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PressureVessels
Fromprocessdesign

Title:PressureVessels
Author:DavidChen
Steward:FengqiYou
DatePresented:January13,2014/DateRevised:January14,2014

Contents
1Introduction
2DesignsandCodes
3DesignTemperature
4DesignPressure
5DesignLoads
6MaximumAllowableStress
7Materials
8WallThickness
9CorrosionAllowances
10Construction
10.1Fabrication
10.2EndClosures
10.3Supports
10.4WeldedJoints
10.5HighPressureVessels
10.5.1Shrinkfittedcylinders
10.5.2Multilayercylinders
10.5.3Woundvessels
10.5.4Autofrettage
11LiquidStorageTanks
12Testing
12.1Nondestructivetesting
12.2PressureTesting
13Fatigueinducedfailure
14Conclusion
15References

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Introduction
CodesforpressurevesselscanbefoundintheASME
BoilerandPressureVesselCode(ASMEBPVcode).
Whilethereisnoformaldefinition,generallyany
closedvesselover150mmindiameterandthatwill
experienceapressuredifferenceofgreaterthan0.5bar
canbeclassifiedaspressurevessels.Typesof
equipmentthatcanfitthesedescriptionsincludemany
reactors,separationcolumns,flashdrums,heat
exchangers,surgetanks,andstoragevessels.Pressure
vesselswithawallthickness:diameterratiooflessthan
1:10canbeclassifiedasthinwalled,andtherest,thick
walled(TowlerandSinnott,2013).Pressurevessels
typicallyconsistofacylindricalshellandellipticalor
Exampleofapressurevessel.
hemisphericalheadsattheends(Petersand
Timmerhaus,2003).Generally,chemicalengineerswill
notbedirectlyinvolvedindetailedmechanicaldesignofpressurevessels.Thiswillbehandledby
mechanicalengineerswithexperienceinthefield.However,chemicalengineerswillneedtounderstand
basicconceptsofpressurevesseldesigninordertoestimatecostsandcommunicatespecificationstothose
whowillcarryoutthedesign.Mostcorrelationsforestimatingcostdependheavilyontheweightandtype
ofmaterialused.(PetersandTimmerhaus,2003TowlerandSinnott,2013).
Basicdatarequiredbypressurevesseldesignengineer.Itwillbeimportantforchemicalengineerand
vesseldesignengineertocommunicateveryclosely(TowlerandSinnott,2013):
1.Vesselfunction
2.Processmaterialsandservices(corrosion,deposits,etc.)
3.Operatingconditions(temperatureandpressure)
4.Materialsofconstruction
5.Dimensionsandorientation
6.Typeofvesselheadstobeused
7.Openingsandconnectionsrequired
8.Heating/coolingrequirements
9.Agitationrequirements
10.Specificationofinternalfittings
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DesignsandCodes
Manycountrieshavecodesandstandardsconcerningpressurevessels.Complianceisusuallylegally
required.Thecodesprovideguidanceondesign,materialsofconstruction,fabrication,inspection,and
testing.InNorthAmerica,theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersBoilerandPressureVesselCode
(ASMEBPVCode)isused.Therearetwelvesections,andsectionVIIIhasthreesubdivisions.Thesection
titlesarelistedbelow.Othersetsofcodesexistforstoragetanks,fittings,andpiping.Itisimportantto
alwaysusethemostrecentrevisionsindesign(TowlerandSinnott,2013).
TABLE"AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineersBoilerandPressureVesselDesignCodes"
IRulesforconstructionofpowerboilers
IIMaterials
IIINuclearpowerplantcomponents
IVRulesforconstructionofheatingboilers
VNondestructiveexamination
VIRecommendedrulesforthecareandoperationofheatingboilers
VIIRecommendedguidelinesforthecareofpowerboilers
VIIIRulesfortheconstructionofpressurevessels
VIII.D1
VIII.D2Alternativerules
VIII.D3Alternativerulesfortheconstructionofhighpressurevessels
IXWeldingandbrazingqualifications
XFiberreinforcedplasticvessels
XIRulesforinserviceinspectionofnuclearpowerplantcomponents
XIIRulesforconstructionandcontinuedserviceoftransporttanks

