be connected. Integrate, and
the connection

is

complete.

REDUCTION FORMULAE,
Ex.

txm

Connect

1.

P=xmXp

Let

-l

91

(x^

X\lx with

Then

dx

[Note the rearrangement "as a linear function,

P=(m +pn) ftf- lA'*dx - apn

Hence

etc., etc."]

x m -^Xp

~l

dx,

[^X'dx-****- + -22?- (ar-*X*-*dx.

m+pn m+pnj

or

The advantage of this reduction is that the index of

p is lowered
and by
the usually troublesome factor
successive applications of the same formula we may
ultimately reduce the integral to one which has been
previously worked, or which can be easily obtained.

Ex.
nect
/

(#

As

Thus, for instance, to find

2.

this

with

integral

+ aPfdX)

and

(x

l(& + cFydx we may

+ cfifdx, and

this

con-

again with

this last is a standard form.

the reduction is

used

twice,

we

((a?+arfdx with

will connect
((

P=x

Let

[Note the preparatory step which might be performed mentally

= (n + I)(x + arf -na\x* + arf ~

2

[which

is

now "rearranged

as a linear function,

etc.,

etc."\

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

92

P=(n +

Integrating,

and

1)

I(x

+ a?fdx-na?

/"(

n+I

Putting

?i

=5

and

ft

= 3,

((

and

Then

3i
6.4

Ex.

3.

Calculate the value of

We shall

positive integer.

m
l%

mJf

Let

^(Za-x?dx

P=^m+1?(2a-^)

1r

endeavour to connect

>JZax-x'*dx

(x

i.e.

[^x^-^ax-x^dx,

m~l

with

*J%ax-x*dx

with

(x

~\2a-x*fdx.

according to the rule, then

Hence
m+

(m + 2) fx

^(2a

- xm ^(2a -

- xfdx

^ + (2m +

l)a

m
fx ~\2a - xfdx

being a

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
a

93

xm *J?Ltix

_
ra

+2

xm*j%ax -

/la,

m+2

Jo

and

x*dX)

m be

a positive integer,

2ra-l

2m -3 a3/
2m-l
-.

m+1

Now

to find

IQ

m+ 1
or

2m-3
'

fj^ax

an d

^l^ax

x^

m -z _ etc.
.

5
'

m
'

"*4

x^dx, put

x=a(\
dx = a sin

Then

J.

2m -1
'

"mT2

a sin

cos

0).

0.

when #=0, we have $=0,

when # = 2a, we have O = TT.

Also

Hence

7=

Hence

fVsinW^- T(l - cos 20)rf0

-m-

1)...3

r_ (2m + l)!

+2?

(m+2)(m + l)...3

m!(m + 2)!

EXAMPLES,
Apply the rule stated in Art. 82 to obtain the following
reduction formulae (when
+ bxn)

X=a

1.

J
2.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS

94
(,-^

3.

J
4.

(
J

(a*-*X*dx

^ ^P {x+
mm]

= xm

J
6..

Integrate out
7.

Obtain the integrals of

m = l, m=2, m = 3,

and
and

of integration are

83.

xm^(^Lax

A similar rule may be given

I

for the cases

when the

limits

2a.

Reduction formulae for

for

x^dx

their numerical values

sin^a?

co&x dx.

for a reduction formula

siu p x cos qx dx,

This expression may be connected with any of the

following six integrals
:

sin^

"2

# cos?# dx,

~
sinpx cos 9 ^x dx,

si

si

'

sin^

-2

x cosv +2x dx,

by the following

sin^+ 2 ^ cos^ *x dx,

rule.

P = sinX+1 #cosAA+1 &

where X and ^ are the

smaller indices of since and cos# respectively in the
two expressions whose integrals are to be connected.
Put

Find

-T-,

ax

and rearrange as a linear function of

expressions whose integrals are to be connected.

the

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
Integrate and the connection

95

is effected.

Connect the integrals

Ex.

/
Let

P=s

=(p

= (p

[Note the

last

l)sm

p ~ 2x cos g
^(l

I )sin^~

two

# cos 9#

lines of

*
.

Hence

P=
/

p-I

siii^~

2
^7

sin.^ cos%^ = -

(q -f l)si

^)sin^ cosPx
rearrangement as a linear function of

sin^cos^ and
.

sin #)
(

-h

sin^~ 2^7 cos%],

cos 9^ dx

-(

p+

8m *~^X cosq+l*

p+q

q)

si

+ zi (*
P + qJ

be remembered, however, that in the case

p or q is an odd integer the complete
integration can be effected immediately [Arts. 64, 67].
The present method is useful in the case where p and
q are both even integers.
It will

where either

EXAMPLES.
Connect the integral fsin*4?cos?#ei? with
1.

sm p+2x cosq.v dx.

2.

siii^ cos~ 23? dx.

3.

sm px

4.

/*sin^-

5.

sin^ + 2# cos~ 2# dx.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

96
6.

fsin^^ _

Prove that

cousin- *

Employ

Establish a formula of reduction for

8.

4
Integrate sin

To

calculate the integrals

V
2"

5^n

= f smn #? aa? and

(7n

Connect

fl
I

sin n^c

P = sinn ~

dx

with

sinn

= (n
f

lsin n

^a^=

Hence

since

l )sin n

~2

dx.

--sm

n~

xcosx

sin

If

-^ cos &
2,

----712
71

3
^

71

7i

^
4

a
>w-

be even this ultimately comes to

Ti-l Ti-3

r ~ z
n
xdx.

vanishes when ?& is an

when x = 0, and also when

x = J, we have

= 711 ^

n -\sm
J

integer not less than

if 71

su nx

dx

.*.

~2

#cos;E according to the rule; then

dP

cos w# dx,

71

Let

f^,.
J

this formula to integrate sin%, sin 6#, sin 8^.

7.

84.

-I

"~'ii^V"g

3
4

Iff
J

2j

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
Ti-1 7i-3

that

is

If

n -2

n
we

be odd
f-j

il/

^^

TT

422'

similarly get
1

-L

ll/

.v

Q
^^ O

A,
TJ

9
Z<

"P

<S

/
I

Ufl

71

and

3 1
'"

since

sin

97

<r

* * *

xdx =

dm w
w U**/j
rl w
.

-|

E*-1-11

3J

cos

2"

x r

=1

we have $n =

Ti-1
7i-3
1

In a similar

way

it

2'" 5*

may

2
3*

be seen that

"cos n xclx has

precisely the same value as the above integral in each

This may be shown too from
case, n odd, n even.
other considerations.
These formulae are useful to write down quickly
any integral of the above form.

/.<,, ^|.

[The student should notice that these are written down most
by beginning with the denominator. We then have the
ordinary sequence of natural numbers written backwards.
Thus the first of these examples is
(10 under 9) x (8 under 7) x (6 under 5), etc.,
easily

stopping at (2 under

1),

and writing a factor

-.

But when the

denominator is odd, in forming such a sequence

minates with (3 under 2) and no factor - is written.]
first

35

E.

I.

C.

it

ter-

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

98

85.

To investigate a formula

r2

for

si

Let this integral be denoted by f(p, q)

tanP^^

p+q

we

if

have,

less

then since

p + qJ

and q be positive integers, and

be not

than 2

GASP:

I.

If

>

6e ei>e7i

= 2m,

(2m-l)(2m-3)

/(v

2r

</v

^/^
/(O,

2) =
\

/i

7/1

^i

1 2ft

3)...l

j
and

= 2n,

and # afeo even

1 TT

Thus

CASE

II.

/(2m,

and

If

2^-1)=

=2m, and q odd =277

~
2m 1
= etc.
- -/(2m-2, 2^-1)

6e 6^67^

'

1,

RED UCTION FORMULA E.

CASE

we

If

III.

=2m

odd

be

99

and q even

= 2n,

obtain similarly

1.3.5...(
This

may

also be

deduced at once from Case

II.

by putting

-J-*
( sin*<9 cos0

for

dO =

r
si

so that

f(p, q)=f(q> p).

CASE IV.

Ifpbeodd

=2m

l,and g odd

(2m-2)(2m-4)

27i-2)(2m + 27i-4/

=2n

2 ^_i )

1,

= e tc.

(2m-2)(2m-4)...2
A(
2^-2)(2m + 2w-4)...(2^ + 2)

7T

and

/(I,

2w -

1)

Tsin
J

(9

cos

"-^ dO = f - 5^-f] . I-,

L
2w Jo 2

Expression in a single rule.

These four formulae may be expressed under one
86.

rule as follows

Let r(n + l) be a function defined by the relations

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

100

These relations will be found to sufficiently define

n-{- 1 is either an integer or of the form
2k + 1

T(n + 1) where

'

k being a positive integer.

For

instance,

5 4F(4) = 5
= 5.4.3.2.ir(l) = 5!
V-) =F(f )= S PXiHf

T(6)

=5F(5)=

This function

is

called a

4 3r(3) = 5 .4.3. 2F(2)

.

I-

f r(f )=

| f fr(
.

Gamma

do not propose to enter into

its

function, but we
properties further

here.

The products

1.3.5...

2n-I

2.4.6

2u

...

TT

which occur in the foregoing cases of

sin^0 cos?0

may

be expressed at once in terms of this function.

^(2n+l\_2n-l
1
\~~2~)

2n-3 2n-5

l
'

2~

so that
/y 7T

and
sothat

Hence

in Case

I.

r /l\
V2/'

d9

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
In Case

II.

In Case

III.

we

101

evidently have the same result.

In Case IV.

It will

be noticed therefore that in every case

have the same

we

result, viz.,

7T

f
and that the
the

sum

This

?9
of the 1

+1

+l

occurring in the denominator

#4-1

and the

is

in the numerator.

a very convenient formula for evaluating

quickly integrals of the above form.
is

IT

Thus

f \in6
s
cos 8

dO

= -*

.,

__f f

'

j-

V^TT

j"

f f
*

i|

^/?T

_ 5?T

2.7 .6.5.4.3.2.f~~2 15

'

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

102

87. The student should, however, observe (as it has

been pointed out previously), that when either p or q
or both of them are odd integers, the expression
sinP$cos?# is directly integrable without a reduction
formula at all.

For

instance,
6

(sin

6>cosW6>

[sin^(l-sin

-^^,
79
761

6'Xsm6'=^

and

Similarly,
cos 2 6>(l

-2

cos 2 <9+cos 4 6>)dcos

"i

COS
-

+2Q

<9,

COS 5 <9

COS 7 6n

.jo,!

Jr 4-"-*^*s

But when p and q are both even and the indefinite

integral required, or if the limits of integration be
other than

and

^,
tt

we must

either use the reduction

formula of Art. 83 or proceed as in Art.

EXAMPLES.
Write down
1.

the values of

67.

REDUCTION FORMULAE.

103

prove the formulae

(1}

sm 2m Ocos 2n 6d0

(2)

sin

J
4.

I?L_?.-_.

-Em+n

-Bm+n-l

Write down the

cos

fsitfO

indefinite integrals of

dO,

fsin 7

fsitfO
cos 2

d0

cos3 <9 dO,

6

fsiu

fsitfO cos 5

dO,

cos 4 ^ dO.

Evaluate
rf

sin 5 ^cos 2

^^.

rT

sin4 #<w,

sm 2 6

__

/3"
7T

7T

7T

/-^

6.

7.

'

Deduce the formulae

r(ii)r(zl)
V 2
V
y
7

result

sm

of Art. 84 for

x dx from the

of Art. 86.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Prove that

(a)

I
/

(b)

cos 2w <

= -1 tan
^^t

</>

cos-

n
c/>

+ M - ~\
\

2iii /

Jf

cos 2

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

104
2.

Investigate a formula of reduction applicable to

when

and n are

tegration
3.

if

ra=5,

7i

and complete the inJOHN'S COLL., GAME., 1881.]

positive integers,

= 7.

[ST.

Investigate a formula of reduction for

and by means
2

271+2

show that

of this integral

27i

+ 4 2.4

+ 6 2.4.6

271

._J_
271 + 8

adinf

2. 4. 6. ..27i
~~3. 5.7...27i +

Sum

l'

also the series

1
I

2^ + 3

271+1

1.3
2.4

1
I

1.3.5

,
_1_

>

+ 5 2.4.6

27i

271

\f

OjCll ITlrT

+7

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1879.]

4.

Prove that
2n+l

(rf

*-,
6.

Find reduction formulae

x(a + bx)

(a)

prove

for

*dx,

(y)

*^*+a)*r,
/2p+l
and obtain the value
7.

of

( S)

Find a reduction formula for

positive integer,

/*(*

[COLLEGES>
I

ax

cos

CAMR]

x dx, where n

is

and evaluate
[OXFORD, 1889.]

RED UCTION FORMULAE,

1 05

Find formulae of reduction for

8.

Deduce from the

#w sin x dx
latter a

and

ax

sin

x dx.

formula of reduction for

a* 8in"*<fe.
[COL1KGES

Jcos

189o.]

Tt

un

If

9.

rT
/

si

prove that

^-l-

and deduce

un = -

--sv +
--rC-f 1-/ --3),
-+^
/b
(^ l)(n-2)
n(
rc-

-^^

2 n+1 In

>

" \f

1)

(2ro-lX2ft-3)...3

TT
'

8'

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1878.]

10.

Show

that

'

wi

2/3

n2fifJ)

[TEIN. COLL., CAMB., 1889.]

11.

Prove that
7

12.

2.4.6 ...2m
_1.3.5 ...(2w-l) TT
~2.4.6...2m
4~3.5.7...(2m + l)

Find a formula

of reduction for

f-~=L1

Show

1
'

2*

that

^ v'^

3. 5. 7. ..(27i+l)l

where a1} a 2
13.

Show

2 TO

cos

...

are the binomial coefficients.

4-

sn^
~~ mm

~T72

m is

JOHN'S, 1886.]

mx cosm# dx

= r+where

[ST.

that

an integer.

sn^
~"

[COLLEGES

a,

1885.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

106
14.

Show

that

m being a positive integer.

15.

Prove that

[OXFORD, 1889.]

if

=
Im, n

cos m# sin

nx da:,

m
cos x cos nx + m/m _i

(m + n)Im) n =

92

n _i ?

9i\

93

[if
^-l^(2 +i+i + - + ^J1

If

16.

,1

prove that

/m? w =
/rm

cos%^7
-

[BERTRAM]

cosw# cos nx dx,

m^ -^^
2

cos
f-

x\
T
v
- + m(ml)
2
m*-n ./^m-2,

cEr\oos9u;/

n,

and show that

cos m^7 sin

7^^;

/I
prove that

Hence

^m

'

-- m + n m

m+

find the value

dx\

_i

M _I.

?i

(when

m is a positive

cos m# sin

integer) of

2mx dx.
[7, 1887.]

/If
o

18.

Prove that

r'2cosnx

cos

nx dx=

J
19.

If

m + n be

IT
T

2 n+1

[BKRTRAND.]

even, prove that

co

m-n.
i

[COLLEGES, 1882.]

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
20.

107

Evaluate the integral

c

[COLLEGES, 1886.]

/
TT

V
TT

21. If

cos m# cos

nx dx be denoted by/(m,

show that

71),

[OXFORD, 1890.]
22.

Prove that

n be a

if

ft
I

cos

positive integer greater than unity,

n~ 2

x sin nx dx = -

Ti-l*

[OXFORD, 1889.]

23.

Find a reduction formula for the integral

in nx-.
/"sin
^ -

J
24. If

n=

u m)

m is not

where

fLJlfl&pj

less

smo?

than

ft,

and

TTC, 7^

show that
- m(m - l)u m - n - = 0.
2)

are either both odd or both even integers,

(n
25.

2)u m) n + m?um) n _ 2

l)(n

un =

If

un = , -

show that

A= -

where

Show

being
26.

less

(n

l)(a

o 2)

^ = - 7i-2n

16

(i_ e2)|

than unity.
J

27. If

+ J5 M
-3) a

b2

(l-e

Prove that f

terms when

n-

I*

that

._:

=-,

a2

J
e

-2

[ST.

sinW<r

a+ 6 cos o?

JOHN'S COLL., 1885.]

can ^ e integrated in

finite

m is an integer.

Un =

sinm^
{-.

J(a + 6cos^)

from a formula

prove that

of reduction of the

can be calculated

form

A Un + B Un -! + (7f7w _ = sin w+
2

and determine the constants A, B,

^7n

C.

X+

6 cos #)- w+1 ,

[js,

1891.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

108
28.

Find a reduction formula for the integral

xm dx
'

'

[OXFORD, 1889.]

(log#)
29.

Find a reduction formula for

C
xmdx
[ft

30.

Prove that

if

1891.]

X=a

Z&=/n
[ST. JOHN'S, 1889.]

31.

Find reduction formulae for

\CLJ

(Q\

f
J

32. Establish

tann x dx.

dx
n
(a+&cos# + csin#)

the following formula for double integration by

u and v being functions of x> and dashes denoting

entiation and suffixes integrations with respect to x
parts,

differ-

+ (- l)n -

nu^ n

-1

hn+ i + (- l)"n uMvn+ idx + (- l)n {dx (u^vndx.

I

[a, 1888.]

CHAPTER

VIII.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

INTEGRALS OF FORM

88.

The integration

dx

\^

of expressions of the

form

dx
can be readily effected in
I.

II.

III.

all

cases for

which

X and Y are both linear functions of x.

X linear, Y quadratic.
X quadratic,- Y linear.

If
and Y be both quadratic the integration can
be performed, but the process is more troublesome.

89.

CASE

The best

I.

and

substitution

Y both
is

dx

Let

-fe

linear.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

110
Putting

cdx
,_

we nave

= at/.

ax + b = -(y 2

and

e)

and / becomes

21

jay

^
2

the standard forms

Jy
Ex.

Integrate

/=

ae

_^

+ bc
.

A2

is

+ b,

which, being one of

immediately integrable.

f
J (x-

Let
then

Thus

y-l y+lj

90.

The same

l(fi(

for

*Jy=y

substitution, viz.,

the integration of

T\f] 'IT

-^

when

will suffice

^(cc)

rational integral algebraic function of x, and

are eacfe linear.

Ex.
.

Integrate /== f

Writing

J^-

>/^ + 2=7/,

we have
%dy

and

.r

2
?/

- 2,

is

any

X and

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. Ill

-L ==& + 24/-32/ + 16

so that

(by

common

division).

Thus

91.

CASE

II.

The proper
Put

X linear, F quadratic.

substitution

is

X=\
y

Let

Putting

ax + b = -

t/

we

have,

and

by logarithmic differentiation,
adx
dy
ax + b
y
ex 2 + ex +/=

- (- - 6 Y +
a 2 \/

(a\

- ft) +/

Hence the integral has been reduced

form

/=

which has been already

discussed.

to the

known

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

112
Ex.

/=

Integrate

f
./

Let #+l=y-i, then

/=

__=_

#+1

an d

__

i+%-y

i+i-2

JI*

now appear

92, It will

form

that any expression of the

J(

can be integrated,

<j)(x)

algebraic function of

we

being any rational integral

For by common division

x.

,,
<b(x)
in the torm
can express .

Af

Axn +Bxn ~ l +

+Z

the
being the quotient and
thus have reduced the process to the
integration of a number of terms of the class

remainder.

...

We

Eaf
and one of the

class
f

-dx.

latter has been discussed in the last article, and

integrals of the former class may be obtained by the

The

reduction formula

^(^_^/)4_2r-l
TO

2r

r-lf

'

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 113

I

The proof
Ex.

of this

/=

Integrate

dx.

\Jcx*

^ 2 + 3 +5
^ 2 -^.

+l

(x+l)*/x

*2 +3*+5

division

+ ex+f

as an exercise.

is left

By

xr

where F(r) stands for

*=x + 2 + -

Now

and to integrate

we put

#+!=_ and get

Thus

93.

CASE

III.

quadratic,

The proper substitution

Put

is

linear.

+/Y=y.

dx

T
f
/=

Let

Putting

and ax2 4-&^ + c reduces

I.

C.

(ax

+ bx + c) V

*Jex+f= y,
edx

E.

to the

form

+/

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

114

and I becomes

Now -j

-f
e)Ay*
2

dy

n can be thrown into partial fractions

as

and each fraction

is

by foregoing

integrable

same substitution

94. It is also evident that the

may

be made for the integration of expressions of the

form

__ dx>

*()

f
J

where

<p(x)

is

(ax

+ bx + c)\/ex +f

the form

and algebraic

rational, integral

when ^/ex + fis put equal

/j/2nj_

"^

,/

2n-2_i

to y
y>

_i_

and the rules for partial

'

Integrate

is

for

reduces to

which by

fractions,

may

as

and each term

>L

Ex.

rules.

at once integrable.

/=

Putting \/^ + l=y, we have -7====2e?y, and

v^ + 1

_
2

divisi

'

be expressed

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 115

EXAMPLES.
Integrate the following expressions

X and F both

CASE IV.

95.

quadratic.

We

do not propose to discuss in general terms the

method of integration of expressions of the form
f

where

and
integral and

F are

^)

a
dx

both quadratic and

algebraic, as it is

We may

the present volume.

(<f>x)

rational,

beyond the scope of

say, however, that the

proper substitution for such cases

is

A/y

= ^'

anc^

^e

student will glean the method to be adopted from the

following examples.*
Ex.

1.

Integrate

1=

Putting

y ~dx

dy

(a

*
The student may refer to Greenhill's "Chapter on the Integral
Calculus" for a general discussion of the method.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

116
Thus /becomes

(a

Also
so that

and

Thus / reduces further

If

a>

6,

to

we may arrange / as
i

V^TP

Ex.

2.

-,

Integrate

/=

J (2x
2x2

~~

dy _

__

2
-2^
-2^+1) \/3^ -2^ + 1

3^-1

2#

The maximum and minimum values yj 2 and yf of ;/ 2 are given

by x = \ and #2 = 0, and are respectively 2 and 1, so that for real
values of #, ?/ must be not greater than 2 and not less than 1.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 117

Now

yi-f=^-y"='2^

and

t-tfm^l-g

Thus / becomes
_ r(&g

- 2ar+l

Now

/2# - 2.37+1

)(2a7

x(x-l)

Thus

'=/(-,==
= cosh" + 2 cos" -^1

?/

N /2

EXAMPLES.
Integrate
1.

4.

2.

5.

3.

6.

_4

/3^ 2 -

\2^-

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

118

CT

Fractions of form

96.

+f

ina;

+ CCOSa;

a l + Pi sin ^ + CfiOSX

This fraction can be thrown into the form

(a x + b^siu x + c-fos x)

x)
(Oj + ^sin x +
where A, B, G are constants

A + Ca^a,
and each term

is

c 1 cos

so chosen that

-Bc^ + Cb^b,
then integrable.

97. Similarly the expression

a + b sin x-\- c cos x

may

be arranged as

(a

+6^+0 cos .)"+

-

_|

(Oj

+6

sin

x + c-[Cos x) n

and the first and third fractions may be reduced by a

reduction formula [Ex. 25, Ch. VII.], while the second
is

immediately integrable.
98. Similar

remarks apply to fractions of the form

a + b sinh x + c cosh x
n
(a x + 6 1 sinh # + qcosh x)

a + b sinh x + c cosh x
ai + frisinh x + Cjcosh #'
99.

Some

'

Special Forms.

It is easy to

show that
sin

a?

Isin^r

sin

c\

a),

'sin(a

6)sin(a

c)

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 119

sin 2,^

and

-.

T\.

-.

-,

6)sm(#

a)sin(^

c)

sin 2 a

__ r)\nY\(
^^
^^i
rt ^^ /^
U lollll (-t/
I/ I
E51111 Iv
1

whence

f
I

sin

-r,

1/

-^7

f
J

-5-7

--

lo^
v
6 sm(o3

c)

a),

r
c)

o)sm(x
sin 2 a

1\

6)sm(a

tan

a
7r

c)

_ _
_ _

More generally Hermite has shown

integrate any expression of the form
100.

8,

/(sin
a 1 )sin(0

sin($

Ti

/Y

tv^

dx

sin (a

where

^^

r
r

/,

6)sm(a

S sin 2 ^

r-^-p

a)sm(x

sin(^

7*

.
7 v

(a

cC<

# c?a?

Ssina
sm(a

and

QTTn
ollll

to

cos 9)

a2 )

a n )'

sin(0

. . .

any homogeneous function

f(x, y) is

how

of #,

y of

1 dimensions.

