Phytochem Rev

DOI 10.1007/s11101-013-9295-3

What makes Allium species effective against pathogenic

microbes?
Virginia Lanzotti Giuliano Bonanomi
Felice Scala

Received: 18 January 2013 / Accepted: 17 April 2013

Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract The antimicrobial activity of garlic

(Allium sativum L.) has been known since ancient
times. The first citation dates back to the Egyptian
period of fifteenth century BC when garlic was
reported to be used in folk medicine as a remedy for
microbial infections. Scientific investigations on garlic started in 1858 with the work of Pasteur who first
noted antibacterial properties of garlic extracts. From
that date to the discovery of antibiotics, garlic has been
used against amoebic dysentery and epidemic diseases
such as typhus, cholera, diphtheria, and tuberculosis.
But what makes garlic and Allium species effective
against pathogenic microbes? The volatile allicin and
other thiosulfinates, giving pungency to Allium plants,
are well-studied antimicrobial agents. The thiosulfinates can decompose to form additional sulfur
constituents, including diallyl, methyl allyl, and
dipropyl mono-, di-, tri- e tetra-sulfides, and (E)- and
(Z)-ajoene without losing antimicrobial activity.
Besides these compounds, onion and garlic are
characterized by polar compounds of steroidal and
phenolic origin, often glycosilated, not pungent and
more stable during cooking, showing also antimicrobial activity. Recently, there has been increasing
scientific attention given to such compounds. Nitrogen
organic compounds, like alkaloids and polypeptides,
V. Lanzotti (&)
G. Bonanomi
F. Scala
Dipartimento di Agraria, Universita` di Napoli Federico
II, Via Universita` 100, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy
e-mail: lanzotti@unina.it

have also been isolated from these plants and have

shown antimicrobial activity. In this paper, the literature about the major volatile and non-volatile organic
compounds of garlic and other Allium plants has been
reviewed. Particular attention is given to the compounds possessing antimicrobial activity and to the
correlation between the observed activity and the
chemical structure of the tested compounds.
Keywords Garlic
Onion
Thiosulfinates

Saponins
Phenolics
Antimicrobial activity

Introduction
A great variety of chemical compounds with antimicrobial activity, traditionally known as secondary
metabolites, are produced by higher plants. Thousands
of diverse natural products, often involved in plant
defense against pest and pathogens, have been identified including terpenoids, saponins, phenolics and
phenylpropanoids, pterocarpans, stilbens, alkaloids,
glucosinolates, tiosulfinates and indoles among many
others (Dixon 2001). The phytochemical diversity of
plant antimicrobial compounds has been previously
reviewed by examining their involvement in constitutive (Wittstock and Gershenzon 2002) and inducible
chemical defenses (Hammerschmidt 1999), mechanisms of plant resistance (Morrisey and Osbourn

123

Phytochem Rev

1999) and fitness cost (Heil 2002). The potential

exploitation of such molecules for the control of plant
pathogens (Dixon 2001) has also been evaluated. The
genus Allium includes a great number of species
(between 600 and 750) (Stearn 1992; Jiemei and
Kamelin 2000), from which many antimicrobial
compounds have been extracted and identified.
The antimicrobial activity of extracts and oils
from garlic (Allium sativum), the most studied
species belonging to this genus, has been known
since ancient times. The first citation of this plant is
found in the Codex of Ebers (1550 BC), an Egyptian
medical papyrus reporting several therapeutic formulas based on garlic as a useful remedy for a
variety of diseases such as heart problems, headache,
bites and worms (Block 1985). Cloves of garlic have
been found in the tomb of Tutankhamen and in the
sacred underground temple of the bulls of Saqqara.
Egyptians thought garlic increased endurance and
they assumed large quantities of it. Raw plants were
routinely given to asthmatics and to those people
suffering bronchial-pulmonary complaints. Later on,
garlic was known by the Greeks and Romans, who
used it like an important healing agent just as it is
still used today by most of the people in the
Mediterranean region (Lanzotti 2005). Besides garlic, other Allium species (e.g. onion, shallot, leek,
chive, elephant garlic) are a rich source of phytonutrients, useful for the treatment or prevention of a
number of diseases, including cancer, coronary heart
disease, obesity, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes type