DesignTemperature
Differenttemperatureallowancesareusedaboveandbelownormaloperatingtempratures.For
temperaturesbetween30and345C,Turtongivesamaximumallowanceof25Cabovemaximum
operatingtemperatureshouldbeincluded(Turtonetal.,2012).Abovethis,anevenhigherdesign
allowanceisused(TowlerandSinnott,2013).Towler/UOPgives50Fabovethemaximumoperating
temperatureand25Fbelowtheminimum(TowlerandSinnott,2013).
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Maximumallowablestressishighlydependentontemperature,becausemetalsweakenwithincreasing
temperature.Thevesselshouldnotoperateathighertemperaturethanthehighestatwhichthemaximum
allowablestresswasevaluated.
Thereisalsoaminimumtemperatureforwhichthevesselcanbeguaranteedtooperatesafely.Metalsmay
becomebrittleatverylowtemperatures(TowlerandSinnott,2013).Theminimumdesignmetlatemperaure
(MDMT)isthelowesttemperaturethatcanbeexpectedinthevessel(TowlerandSinnott,2013).
Inspecifyingthemaximumandminimumtemperatures,disturbancescausedbyupstreamprocessesand
externalfactorsneedtobetakenintoaccount.Thesedisturbancesmayinclude:transientconditions,upsets,
autorefrigeration,climate,othercoolingfactors(TowlerandSinnott,2013).

DesignPressure
Vesselsareoftenoverdesignedrelativetothemaximumoperatingpressure.Turtonsuggestsdeisgn
pressuresofeither10%or0.691/7barabovethemaximumoperatingpressure,whicheverisgreater.The
maximumoperatingpressureistakena1.7barabovenormaloperation.forexample,thedesignpressureof
avesselthatnormalloperatesat00.69barand95540Cis2.76barg(Turtonetal.,2012).Towler
suggestsoverdesignofvesselpressuresby510%.
Forvesselsthatwillexperienceexternalpressure,designpressureisbasedonthemaximumdifference
betweeninternalandexternalpressure.
Vesselsthatmaypotentiallyexperiencevacuum
conditionsmustbedesignedtoresistanegative
pressureofonefullatmosphere.Becauseofthelarge
surfaceareasofsomevessels,evenamodestvacuum
canleadtocollapse.Circumstancesthatmayleadto
vacuumconditionsinclude:startup/shutdown
procedures,coolingvesselswithcondensablevapors,
pumpingordrainingwithoutproperventing,orsome
otherunexpecteddisturbance(TowlerandSinnott,
2013).

DesignLoads

Collapseofrailroadtankcarduetosteam
condensationcausedbycoldexternaltemperatures.
Thereliefvalveallowedvaportoventoutwards,
buttherewasnovacuumrelief.

Pressurevesselsandthestructuresusedtosupportthem
mustbeabletoresistdeformationandcollapsewhen
subjectedtovariousloads,classifiedintomajorand
subsidiaryloads.Majorloadsmustalwaysbe
consideredinthedesignofapressurevessel,whilesubsidiaryloadsonlyneedtobesubjectedtoformal
stressanalysiswhenthereisnootherwaytoshowthattheycanbesupported.Subsidiaryloadscanoftenbe
evaluatedbycomparisonwithexistingvessels.
Loadsclassifiedasmajorloadsincludedesignpressure,takingintoaccountpressureheadsmaximum
operationalweight,maximumweightundertesting,wind,earthquake,andloadssupportedbythevessel.
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Loadsclassifiedassubsidiaryloadsinclude:localstressescausedbysupports,internalstructures,and
connectingpipes,shockloadscausedbywaterhammerorsurging,bendingmomentsduetodisplacement
ofcenterofpressure,loadscausedbydifferencesintemperatureandthermalexpansioncoefficients,and
thosecausedbyfluctuationsoftemperatureandpressure.
Theworstcasescenarioshouldbeconsidered,andthatthedesignshouldbebasedaroundthatloading.