For by the ordinary rules of partial fractions

f(t, 1)

(*

- Oj)(t - a
x

2)

. . .

(t

- a^

/(a,, 1)

(a x

- egCoj - a3)

. . .

(a x

ax

(a2

^Xag

which may be written

^r((a r

a 1 )(ar

a2 )

a3 )

...

(a 2

an )

__

...

(ar

aw )

a2

_a

ar being omitted in the denominator

(the factor a r
of the above coefficient).
*

Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., 1872.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

120

= tan$, a1 = tana 1
Putting
theorem becomes
/(sin 0, cos 6)
a 2)
sin(0

a 1 )sin(0

sin($

a 2 = tana 2

this

etc.,

an )

. . .

/(sin a r cos a r)
,

r= isin(a r

OL)

...

sin(a r

a r)

a n ) sin($

Thus

W:

/(sin 0, cos 9)

"

/(sin
7

./

or,

cos a,)

^ism(a

%)

7
. . .

logtan
J-'-'ii

sm(a r

an)

t/ctj-j.

;-:

EXAMPLES.
Integrate

sm ^

cos ^^7 cos

cos

2#

cos

3#

cos

cos

cos a

sin 2^7

sin

2a

sn ^7 sn a

cos a

cos x

cos
O.

cos 2a

3a
a

D.

sin #(sin 2,#

sin 2 a)'

GENERAL PROPOSITIONS.
101. There are certain general propositions on
integration which are almost self evident from the
definition of integration or from the geometrical

Thus

meaning.
102.

f (j)(x)dx=
J

for each

~~
equal to \^(^) \H C

is

ential coefficient of
*

\fs(x).

The

if

<f>(

x ) he the

differ-

result being ultimately

See Hobson's Trigonometry, page 111.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

121

independent of x it is plainly immaterial whether x or

z is used in the process of obtaining the indefinite
integral.
/&

103. II.

<p(x)dx

For

if \[s(x)

/&

pc

<f)(x)dx
a

(j

be the indefinite integral of

<p(x)

the left

and
which

side is \{s(b)
the right side is \^(c)
is

the same thing.

Let us illustrate this fact geometrically.

Let the curve drawn be 2/ = 0(#0> anc^ ^ e ^ ^ne or "

NJP^ N^P^ be cc = a, x = c, x = b respectThen the above equation expresses the obvious
ively.

dinates

N^^

fact that

+ area

Area
104. III.

[ <j)(x)dx
a

=
[

$(x)dx.

For with the same notation as before

the left hand side is \/r(6) T//
and
the right hand side is
[

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

122
105. IV.

For

if

we put

x=a
x = a,

if

Hence

dx =

we have
and

</>(x)dx

<p(x)dx=

0(a

- x)dx

y,

dy,
y = 0,

(f>(a

y)dy

fV-2/X2/

(by in.)

<{>(a

x)dx

(by

I).

Geometrically this expresses the obvious fact that,

in estimating the area 00'
between the y and x

QP

O'
Fig. 9.

axes, an ordinate O'Q, and a curve PQ, we may if we

like take our origin at 0', O'Q as our F-axis, and O'X

as our positive direction of the X-axis.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 123

00

p2a

106. V.

For by

pa

pa

<f>(x)dx=\ (f)(x)dx+\

(j)(2a

x)dx.

II.

rpa
<j)(x')dx

<j>(x}dx

p2
\

and if we put 2a x = y,
dx = <%,
we have
and when
x = a, y = a,
x = 2a, y = Q.
when
/2tt

Thus

0(a)c/x

=-

pO

0(2a

- y)dy

<f>(2a

x)dx.

ooo
o

pa

pa

fa

0(#)cfo=l 0(^)cZa;+

<t>(2a

x)dx.

We leave the obvious geometrical interpretation to

the student.
107.

VI. Plainly

this proposition

if 0(a?)

becomes
p2a
I

and

if

<p(x)

be such that

<f>(x)dx

= 2\pa<f)(x)dx,

be such that ^>(2a

p2a

^)cZ^ = 0.

a?)=

<p(x),

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

124
Thus

sin"^^ sm"(7r - #),

since

smnx dx = 2

and
and

cos 2n+1 #

since

cos 2n#
rir
I

COS

2 'l + 1

37(jfo7

sinw ^7 dx

= cos 2n+1 (?r

= cos 2n (7r x\
= 0,

x\

*o

r cos 2w# dx = %\ftcos2n

and

^7

dx.

'0

We may put

such a proposition into words, thus

To add up all terms of the form smnxdx at equal

between
and TT is to add up all such terms from

intervals
to

and

to double. For the second quadrant sines are merely repetitions

of the first quadrant sines in the reverse order.
Or geometrin
y = $m x being symmetrical about the ordinate

cally,

the curve

#=

the whole area between

^,

and

TT is

double that between

and
|.

Similar geometrical illustrations will apply to other cases.

108. VII. If

<>ti
/net

pa

<j)(x)dx=n\

<j

For, drawing the curve y = <j>(x), it is clear that it

an infinite series of repetitions of the part
=
lying between the ordinates OP (x 0) and JV^Pj
(x = a} and the areas bounded by the successive
portions of the curve, the corresponding ordinates and
the #-axis are all equal.
consists of

Thus

and

<{>(x)dx=

jwa
I
^>(x)aa;

= 71

r'(t>(x)dx=
/a
1

<p(x)dx.

)dx = etc.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

125

Thus, for instance,

2"

xdx=%o

sin

Fsm

>,

\276u?

=4
A

TBin n#aa?*4A%n-I
-

2n-3

2?^

...-

2ra- 2

IT

-.

O
Fig. 10.

SOME ELEMENTARY DEFINITE INTEGRALS.

109.

We

have seen that whenever the indefinite

integration l^>(#)cfe can be performed, the value of

the definite integral

<j)(x)dx

can at once be inferred.

In many cases, however, the value of the definite

integral can be inferred without performing the indefinite integration, and even when it cannot be
performed.
We propose to give a few elementary illustrations.
Ex.

1.

Evaluate

=
/=

{*(

Writing

we have
and

vers~ - = TT
a

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

126
Hence

1= -

Hence

/=

f\2ay ~3/

f (TT-

|
o

Putting

?/

and we obtain

= a(l-cos0),

/=?a n+1 f'sm n+1 0d0 = 7ran+i

...

down

to

? or
3

according as

is

22E,

even or odd.
ir

Ex.

/=

Evaluate

2.

Let

log sin # ofo?,

#=--#,
2
dx

then

/=

and

dy

log cos y dy =

rl

2/=

Hence

log cos # c&

rf

logsm^<ir+

log cos

xdx

/I
o
/f
o

log sin ^ cos # c?^

(log sin

2%

log

IT

"j
Put

-i

2x=z,

then

then

Io8 8inte<fo

o?^7

= ^dz

Iogsin2^^=^/

log sin zdz

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

27= /-^ log 2,

Thus

2i

/=|logl.
r~%

/? log
Ex.

3.

sin

xdx

Evaluate

1=

-\

log cos # cfo? = - log -.

2t

2i

-^

Expanding the logarithm, we have

6
If
r

x=l

we put

/=

have

Hence we

also

^-dy =

^'a?

havee

\-x

y,

"

^=

dx.

"o

Ex.

4.

Evaluate

-I
Put

^=tan(9,

.-.

1=1 log(tan0+cot0X0
o

/2
o

(log sin ^

4-

log cos $)6

IT

- 2 /log sin

dO = Tr log 2.

127

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

128
110.

Differentiation under an Integral Sign.

Suppose the function to be integrated to be <p(x, c)

containing a quantity c which is independent of x.
Suppose also that the limits a and b of the integration are finite quantities,
Then will

and independent of

c.

&

0(a?,
J
a,

For

u=

let

f
\

<f>(x,

c)dx.

u + Su =

Then

0(o3,

&
which, by Taylor's theorem,

And

if z,

say, be the greatest value of

which

be capable,

and vanishes in the limit when

diminished. Thus in the limit

=
a

'

'dx.

Sc

is

indefinitely

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 129

The

111.

contain c
volume.

is

case in which the limits a and b also

somewhat beyond the scope of the present

112. This proposition

new

Thus
f

--L= =dx

= -*

tan- 1 \l2=2

Vc + a
(x+cyJx-a
we have, by differentiating n

Also, differentiating

(^

^
a)

c)(^

+a

n times with regard

o?^?

I-

2^+1

(^+c)^

+1

(^-a)

EXAMPLES.
1.

Obtain the following integrals

(i.)

f(i+*)-V*fo.

(v.)

J
(ii.)

An-^-xi + ar)-*^

(vi.)

(iii.)

E.

r#- 1 (2-3a?+ *?)"*<&.

T.

C.

+ a> 0),

to a,

c,

we

obtain

obtain

(c

times with regard to

Similarly, differentiating this latter

we

c,

many

since

/- +

be used to deduce

may

when one has been performed.

integrations

-(vii.

f
J

JI

times with regard to

INTEGRA L CA LCUL US.

130
2.

Integrate

(i.)

(a

+ 6 2 - ^2 )v/(a 2 - ^2 )(^2 - 6 2

)'

[ST.
1

(x2 + a2
|UL *

3.

sin 6>Vacos 2 ^

Find the values

^

J (cos
/"

Prove

+ 67iii

ST J HN

'

S > 1889.]

[TRINITY, 1888.]

<9+V

of

fi)(cos

x + cos y )

cLx

J cotfx
4.

I~

sin x dx
x + cos a)V(cos x 4- cos

/-

)^^+^

JOHN'S, 1888.]

that,

+ a\Jcos(a;+B)coa(a:
a)\/cos(^ + ^)cos(^ + 'v}
y

C%

1890-]

with certain limitations on the values of the

constants involved,
d,L

(x-p)(ax? + Zbx + cy*

\^

Olll

(-ap -2bp-cft

(x

- p)(b 2 - acf

[TRINITY, 188G
5.

Prove that \(cQ$x} ndx may be expressed by the

j\r
^.v

_L ...
-r

pf
p
etu,

n-

being the coefficients of the expansion

and n having any real value positive or negative.

ND

2J

series

Nft

. . .

(1

+ a)

2
,

[SMITH'S PRIZE, 1876.]

6.

Evaluate the following definite integrals

W
(i

f
J

^2

/a(a
o

UL '\

Prove that

8.

Show

that

/y.2

+ ^72) 2
**

J
o

7.

^'
[ST. JOHN'S, 1888.]

x dx

(l+tfX 2 +^)(3 + #)

[OXFORD, 1888.]

[0x^,1888.]

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

9.

Evaluate

(i.

+ cos x
dx

(ii.)

131

| 4 + 5 sin x

[I.

C. S., 1839.]

[I.

0. S., 1888.]

(iii.)

10.

Prove that

CQ&nxdx

is

equal to zero

according as n is odd or even.

If S denote the sum of the infinite series

P rOV6that
11.

^"T-f-

Prove that
(i.)

be

if c

[OXFOBD, 1890.]

< 1,

f 8in-^

(ii.)

12.

Prove that

13.

Find a reduction formula for

f^f.
J Vs

e~ T sin
[ST.

14.

Evaluate

ft
(i.)

sin x log sin

JOHN'S, 1888.]

x dx.

[8, 188,5. J

HF
(ii.)
k
y

tan a? log sin a? o?^?.

f
s

(iii.)

ooon

[ST. JOHN'S, 1882.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

132

15.

Evaluate

dx

(i.)

[I.

C. S., 1887.]

[I.

C. S., 1891.]

16.

Prove

f^an^^
#

(i.)

sec 37+ cos

a2

[POISSON.]

cos 2.2

a being supposed greater than unity.

f -2Sfc = 1

17.

Prove

18.

Prove that

(i.)

[OXFORD, 1890.]

z2)

=a

a3 +
3

"

3.5

&5

3.5.7

ctf

+ ...

[OXFORD, 1889.]
19.

Prove that
IT

2r~%
/

/-7A
<^"

being supposed
20.

Prove that

21.

Prove that

_T

<

2
1
o
1

Q2
1*3-4

1 2

1 2

o2

^>

PL2
&
x,6

1.

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1878.]

1.1

1
''*

22. If

-,), \*

$(x)dx=

[TRIN. HALL,

23.

*"" 6

Prove that
b

remains

finite

when x

^ f^ ~^W

c-a?)

vanishes.

[A

1888.]

etc.,

1886.]

F $(x)dx.

^-6)

provided

[ST. JOHN'S, 1883.]

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 133

Prove that

+ <(2a-a?)}cfci7,

and

illus-

27. Determine by integration the limiting value of the

of the following series when n is
indefinitely great

sums

24.

$(x)dx=

/""{<##)
*

trate the
25. If

and

theorem geometrically.

f(x)=f(a+x\ show that

illustrate geometrically.

26.

Show

that

q-pj

q-p

q-p
:

'

n+ I

n+2

n+3

(iiL)_J_ +
\/2?i-l 2

n + ri

[a, 1884.]

n
*

*_+ \/6rc-3.-+

\/4?i-2 2

+ -J*/2ri*-<n?

[CLARE,
(iv-)

i
(.

sin 2/

2n

sin 2K

2n

sin2fc

2n

+...

+sin

!-,

etc., 1882.]

K beinsr an

[S T. JOHN'S, 1886.]

integer.
28.

2K

Show
n

that the limit

when n

is

increased indefinitely of

n2

3n

'2n

2*

[COLLEGES, 1892.]
29.

Show

that the limit

when n

is infinite

of
i

is

Apply

/*+*.

e^a
this result to find the limit of

-('+
[CLARE,

etc., 1886.]

INTEGRAL CALCUL US.

134

30.

Find the limiting value

31.

Find the limiting value when n

of the

sum

of the

of (n\} /n

is infinite

quantities
'

Ti~

T~

is infinite.

of the Tith part

n+n

n+1 n + 2 n + 3
n

when n

"V

and show that

it is to the limiting value of the ?ith root of the

product of the same quantities as 3e 8, where e is the base of
the Napierian logarithms.
[OXFOKD, 1886.]
:

32. If na is always equal to unity and n is

show that the limiting value of the product

indefinitely great,

[OXFORD. 1883.]

CHAPTER

IX.
/

EECTIFICATION,

ETC.

113. In the course of the next four chapters we

propose to illustrate the foregoing method of obtaining the limit of a summation by application of the
process of integration to the problems of finding the
lengths of curved lines, the areas bounded by such
lines,

finding

surfaces

and volumes of

solids

of

revolution, etc.

Rules for the Tracing of a Curve.

As we shall in many cases have to form some rough
idea of the shape of the curve under discussion, in
114.

order to properly assign the limits of integration,

we may refer the student to the author's larger
Treatise on the Differential Calculus, Chapter XII.
for a full discussion of the rules of procedure.
The following rules, however, are transcribed for
convenience of reference, and will in most cases

suffice for

115.
1.

curve.

present requirements:

I For Cartesian Equations.

glance will suffice to detect

symmetry

in a

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

136

no odd powers of y occur, the curve is symmetrical with respect to the axis of x.
Similarly for symmetry about the ^/-axis.
Thus y 2 = 4<ax is symmetrical about the cc-axis.
(6) If all the powers of both x and y which occur
be even, the curve is symmetrical about both
axes, e.g., the ellipse
(a) If

^2+ y*_~
62

Again, if on changing the signs of x and y, the

equation of the curve remains unchanged, there
is symmetry in
opposite quadrants, e.g., the
2
=
a
or the cubic x 3 +y 3 = 3ax.
hyperbola xy
If the curve be not symmetrical with regard to
either axis, consider whether any obvious transformation of coordinates could make it so.
2. Notice whether the curve passes
through the
also
the
coordinate
the
where
it
crosses
origin
points
(c)

any points whose coordinates present

themselves as obviously satisfying the equation to the
axes, or, in fact

curve.
3.

axes

Find the asymptotes

;

first,

those parallel to the

next, the oblique ones.

4. If the curve pass through the origin equate to

These terms will
zero the terms of lowest degree.
give the tangent or tangents at the origin.

Find y^; and where it vanishes or becomes indx'

finite; i.e., find where the tangent is parallel or per5.

pendicular to the #-axis.

6. If we can solve the equation for one of the
variables, say y, in terms of the other, x, it will be
frequently found that radicals occur in the solution,
and that the range of admissible values of x which
give real values for y is thereby limited. The existence
of loops upon a curve is frequently detected thus.

RECTIFICATION, ETC.
7.

Sometimes the equation

to the polar form.

is

much

137
simplified

when

reduced
116.
It is

For Polar Curves.

advisable to follow some such routine

II.

following
1.

of r

If possible,

of 9, such as 6

2.

and

table of corresponding values

satisfy the curve for chosen values

form a

and 9 which

positive

as the

= 0,

^,
O

JP

negative values of

f
o

etc.

Consider both

9.

Examine whether there be symmetry about the

This will be so when a change of sign of

9 leaves the equation unaltered, e.g., in the carclioide
r = a(l
cos$).
3. It will frequently be obvious from the equation
of the curve that the values of r or 9 are confined
between certain limits. If such exist they should be
ascertained, e.g., if r = asijm9, it is clear that r must
lie in magnitude between the limits
and a, and the
curve lie wholly within the circle r = a.
4. Examine whether the curve has any asymptotes,
initial line.

rectilinear or circular.

RECTIFICATION.
117. The process of finding the length of an arc of
a curve between two specified points is called rectification.

Any

formula expressing the differential

coefficient

of s proved in the differential calculus gives rise at

once by integration to a formula in the integral
calculus for finding s.
add a list of the most
common. (The references are to the author's Diff.

We

Gale,

for Beginners.}

118. In each case the limits of integration are the

values of the independent variable corresponding to

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

138

the two points which terminate the arc whose length

is
sought.
Formula in he

Formula in the

Diff. Calc.

Int. Calc.

Reference.

Observations.

P. 98.

For Cartesian Equa

tions of form

P. 98.

For Cartesian Equa

tions of form

P. 103.

For Polar Equation

of form

P. 103.

For Polar Equation

of form

P. 100.

For case when curvi

*=/(*/)

ds _
dt

Idy

l(dx\*

is

M(di)+(Tt
rdr

Pp. 103,

dr

105.

ds

P. 148.

We

119.

add

illustrative

examples

given as

For use when Peda

Equation is given

For use when Tan

Pola
gential
Equation is given

Ex. 1. Find the length of the arc of the parabola x L =kay

extending from the vertex to one extremity of the latus-rectum.

y=

yi=

and the limits are

#=0

and

x%a.

Hence

RECTIFICATION, ETC.

139

Ex. 2. Obtain the same result by taking y as the independent variable.

/

= A/-,
/-,

and the

limits are

(Put
and

and y = a.

y=

Hence

7/

.B

7T_

Ex.

3.

Find the perimeter of the cardioide r = a(l

cos

0).

Fig. 11.

The
from

Hence

c\irve is

to

TT

symmetrical about the

initial line,

for the upper half.

are= 2

fVa (l -cos 0) +a sin

= 2a.

0rf0

and

varies

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

140
Ex.

Find the length of the arc of the equiangular spiral

the points at which the radii vectores are

4.

p = rsina between
and

r2

arc =

Here

of

any arc

Formula

120.

of the involute of a circle,

and \^ 2 are the values of

of the arc respectively.
where

=r

VV2 -r2sin 2 a

Ex. 5. Find the length

whose equation isp =

Here

-^

^ at the beginning

and end

for Closed Curve.

In using the formula

in the case of a closed oval, the origin being within

the curve, it may be observed that the length of the

whole contour

is

\~ dj)~~]

-jy

disappears

Show

Ex.

when

pd\fs, for the portion

the limits are taken.

that the perimeter of an ellipse of small eccen-

tricity e exceeds

same

given by

by

of its length that of a circle

area.

[7, 1889.]

Here
where

Hence

having the

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
p = c^cos ^ + 6 sin ^ = a (l - e sin ^
with
the
the angle which p makes
),

is

major

axis.

2
.A
p = a(\ I - i^sin ^ - -e*sui*\ls.
o
/
2i

Hence

,=4a{|-lA \-^-\\ f}

(very approximately)

RECTIFICATION, ETC.
The radius

(r) of

a circle of the same area

is

141

given by

vZ^ab^a^l-erf,
/

and

its

circumference = 27ra(

*.

Circumf. ellipse

- circumf

e4 ...

-e 2

circle

).

32

\lo

_ \irae*
3'2 /

2ira

t>4

'

64

[circ.

of circle], as far as

terms involving

e4 .

EXAMPLES.
1.

Find by integration the length of the arc of the circle

= a2 intercepted between the points where
cos a and

xa

2.

Show

that in the catenary y = c cosh - the length of arc

from the vertex (where #=0) to any point

s

is

given by

= c smh -.
.

In the evolute of a parabola, viz., 4(# - 2a) 3 = 27a# 2 show

that the length of the curve from its cusp (# = 2a) to the point
where it meets the parabola is 2a(3v3 1).
3.

4.

Show

that the length of the arc of the cycloid,

.r=a(0 + sin 0)
y = a(l-cos<9)J
^

0=0 and 0=2^,

between the points for which

5.

Show

is s

that in the epicycloid for which

-b

y=(a + 6)sin

sin

=
a
5 beiijg

26

222

measured from the point at which 0=7rb/a.

n

When &=--, show

that

measured from a cusp which

4r+y*a*j

lies

on the

and that

3
y-axis, s oc x*.

if

be

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

142

Show that in the

may be expressed

6.

meter

Find the length

7.

(i.)

(ii.)

of

ellipse

# = a cos

j/

= 6sin^,

the peri-

any arc of the curves

r = acos0.

aem0

$,

as

= a6.

(iii.)

(iv.)

r = asin 2 -.
2t

Apply the formula s=_

8.

whose equation
9.

Two

is

r=a(l -f cos

radii vectores

OP,

\pdty to

rectify the cardioide

[TRINITY, 1888.}

0).

OQ

of the curve

drawn equally inclined to the initial line prove that the

length of the intercepted arc is act, where a is the circular
measure of the angle POQ.
[ASPARAGUS, Educ. Times.']
are

10.

Show

be found in

that the length of an arc of the curve

finite

terms in the cases when

*

integer.
11.

=xm+n can
+ -* is an
*m

or

Find the length of the arc between two consecutive cusps

2
a 2 )p 2 = c 2(r 2 a 2 ).
(c

of the curve
12.

Find the whole length

of the loop of the curve

2

3ay =x(x-a)
13.

2
i.

[OXFORD, 1889.]

that the length of the arc of the hyperbola xy = a?

x=b and x=c is equal to the arc of the
4
2
2
4
(a +r ) = aV between the limits r=b, r=c.
[OXFORD, 1888.]

Show

between the limits

curve

14.

>

Show

that in the parabola

=1+0080,-^
'

=:-__^_ and

d>Y

sin^w*

hence show that the arc intercepted between the_yertex and the
extremity of the latus rectum is a{\/2-flog(l +\/2)}.
[I.

C. S., 1882.]

RECTIFICATION, ETC.
121.

Length of the Arc of an

143

E volute.

has been shown (Diff. Gale, for Beg., Art. 157)

that the difference between the radii of curvature at
It

Fig. 12.

two

points of a curve is equal to the length of the

corresponding arc of the evolute ;

i.e., if ah be the arc of the evolute of the portion

of the original curve, then
(Fig. 12)
.e.

(at

A)

/>

(at

H),

AH

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

144

and

the e volute be regarded as a rigid curve, and a

be
unwound from it, being kept tight, then the
string
points of the unwinding string describe a system of
parallel curves one of which is the original curve AH.
if

Find the length

Ex.

Let

of the evolute of the ellipse.

be the centres of curvature corresponding to

the extremities of the axes, viz., A, A', B, B' respectively. The
arc a/3 of the evolute corresponds to the arc AB of the curve,
and we have (Fig. 13)
a, a', /3, /3'

arc a/2 = /o(at

[for rad. of curv. of ellipse

Thus the length

5)-p(at A) = ~-

^.

Ex.

3, p.

153, Diff. Calc.for Beg."].

of the entire perimeter of the evolute

EXAMPLE.
in the above manner for the parabola y 2 = kax that the
of
the part of the evolute intercepted within the parabola
length

Show

is4a(3\/3-l).