Fig. 1 Schematic
representation of major
chemical classes of natural
compounds from Allium
species with antimicrobial
activity. These natural
compounds have been
isolated from the different
plant tissues (roots, bulbs,
leaves and flowers) and
seeds

123

2, hypertension, cataract and microbe infection

(Lanzotti 2006, 2012).
Scientific research on these plants started in the
second half of the nineteenth century with the work of
Louis Pasteur who in 1858 first noted antibacterial
properties of garlic (Pasteur 1858). In 1932, Albert
Schweitzer treated amoebic dysentery in Africa with
garlic and, before the discovery of antibiotics, it was
also used for several epidemic diseases (e.g. typhus,
cholera, diphtheria, and tuberculosis). Recent research
has shown that garlic extracts and oils are effective
against a plethora of saprophytic, human- and plantpathogenic virus (e.g. Weber et al. 1992), bacteria (e.g.
Naganawa et al. 1996), fungi (e.g. Yoshida et al. 1987)
and protozoa (e.g. Millet et al. 2011). However, only
in the middle of the last century, Cavallito and Bailey
(1944) identified the most abundant and, among the
most potent, antimicrobial compound from garlic, the
thiosulfinate allicin (Fig. 1). Subsequent investigations attributed the antimicrobial properties of garlic to
allicin and other organosulfur compounds. However,
more recent studies on Allium species identify natural
compounds with antimicrobial activity of different
chemical classes, including saponins, flavonoids,
phenols, alkaloids and also peptides and proteins
(Fig. 1).
In this work we examine the chemical nature and
complexity of antimicrobial compounds discovered in
Allium plants, giving particular attention to the
correlation between their activity and chemical
structure.

Thiosulfinates
(allicin)

N-oxides & N-amides

Saponins & Sapogenins

(alliogenin)

Flavonoids (quercetin)

Phytochem Rev

Allicin, ajoene and other organosulfur compounds

with a hydroalcoholic solution, the enzyme was

inactivated and the disulfide compounds were not
found. These results demonstrate that the pungency of
garlic and Allium plants is associated with the sulfur
compounds which constitute up to 5 % of the dry
weight of the plant. These compounds originate from
allicin (1b) and thiosulfinates (e.g. 1623, Fig. 4),
which are quite unstable because of their thioester
bond, and give rise to further reaction during the
extraction and isolation procedures to form more
stable sulfoxides and sulfides (215, Fig. 3). All these
compounds are characterized by small terminal alkyl
chains, from one to three carbon atoms, connected to
sulphur atoms at different oxidation states.
The terminal alkyl chain could be also unsaturated
thus giving the 1-propenyl (named allyl from Allium)
or the 2-propenyl residue. This last group is present
with Z and E configurations and thus the compound
exists as a mixture of the Z and E isomers (e.g. 1819,
2021 and 2223, Fig. 4), because of a sigmatropic
rearrangement (Block 1985). This may also happen for
inner propenyl chains as in the case of ajoene, a
sulfoxide and sulfide compound, that has been isolated
in the E and Z isomers (2 and 3, respectively, Fig. 3)
and of its analogue 10-devinylajoene also isolated in
the two E and Z forms (14 and 15).
In nature, many plants, to avoid self-toxicity,
store antimicrobial compounds in the inactive forms
of non-toxic precursors. During pathogen attacks