MaximumAllowableStress
Themaximumallowablestressisobtainedbyapplyingasafetyfactortothemaximumstressthatthe
materialcanwithstandunderstandardtestingconditions.Thisallowsforpossibledeviationsfromideal
materialpropertiesandidealvesselconstruction.
TheASMEBPVCodeSectionIIPartD,MandatoryAppendix1detailsmethodsonobtainingmaximum
allowablestress.Itisdifferentdependingonwhethercreepandstressrupturearedominantamongthe
variousstressesthatarepresent.

Materials
Steelisthemostcommonmaterialusedinconstructionoftanksandpressurevessels.Otherconstruction
materialsincludeotheralloys,wood,concrete,orfiberreinforcedplastics(somelowpressure
applications).
Materialsmustbechosenthatwillbeabletoresistdeformationandfailureattheprocesstemperatureand
pressure,andbecompatiblewiththeinternalmaterial.(PetersandTimmerhaus,2003TowlerandSinnott,
2013).Otherfactorsforselectionincludeeaseoffabrication,availabilityofparts,andcost(Towlerand
Sinnott,2013).

WallThickness
Therequiredwallthicknessofavesselwilldependonmanyfactors,including:thestrengthofthemetalat
operatingconditions(temperatureandpressure),diameterofthetank,andthejointefficiencies.According
toPeters,in"PlantDesignandEconomicsforChemicalEngineers,"minimumwallthickness,notincluding
corrosionallowances,shouldnotbelessthan2.4mmforweldedorbrazedconstructionand4.8mmfor
rivetedconstruction.Thicknessforunfiredsteamboilersshouldnotbelessthan6.35mm.(Petersand
Timmerhaus,2003)Turtongivesheuristicsforwallthicknessforrigiditybasedonvesseldiameter:4mm
(0.25in)for1.07m(42in)diameterandlessthan8.1mm(0.32in)for1.071.52m(4260in)diameter,and
11.7mm(0.38mm)formorethan1.52m(60in)diameter(Turtonetal.,2012).
ASMEBPVCodeSectionVIIID.1statesthatwallthicknessshouldalwaysbeatleast1/16in,not
consideringcorrosionallowance,material,ordimensions.
Minimumwallthicknessesdonotincludecorrosionallowances.(1113)

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CorrosionAllowances
Ingeneral,corrosionallowanceswillrangefrom1.55mm.Corrosionallowancesforheattransfer
equipmentaresmaller,becausewallthicknesshasanimportanteffectonheattransfer(TowlerandSinnott,
2013).
Corrosionanderosionwillleadtoeventualthinningofwalls,whichcompromisesmechanicalintegrity.
Corrosionallowanceisconstructingthevesselswiththickerwallstoallowforthethinning.thePeters,
Timmerhaus,andWestsuggest0.25to0.38mmannuallyor3mmfor10years.
Turtonetal.(2012)suggestacorrosionallowance8.9mm(0.35in)forknowncorrosiveconditions,3.8mm
(0.15in)fornoncorrosivestreams,and1.5mm(0.6in)forstreamdrumsandairreceivers.
Incaseswherecorrosionisnegligibleoverthelifetimeofavesselordoesnotoccur,thevesselcanbe
designedwithoutthecorrosionallowance(TowlerandSinnott,2013).

Construction
Mostpressurevesselsarecylindrical(swagedvesselsareanexception)andhaveintegerlength:diameter
ratios(2:1,3:1,4:1).Verticalvesselsaremorecommonlyusedthanhorizontalones.Thisisbecauseitis
easiertohaveuniformdistributionacrossthecrosssection,andtheytakeuplessspace.However,there
maybecasesinwhichhorizontalvesselsmaybepreferable.Theycanbeusedtopromotephaseseparation
(indecanters,settlingtanks,separators,andflashvessels),andtoalloweasyaccesstocleantheinside(in
heatexchangers).