122. Intrinsic

Equation.
between s, the length of the arc of a
given curve, measured from a given fixed point on

The

relation

Fig. 14.

the curve, and the angle between the tangents at the

extremities of the arc is called the Intrinsic Equation
of the curve.

RECTIFICATION, ETC.

To obtain the

123.

Intrinsic Equation

145

from the

Cartesian.

Let the equation of the curve be given as y=f(x).

Suppose the #-axis to be a tangent at the origin, and
the length of the arc to be measured from the origin.

Then

tan -^ =/(),

also

s=\

*Jl

+ [f'(x)~]

(1)
2

dx

(2)

If s be determined by integration from (2), and x

eliminated between this result and equation (1), the
will be obtained.
required relation between s and

Ex.

Intrinsic equation of a circle.

1.

If i/r be the angle between the initial tangent at A and the

tangent at the point P, and a the radius of the circle, we have

and therefore
Ex.

sa^r.

In the case of the catenary y + c = ccosh-, the

2.

trinsic equation is s

= c tan ^.

tan^ = dx

For

as

and

dx
P.

I.

c,

= \/ 1
K

-=
smh 2<>x
i

/-,

>

-r

in-

INTEGRAL CALCUL US.

146
and therefore

= c sinh -,
c

the constant of integration being chosen so that x and

together,

124.

vanish

whence

To obtain the

= c tan

\js,

Intrinsic Equation

from the

Polar.

Fig. 16.
/

>,

Take the initial line parallel to the tangent at the

Then with the
point from which the arc is measured.
usual notation we have
T =/(0), the equation to the curve,

^ = 0+0,

....... (1)

....................................... (2)

If s be found by integration from (4), and 0, <f>

eliminated by means of equations (2) and (3), the
required relation between s and \fs will be found.

Ex.

Find the

intrinsic equation of the cardioide

r=a(l -cos

Here
and

0).

i/r

sin

RECTIFICATION, ETC.

147

Hence
and

Fig. 17.

Also

a sin

-,
r\

4a cos - + C.

and

If

or

we determine C so

that

= 4a(

= when 9 = 0, we

cos^

have

J,

the intrinsic equation sought.

We may notice that if A be the vertex, the arc AP is 4a cos

INTEGRAL CALCULUS,

148

When the Equation

125.

we have

tan

of the Curve

dy

= ^_-^
^ = -^
ax j
(t)

is

given as

,- N

d)'(t)

....... ..... ........ (1)

By means of equation (2) s may be found by integration in terms of t.

If then, between the result and equation (1) t be
eliminated, we shall obtain the required relation
between
Ex.

and ^.

In the cycloid

ya(\ -cos t\
* mt
= tan
tan ^ =

we have

1+costf

= ax/(l + cos0
^
dt

Also

whence 5=4a

Hence
126.

sin -

= 4ot sin

if s

T/T

is

+ sin 2 * = 2a

cos -,

he measured from the origin where Z=0.

the equation required.

Intrinsic Equation of the Evolute.

Let s=f(\f/) be the equation of the given curve.

Let s' be the length of the arc of the evolute measured
from some fixed point A to any other point Q. Let
and P be the points on the original curve corresponding to the points A, Q on the evolute; p p the
and P: \j/ the angle the
radii of curvature at
OA produced, and
the
with
makes
QP
tangent
angle the tangent PT makes with the tangent at 0.
,

RECTIFICATION, ETC.

Then

*//

149

and

-^r,

ds
or

O T
Fig. 18.

Intrinsic Equation of an Involute.

be given
figure, if the curve

127.

With the same

AQ

we have

the equation s'=f(\}/),

and

whence
Ex.

The

\Is

\//,

equation of the catenary

intrinsic

is

s=ctsm\Ir

(Art. 123).

Hence the

intrinsic equation of its evolute is

and

'

the evolute

The

= radius of
=c p=

is

s = c(sec

intrinsic equation of
s=

(c

2v//-

curvature at the vertex

y
1 ),

= c sec 2
or

an involute
tan

"fy

i/r

and T/r=0

s = c tan 2^.
is

+ A)d^r

= c log sec + A^r + constant

T/T

and

if s

be so measured that
s

by

5=0 when ^=0, we have

= c log(sec

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

150
128.

Length of Arc of Pedal Curve.

If p be the perpendicular from the origin upon the

tangent to any curve, and ^ the angle it makes with
the initial line, we may regard p, % as the current
polar coordinates of a point on the pedal curve.
Hence the length of the pedal curve may be calculated by the formula

Ex.

Apply the above method

of the pedal of a circle

ference (i.e. a cardioide).

to find the length of any arc

with regard to a point on the circum-

Fig. 19.

Here,

if

2a be the diameter, we have from the figure

*
2
p = OP cos = 2ctcos *.
Hence

arc of pedal =

=
/

2 A/a 2 cos 4 - + a 2 sin 2 - cos -a

*
2
2
2

2a cos *dx = 4a sin

+ C.

The limits for the upper half of the curve are x =

Hence the whole perimeter of the pedal

1 =8a.
2[4asin2 Jo
L-

and X = TT.

RECTIFICATION, ETC.

151

EXAMPLES.
of the curve

1-.

Find the length

of

2.

Find the length

of the complete cycloid given

any arc

u\a

x)=aP.
[a, 1888.]

y=a

a cos

0.

by

3. Find the curve for which the length of the arc measured
from the origin varies as the square root of the ordinate.

Show

4.

that the intrinsic equation of the parabola

s

is

= a tan ^ sec ^r + a log(tan + sec ^).

i/r

Interpret the expressions

5.

wherein the line integrals are taken rou id the perimeter of a

[ST. JOHN'S, 1890.]
given closed curve.

Jw

6.

The major

^/^eccentricity
nearly.

is

an
Prove

axis of

1/10.

ellipse is 1 foot in length,

its

and

its

circumference to be 3*1337 feet

[TRINITY, 1883.]

7. Show that the length of the arc of that part of the

cardioide r = a(l + cos 0), which lies on the side of the line
4r=3asec remote from the pole, is equal to 4a. [OXFORD, 1888.]

8.

Find the length

of

an arc of the
sin 2
r _a

cos
9.

10.

ff

Find the length of any arc of the curve

Show

bola 3a3/ 2
11.

cissoid

6>

that the intrinsic equation of the semicubical para9s = 4a(sec3Vr - 1).

=2^ is

In a certain curve

show that

5=ee\/2 + a

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

152
12.

is

Show

that the length of an arc of the curve

s =/(<9)

given by
13.

tion

Show

is s

14.

that in the curve

= a gd~

Show

C.

y = alogsec-

the intrinsic equa-

\ff.

that the length of the arc of the curve

between the points (xl9

15.

+/"(#) +

n x

yj), (#2 ,

Trace the curve y 2 =

(a

3/2) is

#)

log

2
,

od/

y=logcoth-

^.

sinn

X-^

and find the length

of that

part of the evolute which corresponds to the loop.

[ST. JOHN'S, 1881

and

1891.]

Find the length of an arc of an equiangular spiral

(p = rsma) measured from the pole.
Show that the arcs of an equiangular spiral measured from
the pole to the different points of its intersection with another
equiangular spiral having the same pole but a different angle
will form a series in geometrical progression.
[TRINITY, 1884.]
16.

17.

Show

has for

that the curve whose pedal equation

its intrinsic

equation

is

p 2 =r2

a?

= a-.
Zi

that the whole length of the limagon r=acos

is equal to that of an ellipse whose semi-axes are equal in length
to the maximum and minimum radii vectores of the limacon.
18.

Show

19. Prove that the length of the nth pedal of a loop of the
curve rm =amsinmO is

mn-m+1

,-m

(smmO)

a(mn+I)

dO.

1883

20.

Show

that the length of a loop of the curve

[ST. JOHN'S, 1881.]

CHAPTER

X.

QUADRATURE,
129. Areas.

The process

ETC.

Cartesians.
of finding the area

bounded by any

portion of a curve is termed quadrature.

It has been already shown in Art. 2 that the area
bounded by any curved line [y = <f>(x)], any pair of
ordinates [x = a and x = b] and the axis of x may be
considered as the limit of the sum of an infinite number of inscribed rectangles; and that the expression
for the area is
9

In the same

two given

ydx

way

or

(x)dx.

the area bounded by any curve,

y = d] and the y-axis is

abscissae [y = c,

fxdy.
130. Again, if the area desired be bounded by two
given curves [y = <p(%) and 2/ = \^(^)] and two given
ordinates \x a and x = 6], it will be clear by similar
reasoning that this area may be also considered as the
limit of the sum of a series of rectangles constructed

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

154

The expression

as indicated in the figure.

area will accordingly be

PQ dx
Li%
x=a

or

fj>(0)

for the

- \fs(x)]dx.

Fig. 20.

Ex.

1.

Find the area bounded by the

ordinates x=c,

Here

area=

ellipse

xd and the

+ ^-2 = 1,
-

the

fa^Sr

2a
For a quadrant of the ellipse we must put
the above expression becomes
.

2a

a2 ?

or

d =a and c=0 and

giving irab for the area of the whole

ellipse.

Ex. 2. Find the area above the #-axis included between the
curves y 2 = %ax x 2 and y 2 = ax.
The circle and the parabola touch at the origin and cut again
at (a, a).
So the limits of integration are from #=0 to
The area sought is therefore

xa.

- x2 ~

QUADRATURE, ETC.
Now, putting x=a(\

155

cos 0\
21

TT

_ira

2 2~~4~'

and

J~axdx = *Ja\

Lf Jo

Thus the area required

is

a?(

= fa2

J.

Fig. 21.

Ex.

Find the area

3.

(1) of the loop of the curve

(2) of the portion bounded by the

curve and

its

asymptote.

Here

To

trace this curve

we observe

symmetrical about the ^7-axis.

real part exists for points at which x

(1) It is
(2)

No
<-a.

is

>a

or

(3) It has an asymptote #+a=0.

(4) It goes through the origin, and the tangents there are

"

,7

(5) It crosses the #-axis

where x

a^

and at

this point -f- is

dx

infinite.

(6)

The shape

of the curve

is

therefore that

shown

in the

figure (Fig. 22).

Hence

for the loop the limits of integration are

to a,

and

then double the result so as to include the portion below the

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

156

For the portion between the curve and the asymptote

a to 0, and double as before.
For the loop we therefore have

limits are

a+x
for the portion

between the curve and the asymptote,

In

x\l
>

/O

/v.

dx.

a+x

Fig. 22.

To

integrate

a~x
I xJ
dx, put
J
a ~p x
*

x=a cos
Then

and

dx

ftfJEfcfcl\
Va+x
J

=a

and

area of

r
/

--}
I)

a sin

c?$.

1-cos 2 ^

the

QUADRATURE, ETC.
Again,

r x J?E*dx=

>a+#

J_

a cos
J

Bd9
fl^
"^gain
2
> l-cos
#

[The meaning of the negative sign

sign before the radical in

157

is this

y=#/v/^_
*

a+x

we

In choosing the
are tracing the

portion of the curve below the #-axis on the left of the origin
and above the axis on the right of the origin. Hence y being
negative between the limits referred to, it is to be expected
that

we should obtain a negative value

Thus the whole area required

for the expression

is

[It must also be observed in this example that the greatest

ordinate is an infinite one.
In Art. 2 it was assumed that
every ordinate was finite. Is then the result for the area
bounded by the curve and the asymptote rigorously true ?
To examine this more closely let us integrate between limits
a + e and 0, where e is some small positive quantity, so as
to exclude the infinite ordinate at the point x
a, we have
as before

[<c
J

A/fEfdfc.

*a+x

where
so that 8 is a positive small angle.

This integral

which approaches indefinitely

when

8 is

made

close to the

is

former result

to diminish without limit.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

158

EXAMPLES.
1.

Obtain the area bounded by a parabola and

its

latus

rectum.
2.

Obtain the areas bounded by the curve, the

specified ordinates in the following cases

(a)

to

x=h.
x=b.

to

xb.

to

4.

and the

#=ccosh-,

x= a
x=a
3.

^7-axis,

Obtain the area bounded by the curves y 2 =4ax, #2 =4ay.

Find the areas of the portions into which the ellipse

X2la2 +y 2 /b 2 = l
5.

is divided by the line y=c.

Find the whole area included between the curve

X2y2 =a2(y 2
and

x2)

its

asymptotes.
2
6. Find the area between the curve y (a+x)=(a
xf and its
asymptote.
7. Find the area of the loop of the curve y*x + (x + af(x + 2a) = 0.

Sectorial Areas.

Folars.
the area to be found is bounded by a curve
r=f(6) and two radii vectores drawn from the origin
in given directions, we divide the area into elementary
sectors with the same small angle 89, as shown in the
Let the area to be found be bounded by the arc
figure.
PQ and the radii vectores OP, OQ. Draw radii vectores
131.

When

OP OP2

OPn -i

at equal angular intervals.

Then
the successive circular arcs
centre
PN, 1 V 2 2 etc., it may be at once seen that the
limit of the sum of the circular sectors OPN, OP^N^
OP2 N%, etc., is the area required. For the remaining
elements
V P^N^P^ 2 2 3 etc., may be made to
so as to occupy new positions on the
rotate about
19

...

by drawing with

PN P^

PNP

P ^P

QUADRATURE, ETC.

159

greatest sector say OPn -iQ as indicated in the figure.

Their sum is plainly less than this sector and in the
limit when the angle of the sector is indefinitely
diminished its area also diminishes without limit provided the radius vector OQ remains finite.
;

O
Fig. 23.

The area

of a circular sector
2

J(radius)

X circular meas.

Thus the area required

is

of angle of sector.

= l?LZr

S(), the summation

being conducted for such values of 9 as lie between
6 = xOP and = xOP n -i, i.e., xOQ in the limit, Ox being

the initial

line.

In the notation of the integral calculus

and xOQ = /3, this will be expressed as

if

xOP = a,

or
Ex. 1. Obtain the area of the semicircle bounded by r = acos
and the initial line.
Here the radius vector sweeps over the angular interval from
-.
Hence the area is
0=0 to

i.e.,

^radius)*.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

160

ra

sin 3ft
Ex. 2. Obtain the area of a loop of the curve
This curve will be found to consist of three equal loops as
indicated in the figure (Fig. 24).
The proper limits for making the integration extend over the
first

loop are

of

for

0=0 and 6 = -,

which

.-.

r vanishes.

area of loop = 1

for these are

two successive values

fWn

30 dO

= ~ f\l -cos 60)d9

3~~ 12'
2

The

therefore!^.

total area of the three loops is

Fig. 24.

EXAMPLES.
Find the areas bounded by

= 2cos 2 + 6 2sin 2 ft
3. One loop of r= a sin 4ft
4. One loop of r = a shift ft
One loop of r=asin2ft
coia
bounded by the radii vectores
5. The portion of r=ae^
9=13 and 0=/3 + y (y being less than 2?r).
1.

r2

2.

6.
7.

8.
9.

Any

sector of

7^0=^

Any
Any

sector of

r0&a (0=a

The

sector of

r(9

= a (9=a

cardioide r = a(l

10. If s

((9=a to 6*=^).

cos

to ^=)8).
= fi).
to

0).

be the length of the curve

r=tanh-

between the

=
origin and $ 27r, and A the area between the same points,
show that
A = a(s air).
[OXFOKD, 1888. ]

QUADRATURE,

ETC.

161

132. Area of a Closed Curve.

Let (x, y) be the Cartesian coordinates of any point
P on a closed curve (x + Sx, y + Sy) those of an adjacent
point Q. Let (r, 9), (r + Sr 6 + $0) be the corresponding
Also we shall suppose that in
polar coordinates.
the
curve from P to Q along the
travelling along
;

infinitesimal arc PQ the direction of rotation of the

radius vector OP is counter-clockwise (i.e. that the

Fig. 25.

area

is

left hand to a person

Then the element

on the

direction).

ir 2 (S$ = AOPQ = $(xSy

Hence
curve

travelling in this

ySx).

another expression for the area of a closed

is

Wxdy-ydx),
the limits being such that the point
completely round the curve.
133.

may

If

we put y =

so that

(x,

y) travels once

^M^ =

(fo)

we

write the above expression as ^\x z dv, where x

is

to be expressed in terms of v and the limits of integration so chosen that the current point (x, y) travels
As v is really
once completely round the curve.

tan 6 and becomes infinite when 6 is a right angle care

must be taken not to integrate through the value oo
.

E.

i.

c.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

162
Ex.

Find by

this

method the area of the

#2/a 2 +.y 2/& 2 =l.

ellipse

Putting y = vx, we have

=* f

and

JV

^L= L2
f*

between properly chosen limits.

Now, in the first quadrant v varies from
area of quadrant =?

and therefore

area of ellipse

to

oo

Hence

-,

=irab.

134. If the origin lie without the curve, as the

current point
travels round we obtain triangular
elements such as OP 1 Q V including portions of space
such as OP2 Q 2 shown in the figure which lie outside

Fig. 26.

These portions are however ultimately

removed from the whole integral when the point P

the curve.

element P 2 Q 2 for the triangular

element OP 2 Q2 is reckoned negatively as 9 is decreasing
and S6 is negative.
travels over the

135. If

^ (xdy
I

however the curve

cross itself, the expression

ydx), taken round the whole perimeter, no

longer represents the

sum

of the areas of the several

QUADRATURE, ETC.
loops.

For draw two contiguous

the curve again at

OQl cutting

Q2

163

OP

radii vectores

P Q
3,

and

2,

Q3

X,

Then

in travelling continuously through

the complete perimeter we obtain positive elements,
and negative elements
such as OPiQi and
3 Q3
and
such as
Q
Q
2
2
4 4
respectively.

OP
OP
OP
Now OP Q 1 -OP Q +OP3 Q3 -OP4 Q 4
= quadl. P^P^-quadL P2 Q 2 P3 Q 3
,

in integrating for the whole curve

obtain the difference of the two loops.

and

we

therefore

Fig. 27.

Similarly,

if

the curve cuts

itself

more than

this integral gives the difference of the

loops and the sum of the even loops.

sum

once,
of the odd

To obtain the absolute area of such a curve we must

therefore obtain that of each loop separately and then
add the results.
Of course in curves with several equal loops it is
sufficient to find the area of any one, and to ascertain
the number of such loops.
136.

Other Expressions for an Area.

other expressions may be deduced for the

Many

area of a

plane

curve,

or

proved

independently,

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

164
specially

defined
If

adapted to the cases when the curve

of coordinates.
be an element Ss of a plane curve,

by other systems

PQ

is

OF

and

the perpendicular from the pole on the chord PQ,

Fig. 28.

AOPQ = |OF.PQ,and any sectorial area =

the

summation being conducted along the whole

bounding

arc.

culus this

is

[This

In the notation of the Integral Cal-

may be

at once deduced

(V 2 d0

ir^ds

from |

=
\r

sin

rW, thus

ds

is the angle between the tangent and the

<f>
radius vector)

(where

Tangential-Polar Form.
= ds = P + d*p
Again, since P 5

137.

we have

area = \ \p ds = J

QUADRATURE, ETC.
a formula suitable for use
is

equation
138.

when

165

the Tangential-Polar

given.

Closed Curve.
the curve is closed this expression admits of

When
some

simplification.

For

and in integrating round the whole perimeter the first

term disappears. Hence when the curve is dosed we
have
area =

Ex. By Ex. 23, p. 113, Diff. Cale. for Beginners, the equation of
the one-cusped epicycloid (i.e., the cardioide) may be expressed as

p=

Fig. 29.

Hence

its

tween limits
Putting

-^

whole area=-^
i/r

= 3$,

and
this

^=

9a 2 sin 2 ;'

a 2 cos 2 ^ \d^ taken be-

and doubled.

becomes
IT

= 3a

f (9 sin 2 ^ - co**0)dO = 67ra 2

^o

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

166
139.

Pedal Equation.

Again, for curves given by their pedal equations,

we have

A = ip ds = i p

dr = }p sec

In the equiangular

Ex.

Hence any

p=r sin a,

sectorial area

=f
140.

spiral

dr = i

/>2

y2 s i

rcosa
r

Area included between a curve, two

and the evolute.

radii

of curvature

In this case we take as our element of area the

elementary triangle contained by two contiguous radii
of curvature and the infinitesimal arc ds of the curve.

To

first

order infinitesimals this

area =
Ex.

1.

p,

The area between a

to the circle

is (Fig.

31)

.e.

p\

is

|/o <S\^,

and the

or

circle, its involute,

and a tangent

QUADRATURE, ETC.

167

Ex. 2. The area between the tractrix and its asymptote is

found in a similar manner.
The tractrix is a curve such that the portion of its tangent
between the point of contact and the ^7-axis is of constant
length

c.

Fig. 31.

Taking two adjacent tangents and the axis of

elemental triangle (Fig. 32)

as forming an

Fig. 32.

EXAMPLES.
1.

2.

Find the area

of the two-cusped epicycloid

[Limits \jf = to "^=7r for one quadrant.]

Obtain the same result by means of its pedal equation
7.2

[Limits

r=a

= ^2 + 1^2.
= 2a for one

to r

quadrant.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

168

3. Find the area between the catenary s = c tan ^, its evolute,

the radius of curvature at the vertex, and any other radius of
curvature.

Find the area between the epicycloid s = AsmB^s,

and any two radii of curvature.
5. Find the area between the equiangular spiral sAe^y
evolute, and any two radii of curvature.
4.

its

evolute,

its

AREAS OF PEDALS.
141.

Area of Pedal Curve.

_p=/(Vr ) be the tangential-polar equation (Diff.

for Beginners, Art. 130) of a given curve, S\fs
will be the angle between the perpendiculars on two
contiguous tangents, and the area of the pedal may be
If

Gale,

2
expressed as J|p c^/r (compare Art. 131).

Fig. 33.

Ex. Find the area of the pedal of a circle with regard to a

point on the circumference (the cardioide).
Here if
be the perpendicular on the tangent at P, and
OA the diameter ( = 2a), it is geometrically obvious that OP
bisects the angle AOY.
we have for
Hence, calling
the tangential polar equation of the circle

OF

YOA^,

Hence

=^

QUADRATURE, ETC.

169

limits are to be taken as

and TT, and the result to
be doubled so as to include the lower portion of the pedal.

where the

Thus

^l=4a a f *cos*fe^ = 4a 2
2

4222

J
o

Fig. 34.

142.

Locus of Origins of Pedals of given Area.

Let
be a fixed point. Let p \js be the polar coordinates of the foot of a perpendicular
upon any
tangent to a given curve.
t

OF

o
Fig. 35.

P be

any other fixed point, J

pendicular from P upon the tangent.
Let

>

F (=^
1

1)

the per-

Then the areas

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

170

ijV
taken between

and

of the pedals with

respectively as origins are

2

and

cfyr

j[ft

<%

Call these
areas
and
be
the polar
Let
6
r,
l respectively
coordinates of
with regard to 0, and x y their
Cartesian equivalents. Then

A =
l

known

=
\p^d\fr

+
2

Jp

2
2/-

cos

-t/r)

x cos ifs

=p

function of
\(p

cos 2 i/r

c?i/r

i/r,

y sin \l/fd\^

^ d\/r

+ 2a32/

sin

Hence

\fs

x cos i/r

2x \p cos

Vp^d"^

+ x*

Now

limits.

P ~~ T cos($

Pi
is

definite

A
P

and p

certain

2^/

cos

\[s

|p

sin

\fs

d\fs

is

described

si

si

\/r

d\fs,

2 Ip sin

\/r d\[s,

between such limits that the whole pedal

will be definite constants.

-20,
and we thus obtain

Call

them

a,

2A,

-2/,

6,

2A = 2A + 2gx + 2fy + ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2

then P move in such a manner that A l is constant,
<

If
its

locus
143.

section.

Character of Conic,

It is a

Hence

must be a conic

it

known

result in inequalities that

will be obvious that if p, q,

r, ...

stand for

QUADRATURE, ETC.
eos2h, cos3/i,

cos/^,

sin A, sin

made

etc.,

2/z,,

we

oo

i.e.

cos \fsd\[sX

sin

cosnh, and p v q v r v ... for

have in the limit when h is

shall

and nh

indefinitely small
2

...