Allicin (diallyl thiosulfinate) (1b, Fig. 2) (Cavallito

and Bailey. 1944) is not present in garlic bulbs.
However, when tissue is damaged, the precurson alliin
(S-allylcysteine sulfoxide) (1a, Fig. 2), that is present
in garlic bulbs at a concentration ranging from 5 to
14 mg g-1, immediately is transformed into allicin by
the enzyme alliinase. Figure 2 shows allicin biosynthesis starting from L-cysteine that for further reaction
with L-glutamic acid and S-2-propenyl carboxylic
acid, after decarboxylation, oxidation and isomerization, gives rise to the close precursor alliin. This last by
enzymatic catalysis of alliinase affords the corresponding sulfenic acid intermediate whose autocondensation in water phase results in the formation of
allicin.
Figure 3 reports the chemical structure of the
antimicrobial sulfoxide and sulfide compounds (2
15). This class of compounds was found first by
Wertheim (1844) and later on by Semmler who
identified the correct disulfide structure of the main
component of garlic (1982a) and onion (1982b)
distilled oil. Fifty years later, it was demonstrated that
these compounds are absent when the bulbs are frozen
in dry ice, pulverized, and extracted with acetone. The
garlic powder, obtained by this procedure, did not
have any pungency which, however, appeared after
the addition of water. When the powder was treated

NH2
HS

NH
L-Glu

CO2H

HS

L-Cys

Glu

CO2H
S

CO2H

NH

Glu
NH
Ox

CO2H

Glu

CO2H

L-Glu S-2-carboxylpropyl L-Cys

L-Glu L-Cys
O

NH

- CO2

Glu

CO2H

double bond
Isomerization
O

NH2

S
Alliin ( 1a)

O
Alliinase

CO2H

Sulfenic acid
Intermediate

Fig. 2 Allicin biosynthesis starting from L-cysteine that for

further reaction with L-glutamic acid and S-2-propenyl carboxylic acid after decarboxylation, oxidation and isomerization
gives rise to the close precursor alliin. This last by enzymatic

H2O
condensation

Allicin (1b)

catalysis of alliinase affords the corresponding sulfenic acid

intermediate whose autocondensation in water phase results in
the formation of allicin

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Phytochem Rev
Fig. 3 Sulfoxide and
sulfide compounds from
Allium

and/or when tissues are damaged, enzymes that

convert precursors into antimicrobial compounds are
made available (Hallahan 2000). In this way,
antimicrobial compounds are locally produced and
accumulated only when and where it is necessary
for defense against pathogens. Allicin (1b, Fig. 2),
although volatile, quite unstable and having a low
water solubility, is a potent antimicrobial compound.
It is able to inhibit at low concentrations, with an
LD50 often within the range of 320 lg ml-1, many
fungi, gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria,
pathogenic protozoa and also viruses (Table 1).
Antifungal activity of allicin was clearly demonstrated by Yamada and Azuma (1977) against
several important genera of human pathogens
including Candida, Cryptococcus, Trichophyton,
Epidermophyton and Microsporum. Allicin can act
synergistically with synthetic fungicides. An early
Fig. 4 Thiosulfinate
compounds from Allium

123

study found that streptomycin and chloramphenicol

synergize with allicin in inhibiting Mycobacterium
tuberculosis (Gupta and Viswanathan 1955). Jonkers
et al. (1999) reported a synergistic interaction
between the antibiotic vancomycin and allicin in
the inhibition of several antibiotic-resistant enterococci. A similar synergistic interaction was reported
between the cuprous ion, largely used as a broadspectrum fungicide, and allicin in the inhibition of
the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Ogita et al.
2005). The bactericidal activity of allicin has been
reported against at least 25 saprophytic and pathogenic bacteria such as Bacillus spp., Enterococcus
spp., Escherichia coli, Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio cholera (Table 1). Recently, Cutler and Wilson
(2004) reported that allicin was effective against
methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains.