Fabrication
Ingeneral,vesselshellsaremadebyrollingandwelding.Itiseasierforthinwalls,howevertheremaystill
bedifficultyforsmalldiameters.Vesselswiththickerwallsmayneedtobedrumforged.Theendclosures
areusuallyforged,andauxiliarycomponentssuchasnozzlesandsupportringsareweldedon.Postweld
heattreating(PWHT)isusedtorelieveresidualstressescausedbyformingandjoining.

EndClosures
Theheadsontheendsofthevesselscanbehemispherical,ellipsoidal,ortorispherical.Hemispherical
headshavegreaterinternalvolumesthanellipsoidalheads,whichhavegreaterinternalvolumesthan
torisphericalheads.Theinternalvolumesarecorrelatedwiththecostofeachtypeofhead.Tangentand
weldlinesusuallyarenotthesame.Tangentlinesarewherethecurvatureends.Weldlinesarewherethe
closuresareattached.Differentkindsofweldscanbeused.ASMEBPVCodehasguidelinesconcerning
weldtypesandinspection.
Gasketedjointscanbeusedthenvesselsneedtobefrequentlyopened,andforinstrumentconnections.
However,theyarenotusedathightemperatureorpressuresbecausetheymayfail,andweldsarestronger.
Theyarealsomorepronetoleaksthanweldedjoints(TowlerandSinnott,2013).
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Supports
Differentsaddleswillbeuseddependingonavarietyoffactors.Thesefactorsincludevesseldimensions
andweight,temperatureandpressure,arrangement,andfittingsandattachments.Saddlesareusuallyused
forhorizontalvessels.Skirtsupportsverticalcolumns.Bracketsalltypesofvessels.

WeldedJoints
TheASMEBPVCodeSectionVIIID.1definesfourkindsofweldsandcriteriafortheirevaluation
(TowlerandSinnott,2013).
A.Longitudinalorspiralweldsinthemainshell,necks,
ornozzles,orcircumferentialweldsconnecting
hemisphericalheadstothemainshell,necksornozzles
B.Circumferentialweldsinthemainshell,necks,or
nozzlesorconnectingaformedheadotherthan
hemispherical
C.Weldsconnectingflanges,tubesheets,orflatheads
tothemainshell,aformedhead,neckornozzle
D.Weldsconnectingcommunicating

HighPressureVessels
Highpressuresareoftenrequiredtocarryoutchemical
processes.SectionVIIIDivision2oftheASMEBPV
Codeprovidesguidelinesforpressurevesselsthatwill
experiencepressuresabove2000psia.Therearestricter
restrictionsandrequirementsregardingoperating
temperaturesandstressanalysisandtesting.Divison3
ofSection8providesguidelinesforpressuresabove
10,000psia(680bar).

Differentgeometriesofendcaps:a)hemispherical
b)ellipsoidalc)torispherical

Athighpressures,compoundvesselsareoftenused
insteadofsinglewalledvessels,whichmayhavedifficultyprovidingthenecessarystrength(Towlerand
Sinnott,2013).

Shrinkfittedcylinders
Onewayofcreatingcompoundvesselsistousemultiplecylinderssuchthattheouterdiameteroftheinner
cylinderislargerthantheinnerdiameteroftheouterone.Theoutercylindercanbeexpandedbyheating,
andcompressestheinnercylinderwhencooled.Multiplecylindersmaybeused.

Multilayercylinders
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Multilayercylindersaremadebywrappingthinplatesaroundatubeinlayers.Theyareheated,tightened,
andwelded.

Woundvessels
Woundvesselsarecylindricalvesselsreinforcedby
windingonwireorthinribbonsundertension.The
stripscanbeinterlockedtoprovidemorestrengthfor
highpressureapplications.

Autofrettage
Theinternalsurfaceofthevesselissubjecttoenormous
pressurestoprestressit.Whenreleased,theinsidewill
beundercompressionbytheoutside.Thevesselcanbe
useduptotheautofrettagepressurewithoutfurther
deformation.

Diagramofshrinkfittedcylinders.Theinner
cylinderisundercompressionbytheoutercylinder.