171

2
!//-

finite

c?^ > /

= ^,

say,

sin\/r cosi/r

cZx/^J

ab>h 2

Hence our conic section is in general an

Moreover the position of its centre is given by

ellipse.

ax+hy+g = 0*\
hx+by+f=0j

Hence
and is independent of the magnitude of
v
these
several
will
for different values of
conic-loci
l
all be concentric,
shall call this centre 1

We

144.

Closed Oval.

Next suppose that our original curve is a

oval curve, and that the point P is within it.
and

the limits of integration are

Thus

a=

p2*

cos 2

^ d\js = =

p2ir

TT

Then

2?r.

sin 2 \/r d\{t

=b

and

closed

h=

cos

\/r

sin

i/r

d^/r

= 0.

Hence the conic becomes

i.e.

a circle whose centre

^

is

p27T
I

7TJ

pcosi/rcZ^,

at the point
^

/2

p sin \fsd\fs.

7TJ

Connexion of Areas.
The point 2 having been found, let us
to 2.
The linear terms
origin from
145.

transfer our
of the conic

INTEGRAL CALCULUS,

172

Thus

will thereby be removed.

is

a point such

that the integrals \pcos\fsd\fs and \psiu\^d\[^ both

vanish, and
is

whose pole

II be the area of the pedal

for any other

if

we have

2A 1 = 211 + ax2 + 2hxy + by*

in the general case.

The area of

this conic is

Thus

(Smith's Conic Sections, Art. 171).

A
-d.

*/ab
TT -= IH
s
,

h""

any

I?

(area or conic).

^7T

For the particular case of

tion of the conic becomes

whence

closed oval the equa-

J. 1

lies f o r
where r is the radius of the circle on which
from 2.
constant values of A v i.e. the distance of

146. Position of the Point 2 for Centric Oval.

In any oval which has a centre the point 2 is
plainly at that centre, for when the centre is taken as

origin,

the

integrals

\pcos\fsd\fs

and

\psui\fsd\fs

when

the integration is performed for the

oval
(opposite elements of the integration
complete

both vanish

cancelling),
147- Ex. 1. Find the area of the pedal of a
regard to any point within the circle at a distance
centre (a limagon).

Here
and

Hence

A = n+^,
n = 7ra2

Ai=ica*+

with
from the

circle
c

QUADRATURE, ETC.

173

Find the area of the pedal of an

2.
any point at distance c from the centre.

Ex.
to

In this case

II is

ellipse

with regard

the area of the pedal with regard to the centre

- 2 Vcos 2 + b%m*0)dO = (a2 +

/*

<9

^1

Hence

)|.

=|(

Ex. 3. The area of the pedal of the cardioide r=a(l cos 0)

taken with respect to an internal point on the axis at a distance
c from the pole is

|(5sLet

be the pole,

2 c+

PT on any tangent from

Y$P and OPc then

OF

and
the two perpendiculars
2
P respectively ; < the angle

and

pl p

c cos <,

2c').

[MATH TBIpos>187a]
the given internal point ; p and p l

and ^A l =2A

2clp

cos

<

cfc

Fig. 36.

Now

in order that

p may sweep out the whole pedal we must

= and = and double. Now in

integrate between limits

<

<

-^

the cardioide (Fig. 36)

p= OQ sin Y QO = OQ sin^xOQ.
2

[Dif. Calc., p. 190.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

174

= itf0 =

For

Hence

|-{*-(-W-|

or

|-*=f,

J-J-J,

23

/3

so
A*-

Hence

p cos

<j>

d<j>

=2

-.

2a cos 3 2 cos

</>

d(f>

'

= 4a x 3

fl
/

cos% cos 3,s o?2

= 12#

rf
/

cos% - 3 cos)<iz

[4

6422
Also

fc cos

42

^^^
222

d>cta=3.2c i
2

Sir

24 = 2

Finally

4a**^*J>

642

6 3

_?ra
Al -8~

mi

148.

= 24a2 Tcos^ <fe,

?rac

T"

'

Origin for Pedal of Minimum Area.

f2 is taken as origin, it appears that

When

A = 211 +

(05

cos

Hence

as the term \(x cos\fs

positive, it is clear that

^ + y sin \Jsfd\ls.
+ ysm\}s) d\fs is necessarily
<2

can never be

less

than

II.

QUADRATURE, ETC.

175

2 is therefore the origin for which the corresponding

pedal curve has a minimum area.

149.

Pedal of an Evolute of a Closed Oval.

The formula
in Art. 138

for the area of

any

closed oval proved

is

area of

Hence

= oval + J
jp */'
jft )
2

which plainly expresses that the area of any pedal

of an oval curve is equal to the area of the oval itself
together with the area of the pedal of the evolute (for
-ry

is

the radius vector of the pedal of the evolute).

This also admits of elementary geometrical proof.

Ex. Find the area of the pedal of the evolute of an
with regard to the centre.
The above article shows that
area of pedal of evolute = area of pedal of ellipse

- area

- -(a 2 + b ) - irab = ?(a - b) 2

2

ellipse

of ellipse

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

176

150. Area bounded by a Curve, its Pedal, and a

pair of Tangents.
Let P, Q be two contiguous points on a given
curve, 7, F' the corresponding points of the pedal of
any origin 0. Then since (with the usual notation)

PF=-vjr

the elementary triangle bounded

by two

contiguous tangents PY, QY' and the chord YY'

the

first

is

to

order of infinitesimals

Fig. 38.

Hence the area of any portion bounded by the two

curves and a pair of tangents to the original curve
may be expressed as

and

is the same as the corresponding

portion of the
area of the pedal of the evolute.

151.

Corresponding Points and Areas.

Let f(x,

2/)

be any closed curve.

Its area (A^)

QUADRATURE, ETC.

177

expressed by the line-integral \ydx taken round

is

the complete contour.

If the coordinates of the current point (x, y) be
connected with those of a second point ( rj) by the
relations x = mg, y = nrj, this second point will trace out
the curve /(w nrj) =
whose area (J. 9 ) is expressed

by the

line-integral

dg taken round

rj

its

contour.

And we have
l

whence
f(x

it

y) =

\y

dx

nrjm

appears that the area of any closed curve

mn times that of f(inx, ny) = 0.

is

152. Ex.

1.

Apply

method

this

**

a
the corresponding point

and

+,* ~ 1

=,
r
T\

to find the area of the ellipse

traces out the circle

area of ellipse

=~ x area of circle
r

Ex.

Find the area

2.

of the curve

mx = ^

Let

then the corresponding curve

or in polars

r2

(mV + n^f = a V + Wif2

ny = ij,

is

= ^-2 cos 2 +

--,

sin 2 0,

ri

the central pedal of an ellipse, symmetrical about both axes.

E.

i,

c.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

178
Hence the area

of the first curve

mn

x area of second

EXAMPLES,
1.

Find the area

of the loop of the curve

<L

ay =x\a-x).
2.

Find the whole area

[I.

C. S., 1882.]

[I.

C. S., 1881.]

of the curve
2

a?y

= a2x

-x*.

Trace the curve a 2# 2 =;?/ 3 (2ct y\ and prove that

equal to that of the circle whose radius is a.
3.

[I.

Trace the curve cfiy* = x b (Za

to that of the circle whose radius
4.

5.

Find the whole area

C. S., 1887

x\ and prove that

is

a as 5 to

By means

of the triangle

show that they

area

is

and 1890.]

its

area

is

4.

of the curve

[CLARE,
6.

its

of the integral

y dx taken round

formed by the intersecting

etc., 1892.]

the contour

lines

enclose the area

[Sir.

7.

Find the area between y 2 =

8.

If ty

and

/r

its

PKIZE, 1876.]

asymptote.

a x
be the angle the tangent makes with the axis of
show that the area of an oval curve is
y cos "fy ds

the integration being taken

all

or

q:

x sin ^r ds,

round the perimeter.

#,

ETC.

QUADRATURE,
9.

Find the areas

of the curves

= l-,

10.

179

(iii.)
}

a
Find the areas bounded by
a a +y2 = 4a 2 .??2+y 2 = 2ay, x = a.
,

The parabola y 2 =ax

[H. C.

S., 1881.]

cuts the hyperbola a? 2 y 2 =2a 2 at

the points P,
and' the tangent at
to the hyperbola cuts the
;
parabola again in R. Find the area of the curvilineal triangle
11.

PQR-

[OXFOED, 1889.]

Find the area common to the ellipses

#2 + 2# 2 = 2c2 2#2 +/ = 2c 2
[OXFORD, 1888.]
13. Find the two portions of area bounded
by the straight
line y = c, and the curves whose equations are
x2 +y 2 =c 2 y 2 + 4x 2 = 4c 2
[I. C. S., 1891.]
12.

Find by integration the area lying on the same side of

the axis of x as the positive part of the axis of y and which
14.

contained by the lines y 2 = 4o#, x2 +y 2 = Zax, x=y + 2a.

Express the area both when x is the independent variable
and when y is the independent variable. [PETKRHOUSE, etc., 1882.]
is

15. If

is
2

the centre, and

the vertex,

hyperbola -x /a

-y 2/b 2 = 1,

*=

ab'

where
16.

any point on the

prove that
,

ab'

S is the sectorial area A OP.

An ellipse of small eccentricity

to that of a circle of radius

?ra 2

a.

Show
4

(l-^-e

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1885.]

has its perimeter equal
that its area is

nearly.

[a,

1883.]

Find the curvilinear area enclosed between the parabola

2
y = kax and its evolute.
17.

18. Show that the area of the

pedal of an ellipse with regard
to its centre is one half of the area of the director circle.
19. Prove that the area of the locus of intersections of
tangents at right angles for the curve
+ y7 = af is jTra2 [MATH. TRIPOS, 1888.]
20. Prove that if s be the arc of the curve

= tan a aj
where a

is

a variable parameter, measured from the initial

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

180
line to a point

by the

P on

and if A be the area bounded

and the radius vector to P, then

the curve

curve, the initial line,

9,4 2
21.

= 2rf.

Find the area of the closed portion

_ 3a sin cos 9

of the

Folium

~sin^6>TcoW
In what ratio does the

line

C. S.,

[I.

x+y = Za

1881]

divide the area of the

loop?

[OXFORD, 1889.]
enclosed between two
given radii vectores and two successive branches of the curve.

r=aOe be

22.

Find the area

of the curve

23.

Find the area

of the loop of the curve r

24.

Show

[TRINITY, 1881.]

-,

and

= a0cos

between

that the area of a loop of the curve r = acosn0

state the total area in the cases

n odd, n

is

even.

4?i

25.

Find the area

of a loop of the curve r

= a cos 3$ + b sin 3$.

[I.

C. S., 1890.]

Show that the area contained between the circle r=a and
curve r=acos5$ is equal to three-fourths of the area of the

26.

the

circle.

27.

[OXFORD, 1888.]

Prove that the area

of the curve

r2(2c 2 cos 2 <9 - 2ac sin

is

equal to

cos 9

+ a2sin 2 #) = aV

irac.

[I.

C. S., 1879.]

Find the whole area of the curve represented by the

equation r = acos + b, assuming b > a.
29. Find the area included between the two loops of the
28.

curve r = a(2 cos

30.

+ ^3).

[OXFORD,

Find the area between the curve r=a(sec $+cos

1889. ]

0)

and

its

asymptote.
31. Prove that the area of one loop of the pedal of the
2
lemniscate r 2 = a 2 cos2$ with respect to the pole is a
[OXFORD, 1885.]
32. Find the area of the loop of the curve
.

(x'\-y)(x^+y
33.

= ^axy.

Prove that the area of the loop of the curve

[OXFORD, 1890.]

QUADRATURE, ETC.
Find the whole area contained between the curve

34.

and

181

its

asymptotes.

Show

35.

[OXFORD, 1888.]

=a
*L^
2

that the area of the ellipse

+b 2 -r2

in-

eluded between the curve, the semi-major axis, and a radius

vector r from the centre,

semi-axes of the

a,

being the

[CLARE,

ellipse.

Show

that the area in eluded between the curve

= and its tangent at V*" <> i g
tangent at

36.
its

tan" 1 ^/^^-,

is

etc.,

1882.]

= atan^,

-a 2 tan </> + a 2 tan ^ - a 2 log(sec

+ tan c).

<

[TRINITY, 1892.]

Show

that the area of the space between the epicycloid

p =^isin Sty and its pedal curve taken from cusp to cusp is ^irA 2B.
38. Show that the curve r = a(^\/3 + cos^#) has three
loops
37.

whose areas are a 2 (f TT + 2\/3), a 2 (fTT - f\/3), a\ -far - f V)

spectively.

re-

[COLLEGES, 1892.]

39.

Find the area

of a loop of the curve

40.

Find the area

of the pedal of the curve

x*+y* = Za

[OXFORD, 1888.]

xy.

=*(<**- d*)l,

the origin being taken at x = *Ja 2 6 2 y = 0.

[OXFORD, 1888.]
41. Find the area included between one of the branches of
2=
2
2
the curve 3%
a (# +;?/ 2 ) and its asymptotes.
[a, 1887.]
,

Find the whole area

42.

of the curve

tf+yi = a\x*+y*).

[a, 1887.]

43.

Find the area

44.

Trace the shape of the following curves, and find their

of a loop of the curve

- b 2y 2
n,y)*

= aV

(mV +
areas

[ST. JOHN'S, 1887. ]

(i.)

(ii.)

(^+^2)3 =aay*.
2
4
3
(^ + 2/) = a^?/
.

[BELL,
45.

etc.,

Prove that the area of

'

3?

V
'

1 /

V \

7TC

2
/

SCHOLARSHIPS, 1887.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

182
46.

Prove that the area in the positive quadrant of the curve

(av+w^w
47.

Prove that the area

is

^(5+5).

[a;18900

of the curve

f")

is

&
3

+ (V2 -

a 2 ) tan- 1 -

[ST. JOHN'S, 1883.]

48.

Prove that the area of the curve

9

,aV

where
49.

c is less

Prove that the area

is fTrtt

50.

are

and

62

than both a and

5, is 7r(ab
of the curve ^4

c 2).

[OXFORD, 1890.]

-3o^3 + a2(2^2 +y 2 )=0

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1893.]

Prove that the areas of the two loops of the curve

(32^ + 24^3) a
(167r-24\/3)a

2
,

2
,

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1875.]

CHAPTER

XI.

SUKFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF

KEVOLUTION.
Volumes of Revolution about the a>axis.
was shown in Art. 5 that if the curve y=f(x)

153.
It

revolve about the axis of x the portion between the

ordinates x = x^ and x = x 2 is to be obtained by the

formula
*2

Tr

154.

More

About any
if

PN

dx.

axis.

the revolution be about any line

be any perpendicular drawn from a

generally,

AB, and

if

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

184

on the curve upon the line

point
contiguous perpendicular, the volume
or

if

be a given point on the line

155. Ex.

1.

and P'N' a

expressed as

AB

Find the volume formed by the revolution of the

loop of the curve

Here

AB
is

f=x ?^ (Art.
2

volume =/
J

7ry
J

dx=7r

130, Ex. 3)

about the

tf-axis.

a~x
x*
dx.
a+x

Putting a +x=z, this becomes

rf2a log z

- 5a 2z +

2az 2 - ~
3 _J

Ex. 2. Find the volume of the spindle formed by the revolution of a parabolic arc about the line joining the vertex to one
extremity of the latus rectum.

Fig. 40.

Let the parabola be

Then the
and

axis of revolution

y = 4o
y = 2^7,
2

is

P
fi

VOLUME OF REVOLUTION.

185

Also

and

volume =

dAN

4?r

75

156.

Surfaces of Revolution.

Aain, if S be the curved surface of the solid traced

y the revolution of any arc AB about the ^c-axis,

out

Fig. 41.

QM

PN

two adjacent ordinates,

being the
suppose PN,
smaller, 3s the elementary arc PQ, SS the area of the
elementary zone traced out by the revolution of PQ

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

186

about the #-axis, y and y

ordinates of

P and

+ Sy

the lengths of the

Q.

Now we may take it as axiomatic that the area

by PQ in its revolution is greater than it

traced out

it were at the distance PN

and less than if each point were at a
distance QM from the axis.
Then SS lies between ^y 8s and 2w(y + Sy)Ss, and
therefore in the limit we have

would be
from the

if

each point of

axis,

r/^

-j-

This

as

may

= 2-7T2/

f
\

be written as

to be convenient in

may happen

example, the values of

from the

or

-r->

-j->

-^,

etc.,

any particular
being obtained

differential calculus.

157. Ex. 1. Find the surface of a belt of the paraboloid

formed by the revolution of the curve y 2 = &ax about the #-axis.

Here

dx

dx
/

ydx

/X<1 dx

Ex.
line.

The curve r = a(l + cos 6} revolves about the

Find the volume and surface of the figure formed.
2.

Here volume =

= TT

try^dx = TT
/

a' (l

-{-

2
?'

sin 2

d(r cos 0)

cos #) 2 sin 2 #a c/(cos

-f

cos 2 $),

initial

S URFA CE OF

RE VOL UTION.

187

the limits being such that the radius sweeps over the upper
half of the curve.

Hence volume - -

T(l + cos 0)

7ra 3

(1

+ 2 cos 0)sin

:j

dO

*o

+ 5 cos 2 + 2 cos3 0)sinW0

T(l + 4 cos

2
3
(l 4-5 cos 0)sin

Fig. 42.

The surface = 2ir \yds=2ir T r sin 0~c?0

J
dO
J

= 2?r

^
/

a(l

27ra 2

+ cos (9)sin <9\/a 2(l + cos 0) 2

(l

+ cos

0)sin

(9

2 cos

16?ra2

cos 4

EXAMPLES.
1.
(ii.)

Obtain the surface of a sphere of radius a (i.) by Cartesians,

by polars, taking the origin on the circumference.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

188
2.

A quadrant of a circle, of radius a, revolves round its chord.

Show

that the surface of the spindle generated

and that

its

volume

= -^-(10 - 3?r).

L
3. The part of the parabola
y = ax cut off by the latus
rectum revolves about the tangent at the vertex. Find the
curved surface and the volume of the reel thus generated.

THEOREMS OF PAPPUS OR GULDIN.

158. I. When any closed curve revolves about a
line in its own plane, which does not cut the curve,
the volume of the ring formed is equal to that of

a cylinder whose base is the curve and whose height

of the path of the centroid of the area

is the length
of the curve.

Let the #-axis be the axis of rotation. Divide the

area (A) up into infinitesimal rectangular elements
with sides parallel to the coordinate axes, such as

Fig. 43.

each of area SA. Let the ordinate P l l = y.

PjPgPgP^,
Let rotation take place through an infinitesimal angle
Then the elementary solid formed is on base SA
89.
and its height to first order infinitesimals is ySO, and
therefore to infinitesimals of the third order its volume
is

SA

THEOREMS OF PAPPUS.

189

If the rotation be through any finite angle a we

obtain by summation SA y a.
If this be integrated over the whole area of the
curve we have for the volume of the solid formed
.

a!i/cL4.

Now
of a

the formula for the ordinate of the centroid

of masses
..., with ordinates
v
2

m m

number

X?7? II

2/i> 2/2'

>

is

y= y

-^

then

we

seek the value of

the ordinate of centroid of the area of the curve, each

element 8A is to be multiplied by its ordinate and
the sum of all such products formed, and divided by
the sum of the elements, and we have

or in the language of the Integral Calculus

y=

(ydA

(yd A

_=i

\dA
Thus

Therefore volume formed = A(ciy).

But A is the area of the revolving figure and ay
is the length of the
path of its centroid.
This establishes the theorem.
COR. If the curve perform a complete revolution,
and form a solid ring, we have
a=
159. II.
line in its
the

2-7T

and

volume = A(2jry).

When any closed

own plane which

curved surface of

the

curve revolves about a

does not cut the curve,

ring formed

is

equal

to that

190

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

of the cylinder whose base is the curve and whose

height is the length of the path of the centroid of the
perimeter of the curve.

Let the #-axis be the axis of rotation. Divide the

perimeter s up into infinitesimal elements such as X P 2
each of length Ss. Let the ordinate P l l be called y.
Let rotation take place through an infinitesimal angle
Then the elementary area formed is ultimately a
S9.

rectangle with sides Ss and ySO, and to infinitesimals

of the second order its area is Ss y9.
.

Fig. 44.

If the rotation be through any finite angle a we

obtain by summation Ss ya.
If this be integrated over the whole perimeter of
the curve we have for the curved surface of the solid
.

formed
an/cfe.

If we seek the value of the ordinate (rj) of the

centroid of the perimeter of the curve, each element
Ss is to be multiplied by its ordinate, and the sum of

THEOREMS OF PAPP US.

all such products formed, and divided
the elements, and we have

191

by the sum of

Lt
or in the language of the Integral Calculus

^yds

\yds
s

\ds

Thus

\yd8=8tj,

= s(afj).

and the surface formed

But

s is the perimeter of the revolving figure, and

the length of the path of the centroid of the
perimeter.
This establishes the theorem.
Con. If the curve perform a complete revolution
and form a solid ring, we have a = 2?r and
arj

is

surface = s( 2 -73-77).
Ex. The volume and surface of an anchor-ring formed by
the revolution of a circle of radius a about a line in the plane of
the circle at distance d from the centre are respectively

volume =
surface

Tra 2

= 2:ra

X 2?rc? = 27T 2 a 2 o?,

x Zird = 4ir 2 ad.

EXAMPLES.
An

ellipse revolves about the tangent at the end of the

major axis. Find the volume of the surface formed.
2.
square revolves about a parallel to a diagonal through
an extremity of the other diagonal.
Find the surface and
volume formed.
1.

3.

scalene triangle revolves about

which does not cut the

surface and volume of the

any

line in its plane

for the

Find expressions
triangle.
solid thus formed.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

192
160.

Revolution of a Sectorial Area.

When any

OAB

revolves about the

divide the revolving area up into
infinitesimal sectorial elements such as OPQ, whose
area may be denoted to first order infinitesimals by
<2
|r o0.
Being ultimately a triangular element, its
centroid is f of the way from
along its median, and
in a complete revolution the centroid travels a distance
initial line

sectorial area

we may

27r(f r sin 6)

or

f irr sin

9.

Fig. 45.

Thus by Guldin's first theorem the volume traced

by the revolution of this element is
to first order infinitesimals, and therefore the
traced by the revolution of the whole area

volume

OAB

3
sin 9 d9.
f 7r[r si

we put
=
x = rcos9, y = rsin9, and
~
r 3 sin 9 S9 = r 3 sin (9$(tan l f)
we have
161. If

= r3 sin 9

= r*cos*9t St = xH St,

is

EXAMPLES.

193

and the volume may therefore be expressed as

(xHdt.

EXAMPLES.
Find by integration the volume and surface of the right
circular cone formed by the revolution of a right-angled triangle
about a side which contains the right angle.
1.

2. Determine the entire volume of the ellipsoid which is

generated by the revolution of an ellipse around its axis major.
[I.

C. S., 1887.]

Prove that the volume of the solid generated by the

revolution of an ellipse round its minor axis, is a mean proportional between those generated by the revolution of the
ellipse and of the auxiliary circle round the major axis.
3.

[I.

C. S., 1881.]

Prove that the surface of the prolate spheroid formed by

the revolution of an ellipse of eccentricity e about its major
4.

axis

is

equal to
2 area of ellipse
.

Prove also that of all prolate spheroids formed by the revolution of an ellipse of given area, the sphere has the greatest
surface.
5.

[I.

Find the volume

the loop of the curve

of the solid produced

y^x^

C. S., 1891.]

by the revolution

about the axis of

of

x.
[I.

C. S., 1892.]

Find the surface and volume of the reel formed by the

revolution of the cycloid round a tangent at the vertex
6.

7.

Show

that the volume of the solid formed

tion of the cissoid

to 2?r 2a 3.

y (2a

^)=x3 about

its

by the

asymptote

revolu-

is

equal

[TRINITY, 1886.]

8. Find the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of

the curve (a - x)y 2 = a?x about its asymptote.
1883. ]
[I. C. S.
9. If the curve r = a + b cos
revolve about the initial line,
show that the volume generated is 7ra(a2 4- b 2 ) provided a be
,

greater than
E.

i.

c.

b.

[a, 1884.]

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

194

10. Find the volume of the solid formed by the revolution

about the prime radius of the loop of the curve r^ =

between 6 =
11.

Show

and
that

if

[O x TO KD 1890.]