Phytochem Rev
Table 1 List of organic sulfur compounds from the genus Allium with related antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic and antiviral
activities
Species name

Antimicrobial compounds

Activity

References

A. sativum

Allicin (1b)

Antifungal

Yamada and Azuma (1977), Yoshida

et al. (1987), Shadkchan et al.
(2004), Ogita et al. (2005), Bagiu
et al. (2012)

A. ursinum

Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus fumigatus
Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus terreus
Candida albicans
Candida krusei
Candida neoformans
Candida tropicalis
Cryptococcus sp.
Epidermophyton foccosum
Microsporum gypseum
S. cerevisiae
Torulopsis glabrata
Trichophyton ferrugineum
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
Trichophyton rubrum
Antibacterial
Acinetobacter baumanii
Bacillus dysenteriae
Bacillus enteriditis
Bacillus morgani

Cavallito and Bailey (1944), Gupta

and Viswanathan (1955), Feldberg
et al. (1988), Ankri and Mirelman
(1999), Jonkers et al. (1999), OGara
et al. (2000), Culter and Wilson
(2004)

Bacillus paratyphosus
Bacillus subtilis
Bacillus typhosus
Enterococcus durans
Enterococcus faecalis
Enterococcus faecium
E. coli
H. pylori
Klebsiella pneumonia
Mycobacterium tubercolosis
Proteus mirabilis
P. aeruginosa
S. typhimurium
Shigella flexneri
Shigella dysenteriae
S. aureus
Streptococcus hemolyticus
Streptococcus pyogenes
Streptococcus viridans
V. cholera

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Phytochem Rev
Table 1 continued
Species name

Antimicrobial compounds

Activity

References

Antiparasitic

Mirelman et al. (1987), Ankri and

Mirelman (1999), Millet et al.
(2011)

Crithidia fasciculate
Entamoebe histolytica
Giardia lamblia
Leishmania major
Leptomonas colosoma
Spironucleus vortens
Antiviral

Weber et al. (1992)

Herpes simplex virus type 1

Herpes simplex virus type 2
Parainfluenza virus type 3
Rhinovirus type 2
Vaccinia virus
Vesicular stomatitis virus
A. sativum

E- and Z-Ajoene (2, 3)

Antifungal
Alternaria solani
Alternaria tenuissima
Alternaria triticina

Yoshida et al. (1987), San-Blas et al.

(1989), Singh et al. (1990),
Naganawa et al. (1996), Yoshida
et al. (1998), Ledezma et al. (1999),
Ledezma et al. (2000)

A. niger
C. albicans
Candida valida
Colletotrichum sp.
Curvularia sp.
Fusarium lini
F. oxysporum
Fusarium semitectum
Fusarium udum
Hanseniaspora valbyensis
Kluyveromyces lactis
Paracoccidioides brasiliensis
Pichia anomala
S. cerevisiae
Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Tinea corporis
Tinea cruris
Tinea pedis
Antibacterial
B. cereus
B. subtilis
E. coli
K. pneumoniae
Lactobacillus plantarum
M. luteus
Mycobacterium phlei

123

Naganawa et al. (1996), Yoshida et al.

(1998)

Phytochem Rev
Table 1 continued
Species name

Antimicrobial compounds

Activity

References

P. aeruginosa
S. aureus
Streptomyces griseus
Xanthomonas maltophilia
Antiparasitic
Plasmodium berghei

Urbina et al. (1993), Perez et al.

(1994), Millet et al. (2011)

S. vortens
Trypanosoma cruzi
Antiviral

Weber et al. (1992)

Herpes simplex virus type 1

Herpes simplex virus type 2
Parainfluenza virus type 3
Rhinovirus type 2
Vaccinia virus
Vesicular stomatitis virus
A. sativum

Diallyl monosulphide (DAS) (4)

Antifungal

Tsao and Yin (2001)

A. flavus
A. fumigatus
A. niger
C. albicans
Candida glabrata
C. krusei
Antibacterial
Camplobacter jejuni

Chen et al. (1999), Tsao and Yin

(2001), Yin and Cheng (2003)

K. pneumoniae
L. monocytogenes
S. typhimurium
S. aureus
A. sativum

Diallyl disulphide (DADS) (5)

Antifungal

Allium odorum

A. flavus

A. cepa

A. fumigatus

Tsao and Yin (2001), Kim et al.