LiquidStorageTanks
Verticalcylindricaltanksarecommoninindustryfor
storageofliquid.Volumescanrangefromafew
hundredtoseveralthousandgallons.Themainloadfor
thesetanksisthehydrostatichead.However,tankswith
largeverticalprofilesmayneedtoaccountforwind
loading,andperhapssnowonthetopaswell.

Testing
Nondestructivetesting

FibreglasswoundundergroundvesselfromZCL
Composites.

Nondestructivetestingmethodsarewaysofevaluatingtheintegrityofavesselwithoutcompromisingit.
Inspectionsneedtobecarriedoutfornewvesselsandregularlyonceoperationbegins.
Thesimplestisavisualinspectionforcracksordefectsonthesurface.Itisalsothecheapest,requiringonly
aninspector.
Radiographyisusedtodetectsubsurfacecracksanddefects.Itisdifficultandexpensive,andmayrequire
specializedinspectors.Itisrequiredbythecodeincertaincases.
Ultrasonicdetectioncanbeusedduringoperationtodetectwallthinning.

PressureTesting
TheASMEBPVCoderequirespressuretestingwithaninspectorpresentbeforevesselscanbeapproved.
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Bothhydraulicandpneumaticpressuretestsareused.Hydraulictestingispreferredtopneumaticforsafety
reasonsbecausemuchlessenergyisstoredincompressedliquidthanincompressedgas(Towlerand
Sinnott,2013).
Theequationbelowistypicallyusedtodetermineanappropriatetestpressure(TowlerandSinnott,2013).

Where:
=designpressure,N/mm^2
=maximumallowablestressattesttemperature,N/mm^2
=maximumallowablestressatthedesigntemperature,N/mm^2
=corrosionallowance,mm
=actualplatethickness,mm
Adjustmentsaremadeforthetestinganddesigntemperature.Ifthethicknesscannotbecalculatedusing
knownmethods,ahydraulicprooftestisrequiredbytheASMEBPVCode(TowlerandSinnott,2013).

Fatigueinducedfailure
Stresscyclescanoccurasaresultofnormaloperations.Possibleperiodiccausesinclude:
1.Fluctuationsinpressure
2.Temperaturecycling
3.Vibrations
4.Waterhammer
5.Fluctuationsinflowoffluidsorsolids
6.Fluctuationsinexternalload
Theendurancelimitisthenumberofcyclesforfailureatagivensetofconditionsofcyclicstress.Ifthis
numberofcyclesisexceeded,thevesselwillfail(TowlerandSinnott,2013).

Conclusion
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Manyprocessesinthechemicalindustryarecarriedoutatpressuresgreaterthantheatmosphere.Gasesare
alsocompressedandstored.Anyvesselthatwillexperienceapressuredifferencebetweenthesidesofthe
wallsmustbestrongenoughtowithstandit.Usuallythedifferenceisbetweentheinsideandtheexternal
atmosphere,butitcanalsoexistinternally,asinaheatexchanger.Alargeamountofpotentialenergycan
existasapressuredifference,andcorrectdesignofpressurevesselsisanintegralparttoplantsafety.As
such,therearecodesandstandardsguidingallaspectsofusingthem.InNorthAmerica,theAmerican
SocietyofMechanicalEngineersBoilerandPressureVesselCode(ASMEBPVCode)isused.While
chemicalengineerswillgenerallynotcarryouttheimmediatedesign,theywillneedtocommunicate
specificationsbasedontheirunderstandingofprocessconditionstothevesseldesignengineers.

References
PetersMS,TimmerhausKD.PlantDesignandEconomicsforChemicalEngineers.5thed.NewYork:
McGrawHill2003.
TowlerG,SinnottR.ChemicalEngineeringDesign:Principles,PracticeandEconomicsofPlantand
ProcessDesign.2nded.Boston:Elsevier2013.
TurtonR,BailieRC,WhitingWB,ShaewitzJA,BhattacharyyaD.Analysis,Synthesis,andDesignof
ChemicalProcesses.4thed.UpperSaddleRiver:PrenticeHall2012.
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