0=|.

the area lying within the cardioide

and without the parabola r(l+cos $) = 2a, revolves about the

initial line, the volume generated is 187ra 3
[TRINITY, 1892.]
2
12. The loop of the curve Zay 2 =x(x
a) revolves about the
Find the volume of the solid generated.
straight line y=a.
.

[OXFORD, 1890.]
that the coordinates of the centroid of the sectorial
area of r=f(0) bounded by the vectors 0=a, 6 = ft, has for its
coordinates
13.

Show

14.

Show

f
on the

that the centroid of the cardioide r = a(l

initial line at

a distance

from the

cos $)

is

origin.

the cardioide r = a(l cos #) revolve round the line

p=rcos(9 y\ prove that the volume generated is
15. If

3^7r%
16.

+ f 7T 2

cos y.

The curve r=a(l -ecos 0\ where

[ST.

JOHN'S, 1882.]

very small, revolves

line.
Prove that the

e is

about a tangent parallel to the initial

volume of the solid thus generated is approximately
2
27r 2 a 3 (l+e ).
[I. C. S., 1892.1
2
2
17. The lemniscate r = a cos2# revolves about a tangent at

the pole.

Show

that the volume generated

is

CHAPTER

XII.

SURFACE INTEGRALS.
SECOND-ORDER ELEMENTS OF AREA.
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS.
162. Use of Second Order Infinitesimals as Elements of Area.

For many purposes it is found necessary to use for

our elements of area second order infinitesimals.
163. Suppose, for instance,

we

desire to find the

mass of the area bounded by a given curve, the #-axis,

and a pair of ordinates, when there is a distribution
of surface-density over the area not uniform, but
represented at any point by cr = </)(x, y), say, where
(x,

y) are the coordinates of the point in question.

Let Ox, Oy be the coordinate axes, AB any arc of

the curve whose equation is y=f(x)', {a, /(a)} and

{&,/(&)} the coordinates of the points A,

upon it;
and B. Let PN,
ordinates of
be any contiguous ordinates of the curve, and x, x Sx
the abscissae of the points
and Q. Let R,
be

AJ and BK the

QM

+
U

whose ordinates
contiguous points on the ordinate of
are y, y+8y.
And we shall suppose Sx, 8y small
quantities of the first order of smallness.
Draw JRSf, UT,
Then the
parallel to the ce-axis.

PV

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

196

RSTU

area of the rectangle

is Sx.Sy, and its mass
be regarded (to the second order of smallness)
as 0(0, y)Sx Sy.
Then the mass of the strip
may be written

may

PNMV

or in conformity with the notation of the Integral

Calculus

between the limits y =

and y =f(x).

In performing

this integration (with regard to y) x is to be regarded

as constant, for we are finding the limit of the sum of
the masses of all elements in the elementary strip PM,
i.e.

the mass of the strip

PM.

then we search for the mass of the area AJKB

such strips as the above must be summed which
lie between the ordinates AJ, BK, and the result may
be written
If

all

which

may

be written

the limits of the integration with regard to x being

from x = a to x = b.

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
Thus mass

197

of area

A JKB =
or

n
Notation.

164.

This

is

often written
<j>(x,y)dxdy,

f f

the elements dx,

There

is

dy being written in the

reverse order.

no uniformly accepted convention as to the

order to be observed, but as the latter appears to be

the more frequently used notation, we shall in the
present volume adopt it and write
'x,

when we

y)dxdy

are to consider the first integration to be

with regard to y and the second with regard to

made

x,

and

when

the first integration is with regard to x.

That
to say, the right-hand element indicates the first
integration.
is

the surface-density of a circular disc bounded by

to vary as the square of the distance from
the y-axis, find the mass of the disc. &JL^
2
Here we have [juv for the .mass of the element 8x 6y, and its
mass is therefore /*# 2 &#6y, and the whole mass will be

Ex.

If

2
2
xP+y = a be given

The

limits for

w411 be

quadrant, and for x from

=
#=0
;?/

to y=*Jdl x L for the positive

The result must then
to x=a.

198

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

be multiplied by 4, for the distribution being symmetrical in

the four quadrants the mass of the whole is four times that of
the first quadrant.

Fig. 47.

Putting

x=asm0

and dx=acosOdO, we have

Other Uses of Double Integrals.

The same theorem may be used for many other
purposes, of which we give a few illustrative examples,
which may serve to indicate to the student the field
of investigation now open to him.
But our scope in
the present work does not admit exhaustive treatment
165.

of the subjects introduced.

DO UBLE INTEGRA TION.

Ex.

Find the

statical

moment
r2

of a

199

quadrant of the

ellipse

4,2

=!
_+_
9
2
1,9

'

62

about the y-axis, the surface-density being supposed uniform.

Here each element of area 8x8y is to be multiplied by its
surface density cr (which is by hypothesis constant in the case
supposed) and by its distance x from the y-axis, and the sum
of such elementary quantities is to be found over the whole
quadrant. The limits of the integration will be from y=0 to
7

_Va
y=a

x* for

?/

moment =

and from #=0

to

x=a for x.

crxdxd'u=^\

00J

_<rbr _(a?-x

aL
166.

Gentroids.

)%-\

Jo

Thus we have

Wa

x 2 dx

_o-ba*
3

Cartesians.

The formulae proved in statics for the coordinates

of the centroid of a number of masses m v m 2 m 3
at points (x v y^, (x 2 y 2 ), etc., are
,

. . .

_~

We

may apply these to find the coordinates of the

centroid of a given area.
(See also Arts. 158, 159.)
For if o- be the surface-density at a given point,
then or Sx Sy is the mass of the element, and
-

_" S(cr ox 8y)x

9

I(<rSxSy)
or, as it

may

be written

when
I

\\
J

arx

the limit

dx dy

\ardxdy

is

taken

INTEGRAL CALCULUS,

200

jja-ydxdy
~

Similarly

ff~
\\a-dxdy

jJ

the limits of integration being determined so that the

summation will be effected for the whole area in
question.

Find the centroid of the elliptic quadrant of the Example in

Art. 165.
It was proved there that the limit of the sum of the ele-

mentary moments about the y-axis was ?

Also

<rdxdy= mass

*=

Hence

quadrant =^^-.

of the

3/4 =-

STT

y=

Similarly

167.

Moments

of Inertia.

When

every element of mass is multiplied by the

square of its distance from a given line, the limit of
the sum of such products is called the Moment of
Inertia with regard to the line.
Such quantities are of great importance in Dynamics.
Ex. Find the moment of inertia of the portion of the parabola f/ 2 = 4a# bounded by the axis and the latus rectum, about
the #-axis supposing the surface-density at each point to vary
as the nth power of the abscissa.
Here the element of mass is

/x

being a constant, and the

moment

Lt 2/i# V*&a? 8y
where the limits for y are from

or

of inertia is

//,

to

n
\y*x dx dy,

2vW, and

for

x from

to

a.

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.

201

We thus get
Mom.

In.

=
3

f*
oj

U + fo

Again, the mass of this portion of the parabola

n
l*x

ny\/ax

C a \~

~~l

dxdy = p\ \y\

is

given by

xn dx

-+
271

Thus we have

Mom.

In.

about 0ff=3

EXAMPLES.
2
2
2
quadrant of the circle ,27 +^ =a the surface
density varies at each point as xy. Find
(i.) the mass of the quadrant,
" centre of gravity,
(ii.) its
.()
(iii.) its moment of inertia about the #-axis.

1.

In the

first

2. Work out the corresponding results for the portion of the

parabola y^=^ax bounded by the axis and the latus rectum, the
p q
surface-density varying as x y
3. Find the centroid of a rod of which the line-density varies
as the distance from one end.
Find also the moments of inertia of this rod about each end
and about the middle point.
.

4.

Find the centroid

of the triangle

bounded by the

lines

y = mx, x = a, and the #-axis, when the surface-density at each

point varies as the square of the distance from the origin.
Also the moment of inertia about the #-axis.
168.

Polar Curve.

For polar curves

Second-order Element.

desirable to use for our element

of area a second-order infinitesimal of different form.
Let OP, OQ be two contiguous radii vectores of the
curve r=/(0); Ox the initial line. Let 0, 9 SO be
it is

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

202

the angular coordinates of

and Q. Draw two circular arcs RU, ST, with centre
and radii r and r Sr
respectively, and let SO and Sr be small quantities of
the first order. Then

area

RSTU= sector OST- sector ORU

=r

and to

this order

9 Sr to the second order,

RSTU may

therefore be considered

a rectangle of sides Sr (RS) and rSO (arc

RU\

Fig, 48.

Thus

the surface-density at each point R(r, 9) is

mass of the element RSTU is (to secondthe
<f)(r, 9),
order quantities err S9 Sr, and the mass of the sector
is therefore
cr

if

Lt dr==Q [2o-rSr]S9,
the summation being for
r=f(9),i.e.

all

elements from r =

to

-i

<rrdr\80,
Q/(0)

which integration 9 is to be regarded as constant,

and taking the limit of the sum of the sectors for
infinitesimal values of S9 between any specified radii
in

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
vectores OA(9 = a) and OB(9 = /3)
the sectorial area OAB

we

203

get the mass of

rpriv

or as

we have agreed

to write

it

(Art. 164),

\^ \rdOdr.
a

Ex. Find the mass of a circle for which the surface-density

at each point varies as the distance of that point from a point
on the circumference.
as the
as the origin, arid the diameter through
Taking
initial line, and a as the radius, the equation of the curve is

R (r.

Then we have density at

0) is ur,

and mass

of element

Fig. 49.

The mass

of the sector is therefore

the integration with regard to r being between limits

OR=0 and OR = OP=2acos 0.

And

if

these sectors be

summed

for the

have
/TFr

rVfinnaif
r2acoa&
/

/~5"[-

-|

pr*dr \dO
\

whole

circle,

we

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

204

C~%

=2/

or (Art. 164)

Centroid.

169.

rZacoaO
/

pr*dOdr

Polars.

The distance of the centroid of a sectorial area from

any line may be found as before by finding the sum
of the moments of the elementary masses about that
line and dividing by the sum of the masses.
Thus err SO Sr being the element of mass and r cos
its abscissa, its

moment about
r cos 6

a-r

the y-axis

SO

is

ST.

rcos(9. a-rdOdr

Thus

JJ

\o-rdOdr

r sin

o-rdOdr

and similarly
a-r

'~fl

dO dr

Ex. 1. Find the centroid of the upper half of the circle in

the example of Art. 168.
established the result for that semi-circle that

We

Also between the limits

r=0 and r = 2acos

for

S
/*

fr cos ^or c^^ dr= Tfji cos

0R

53

^^

15

'

r,

and

0=0

to

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
and

rsm6crrd6dr=

jnsin0 -

L4 Jo

J J

205

dO

sin

cos 4

dO

/~2

Ex.

2.

cardioide

Find the centroid of the area bounded by the

r=a(l+cos

the surface-density being uniform.

#),

Fig. 50.

The centroid is evidently on the initial line.

abscissa we have
/

"x-

Ir cos

To

find its

rdOdr

"

'rdOdr
the limits for r being from r=0 to r=a(l+cos 0), and for
from to TT (and double, to take in the lower half).
'"

The numerator

=2

fT-1
J

a3
1

L3J

/"'(cos

cos0o?0

+ 3 cos 2 + 3 cos3 + cos*0)dO

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

206

=
|

a 3 T(3 cos 2 <9 + cos 4 6

;
'

'

o3;r

r~ r 2

'

a(l+cos 6)

dO

a 2 T(l +2 cos 0+cos 2 0)dO

2a 2

r
rf
/

x = -?ra 3

Hence

'

L2Jo

/TT

^4--

'

(l

+ cos 2 6>)d<9

-?ra 2

= -a.

Ex. 3. In a circle the surface-density varies as the nfh power

on the circumference. Find the
of the distance from a point
moment of inertia of the area about an axis through perpendicular to the plane of the circle.
for origin and the diameter for initial line, the
Here, taking
bounding curve is r=2acos 6, a being the radius. The density

Hence the mass

moment

of inertia

=p,r".
of the element

rSOSr

about the specified axis

Hence the moment

is

is

n+1
S$Sr,
n+3 8$ 8r.

//,r

//,r

where the limits for r are

ffj

to

2a cos

0,

and

for

0,

double).

Mom.

its

of inertia of the disc is

f

Thus

and

Inertia

= J?^L(2a)+4 rc os+4 dO
n+4
J
(9

to ~ (and

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
Again, the mass of the disc

207

is
/*2acos0

r"5"

^o

2|J

= _?^L(2a)w+2 f cosw+2 0d0.

n+2
J
n

Mom.

Hence

Inertia = 4

EXAMPLES.
1.

Find the centroid of the sector

(a)
(ft)

when
when

of a circle

the surface-density is uniform,

the surface-density varies as the distance from

the centre.

Find the centroid of a circle whose surface-density varies

on the circumas the nth power of the distance from a point
2.

ference.

Also

its

moments
(1)

(2)
3.

Show that

surface-density

y=mtfc +

of inertia

about the tangent at 0,

about the diameter through 0.

moment of

the

about the #-axis,

c<ft

inertia of the triangle of

?/-axis and the lines y

uniform

= m x+c

bounded by the

l^

is

Ml GI-%

6 \m l m 2 J
the mass of the triangle.

'

is
where
4. Find the moments of inertia of the triangle of uniform
surface-density bounded by the lines

about the coordinate axes

and show that

if

M be the mass of

the triangle, they are the same as those of equal masses

placed at the mid-points of the sides.
5. Show that the moments of inertia of a uniform ellipse
2

bounded by

_--f fC
62

a2

about the major and minor axes are

--- and

~, and about a line through the centre

4
2
7)2
and perpendicular to its plane,
being the mass
of the ellipse.
respectively

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

208

6. Find the area between the circles r=a, r=2acos#; and

assuming a surface-density varying inversely as the distance
from the pole, find

(1) the centroid,

(2) the

7.

moment

of inertia about a line

through the pole

perpendicular to the plane.

Find for the area included between the curves

(1)

the coordinates of

its

centroid (assuming a uniform

surface-density),
(2) the moment of inertia about the #-axis,
(3) the volume formed when this area revolves about the
8. Find the moment of inertia of the lemniscate r 2
about a line through the pole perpendicular to its plane
(1) for a uniform surface-density,

(2) for

9.

a surface-density varying as the square

distance from the pole.

of

the

Find
(1)

the coordinates of the centroid of the area of the cycloid

#=a(0-hsin$), y=a(l cos0)

volume formed by its revolution
(a) about the base (y=2a),
about the axis (#=0),
about the tangent at the vertex.
;

(2) the

ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.

E.

I.

C,

CHAPTER

XIII.

DIFFEEENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST

ORDER.
VARIABLES SEPARABLE.

LINEAR EQUATIONS.

170. It is proposed to add a brief account of the

of solution of the more ordinary
forms of differential equations leading up to such
as are required by the student in his reading of

common methods

Analytical Statics, Dynamics of a Particle, and the

elementary portions of Rigid Dynamics.
We shall not enter at all upon the solution of
differential

equations

involving

partial

differential

coefficients.

171. Genesis of a Differential Equation.

"
Let us examine for a moment how the " ordinary
differential equation is formed, and what kind of

result

we

Any

are to expect as its

equation, such as

"

solution."

f(x,y,a) = 0,

(1)

in which the form of the function is known, is representative of a certain family of curves, for each individual of which the constant a receives a particular

212

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

and definite value, the same for the same curve

different for different curves of the family.
Problems frequently occur in which

it is

but

necessary

to treat the whole family of curves together, as, for

instance, in finding another family of curves, each
member of which intersects each member of the former
set at a given angle, say a right angle.
And it will be

manifest that for such operations, the particularizing

a ought not to appear as a constant in the
functions to be operated upon, or we should be treating one individual curve of the system instead of the

letter

whole family collectively.

Now a may be got rid of thus
Solve for a we then put the equation into the form
:

0(,y) = a,

........................ (2)

and upon differentiation with regard to x, a goes out,

and an equation involving x, y and y v replaces
equation (1).
This is then the differential equation to the family
of curves, of which equation (1) is the typical equation
of a member.
In the formation of the differential equation it may
be impracticable to solve for the constant. In this
case we differentiate the equation

f(x,y,a) = Q

'

........ ............. (1)

with respect to x and obtain

and then eliminate a between equations (1) and (3),

thus obtaining a relation between x, y, and y v which
is true for the whole family.
For example, consider the family of straight lines obtained by
giving special values to the arbitrary constant in the equation

ORDER OF AN EQ UA TION.

213

Solving for w,

and

differentiating,

y= Bl-

or

ether-wise, without first solving for m,

we have

=
yi m,
and therefore
This then

y=%yi-

the differential equation of all straight lines

passing through the origin, and expresses the obvious geometrical fact that the direction of the straight line is the same as that
of the vector from the origin at all points of the same line.
is

172. Again, suppose the representative equation of

the family of curves to be

ftx y,a,b) = 0,
(1)
b
two
constants
whose
values
a,
arbitrary
containing
particularize the several members of the family.
9

single differentiation with regard to x will result in

a relation connecting x, y, y v a, b say
;

4(x y y l9
9

=
b)

(2)

differentiate again with regard to x we shall

obtain a relation connecting x, y, y v y 2 a, b ; say
If

we

\MX

V>

2/i> 2/2>

>

=
&)

>

3)

and from these three equations a and b may theoretically be eliminated (if they have not already disappeared by the process of differentiation), and there
will result a relation connecting x, y, y v y 2 say
;

F(x>y, yi>y z )

=>

the differential equation of the family.

173.

Order of an Equation.

We define the order of a differential equation to be

the order of the highest differential coefficient occurring
in it and we have seen that if an equation between
;

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

214

two unknowns contains one arbitrary constant the

result of eliminating that constant is a differential
equation of the first order; and if it contain two

arbitrary constants the result is a differential equation

of the second order.
And our argument is general
so that to eliminate n arbitrary constants we shall
have to proceed to n differentiations, and the result is
:

a differential equation connecting

therefore of the nth order.

x, y,

yv

...,2/ n >

an(l

is

Ex.

1.

Eliminate a and

Differentiating,

from the equation x2 +y 2 =2ax + c.

x -f yy^ = a.

l+^+y^^^

Differentiating again,
and the constants having disappeared

we have obtained as their

eliminant a differential equation of the second order (?/ 2 being
the highest differential coefficient involved), which belongs to all
circles whose centres lie on the #-axis.
Ex.

2.

Form

the differential equation of

all central conies

whose axes coincide with the axes of coordinates.

Here the typical equation of a member of

and we have
and
whence
is

this family of

x(y? + yy 2 ) -yyl =0

the differential equation sought.

Elimination an irreversible process.

this process of elimination is not in general a
reversible process, and when we wish to discover the
typical equation of a member of a family of curves
when the differential equation is given, we are com174.

Now

pelled to fall back, as in the case of integration, upon

a set of standard cases, and many equations may arise
which are not solvable at all.
may infer, however, that in attempting to solve
a differential equation of the nth order we are to
search for an algebraical relation between x, y, and n

We

VARIABLES SEPARABLE.

215

arbitrary constants, such that when these constants

are eliminated the given differential equation will
result.
Such a solution is regarded as the most
general solution obtainable.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER.

175.

CASE

There are five standard forms.

Variables Separable.

I.

All equations in which it is possible to get dx and

all the x's to one side, and dy and all the y's to the
other, come under this head, and solve immediately

by

integration.

Ex.1,

Thus

sec

if

we have

y= sec x-,
dx

cos x dx

cos y dy,

sin x = sin y

and integrating,

+A

a relation containing one arbitrary constant A.

Ex.

2.

If

y+l
we have

= xy-^*
dx

x + - ) dx = (y 2 + y)dy,
xJ
2

and therefore
2

+ log

32
x^32
+ A,
+y~-

containing one arbitrary constant A.

EXAMPLES.

Solve the following differential equations

I
'

1.

4.

dy = x*+x+\
dx
*++l'

Show

cuts every

'

dxx*+x+l

of the family of curves in Ex. 3

of the set in Ex. 2 at right angles.

that every

member

member

dy y*+y+l

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

216

7. Show that all curves for which the square of the normal is
equal to the square of the radius vector are either circles or
rectangular hyperbolae.
8. Show that a curve for which the tangent at each
point
makes a constant angle (a) with the radius vector can belong to

no other
9.

than r=Ae^ cot a

class

Find the equations of the curves for which

(1) the Cartesian
(2) the Cartesian

subtangent is constant,
subnormal is constant,
(3) the Polar subtangent is constant,
(4) the Polar subnormal is constant.
10. Find the Cartesian equation of the curve for which the
tangent is of constant length.

CASE

176.

[DEF.

An

when P,

Linear Equations.
equation of the form
II.

K,
Q,
said to be linear.

no

differential

R are

functions of x or constants

higher than the first.]

As we are now discussing equations of the
order, we are limited for the present to the case
'

If this

seen that

be multiplied throughout by

we may

write

dP
Thus

is

Its peculiarity lies in the fact that

coefficient occurs raised to a power

ye

er

*
it

first

will be

it

/Pefccv

fPdx

)=<^
/Pdx

fPdx

=\Qe

dx+A,

a relation between x and y satisfying the given

differential equation, and containing an arbitrary
constant.

It is therefore the solution required.

'

which rendered the left-hand member of the equation a perfect differential coefficient is
"
called an integrating factor."

The

factor e

LINEAR EQUATIONS.
Ex.

1.

Here

mav

Integrate
fxd~
e-**

217

yi+xy = x.

or

e2

an integrating

is

factor,

and the equation

be written

ax(ye*)=xe*,
& *2
or

ye*=e*+A,
+
y = l+Ae

i.e.

Ex.

2.

Integrate

^l + -y=x2
dx x

Here the integrating

may be

factor

is e

2
.

Jldx
x

=elogx =x, and

the equation

written

*JH-+
x*

and

xy=--+A,

177.

Equations reducible to linear form.

Many

equations,

if

not immediately of the linear

form

may

be immediately reduced to

it

by change

of the

variables.

One

of the

most important cases

equation

Or

Putting

we have

y-n

~n

= z,

y-^dy=^

is

that of the

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

218

or

which

is linear,

ze

(l-ri)fpdx

l-n
i.e.

(\-ri)fPdx

its

solution

=(1

ft)

\Q

ri)

dx+A,

f^

,.,

Integrate -^ + ^=?/

Here

is

\fr\ Q-~ n )fPdx J

,~

=(1

Ex.1,

and

(l-ri))

We

x-,

2
.

^-2^+^

or putting

= 1;

-=0,
t7

dx
and the integrating

factor being
e

we have

-fix*
j *

= e - loex

^(^=-1,
x

dx\x)

?=logi
X
X

i.e.

-=Ax

i.e.

y
Ex.

2.

Integrate the equation

2

Dividing by cos y

-jf.
Cv^7

+ x sin 2y =

we have
ec 2y-^

dx

+ 2# tan yx^.
tany=2,

Putting

^ + 2^=^,

we have

GW?

and the integrating factor

is

J 2xdx O r

e*

z
,

dx+A.

giving

LINEAR EQUATIONS.
x 2 = co,
2# dx = d<o,

Let
then
so that

x3 ex2 dx = %l

(ue

w o?cu

=1^(0, -1).
tan y e* = e*\x2 -l) + A

Thus
is

219

the solution of the given equation.

It will be obvious that for examples of this kind

considerable ingenuity may be called into play in
order to effect the reduction to the linear (or other
known) form.

EXAMPLES.
Integrate the equations
"- *

4 ^X + -=f.

'

dy

5.

/e- 2 v-

dr

7.

cW S
Show that no

O. -77,

fr

ttC/

-?;

of Art. 176

fi
O.

- --

y
7

/s^

Vfc?
j-j

-- I

JxJdy

greater generality is obtained in the solution

to the index in obtaining the

by adding a constant
jfpdx

integrating factor e
8. Find the curves for which the Cartesian subnormal varies
as the square of the radius vector.

Integrate the equations

9.+2= x
_--_
dx

10.
2
.

x2

U. ^- + x=xe^-^.
dx

+?=.
f
dx x x

^
dx

11.

[Put

?/

= sin~ ^.]

[put

^-

[Put

= logy.]

iny.