(2004)

A. niger
C. albicans
C. glabrata
C. krusei
Candida utilis
Antibacterial
B. cereus
Camplobacter jejuni
H. pylori

Naganawa et al. (1996), Chen et al.

(1999), OGara et al. (2000),
Tsao and Yin (2001), Yin and
Cheng ((2003)), Kim et al.
(2004)

K. pneumoniae
L. monocytogenes
S. typhimurium
S. aureus

123

Phytochem Rev
Table 1 continued
Species name

Antimicrobial compounds

Activity

References

A. sativum

Diallyl trisulphide (DATS) (6)

Antifungal

Yoshida et al. (1987), Tsao and

Yin (2001), Kim et al. (2004),
Liu et al. (2009)

Allium odorum

A. flavus

A. cepa

A. fumigatus
A. niger
C. albicans
C. glabrata
C. krusei
C. utilis
Penicillium expansum
Antibacterial
Cryptococcus neoformans
H. pylori

Shen et al. (1996), OGara et al.

(2000), Tsao and Yin (2001),
Kim et al. (2004)

S. aureus
Antiparasitic
E. histolytica

Lang and Zhang (1981), Lun et al.

(1994)

G. lamblia
Trichomonas vaginalis
Trypanosoma brucei
Trypanosoma congolese
Trypanosoma equiperdum
Trypanosoma evansi
A. sativum

Diallyl tetrasulphide (DATTS) (7)

Antifungal

Allium odorum

A. flavus

A. cepa

A. fumigatus

Tsao and Yin (2001), Kim et al.

(2004)

A. niger
C. albicans
C. glabrata
C. krusei
C. utilis
Antibacterial
H. pylori

Tsao and Yin (2001), OGara et al.

(2000), Kim et al. (2004)

S. aureus
A. sativum
A. cepa

123

Dipropyl disulfide (8); Dimethyl

trisulfide (9); Diethyl trisulfide
(10); Diproyl trisulfide (11);
Dimethyl tetrasulfide (12);
Diethyl tetrasulfide; Dipropyl
tetrasulfide (13)

Antifungal
C. utilis
Antibacterial
S. aureus

Kim et al. (2004)

Phytochem Rev
Table 1 continued
Species name

Antimicrobial compounds

Activity

References

A. sativum

E-10 devinylajoene (14); Z-10

devinylajoene (15)

Antifungal

Yoshida et al. (1998), Yoshida

et al. (1999a)

C. valida
H. valbyensis
K. lactis
P. anomala
S. cerevisiae
S. pombe
Antibacterial
B. cereus
B. subtilis
E. coli
K. pneumoniae
M. luteus
M. phlei
P. aeruginosa
S. aureus
X. maltophilia

A. sativum

Allyl methyl thiosulfinate (16)

Antiviral

Weber et al. (1992)

Herpes simplex virus type 1

Herpes simplex virus type 2
Parainfluenza virus type 3
Rhinovirus type 2
Vaccinia virus
Vesicular stomatitis virus
A. sativum

Methyl allyl thiosulfinate (17)

Antiviral

Weber et al. (1992)

Herpes simplex virus type 1

Herpes simplex virus type 2
Parainfluenza virus type 3
Rhinovirus type 2
Vaccinia virus
Vesicular stomatitis virus
A. sativum

S-(Z, E)-1-propenyl ester (18, 19);

2-propenesulfino thioic acid Smethyl ester (20, 21);
methanesulfino thioic acid S-(Z,
E)-1-propenyl ester (22, 23)

Antifungal

Yoshida et al. (1999b)

S. cerevisiae
S. pombe
Antibacterial
B. cereus
B. subtilis
E. coli
K. pneumoniae
M. luteus
P. aeruginosa
S. aureus
X. maltophilia

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Phytochem Rev

Allicin has a low toxicity towards mammalian cell

cultures with negative effects generally observed at
concentrations higher than 60 lg ml-1 (Ankri and
Mirelman 1999). The different responses of microbial
and mammalian cells to allicin is likely related to the
action mechanisms of this compound. The antimicrobial activity of allicin has been associated with the
inhibition of sulfhydryl-dependent enzymes (Wills
1956) such as alcohol dehydrogenase, thioredoxin
reductase, and RNA polymerase. In many cases, the
addition of both cysteine and glutathione reduced the
inhibitory effects of allicin because these two compounds react with allicin disulfide bond, thus preventing cell damage. Glutathione occurrence in
mammalian cells may explain their limited sensitivity
to allicin compared to microbial cells which contain a
very small amount of this compound (Davis 2005).
Ajoene takes its name from the Spanish word ajo
which means garlic. It is formed when allicin is
dissolved in several solvents including edible oils
(Block et al. 1984). Both E- and Z-ajoene exhibited
broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against grampositive and gram-negative bacteria (Yoshida et al.
1987; Naganawa et al. 1996), fungi (Yoshida et al.
1998; Ledezma et al. 2000) and protozoa (Perez et al.
1994; Millet et al. 2011; (Table 1). Moreover, the few
available studies indicate that ajoene has a more potent
antiviral activity compared to allicin and other Allium
derived organosulfur compounds (Weber et al. 1992).
As reported for allicin, the addition of cysteine greatly
reduces the inhibitory effect of ajoene, likely as a
result of the interaction between the amino acid and
the disulfide bonds of the compound (Naganawa et al.
1996).
Antimicrobial activity has been reported for several
allyl sulfide compounds (Table 1 and 47, Fig. 3) and
seems to be related to the number of disulfide bounds,
i.e. DATTS [ DATS [ DADS [ DAS (Tsao and
Yin 2001).
Saponins
Saponins are widespread in the plant kingdom (Sparg
et al. 2004; Vincken et al. 2007), as well as within the
genus Allium. In this review we found that saponins
have been extracted and identified from at least 38
different Allium species (Table 2). The majority of
available studies focus on common, cultivated species
such as garlic (A. sativum), onion (Allium cepa), leek

123

(Allium porrum), chinese onion (Allium chinense) and

chives garlic (Allium tuberosum). However, studies on
rare or wild species are also available (e.g. Allium
cyrilii, Allium leucanthum, Allium minutiflorum;
Table 2).
The isolated saponins are based on spirostanol,
furostanol and cholestanol aglycon (Fig. 5) (Lanzotti
2012). Structurally, they are C27 sterols in which
cholesterol has undergone modifications to produce a
spiroketal. In particular, the spiroketal function is
derived from the cholesterol side-chain by a series of
oxygenation reactions affording hydroxylation at C-16
and at one of the terminal methyls, and then producing
a ketone function at C-22. This intermediate is
transformed into the hemiacetal, an unstable intermediate that undergoes glycosilation reaction at C-26
thus obtaining the spirostanol aglycon or further
reaction giving rise to the corresponding spiroketal,
that is the spirostanol aglycon. This can be also
obtained by hydrolysis of the furostanol aglycon with
the releasing of the sugar unit(s) at C-26.
The cholesterol aglycon has been only found in A.
porrum and Allium nigrum, while the other skeletons
are both present at almost the same level (Lanzotti
2012). From the data in the literature it seems that the
spirostanol skeleton is typical of garlic taxa, while the
furostanol skeleton is typical for onion taxa. Figure 6
reports the more common sapogenins (2428) found in
these plants that constitute the spirostanol aglycon of
the corresponding saponins. Hydroxylation on the
skeletal core has been commonly found at position 2,
3, 5 and 6 as shown in Fig. 6.
Saponins from Allium species has many biological
properties including antispasmodic, cytotoxic, haemolytic, anti-inflammatory and antitumour activity
(Sparg et al. 2004). Surprisingly, only a few studies
have investigated their antimicrobial properties.
In this review, we found that only 9 out of 62 studies
concerning Allium saponins reported significant antifungal activity (Table 2). Among these, Barile et al.
(2007) reported three saponins, named minutosides
A-C tested against several fungal plant pathogens,
including Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum and
Rhizoctonia solani. In particular, minutoside B (29,
Fig. 7) was the major saponin plant tissue
(83.5 mg kg-1) and also showed the highest activity
in inhibiting spore germination and hyphal growth of
the tested fungi. Recent studies further reported that
several saponins from the common garlic var.