15. Find the curves for which the sum of the reciprocals of
the radius vector and the polar subtangent is constant.

220

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

16. Find the polar equation of the family of curves for which
the sum of the radius vector and the polar subnormal varies as
the nth power of the radius vector.
17. Show that the curves for which the radius of curvature
varies as the square of the perpendicular upon the normal
2
2
belong to the class whose pedal equation is r -p =^ + ^
* %*
being a given constant and A arbitrary.

Jc

18.

Integrate the equations

CHAPTER

XIV.

EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER

CONTINUED.

ONE LETTER ABSENT.

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS.

CLAIRAUT'S FORM.
178.

CASE

III

Homogeneous Equations.

Equations homogeneous in x and y

may

be written

dx
(a) In this case

we

solve

possible for -^,

if

and

obtain a result of the form

y = vx

Putting

we

obtain

v+

x^

dv
~<p(v)v

= <j>(v)>
_dx
x

'

and the variables are separated and the solution thus

comes under Case I., giving as result
log

Ax

r
1

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

222
(6)

But

solve for

if it

-. we
dx

be inconvenient or impracticable to
solve for

and
and write p for
dx
-

we have
y = x<f>(p) ............................... (1)
Differentiating with respect to

dx
=
x

or

x,

<[>'(p)dp

-<

we have x expressed as a
p and an arbitrary constant
Ax=F(p)(**y) ......................... (2)
Eliminating p between equations (1) and (2) we

Integrating this equation

function of

obtain the solution required.

Ex.

1.

Solve (x*+y*)ty-=xy.

dx

and putting

y=v%,

^+v
dx
or

dv
x =dx

or

og=-

a;2

or

Ay^eW.
Ex.

2.

Suppose the equation to be

dx

\dx)

'

HOMOGENEO US EQ UA TIONS.

223

2
p = (p +p ) + x(l + 2p),

Then

p
-=0,

log J,#+2logp

giving

i.e.

and the jo-eliminant between

p 2 +p= x
\

and
is

Axp*=&

<

the solution sought.

This eliminant is

But when it is algebraically impossible to perform the

elimination of p, or when, if performed, the result will be
manifestly unwieldy, it is customary to leave the two equations
containing p unaltered, and to regard them as simultaneous
equations whose jo-eliminant if found would be the required
solution.

EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential equations
.

.=.
x+y

dx
2.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

224

179.

Special Case.

The equation

~
dx

-^-

ax+oy+c

the homogeneous form thus

Put

readily reduced to

is

a ^+ by + (ah + bk + c)
a
dg- 'g +

TVi

Now

choose

.1

h,

b''

k so that

r-

^e. so that

oc

^- = ca
be

-^
ao

,-

ca

-^
a

^=

Then
This

'

equation being homogeneous we may now

^ ne variables are separable as before

put n~ v ^ an(i
shown.

180. There is one case, however, in which

cannot be chosen as above, viz., when
a_ b
c
~~

a'

Now

let

dy

Tx=

-~
-- a* = V -n

7
dx

my + c

drj

/)

_ (am + b)rj + ad + 6c

dec""

and

c''

=m and

Then
so that

6'

-,

mrj
,

+c

>.

(am-\-o)r)-\-ac

-,

+bc

n.

h,

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS.

225

variables being now separated, the integration

be at once performed.
181. One other case is worthy of notice, viz.,

The

may

dy _ ax + by + c

dx~

bx + b'y + c"

when

the coefficient of y in the numerator is equal to

that of x in the denominator with the opposite sign.
For then we may write the equation thus

an

"

(ax + c)dx + b(y dx+x dy) = (b'y + c')dy

"
exact differential equation the integral being
;

ax 2 + 2cx + 2bxy = b'y 2 + 2c'y + A

A.

being the arbitrary constant.

Ex.l.

Integrate

#=+ k, y =

Put

Choose h and

Ic

dx
ri

+ k,

yx+y-Z
so that

so that

=
then

Now

put

77=0(1,

then

l+v

_
~

v+1

- 1)2 l

=#1

where
E.

I.

c.

and
p

v=^~

x\

'

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

226
Ex.

2.

*+*
f = x+y

Integrate

dx

Let .#+y=??, then

..

and

where

dx

??

'

1
if]

?7=

EXAMPLES.
Integrate the equations

dy _

dx

bx+ay-b
^

1*

8
9.

Show

that a particle #,

y which moves

so that

~
will always lie

Show

10.

tion

upon a

fUL
~)
\
dx)
'

conic section.

that solutions of the general homogeneous equa-

must always represent

families

of

similar

curves.
11.

Show

that solutions of

/(-,
\X

-j-}
CLX
J

are homogeneous in x,

y and some power of a single constant, and conversely that if

the typical equation of a member of a family of curves be homogeneous in x, y and some power of one constant, the differential

ONE LETTER ABSENT.

227

equation of the family is homogeneous and the family consists

of similar curves.
12. State which of the following families of curves are similar
sets
:

(1) ya

= 4flW7.

(4)

y = a cosh -.

(2)

(5) b

for different values of

182.

2/

a and

CASE IV. One

=
tan" 1

*7

= a +y.

b.

letter absent.

absent.

A. Suppose x absent from the

which then takes the form

differential equation,

Xdy\
ZH
~ or as may be most convenient.
-

y>

we now
(i.)

solve for

If

we

solve for

y,

-^ we throw

the equation into

the form

Then
and the integral

(ii.)

If this

solve for

is

be inconvenient or impossible

we may

y and obtain y = (j) (p) where p stands as

)

before for --.

ax

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

228

Differentiate with regard to x,

The

and

dx

Thus

i.e.

the absent letter.

After the integration is performed we eliminate p

this equation and 2/ = </>(p) and the solution
of the given equation is obtained.

between

183.

absent.

y absent from the

which then takes the form
B. Suppose

differential equation,

fj 1J

Since

=
-^
ax ax

may

this

be written

dy
dx'

and therefore

if y be regarded as the independent

variable the foregoing remarks apply to this case also.

Thus
convenient
result of the form
(i.)

if

we

dx
solve

dx

and the integral

-^-,

a5T*S
dy =
7

then

for

dx

7-^,

is

dx

and obtain a

ONE LETTER ABSENT.

(ii.)

But

if

229

this solution for -7- be inconvenient or

dy
impossible

form

we

x = (j)(q)

solve for x

and obtain a

result of the

yy /v>

where q stands for

-j-

Then

tiating with regard to y, the absent letter

differen-

Thus
and
After the integration we eliminate q between this
equation and x = <f)(q). and the solution of the given
equation is obtained.
The student should note that in either case, x absent
or y absent,

we

solve for

~
ax by

But when

preference

if possible.

this is impossible or inconvenient we solve

for the remaining letter and differentiate with regard
to the absent one\ thus considering the absent letter
in either case as the independent variable.

Ex.

1.

Integrate the equation

'

Here
dy

and
is

#= 2

the solution.

Ex.2.

Then
where

Solve

dx

=
\dx)

q=.
dy

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

230
Then

differentiating with regard to the absent letter y,

/,
1 \dq
l
*

and

and the ^-eliminant between

equation

this equation

x=q+~ is the solution

and the

original

required.

EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
1.

dy =

+ I.

5.

-B

6.

4.

(2a^

184.

+ ^2 )=a2 +2a^7.

8.

dx

\dx)

CASE V. Clairaut's Form,

Writing

^9

for -~-

\dx)

dx

=A+.
dx
^=

we have

y=px+f(p) ........................ (1)

Differentiating with regard to x,

dp

{x+f(p)}0, .................... (2)

or

whence

Now

either

-f =

or cc+/ (p) = 0.
-^-=0
CLOu
/

gives

p=C

a,

constant.

CLAIRA UTS FORM.

Thus y = Cx-\-f(C)

231

a solution of the given differan arbitrary constant C.

be found as a function of x from the
is

ential equation containing

Again,
equation

if

+/(,) = 0,

........................ (3)

equation (2) will still be satisfied, and if this value of

be substituted in equation (1), or which is the same
thing, if p be eliminated between equations (1) and (3)
we shall obtain a relation between y and x which also
satisfies the differential equation
Now to eliminate p between

y=px+f(p)}

0= x+f(p)I
is

the same as to eliminate

between

= x+f(0)J
the same as the process of finding the envelope of
the line y = Cx+f(C) for different values of 0.
There are therefore two classes of solutions, viz.

i.e.

(1)

The

linear solution, called the

tive,"

(2)

"

complete primicontaining an arbitrary constant.

The envelope or " singular solution " containing

no arbitrary constant and not derivable from
the complete primitive by putting any
particular numerical value for the constant
in that solution.

The geometrical relation between these two solutions is that of a family of lines and their
envelope.
It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss fully
the theory of singular solutions, and the student is
referred to larger treatises for further information
upon the

subject.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

232
Ex.

Solve y=jt
JP

By

Clairaut's rule the complete primitive is

and the envelope or singular solution

m between the above equation and

o=*-m

is

the result of eliminating

y*=ax.

i.e.

The student
y

will at once recognize in the singular solution

the equation to a parabola, and in the complete primi-

= 4a#

tive

y=mx+

known equation

the well

of a tangent to the

parabola.

EXAMPLES.
Write down the complete primitive, and find the envelope
solution in each of the following cases
4.
5.

6.

y
y = (x

a)p

p^.

(y

The equation

185.

y=x<P(p)+*Kp),

..................... (i)

may be solved by differentiating with regard to x,

and then considering p as the independent variable.
For

differentiating,

we have

&

-= --

whence

dp
which

is linear,

the solution being

[<P(P)*P

<t*P)-P =
xee J<t*P)-P

.,,Ji

(P)

tW-Pdp + A ....... (2)

EXAMPLES.
If
(2),

233

now p be eliminated between equations (1) and

the complete primitive of the original equation

will result.
Ex.

We

y = 2px+p

Solve

have

2
.

(1)

p^x
%p A .............................. (2)
The jo-eliminant from these two equations may now be found
by solving equation (1) for p, and substituting in equation (2).
But if it be an object to present the result in rational form, we
3

giving

may proceed thus

By equation (2)
from

+ 3p 2# + SA = 0, \
= 0. /
j9 + Ip^x -py
p*x Zpy 3 A = 0.

2p

(1)

Hen ce

And by

cross-multiplication

between

this equation

and

giving as the eliminant

2

4(y

186.

in

+ 3Ax)(x* +y) = (xy - 3 A) 2

The algebraic process of eliminating p being

many

cases difficult or impossible, the equations (1)

and (2) are often regarded as simultaneous equations

whose >-eliminant is the solution in question but the
actual elimination not performed.

EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
1.
,

2.
3.
4.

y=
y=
y=
y=

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

234

The tangent at any point P of a curve meets the axis Oy in

and OT2 is proportional to the tangent of the inclination of
PTto the axis Ox. Find the curve.
[OXFOKD, 1888.]
9. Find the differential equation of all curves which possess
the property that the sum of the intercepts made by the tangent
on the coordinate axes is constant. Obtain as the complete
primitive the equation of the tangent, and as the singular solu8.

T,

tion the curves in question.

10. Obtain the curves for

which the area

bounded by the axes and a tangent is constant.

of

the triangle

11. Form the differential equation of curves for which the,

length of the portion of the tangent intercepted between the
coordinate axes is constant. Obtain and interpret the complete
primitive and the singular solution.

A curve satisfies

the differential equation y=p\xp)) and

determine its equation.
;
[OXFOKD, 1889.]
IS. Find the complete primitive and singular solution of the
12.

also

that^>=0 when

x=\

equation
'

dx
14.

is

Show

that by putting x 2

V^yj

\
s

and y 2 =

[OXFORD, 1890.]

the equation

reduced to one of Clairaut's form.

Hence write down its complete primitive and find

solution.

Interpret the result.

its

singular

CHAPTEE XV.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND
ORDER.
DIFFERENTIAL
EXACT
EQUATIONS.
187.

Second Order Equation.

We next come to the consideration

of the differential

equation of the second order,

0(^2/>2/i>2/2)

There is no general method of solution, but particular

forms arise which present but little difficulty.

CASE

Suppose the Equation

The typical form will be

188.

linear.

I.

dx
where P, Q,

R are functions of x.

The usual method

is first

to omit

and try

obtain or guess a solution of

Suppose y =f(x) to be such a

y =2/0*0-

solution.

Put

to

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

236

= zj(x)+zf(x);
= zj(x)+^'(x)+zf"(x).
2/2

Then

yi

Thus on substitution we get

But /'(*) + Pf(x) + Qf(x) =

by

hypothesis.

Hence

an equation which is linear for z v

The integrating factor is
or

and the

first

integral

is

whence the second integral may be

and the solution effected.
Ex.

Solve

da?

Here

y=x

at once obtained

dx

makes -r^

Put
then

Hence

/K

and the integrating

factor is e^

4-

3^

**

or x*e 4

SECOND ORDER EQUATIONS.

j

Thus

237

x*

~(z l x^)=x^
a*

and

z 1x2

_*

whence

z=-\e

and the solution required

e*=~+A

+A

-e
J a?
\

is

-=

CASE II One letter absent.

x be absent, let y 1 =p,

189.

A. If

and the equation

takes the form

<f>(y,

p, p-S-\

<f>(y,
\

and

is

yv y2) =

= Q,

dy/

of the first order.

B. If

y be the

letter absent, let

y l =p,

*and

<f>(x,

yv

and again
Ex.1.

Here x

is

y%)

becomes

of the first order.

Solve the equation yy 2 +#i 2 =2# 2

is

So putting

absent.

The integrating

factor

or

py

is

e^

Ay

y=p

or

and y2 =p^?, we have

2
,

y* + constant =?/

+ a4

say.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

238
Hence
or

= a sinh(2# + A).
2

i. e.

y*

Ex.

2.

Here y

Solve
is

l+#i =#y 2 #i
So putting y-^p^

absent.

dx = pdp
---5,
x 1+jtr

or
i. e.

log

x = log Vl+p 2 + constant.

^.e.

or

a? dx,

^Jx*

ady

oy

giving

=i?^ _<

a and b being arbitrary constants.

EXAMPLES.
Solve the following equations

1.

^2 = 1.

6.

2.

1+3^=^2.

7.

3.

i+y!

4.
5.

10.

that

-^

^</

a y#2=#i

9y 22=4 iyi-

-#i-

[OXFORD, 1889.]

= (l+.yM
3/2
Solve the equation

(1

^ = when y = 0.

~#

)^~#(^)

= 2/>

Given that #

is

having given

[OXFORD,

ow?

11.

_L2

y2+/i-y=-e

a value of

find the complete solution.

y which

satisfies

1890. ]

the equation

[L 0.

S., 1894.]

REMOVAL OF A TERM.
190.

General Linear Equation.

239

Removal of a

Term.
Let us next consider the more general equation

Pv P2
Putting y = vz,

where

. .

Q are given
we have

functions of

y 2 = vz2 + 2V& + v2z,

x.

etc.,

whence
-

n(n
--

1)

- 2

The coefficient of n _i is
If then v be chosen so that

dv
v

or

v=e

the term involving zn -i will have been removed.

Similarly, if v be so chosen as to satisfy the differential equation

the term containing

The coefficient of z

and

if

will

make

W_
is

will

have been removed.

a value of v can be found or guessed which

this expression vanish, we can, by writing
zl = rj, and therefore z 2 = ly etc., and z n = rj n -i, reduce
The student
the degree of the equation by unity.
should notice that this expression is the same in
rj

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

240

form as the left hand member of the given equation.

Hence if any solution y v can be found or guessed of
the given equation when the right hand member is
omitted, we can, by writing y = vz, and then Z^
Y\,

reduce the degree of the equation.

191.

Canonical Form.

In the case of the equation of the second degree

y = e~

the substitution

dx

by what has been above stated reduce the given

equation to the sometimes simpler form

will

But the general

solution of this equation has not been

at present effected.

"EXACT" DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.

192.

When

is

<

q.

x p -r~
^

is

an exact

and can be integrated whatever y may

For denoting
\xPy q dx

by y q

etc.,

Thus

be.

differential.

EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.

It will be noticed that when q
tegration cannot be effected.

=p

241

<p

or

the in-

193. By aid of the above lemma we may often see

"
exact/'
For
quickly whether a given equation is
if all terms of the form x p y
in
which
is
<
p
q be
q
first removed, we can frequently tell at once by inspection whether the remainder is a perfect differential
coefficient or not.

#2

Ex.

2
Here, by the lemma, # y 5 and x?y are perfect differential
and obviously ocy^-\-y is the differential coefficient
of xy.
Hence a first integral of this differential equation is

coefficients,

obviously

194.

more General

more general

equation

=- cos x+A.

may

Test.

for an "exact" differential

be established in the general case

whatever forms the

test

coefficients

P Pv
,

have, provided they be functions of

...

Pn V may
,

x.

For denoting differentiations by dashes, we have

upon integration by parts

n- Bysdx

=Pn

- 32/2

- Pn - 8^1 + P"n - zV -

P"'n -

etc.

Hence upon addition

p.

i.

c.

it is

obvious that

if

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

242

the given equation

tegral

is

exact;

and that

its

in-

first

is

^ + 24#?/ = sin x exact

Is the equation cfiy z + 1 2x?y 2 + SG^2

Ex.

Applying the test,

we have

P3 - P2 + PI - PQ'" = 24^ - 72^ + 72^ - 24^ = 0,

and
Thus the equation is exact ; and its first integral is
'

or

This again will be a perfect differential

which

is satisfied.

(8#

if

Hence a second integral will be

43% -f ^4yx = - sin x + Ax + B,

y+^4y = sin^+^^ + J?,

4^73

or

which may again be tested.

third and final integral is

^=

But

it is

now

obvious that the

cos.*?+
IB

EXAMPLES.
Show

that the equation

exact, and solve it completely.
2. Solve the equation
1.

^7/3
3.

+ 6^/2 + %i + sin x(y* ~ %i) + cos X 33/2 - !/} = sin ^

Write down

first integrals of

the following equations

'(a)

(b)
(c)
4.

Show

that

if

the equation

an integrating factor
equation

//,,

then

P y + P^y^ + P y = F admits
2

//,

0<

will satisfy

of

the differential

CHAPTER

XVI.

GENERAL LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS.
195.

General Linear Differential Equation.

The form of. the general

of the nih order is

linear differential equation

Pv P2 P3 ..., V are known functions of

Let us suppose that any particular solution,

where

x.

y=f(x)
can be guessed, or obtained in any manner.

Then making the

substitution

we

obtain

z = z n to be solutions of this
Suppose z = zv z = z2
then it is plain that
,

equation

z
is

. .

= A lz + A 2z2 +A 3 z3 +... +A nzn

l

also a solution of equation (2) containing

constants

A A2
lt

...,

An

arbitrary

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

244

Hence
a solution of equation (1) containing n arbitrary
and is therefore the most general solution to
be expected. No more general solution has been found.
The portion f(x) is termed the Particular Integral
(P.I.), and the remaining part containing the n arbitrary
constants, which is the solution when the right-hand
member of the equation is replaced by zero, is called
If these two
the Complementary Function (C.F.).
parts can be found the whole solution can be at once
written down as their sum.
is

constants,

Two remarkable

196.

Cases.

There are two cases in which these solutions can be

generally readily obtained.
(1) When the quantities

Pv P

2,

...,

Pn

are

all

constants.

When

(2)

the equation takes the form

2+

Jn-l

ri

r7n-2n/

-'-

+ ^= F

'

>

av a 2 ..., a n being constants and V any function of x.

The solution of the second case is readily reducible,
as will be shown, to the solution of an equation coming
,

under the

first

head.

EQUATION WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

COMPLE-

MENTARY FUNCTION.
197. Let us therefore
such an equation as

2/n+^i2/u-i

first

+ a 2/n2

determine the solution of

+... + ^n2/ = 0,

......... (1)

the coefficients being constants i.e. for the present we

confine our attention to the determination of the
"
"
Complementary Function in the first case.
;

COMPLEMENTAR Y FUNCTION.
As a

mx and we have
put y = Ae
-2
w
+ a 2ra +...+a n = ....... (2)

trial solution

m +a m
n

245

n-1

Let the roots of this equation be

m m

774,

2,

supposed (for the present)

are

all solutions,

y=

...,

s,

all different,

and therefore

A^ + A e^ + A
x

mn

then

also

mx
e *

+...+A n e m *x

...... (3)

a solution containing n arbitrary constants A v

A 3 ..., A n and is the most general to be expected.

is

2,

Two

198.

Roots Equal.

two

roots of equation (2) become equal, say

first two terms of the solution (3) become
(A!+ J. 2 )e" 11 *, and since A^ A^ may be regarded as a
single constant, there is an apparent diminution by
unity in the number of arbitrary constants, so that
(3) is no longer the most general solution to be
If

m =m
x

2,

the

expected.

Let us examine this more

Put

97i

Then

^r

= A l e m^x -\-A 2 (^x

closely.

= m 1 +A.
2
x
+ A 2e( i+*X

TO

h?x 2

l+hx+-^- +

~~\

...

= (A l + A )^x + AJi xem x +A z hem rhy? + ~\

^~^
Now A^ and A 2 are two independent arbitrary
.

and we

quantities,

may

therefore express

..

them

I.

in

terms of two other independent arbitrary quantities

by two relations chosen at our pleasure.

we

an

will choose

so large that ultimately

2
indefinitely small may be written
2,
arbitrary finite constant.

First

A 2 h when

is

DIFFERENTIAL EQ UA TIONS.

246

so large and of opposite

Secondly, we will choose
1
be regarded as an arbitrary
sign to 2 that
2 may
finite constant Bv
Then the terms

A^+A

ultimately vanish with h since Aji has been considered

finite and the expression in square brackets is convergent and contains h as a factor.
^ may, when 2 = v
Thus the terms
be ultimately replaced by B1 emiX
xe miX and there2
fore the number of arbitrary constants in the whole
solution remains n, and we therefore have obtained
the general solution in this case.

A^^+A^e

199.

+B

equation (2)

when

become equal,
m *x

terms,

placed

by (Bi+B^e^+Atf**.

em
l

&+A# +A f?

three of the roots of

viz.,

ri*

m =m =m
2

The

have already been

re-

m =m +h

Let

A^ = AjPtifc = A^
x

Then

for

x
(

A+Aw + Ae'W

and we may so choose

Ov C2

>

Three Equal Roots.

Consider next the case

Thus

m m

11

AB 5
,

2,

fcZftZ

+ kx + -^- +...)

we have

and

B v that

being any arbitrary constants, whatever k

COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION.

247

2
provided it be not absolute zero. But AJc
being chosen a finite quantity, and the series within
the square brackets being convergent, it is clear that
ultimately, when k is indefinitely diminished, the

may

be,

limiting form of this expression

is

200. Several Roots Equal.

In a similar manner it will be obvious that

if

there will be no loss of generality in our solution

we substitute the expression

if

roots of the equation (2)

become equal,

m^ = m 2 =

. . .

(%! + K^x + Kfl? +

. .

= mp

viz.,

+ KjxP - *)&*&,

for the corresponding portion of the

function, viz.,

A^ + A
x

m *x

+...+ A p ew

complementary
*>

x
.

201. Generalization.

More

generally, if

be the complementary function of any linear differential equation with or without constant coefficients,
what is to replace this expression so as to re-tain the
generality

when

Let

m =m
m
x

Then

and the terms

Now

putting

two arbitrary

l <f>(m 1 )

+A

A^A^ = B
finite

ly

<p(m 2 )

become
h2

AJi =

2)

constants, the remaining terms

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

248

ultimately disappear

when we approach

the limit in

which h is indefinitely diminished.

Thus A l <f)(ml )+ J. 2 0(m 2 ) may be replaced by

thus retaining the same number (n) of arbitrary

constants
B19 5 2 2 A^ ..., A n
in the complementary function as it originally

possessed.
And as in Art. 200 we may proceed to
p roots become equal, viz. ^i 1 = 2 = ...
J. 1 0(ra 1 )

may

+ 4 0(m )+
2

. .

show that

=mp

+Ap <j>(mp

if

the terms

be replaced by

when

the generality of the solution will be retained.

results of Arts. 198, 199, 200 are of course particular cases of this, the form of <p( m^) being e m ix

The

Imaginary Roots.

202.

When a root of

equation (2) of Art. 197 is imaginary,

for equations with real
coefficients imaginary roots occur in pairs.
it is

to be

remembered that

Suppose, for instance,

where

= \/

we have

1.