Phytochem Rev
Table 2 List of saponins from the genus Allium and related biological activities
Species name

Compounds

Activity

References

Allium
ampeloprasum

Six spirostanol saponins

Antifungal

Sata et al. (1998)

A. cepa

Three furostanol saponins

Mortierella ramanniana
Cytotoxic
Antifungal

Lanzotti et al. (2012b)

Alternaria alternata
A. niger
B. cinerea
F. oxysporum
Mucor sp.
Phomopsis sp.
R. solani
Sclerotium cepivorum
Trichoderma atroviride
T. harzianum
A. leucanthum

Five spirostanol saponins

Antifungal

Mskhiladze et al. (2008b)

A. minutiflorum

Two furostanol and three spirostanol saponins

Antifungal

Barile et al. (2007)

A. alternata
Alternaria porri
B. cinerea
F. oxysporum
F. oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici
Fusarium solani
P. ultimum
R. solani
T. harzianum
A. porrum

Four spirostanol saponins

Antifungal

Carotenuto et al. (1999)

F. culmorum
A. sativum

Ten furostanol and two spirostanol saponins

Antifungal

Lanzotti et al. (2012a)

B. cinerea
T. harzianum
A. sativum

One furostanol saponin

Antifungal

Matsura et al. (1988)

C. albicans
A. ursinum

Two spirostanol saponins

Antifungal

Sobolewska et al. (2006)

C. glabrata
Candida parapsilosis
Microsporum canis
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
Cytotoxic
Allium vineale

Nine spirostanol saponins

Antifungal

Chen and Snyder (1989)

P. expansum
Molluscicidal
Biomphalaria pfeifferei
Allium fistulosum

Nine furostanol saponins

Antihypoxic

Lai et al. (2010)

Allium
macrostemon

Three furostanol saponins

Antiplatelet

Ou et al. (2012)

A. sativum

One furostanol and three spirostanol saponins

Antiplatelet

Peng et al. (1996b)

A. cepa

Eleven furustanol saponins

Antispasmodic

Corea et al. (2005)

123

Phytochem Rev
Table 2 continued
Species name

Compounds

Activity

References
Barile et al. (2005)

Allium hirtifolium

Five furostanol and four spirostanol saponins

Antispasmodic

A. chinense

Two spirostanol saponins and one sapogenin

Antitumor; Cytotoxic

Baba et al. (2000)

Allium macleanii

Five spirostanol and one cholestanol saponins

Antitumor

Inoue et al. (1995)

A. porrum

Four sapogenins

Antitumor

Carotenuto et al. (1997)

Allium senescens

Two spirostanol saponins

Antitumor

Inoue et al. (1995)

Kuroda et al. (1995)

A. chinense

Six spirostanol saponins

ATPase inhibition

Allium giganteum

One spirostanol and two furostanol saponins

cAMP phosphodiesterase inhibition

Mimaki et al. (1994)

A. macrostemon

Eight furostanol saponins

Cellular Ca2? activity

Chen et al. (2006)

Allium aflatunense

Five spirostanol saponins

Cytotoxic

Mimaki et al. (1999a)

Allium
karataviense

One furostanol, five spirostanol saponins and

one sapogenin

Cytotoxic

Mimaki et al. (1999c)

Mskhiladze et al. (2008a)

A. leucanthum

Seven spirostanol saponins

Cytotoxic

A. nigrum

Eight spirostanol and two cholestanol saponins

Cytotoxic

Jabrane et al. (2011)

A. porrum

Six spiristanol and two cholestanol saponins

Cytotoxic

Fattorusso et al. (2000)

A. tuberosum

One spirostanol saponin

Cytotoxic

Sang et al. (2002)