Then the terms

A^+A^e**
may

or

A^

be thrown into a real form thus

+ A eax(cos bx
eos bx + A - ^ >6 a*sin bx
1

= ( A l + A 2 )e

ax

sin bx)
(

sm bx,

sin bx)

COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION.

249

where the two arbitrary constants Bl and

and (A l A 2 )i respectively.
Let B^ = p cos a, B% = p sin a, then

B2

A^+ A 2

= JB* +
Then

^cos

fr#

a = tan

and

sin bx
2

replace

ijgF.

= p cos(bx

a).

We may

thus further replace

ax
jB^cos bx + B2 e sin bx by

where C^ and

Ce

aa!

cos(6aj

are arbitrary constants.

203. Repeated Imaginary Roots.

For repeated imaginary roots we may proceed as
before, for it has been shown that when 777 2 = ??i 1
x
A l em x
may be replaced by (J^+J?^***, and

+A^
m =m
^

if

3,

A^ +A^
X

m =m

If then

= a + ib

may

be replaced by

and

m =a
4

6,

we may

replace

by

that

is

by

e ax [(Bl

+ 53 )cos bx + (B - B3 sin te]

+ xeax [(B + ^4 )cos 60? + (B2 )i

4 )^

sin 6

and therefore by
e^CC^cos
that is by

6^+ (72 sin 6aj) +cce

tf*(Ci

or which

is

aaj

((73cos

6x+ (74sin

+ cc(7 )cos 6aj + ^

3

the same thing

by

Any of the last three forms contain four arbitrary

constants which replace the original four arbitrary
constants A v A 2 A^ A^ and thus retain intact the
,

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

250

proper number (n) of arbitrary constants requisite

to make the whole solution the most general to be
expected. And this rule may obviously be extended
to the case when any number of the imaginary roots
are equal.
204. Ex.

Here our

Solve the equation

1.

trial solution is

y=Ae

^dx
2

mx
y

dx

and we obtain

whose roots are 1 and 2.

2x
Accordingly y A^e* and y = A 2 e are both particular
and
y=A 1e*+A 2 e2x
is

solutions,

the general solution containing two arbitrary constants.

Ex.2.

Solve -*V- a?y =0.

aOC

Here the auxiliary equation

and the general solution is
or as

it

may be

by replacing
Ex.3.

written

A l by

(if

is

a2 =

with roots

a,

desired)

y = .Z^cosh ax + ^sinh ax
B^~ B
B +B* and A
i

by

Solve

Here the auxiliary equation

Hence the general solution is

is

-f-a

=0

with roots

+ai.

y = AjCos ax + ^t 2 s i
or,

which

is its

equivalent,

y = Bl

Ex.4

Solve

+ 5-2y =
?-4|
ax
ax

ax?

where

D stands

for

ax

or

(D- l) (-2)y = 0,
2

ILLUSTRA TIVE EXAMPLES.

Our

251

is

auxiliary equation

m-lra-2 = 0,

or

having roots

Accordingly the general solution

1, 1, 2.

Ex.

5.

Our

auxiliary equation

Solve

with roots

i,

(Z>

1,

+l)(7)-l)y=0.

?/

is

therefore

= ^008(37 + J52)-h Atf?,

Ex.

6.

Our

auxiliary equation

has roots

is

and the general solution

or

is

Solve

e^L. and

2,

and the general solution

is

JQ

cos
2

Ex.

7.

Solve

(Z)

+ ^I 2 e sn

+ />+l) 2(Z>-2)3(/)-5)y=0.

Here obviously the general solution is

x^
+ ( A 3 + ^t 4#)e~^sin
y = (A l + A 2 x)e ^cos

+ (A 5 + A Qx + J.7^

2
;

containing eight arbitrary constants.

EXAMPLES.
Write down the solutions
tions

of the following differential equa-

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

252
3

4-

SS~ 3
9

5.

g=y.

6.

g=y.

9.

10.

11.

(-

12.

THE PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.

205. Having considered the complementary function
of such an equation as F(D)y =
where F(D) stands for

a v a2

a n being constants, and Fany function of x,

turn our attention to the mode of obtaining

...,

we next

a particular integral, and propose to give the ordinary

and most useful of the processes adopted.

We may

write the above equation as

(or [/(D)]F),

"Z>"

206.

where

^7^

satisfies

is

such an operator that

fundamental

the

2/

laws

of

Algebra.
It is

shown

operator
(1)

in the Differential Calculus that the

(denoting

-y- j satisfies

The Distributive Law

(2) The
stants, i.e.

of Algebra, viz.

Commutative Law

as far as regards con-

D(cu) = c(Du}.

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
The Index Law,

(3)

253

i.e.

m and n being positive integers.

Thus the symbol
of combination

exception that

D satisfies all the elementary rules

of
it is

algebraical quantities with the

not commutative with regard to

variables.
It therefore follows that

rational algebraical

any

identity has a corresponding symbolical operative

Thus since by the binomial theorem
analogue.
'

7?

"

T)

JL

~L

2i

we have by an analogous theorem for operators which

may be inferred without further proof
JL

if

<

ax

207.
It

Operation f(D)e
has been proved in the Differential Calculus that
.

r be a positive integer,

Let us define the operation

D~ r

to be such that

D D~ u = u.
r

Then D~ l represents an

integration,

and we

shall

l
suppose that in the operation D~ u no arbitrary constants are added (for our object now is to obtain a
particular integral and not the most general integral).
Now since D ra~ re ax = e ax = D rD- re ax it follows that
,

D~ re ax = a- r e ax
Hence
values of

it is

clear that

n positive

Dne ax = aneax

or negative.

for all integral

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

254

208. Let f(z) be any function of z capable of expansion in integral powers of z, positive or negative
= ^A rzr say, A r being a constant, independent of z).
(

Then

The

result of the operation f(D)e ax

D by

be obtained by replaci'ng
Ex.

1.

Obtain the value of

Obviously by the rule this

By

therefore

-e

is

"* or

E, 2 ,

may

a.

g.

Obtain the value of

the rule this

is

3a/

'=-^-e

EXAMPLES.
1.

Perform the operations indicated by

3.

Apply Art. 208

'

to

show that

2
/(Z) )sin m^7

/(Z)

=/(

m )si
2

m2)c
)cos mx =/(

ax

Operation f(D)e X.
Next let y = e ax Y, where Fis any function of
209.

x.

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
Then

D e ax = are ax
r

since

we have by

Leibnitz's

y n = e (a
dx

255

Theorem

F+ n (7 an - D Y+ n C D Y+...+Dn F),
2

which, by analogy with the Binomial Theorem (Art,

206), may be written

D neax Y= eax (D + a) n F,
n

being a positive integer.

Now
so that

let

we may

write

Then from above

or

and therefore

Hence

Dneax Y=eax(D+a)n Y
Dneax (D + a) ~ nX = eaxX,
D

in all cases for integral values of

negative

210.

As

is,

positive or

D ne axX = eax(D + a)nX.

208 we shall have

in Art.

f(D)e

That

e ax

may

ax

X=

be transferred from the right side

f(D) provided we replace

the left of the operator

by

D + a.

Ex.

2.

4D + 4

2x

sin x

= e2x ~* sin x

e~

sin x.

to

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

256

EXAMPLES.
1.

Perform the operations

1

2.

Show

211.

We

(D - If*

6 h

'

D-l

'

(D-I)*

that

Operation /(7>

have

sn
2
cos

wwu = ( -

sin

)
y

cos

mx,

and therefore
Hence, as before, Arts. 208 and 210,
a^

nD
j;/

Ex.

ax

r>9\

)
'

sin bx dx

sin

cos

mx = f(
/v

= Z)-

ax

sin

6^7

sin

o\
2
)
y

cos

it

will follow

mx.

= eax (D + a)~

sin

6^ (Art. 210)

7)Wri hv
f<x/

f'Arf
xxi li,
^

X/^iSJlll

a sin &.#

-_

ea*(a?+ 6 2)

91^
1y
Zi L

6 cos bx

^sin^.r

- tan- 1 - Y

EXAMPLES.
1.

Find by

method the

ax

cosbx, e^sin ^,
Perform the operations
e

2.

this

-sin 2^,

integrals of
e^sin 3^,

-_L_cos,r,

si

_I

sin

2^7.

3. Obtain by means of the exponential values of the sine

cosine the results of the operations /(/>)cos mx, /(Z>)sin mx.

and

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
212.

257

Operation

Let us next consider the operation

where F(z)

is

a function of z capable of expansion in

positive integral

powers of

z.

Let F(D) be arranged in powers of Z), then if no odd

powers occur the result may be written down by the
foregoing rule of Art. 211.
Thus
"" sin
S1T1

^=

2#

L-4 + 16-64

sin
"

%x ~

sin 2#.

51

both even and odd powers occur we may

Group the even powers together
proceed as follows
and the odd powers together, and then we may write

But

if

the operation

sm mx =

/T^ox

/TV,V

sin

mx
^

^m

m )sin mx mx
2

)cos

mx

Upon examination it will be seen that in practice

we may write m2 for Z) 2 immediately after the step

writing immediately
1
\

E.

I.

C.

^ sin mx>

f)~7

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

258

mi

or'

r-y^

Ex.

1.

in/

J-'Xv

in

4^0 sin ma;,

fjsrS

SYT^

Obtain the value of

etc.

sin 2#.

Thisis
sin 2#,

sin 2^,

J.O

^ cos 2^ ^ sin

or

Ex.

2.

=e

This expression

Obtain the value of

2

*-^

2^7.

-^e
cos

*cos

^p.

2
[replacing each Z>

by

1]
2*
e

____
1

=
4

(cos

sin x).

EXAMPLES.
1.

Perform the operations indicated in the following ex-

pressions

:-

Z> 3

-e*sin

x+

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
2.

Show

that

/T,

(D+a)
being n
3.

V=

e~ ax f [ f ... fe ax Vdx
J J J
J

259
...

dx,

there

integral signs.

Show

by

that

first

expressing

operation ^fm F may

^=-r~

*W

in partial fractions, the

be expressed in terms of a set of

common

integrations.

213.

rV- v

Operator

Algebraic.

wy^F, Fbe an algebraic function

and integral, we may expand rrrr\\ by

If in the operation

of x, rational

any method in ascending powers of J9 as far as the

highest power of x contained in F.
Ex.

This

1.

For example, find

is

(1

Ex.2.

-D+ D

Again, find

This expression

10

is

- D^+ etc.)(#2

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

260

EXAMPLES.
Perform the operations
CD+l)(Z> + 2)
2

3.

J?

COsh 37 COS 07.

Cases of Failure.
In applying the above methods of obtaining a
Particular Integral, cases of failure are frequently
met with. We propose to illustrate the course of
procedure to be adopted in such cases.
214.

215. Ex.

1.

Solve the equation

^L-y=e
dx

'

The Complementary Function is Ae*.

To obtain the Particular Integral we have

If

we apply

Art. 208, the result becomes

i^i

We may
operation

evade

or

this difficulty

and obtain the result

of

the

by applying Art. 210 when we have

which

is the particular integral required.

Instead, however, of substituting another method, let us examine

the operation

Writing x(\

= -&
+ h)

more

carefully.

instead of #,

we have

263

CASES OF FAILURE.
Of

this expression the portion Lte x//i becomes infinite,

taken with the complementary function Ae x ; and
b

may be

we may regard A + /i

arbitrary

as a

new

arbitrary constan

for we may suppose A to contain a negatively infinite por

to cancel the term I/A.
The term xe* is the Particular Integral desired.
The remaining terms contain h and vanish when h is decre;
indefinitely.

The whole
Ex.2.

solution

is

Solve the equation

Ct/X

The complementary function

is

clearly

y = A sin Zx + B cos 2#.

The

two parts

particular integral consists of

and

In this second part,

sin 2#.

Art. 211,

we

We now

get

2HL,

i.e.

oo

and so

we apply

if

e*

the

ri

fail.

when h = Q,

consider the limit,

of --

sin2.i'(l-

This expression

=1

_1

4 i_(i+A)a
1

U ^ X COS ^IX "*" COS ^^ S ^ n ^^

<

JT2^

9A

J?

1 sin

= (a

2.2?

l
fi

-x cos 2.27 + powers

of A

term which may be included in the complemfunction)

-xc

Thus the whole solution

+ (terms

which vanish v

of the. differential equation

JOS

g
"

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

260
:.

Solve the equation

3.

(D
'ere

+ 3D)(D -l) 2y = e* + e~x + sin x 4- x

the complementary function

is

iy*

viz.,

<?
_ 1
= *_ JL
~(D-I*' 4~4 'I?''

= (a part going into the

x

plainly

particular integral consists of four parts,

1

complementary function)

+ (terms which vanish with

,^-PP,

10

6 + 2Z)

sin

x= 3-Z)
/

2(9

= (3 sin # - cos ^)/20.

jjinally

open

44

ie

the whole solution

y= A +A
l

e~ 3x + (A 3
2
e

2x

is

~~

3 sin x

cos x .3?

5# 2

+ + ""
'

"

44

h)].

ILL USTRA TIVE EXAMPLES.

Solve the equation

Ex.

4.

The

C.F. is

To

find the

which

is

P.I.

^-?/

263

= ^sin^.

.-a

we have

the coefficient of

in

"?>. in

#*,

plX

rp
'

-4^-6/^Tr.
l

**

~^l-^D..\^

Thus the

COSJP
P.I. is

and the whole solution

_ 3^ gin ^
8

is

y = A ^inh ^ + ^ 2 cosh x + A 3sm x+A 4 cos x +

c s

^'

^ sin

^p.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Obtain the Particular Integrals indicated by

0) 7TTT

sina7

'

nT-T 8*1111 *'

5>

/n

w^ovn-Q-x*'-

(6)

(sinh # + sin ^?).

(7)

/na

^/ n ^o,(^ + cosh 6^).

COS - COS
o
o

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

264

Solve the differential equations

2.

+y =

(3)
Cfc#

(4)

(D*-l)(D*-l)y=xe*.
(6)

(7)

OD

(5)

(Z)-

(ZP-3D2 -3D + I)y = e-

-%=#sin..

(8) (Z>

(9) (Z>

(10) (^>-

216.

The Operator &-.

CvQC

A transformation which renders peculiar service in

reducing an equation of the class

A v A 2 ..., are constants, to a form in which

the coefficients are constants, arises from putting

where

x=e
In this case

-TT

at

It is

e*,

t
.

and therefore x~- = -^ax at

obvious therefore that the operators x-j- and

d
-ji

all

Let

are equivalent.

stand for

-j-.

dx
Then we

have

-*-

dx\
nf\

Z.

dxn

)X

__

dx

_
11 -I-

1 ]X
/

~1

___~ l

dxn

EXAMPLES.

Now

in succession

11

putting

265

2, 3, 4, ...,

we have

etc.

Hence generally

or reversing the order of the operations

= D(D-l\D-Z)...(D-

Ex.

Solve the differential equation

Putting x = c?, the equation becomes

D(D -l)(D- 2)y + 2D(D or

% + 3% -

3# =

(D -

i.e.

giving

y = Ae* + B cos

~+ ;rIog
EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential equations
1.

s
2

2.

x-

--^ +

3.

cfc

4.

a?

-^ + (^ = [log ^-] 2 + x sin log ^ + sin q log a?.

3^++2/=^
ote2

rfa?

dx*

dx

'

dx?
5.

dx

CHAPTER

XVII.

ORTHOGONAL TEAJECTOEIES. MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.
217. Cartesians.

= is representative of a
f(x, y, a)
of
curves.
The
family
problem we now propose to
investigate is that of finding the equation of another
family of curves each member of which cuts each
member of the former family at right angles. And in
such a problem as this it has been already pointed out
that it is necessary to treat all members of the first
family collectively, so that the particularizing constant
a ought not to appear in the equation of the family.
It has been shown in Art. 17 1, that the quantity a
The equation

may

be eliminated between the equations

*dx

'dy

dx

Let this eliminant be

This

is

the differential equation of the

first

family.

ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.

267

Now at any point of intersection of a member of

the first system with a member of the second system,
the tangents to the two curves are at right angles.
Thus if
be the current coordinates of a point on
r\
a curve of the second family at its intersection with
one of the first family, and x, y the current coordinates of the same point regarded as lying upon
the intersected curve of the first family, we have
dx

dn

t-x.i-y.g^
The

differential

the second family

of

equation

is

therefore

and when
"

this is integrated
"

The

we have

rule is therefore
Differentiate the given
:

equation,

rtnt*

constant, write

new

the family of

of the first system.

Orthogonal Trajectories

-7-

eliminate

the

fl 1J

in place of
-j

and integrate the

differential equation.

218. Polars.

If the curve be given in polars the angle the tangent

makes with the radius vector

now:

df)
r-j-, so

is

dr

our rule

is

Differentiate the equation, eliminate the constant,

.,

write
ite

dr
-70

dO

in place
plac of r-v-,

and integrate the new

differential equation.

219. Ex.

1.

Find the orthogonal trajectory

of the family of

circles
(1)

each of which touches the y-axis at the origin.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

268
Here

a
x+yJL=
cLx

and, eliminating

Hence the new

.v

#,

2
+y = 2x( x -\-y

differential equation

must be

2
^ + 2^-^2 = o,

or

),

........................... (3)

ay

a homogeneous equation, and the variables become

by the assumption y = vx.
However, this being the same as equation (2) with the exception that x and y are interchanged, its integral must be

which

is

separable

another set of

circles,

each of which touches the #-axis at the

origin.

Ex.

2.

Find the orthogonal trajectory

of the curves

A being the parameter

n\

--

of the family.

and A must be eliminated between these two equations.

(2) gives

so that

x(b*

+ A) +yy l(a? + A) = 0,

a2 + A =

and

Thus the

differential equation of the family is

(at-b^yy
or

x*-y*+xyyi-

=a -5
2

................ (3)

ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.
Hence changing

y^ into

269

the differential equation of the

#1

familv of trajectories

is
2

(4)

But

same

this being the

primitive, viz.

as equation (3)

_-.

i.e.

must have the same

a set of conic sections confocal with the former

Ex.

Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of

3.

cardioides

cos 0) for different values of a.

r=a(l

Here
and, eliminating

Hence

set.

r^ = l

a,

dr

~
sm

=
2

we must have

for the family of orthogonal trajectories

1

dr
n

log r

or

+ constant,

2 log cos
2t

or

r=b(l+cosO),

another family of coaxial cardioides whose cusps point in the

opposite direction.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Find the orthogonal trajectories

= 4cM? for different

2.

Show

values of

of the family of parabolas

a.

that the orthogonal trajectories of the family of

similar ellipses - 4-^,=m 2 for different values of

2
2

is

s?

=Ay

b
.

3. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the equiangular spirals

r = ae^ cota for different values of a.
'

4.

Find the orthogonal

parabolas

=1 -f cos 9

trajectories of the confocal

for different values of a.

and coaxial

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

270
5.

Show

that the families of curves

are orthogonal.
6. Show that the curves
r sin 2 a = a(cos

are orthogonal.
7. Show that

if

cos a)

and

r sinh 2 /?

= a(cosh ft

cos 0)

f(x+iy) = u + iv the curves

form orthogonal systems.

8. Prove that for
any constant value

of

/z

the family of curves

x cosec y p cot y = constant

coth x cosech x cos y = constant

cosh
cut the family

/z

at right angles.

[LONDON, 1890.]

SOME IMPORTANT DYNAMICAL EQUATIONS.

220.
is

The equation

the general form of the equation of motion of a

under the action of a central force.

particle

Multiplying by 2-^ and integrating

dO

which we may write as

and the solution

is

therefore effected.

221. Equations of the

form

we have

SOME SPECIAL FORMS.

271

have already been discussed as being linear with constant coefficients.

The solution may

however be conducted thus

Multiply by sin n9, which will be found to be an integrating

factor.

Integrating,
sin

nO^.
d6

- nu cos nO=

f*f(ff) sin
J

n&dff + A.

Similarly, cos nO
first integral is

is

an integrating factor and the correspond-

ing

cos

n(& + nu sin nO=

d\j

f'f(ff) cos
J

nO'dO'+B.

Eliminating -^L

du

nu =

- O')d0
f(0') sin n(0

+ Bsmn6-A cos n6.

222. The equation of motion of a body of changing

mass often takes some such form as
d!

dt

and for this equation

integrating factor.

<f>(x)-rr

leads at once to

i{<(^' J

^Xto

1
J

and the variables are separated.

will be

found to be an

j ^x)<l>(x)dx + A,

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

272

FURTHER ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

223. Many equations may be solved by reducing to
one or other of the known forms already discussed by

special artifices.

Ex.

1.

^=f(ax+by).
ax
'

Let

ax+by=z.

Then

dx

Thus

dx

dx
dz

x+A=lJ a

or

Ex.2.

*..

+ bf(z)

dx\ y+a dx

Put

xy=z.

dy dz
y+^^=-y-,
dx dx

rpi

Then

or

dz
1
= X-j+-5,

dx

dz

dx
which

is

of Clairaut's form,

and the complete primitive

.

Ex.3.

Solve

e^

\dx

dx)

Let

6^

Then, since this equation

may

dx

77,

= s-

he arranged as
\ e *dx

is

ILL USTRA Tl VE SOL UTIONS.

we may

write

which being

it

as

?7

of Clairaut's

form the complete primitive may be

written

or

Ex.

--

4.

(an.

equation occurring in Solid Geometry).

Put

and

,v=*Js

y=

Jt.

Then the equation becomes

ds

t=

giving

ds
as

which

is

of Clairaut's

form and has the complete primitive

BC

t-sG ~

1+2(7'

and singular solution the four straight

9J-Jy
Ex.

Solve the equation

5,

dx
E.

I.

C.

273

lines

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

274

Let the transformation be such that

then x

is

known by

direct integration as a function of

t.

dy

d^dL_

Now

dx
*

'

and
dx*

ax 4 f
(^ax^yJ^dx* dt*
dt dx

Thus

and the given equation thus reduces

to

whose solution is y=A sin qt + B cos <^,

and when the value of t in terms of x is substituted, the
is

solution

complete.
[If

a be positive we have

dx

,.

sinh^Wa) =

t.

1
-[=.

>-

~j=
If

a be negative we have
1

V-a

Ex.

6.

dx
,=dt>

Solve the simultaneous differential equations (which

are linear with constant coefficients)

SIMULTANEO US EQ UA TIONS.

We may write

these equations as

(3

where

275

D + 34>? + (ID + 38)y = e\

D stands for

at

Operating upon these equations respectively by 7J9 + 38 and

by 9D + 49 and subtracting, we eliminate y and obtain
[(4Z)

or

+ 44X7/> + 38) - (3D + 34)(9Z> + 49)> = 7 + 38* - 58e,

2
(D + 7Z> + 6)ff = 7 + 38* - 58e,

giving

^=

or

a?

= ^e

To obtain y
Multiply the

let

us eliminate

first

by

-^ from the

and the second by 9 and subtract.

^ + 1x +y =

This gives

original equations.

It

- 9e*.

at

y = 7^-9^-2^-^

Thus

= It - 9e* - 2( Ae~* + Be

^=^-* + ^- + 139-^--^--^V
\
= - Ae-< + 4^e - - *t + * + *fr*. )

Thus

6'

.y

[The student should notice the elimination of ^-.

the introduction of supernumerary constants.] at
Ex.

7.

Solve the simultaneous equations

^+ f
dt 2

dt

dt

These equations

may

be written

This avoids

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

276

whence operating upon these in turn by

subtracting, we eliminate y and obtain

D +9
2

and by 3D and

+ 16)(D + 9) + 1 5 Z) 2> = 0,
4
2
= 0,
(Z> + 40Z) + 1 44>
(D* + 4)(D' + 36)^=0,
x = A sin ~2t + B cos 2 + C sin 6 + D cos 6*.
[(D

or

i.e.

whence

Differentiating the first equation and subtracting three times

the second to eliminate differential coefficients of y, we have
*"

dt

whence we obtain the value

viz.

of

y without any new

constants,

y=-%B sin 2t + 2 A cos 2t + i&D sin 6

- ^-

EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
i.

2^-(i-*)y=**.
'cte

2.

3.

4.

5.

(1.

2
8.

tions

cosy

Obtain the integrals of the following differential equa:

+ 9y - 25 cos ^
[I.

C.

S,

1804.]

EXAMPLES.
9.

277

Integrate the simultaneous system

4=0.

10. Find the form of the curve in which the tangent of the
inclination of the current tangent to the #-axis is proportional
to the product of the coordinates of the point.
11. Find the form of the curve for which the curvature varies
as the cube of the cosine of the inclination of the tangent to the
12. Show that in the curve for which the projection of the
radius of curvature on the 7/-axis is of constant length

(l) S

(2)

oclogtan(?+|),

y oc

log sec ~.

ANSWEES.
CHAPTER
PAGE
1.

Area = e 6 -ea

2.

Vol. =-(e*

-e2n
6.

12.

Area=ia

3.

= -a

Vol.

).

I.

0,

4.

Vol.^.
5

tan 2 <9.

5.

Vol.=f7ra

tan

(a)

Vol.

=|

Vol.

TT
=
VoL

(8)

JL

Vol.

25

=JL
t)

7,

7Tfia

8.

Mass

of half the spheroid

= J?r/xa26 2

3
.

ANSWERS.

CHAPTER
PAGE

279

II.

17.

a
10.

2.

^Y.

6.

1.

3.

?^1.

7.

x/2-1.

4.

Ioge |.

8.

|.

PAGE
X

ft
'

*'

c10'
.o

C>

r!000

Ht;

&

loo'

Tooo'

Tool'

_^ _^
98

100'

2
2.

a log x,

23.

r!001

r !00

PAGE

25.

PAGE

26.

,
J

~j a log ^ +#,

2.
3.

logtan"

^,

logsin' ^,

log(log^).

+ (sin 6 -sin a).

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

280

PAGE

9"

log2

log

>>
5.

sin- 1 *, 1

aT +

4+

'

log 6

3'

28.

logo

log tan ^, log sin ^ cosec ^.

4.

tan-,

86

an-^, l

^!

7.

8.

-log^ + e*),

log(log sin x\

CHAPTER
PAGE
sin#

32.

1.

sine*,

3.

asin^+-tan- 1^4 -a cose* +6

sin(log^).

4.

J_ tan- -JL-.
x

V2

6.

-1
?,

si

8.

/-

cosh^+l),

~.

V*

sin-V^'

PAGE
-

log cosh #.

^2

_-,

2.

III.

41.
g

-H-.-f Jain- *,

ANSWERS.
3.

-Vl=F, x/^,

281

4.

i(^ +1)4,

6.

siii-

^-2\/r^-iWl -^

2
,

1
2
| sinh- ^ + 2\/l + # +

7.
1
+ ^?x/5?^
xyJ\^3?, 4 cosh- 2
2

8.

^logtan^, -logtan
CL

a<r+&
,

^logtan(-+.A
\4
/
\

fx

13.

log(log^),

log{log(log,^)},

PAGE
sinh x

J log tan

Iog[log{log(loga7)}],

CHAPTER

^7

),

IV.

47.

cosh #, (2 + # 2 )sinh x

x sm 2<r

Zx cosh x.
CQS 2 ^
,

in 3a? + 9 sin
3.

J(sin

2a?

a?)

+ cos 3^ + 27 cos^].

- 2^ cos
2^),

~""
sin 4.f

_
~~4^ _
~""^~~
sin 6^7

/cos

2^7

cos

cos 6^7
~~

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

282
5.

6.

^sin^ - tan- 4).

a

--^sin^-tan-^),
2

v5

^2(a + ^ )~sin^-tan- -,
1

p + q-r,
7T
I.

q + r-p,

r+p-q, -p-q-r.

_,

7T,

for the values of n,

ct /

7T

A
-4.

339

9.

sin- 1 *?

PAGE

+ x/f^;2 -

(1

- ^2 ).

51.

- 3(^2 + 2)cosh x,
2
4
5(^ + 1 2^7 + 24)sinh x.
(rf + 20^ + 1 20#)cosh x
>3

6)sin x,

2/

84\V

\ 2

- 3^)sin 2^ - (2^4 - 6^ 2 + 3)cos

J{2(2^
- 5?r4 + 607T2 - 240, 265e-720.
3

PAGE
1.

(a)
(6)

(c)

(m
4

+ l)~^rnecos(^-cot-

gsmg + cos^-

^ tan ^ + log

(d)

^tan" 1 ^

(a)

m),

sn
3

52.

where #=sin#.

-g,
3

/ \

cos x.

(e)

Jlog(l+^

2
).

(/)

+ cos0)-sin<9-logtan

(c)
2

(sin

^7

tan

_il

x-

.tT

3^7

x sec" 1^ - cosli" 1^.

^sin" 1 ^.

\/l

(b) 6>(sec(9

(c?)

where A = S i

</>

<^>

cos

</>),

where

^=

+ Y where ^ = sin(9.

ANSWERS.
3.

283

W <J^>*p^.
l+m
l+^

(a)!*"-*.
m

(6)'

ie*/I + A^cos^tf-tan\\
2
m//'
\m Vm2 + 4 V

(c)

-eme (
4

where tan0 = #.

JL_c
2

Vm +l

where tan B=x.

4.

(a) e*sin^.
(6)

ie*(#- 1)(a sin

6.^7

sinh ax

b cos u? cosh a^)

2

(d)

-6~ ax

sin(6^
r*
(e)

\
+ 2</>) V, where

2 X (P sin 2# -

cos 2^),

cos

=. sin

cos 2<>

?'-

>

r2

r
r2

and

</>

= 4 + (log2) 2

cos
7*

sn
and
"log

+\/l^

x
7.

*
log

- cot (9 log(cos (9 + \/c7^2g) -

8.

sin 6 cos

9.

(a) e*tan-.

are as in Art. 53.

where

<

7*

and

log(l

x
6>

+ logg

(9

cot

2*

+ AVC

6.

..

Sill

C7

+ tan 0) - - + ilogsin( + - Y
(6)

-e*cot-.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

284

CHAPTEK
PAGE

2.

4.

log(^'

+ 4# + 5) - taii"

^+

2).

-log(3-.r).
1

#-2log(# + 2.r + 2) + 3tan2# - log(# 2 + 6^7 + 10) + 1 1 tan- 1 ^ H- 3).

2

5.

(.

6.

PAGE

62.

^-_
ct

(ix.)

58.

3.

(iii.)

V.

x+

e
1
l

27

(^Tiy

^T -giZ^ log(^ - q.) +etc.

+8

(^-l)

8(^-l)

a^^ + I_L.-?-JL_.

g ^-l

+ 16

ANSWERS.

285

(ii.)

(iii.)

(i '>

.+(
tan- 1 *-

tan- 1 * VS.

(iv.)

x*J
3^2 tan-'(4r
\A/21-_)

(v,)

(viii.)

5.

2V2

(i.)

(ii.)

log^/V^T).

(iv.)

(v.)

-lo g (*

(iii.)

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

286

(ix.)

(x.)

6.

(i.)

(iii.)

ilog^

^o

17

17

ll

,+

17

ANSWERS.

CHAPTER
PAGE
1.

287

VI.

68.

sinh-^+1,
x/2

2.

3.

bx + a) 4.

2
-LRcar - b)Jc(a + 26^ - cr ) + (6 + acj
8

PAGE

74.

1 /

1 /sin 6^7

3
3 sin kx

15 sin

2.r

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

288

2H

A-O

or

- l) n /sin Znx _ 2^/7 sin(2tt - %)x

1
2^-2
l

Jsin

Jtan

43

157T

2\/tan#.

3.

(i.)

cos nx

sin% + f sine#,

- r^

--

cos(n

PAGE

4(n-2)

83.

2
2
(9 + 6 sin (9)]/(a + b ).
2
6
[(ac + be)0 + (be ae)log(c sinO+e cos (9)]/(c +

0*1 a*
/

6^ + J sin

[a0 + 6 log(a cos

(i.)

(11.)
'
'

sin

+ 44

1.

5.

x-

192

60^/2'

(ii.)

2n-3

2n-l

^,

2
4
\ cos #, f sin ^

5.

COS(2tt-l)#_ 2M+1 ff COS(2^- 3>,

2# - 2 sin

2,

^tan3

tan- 1 /"

-V*

^\
-tan-

\3

2/

A
/

/-

i/l,
1

tan

Wo^-P

#.

'

+ - cos

@2 sin(2?a 4)^ _ )
2^-4
"*/'

~2

7r

2M

^-^sin ^,
- sin
in

3.

cos 5^

or
2.

x + co

cos

(m.)7

-:

sma

-u
1
cosh-

"f

ANSWERS.
(iv.)

( vii.)

(ii.)

(iii.)

289

^-i3co^-tan-i3)-x/10
S-vlO 000(4?- tan- z 3)

a;

cos a CO8 x
cos a + sin a cosh- 1 1 +
cos a + cos x

^v^CTW&^-V^tan-'-tan- ^^) }.
_1_

-'

if

.(

a>a' and a'b>ab', with analogous forms

8 3
'

'

(l+2cos(9)

--

sin 2^, ^.cos^ + sin^

Q
_
y.
AW
log
o
r
7i
?i
2
cos # - sin
.

10.

1,

sec 20.

cosh x tan-.

11.

2i

12.

- 2 x/1 -

13.

15.

v6

sin

x-

- sin ^

\/2 log

+ sin #

18

-.

tan(|+|

I.

C.

for other cases

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

290

2
16. log log

tan x.

19.

na 2
17.

20.

-cosh-^cosfl+sinfl).

cos x + x sin

22.

23.

24. cosec-

26.

25.

(l+sin2^).

artan-^-logtl+tf

2
).

- tan x
1

CHAPTEE
PAGE

7.

If

94.

VII.

ANSWERS.
/i= _

and

Between

/r2 =

5
xax -x^f +-a

7T3 =

7
x\2ax-xrf-+-a

-g-

and

limits

2a,

A = ~^ /2 = f

4
,

PAGE
1.

fsirAEcfe=

_co^

t,

T
/

95.

3
_ sin ^ cos%

1 f

su- x -

cos

3?r

35?r

128

4'

16'

25(3'

315'

i sin 8 6> -

<>

1 /

(iii.)

tan x

2 cot x

3?r

29

1680

37T-8
'

32

3?r
'

693'

693'

60'

'

8
J sin 6>

+4

192

3
\ cot #.

- J cos3 ^ + f cos 6 6> - f cos7 (9 + J cos9 0,

- JQ sin 5 6> cos^ + yjgd ^ - i sin 40 +
5 ^28-71^/2

//

102.

g"

a
10
r o sin 6>,

2^\ \

sin

4\2

sin x cos #).

3(x

TT

siii ^,

an

si
x cos 3#
_ sin

PAGE

Zi

2\

6
(ii.)

3/ ; _ g in2f \
4

sin 6^ dx, etc.

= sin^cos"" ^ + nlf cos w ~ 2^ ax.

cos 71.!1 c?j;

4.

2, 3, 4, 5.

8 in%

7.

/3

fsi

and similarly for

6.

291

289
'

^ sin

?r

5?r

8'

9'

192*

4480'

8(9).

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

292

PAGE
2.

If

Im< n denote the given

104.

integral,

m + n+l

6.

With a

W
/

similar notation,

(K
T
~~
n>p

an

(a^bxf^

,v,m-

(y)

(m - n + l)/m

(3)

m/m =^- (^

Tn

- - (m - 2)a 3/m _
"

3,

/ = __^

Xa cos x + 4 sin #)

cos 3

+ -g-^

X acos ^+2sin^)+2.

In = -

8.

^_

7n =
,-

IH =

17

cos
2

-8llln
.

71

- li

___ra

'

-1

a sin

a sin

3m 3m(3m - S)

^7

a?

n cos #

+w - ^
-n -a
cos

sin eu?

5
2

cos

9
2

w(m~l)

3?7i(3m

-2).. .(m

+ 2)

- 2)(3m - 4)

"*"

ax
n(n 1) r
-- -win-*
^
n* - a 2

ANSWERS.

ork

20

(77?

293

ram-

PVPTIl;x

>rn
III

9VH
)

Aj2_t_92\

/...^/t

It

-TAJ

2 oosli

m(m- 1X^-2X^-3).. .3.

23.

/^ 2 sm(tt-l)*
n-

=_

28.

(n-l)u m

29.

amlm + (2m

/
Q1
N
31.
(a)

(/?)
v

/rn = /rn _ 2 Deduce from

r

25.

_ _(7i- 2)^7 cos ^7 + sin ^7 w

+
,

(^_

l)( 7i _2)sin"-

CHAPTEE
PAGE

2,

^T

VIII.

115.

\/3

2.

-cosech- 1 ^,

x/2

v/^ 2

+2^+3 - sinh-

lo

3.

2\/2

^-

^^+l

JL
\/2

- --

'

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

294

_
x/2
f
7=tan

PAGE

*2

^=^g

<v>

--^

sinh

If a,

5.

6,

-ws

117.

3.

V2

are in ascending order of magnitude

with modifications for other

cases.

6
p

1"
9 sinh_ T9

PAGE

120.

COS 07 - COS
1.

- -log

2.

2(sin#+#cosa).

cos ^ + cos ~

3.

sir

4.

Prove

(TZ.

cos nx
cos x

being a positive integer)

cos wo,
^u^-u,
cos a

_ 2 cogec a
r,

~-\^

r=i

gin ra cos (^ _ r \ x
/

Then

cos a?

cos a

sin a r= i

?i

sin Tia

+ __
,

sin a

ANSWERS.

295

-cot

tan
5.

2 sin x + 2 sin a log(sin x - sin a) -f 2 sin a log

tan --tan"
_

6.

5
2
2sm
a

PAGE
1.

129.

(i.)2tan-V#.

2tan- 1 v/fT2^.

(ii.)

-4\/2

(iii.)

-sinh- 1 --

(iv.)

z.

x/3 l
(v.)

v/^+^+1 -l

sinh- 1

5^+1- sinh-i-L Llf

\/3

(vi.)

(vii.)

^^L
-- L inh-if2
.

no?

(ii.)

(viii.)

If

\*'

a>c
cosh-i

with a corresponding real form

3.

(i.)

v (cos a

cos /5)(cos a

- cos

if

<

^ + COS a
cos a

for the case cos a

other cases.

c.

y)

2
CQS
X mall -1

e.

> cos fi

COS a

cos

or cos

~ COS

"~
ft

cos a

~ C QS

cos a cos
y
y with modifications

for

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

296

_1

Vsin(a

/3)sin(a

y)

2
n

tan

-+,

cot a

3?

cot a

cot

x cosh" 1

Mi)

(ii.)

cot a

14. (i.) Iog e 2-l.

JL.

27.

Iog e 2.

29.

(i.)

-L.

(ii.)

2/^.

(iii-

(ii.)

(ii.)

1.

F.

(iii.)

30. e-

PAGE

(i.)^-^).
(ii.)

(iii.)

(rj-r^^S
12.

(iv.)

a
8a.

3.

The

2a(cos|-cos|^.

151.

a-x

Cycloid.

IX,

141.

*L.

PAGE

2.

CHAPTER

7.

cot y - cot a
(iii.)

(ii.)ilog2.

5^5.

15. (i.)

cot-/
t

j iogX24

(i.)

cot a

-:

cot /?
6.

ANS WERS.
r\/l+3cos 2 0_ V3,10

~~co^0~ --2-

v/1 + 3 cos
^^^

297

+ V3 cos ff~\

5.

CHAPTEB
PAGE

2.

5o.

X.

158.

2
(a) c sinh-.
G

h
(b) e

4a2

-l.

(o)

5.

e*

V^rp _ *

6.

Mog

(/)

sin-i^i

37ra 2 .

PAGE

160.

3.

2.

16
*

4.

^.
4?^
2

area=^!

Total

tan a

2 /3 cot

a/^gycot a

-i

(w even), or

(n odd).

z.

8.

a/5

PAGE
1.

37ra 2

3.

/3

6"

~^g3-

9.

167.

3
-(tan f + J- tan i/r).

-a3

a2

'

'

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

298
4.

PAGE
1.

TV*

9.

(i.)

2.

%nrab.

178.
5.

^.

(ii.)

(7r-2)a

7.

r(m + l)

128

m being supposed

11.

12.

a 2 [2log(\/2 + l)-iW2l

14.

odd.

-(32 + 24\/3 - STT).

6

4cV2sin- -L-

17.

^?V2.

v/3

22.

23.

25.

^7? -

24 ^ even

7r^-^".

30.

29.

^^-.

39.

32.

a2

34.

J.

^(107r + 9 x/3).

1--J.

(7r

+ 2).
bmi*s4

44.

(i.)

(ii.)

nr

7'

odd

'

'

^-.
4

12
28. TT( 6 2

'

)-

40. 7raj(a-b).

41.

a2

42.

7rV2

ANSWERS.

CHAPTEE

3.

299

XI.

PAGE

187.

PAGE

191.

2.
3.

If the sides be a, 6, c ; s the semiperimeter ; and h^

distances of the midpoints from the given line,

= 27r(aA 1 + bh2 + cA3

=
volume -^(hi + h 2 + k 2 )>Js(s - a)(s - b)(s - c).

surface

),

PAGE
1.

a = rad.

If

of base,

h = altitude,

= slant height,
surface = Tral,
volume = ^TraPk.

193.

5.

27ra 3 (log e 2

6.

Surface

8.

10.

PAGE

(i.)

fi

'ass=-g-,
)

(ii.)

(iii.)

(11.)

J7r

x=

a3

2 3
TV7T a

XII.

201.

y=^ m
(

-)

M--

J=l

a)

).

=%2-7ra

volume =irV.

CHAPTER

1.

y = 2Z

Z.

2
,

h^ h 3 the

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

300
3.

f of length of rod from end of zero density.

If

^length,

5'

PAGE

207.

1.

Let 20 be the angle, a the radius, the median the

2.

5=

2,

about tang.,

n+4'

about diam.,

4.

If^1= _A^3,
m w
Mom.

m
m

and

In.

about ^-axis =
6.

Area

_.

2(3v/3-7r)'

Mom. In.
a

7.

(1) \
f

(i)

9
K^,

jr^,

(2) (a)

??V
R /

3v'3-7T
(2)

(2)

2
Hijfa
^^

(3)

initial line,

ANSWERS.

CHAPTER
PAGE
1.

x tan x - log

sec

301

XIII.

215.

x =y tan y - log

sec y

+ C.

3
3.

5.

6.

9.

(1)
(2)

10.

y = (7e
?y2

(3)

= 2^ + a

(4)

PAGE
1.

2ye
2

iAn ~ lx

~
==e2i&n lx

219.

+O.

+ b' )y = a sin bx
2

2.

(a

3.

rO = a

b cos bx + Ce~ ax

+ C.

-I

o.

6.

X6

ye

^=

tan

-f~ C/.

1^2.

x sin ?/

v*= 2V^7 + a

13.

x log 2

2^7 2

= ^L+
2^? 2

2
9.

-L_JLf(7.
^cy

15.

i=i+
7*
a

16.

JU= --

2.^^

(7.

"{"C/.

Cfe'

(7.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

302

18. (1)

f^

2#2

(2) (a

+C-.

+ & 2 y = a sin bx-b cos 6^ + (7e

(3) si

CHAPTEE
PAGE

XIV.

223.

- =

2.

2x/73

where v=yjx.
3.

i-I = a

4,

The jo-eliminant

y=

of

and
5.

<y=

The jo-eliminant

of

y=x(Ap* + Bp + C), and

-1> + 0}
_
7- (B'

\/4^6Y -(^-

I)

PAGE

226.
2,

4.
5.

.r-

6.

Gy-S^-^

7.

8.

(y-^)

I)

ANSWERS.
PAGE

303

230.
3.

+ C,

4.

o~s
5.

6,

c<

2.

y = Cx + C\

3.

y=

4.

y=

PAGE

232.

PAGE

233.

5.

logp-p + C

?/

n
p x = (n-

2.y=apx+p\

]
6.

JL

1 ^

v=

3a

I
8.

3a ~ 2

3^
2

A rectangular hyperbola.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

304
9.

Parabolae touching the axes.

10.

Hyperbolae.

11.

A four-cusped hypocycloid x*+y*' =0?.

12.

8?/=(2^-l)

13.

y=

y=c

2
2/

=&

lines

cos 3 6>
,

14.

-jTpj

3c sin

a series of conies touching the four straight

x*J^Ay =

\A#, the singular solution.

CHAPTEE XV.
PAGE

238.
C

1.

y=x\ogx+Ax + B.

6.

2.

y = acosh(- + 6\

7.

3.

4.

x+b= J\-

2y =

,-^

+&

9.

y = 6 tan
/1

5.

(^-^)2 + (y -J5)

=a 2
11.

10.

y = Ex*

PAGE

2.
3.

(a)

^3-^2+? =
(o)

Ax log x.
242.

dy
-

ANSWERS.

CHAPTER
PAGE

bx
ax
y = Ae +Be

2.

y=*Af*+ Be** +&"*.

XVI.

251.

In the results of the following set

constants
1.

305

all capitals

denote arbitrary

3.

y= Ae x + fie** + Ce5x

4.

y=(

cos

+ B cos a? + <7e~ fsin *? + Z)e~ fcos

8.

y=A

9.

y = (A +

10.

y = (-4 +

11.

y(44-^+^^+l)^4<i^^)tf-^

12.

y = (A + -5j?)sin a# + ((7+ Z)^)cos GW7 + E sin fo? + F cos &#

sin

a?

0)siii ^P

^+

+ ((7+ 7>o?)cos

Cfeajsin

a?

+ (Z) + JEr + ^r2)cos a?

PAGE

PAGE 256

254.

(First Set).

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

306

PAGE 256 (Second

Set).

-tan- 1 -), d/

^(sin
2.

x cosh #

\ sin 2#, J cos x,

cos

x sinh #).

^ sin %x.
PAGE
g(^

258.
4
2
a^+(a - 6a + l)cos

l)sin

2 cos a? cosh x.

PAGE

~K
10

3.

2^7

+-

PAGE
(i)
/ON
(2)

x sin 2#
(6) -(cosh

x
(7)

(4)

(8)

(2)

+-

jsin^

5/

263.

(3) -cosh;*.

(1)

^7

-* c i.
j-r-

2.

)cos^7

5/

l.\

1.

260.

*(!

y-.
y=.

- sin
t

(5

^r

+ cos

or).

(e^_e^ + e
~^~Zb
ar

sin 2 -.
2

ANSWERS.
(3)

y=A

307

sw
6

2 cos#).

-(sin#
5

(4)

y = (4 1

(5)

yr^ +

(6)

y = J jer

(7)

y=A1

+{(#

3)cos a?

a?

sin

^r

(8)

(9)

(10)

25

y = ^L

e
1

ar

+^l2 e

ar

~t cos x coshe

y=(J 1
i

+ i-^ sin^+^
8
2

PAGE

265.

>g
1.

y = A^m(q log #) + A 2cos(q log

2.

y = A ism(q log x) + ^ 2 cos(^ log ^) +

4.

5.

r2

sin(log

^7)

^7).
'

^/

2 cos(log a?)

__

~~

log x cos(^ log ^

y = ^! sin | log(a + bx) \ + J 2 COS | T lg( a + ^)

-j

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

308

CHAPTER
PAGE
3.

XVII.

269.

= be~ e ^ a

PAGE

4.

= l-cos<9.

276.

2.

Put tany=2

3.

Putt a + bx=S; y = C(a

C( + bx)^ + D(a +

tan?/

where m^

5.
6.
7.
8.

9.

..,

b{n-\-Ao)

are the roots of the equation

2

4.

x* - no +

= tan~^ y =
Put = sin~ o? y=^
Put 6^ = ^, ^=77; (<*-ex +iy*=A.
Put

Put sin^=^, siny=?7 (siny

=
(a) y
=
(b) y
^^3 sin(log x) + JB^cosQ.og x).
(c) y
;

y + Z = A sin 3x + B cos 3x + C si
32= - 6(^1 sin 3x + B cos 3a?) + (C7siii 4r + D cos 4^).
10.

GLASGOW

= Ad\

11.

2/

=^

PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND

CO.

WHICH BORROWED

Publication 'Fdue on the

and

LAST DATB

HOUR stamped below

j5Cs

JUL

.,.
(F5759slO)4188

n e 'al Library
niversity of California
.

Berkeley

ASTRGitiGf".;