A. macrostemon

Nine furostanol saponins

Cytotoxic, antitumour

Chen et al. (2007)

A. macrostemon

Two furostanol saponins

Cytotoxic; antitumour

Chen et al. (2009)

A. ampeloprasum

One spirostanol saponin

Haemolytic, anti-inflammatory,
gastroprotective

Adao et al. (2011a); Adao

et al. (2011b)

A. aflatunense

One spirostanol saponin

Not assessed

Kawashima et al. (1991)

Allium albanum

Five saponins

Not assessed

Ismaiiov et al. (1976)

Allium albiflorus

One saponin

Not assessed

Ismailov and Aliev (1976)

Allium
albopilosum

Two spirostanol and four cholestanol saponins

Not assessed

Mimaki et al. (1993)

A. ascalonicum

Four furostanol saponins

Not assessed

Kang et al. (2007)

Allium
atroviolaceum

One sapogenin and one spirostanol saponin

Not assessed

Zolfaghari et al. (2006)

A. cepa var.
tropeana

Eight furostanol saponins

Not assessed

Dini et al. (2005)

A. chinense

Two furostanol saponins

Not assessed

Peng et al. (1996a)

Allium cyrillii

Two spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Tolkacheva et al. (2012)

Allium elburzense

Eight furostanol and five spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Barile et al. (2004)

Allium erubescens

One spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Chincharadze et al. (1979)

A. fistulosum

Five spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Do et al. (1992)

A. fistulosum

Seven sapogenins

Not assessed

Lai et al. (2012)

A. giganteum

One spirostanol saponin

Not assessed

Kawashima et al. (1991)

A. giganteum

One sapogenin

Not assessed

Khristulas et al. (1970)

Allium jesdianum

One spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Mimaki et al. (1999b)

A. karataviense

Three spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Gorovits et al. (1973)

A. karataviense

Four spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Vollerner et al. (1978)

Allium
narcissiflorum

Two furostanol saponins

Not assessed

Krokhmalyuk and Kintya

(1976)

Allium nutans

Two furostanol and two spirostanol

Not assessed

Akhov et al. (1999)

Allium
ostrowskianum

One cholestanol saponin

Not assessed

Mimaki et al. (1993)

Allium rotundum

One furostanol and one spirostanol saponin

Not assessed

Maisashvili et al. (2012)

Allium rubellum

Four saponins

Not assessed

Ismaiiov et al. (1976)

Allium schubertii

One furostanol and three spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Kawashima et al. (1993)

123

Phytochem Rev
Table 2 continued
Species name

Compounds

Activity

References

Allium
sphaerosephalon

One furostanol saponin

Not assessed

Mimaki et al. (1996)

Allium triquetrum

Ten furostanol saponins

Not assessed

Corea et al. (2003)

A. tuberosum

Two spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Sang et al. (1999a)

A. tuberosum

Three furostanol saponins

Not assessed

Sang et al. (1999b)

A. tuberosum

Four spirostanol, three furostanol, and one

cholestanol saponins

Not assessed

Sang et al. (2003)

A. tuberosum

One spirostanol saponins

Not assessed

Zou et al. (2001)

Allium
turcomanicum

Five sapogenins and one saponin

Not assessed

Pirtskhalava et al. (1979)

Allium waldsteinii

Three sapogenins and five saponins

Not assessed

Gugunishvili et al. (2006)

Note that only in few cases (9 out of 62) antifungal activity was assessed

Voghiera (Lanzotti et al. 2012a), and onion (Lanzotti

et al. 2012b) have antifungal activity versus several
plant pathogens. In Fig. 7 the chemical structures of
voghieroside A (30) and ceposide B (31) are reported
both based on furostanol aglycon. Sobolewska et al.
(2006) demonstrated that two steroidal saponins from

Allium ursinum inhibited in vitro two Candida species.

Indeed, Allium species can produce a great diversity of
saponins that are stored in plant cells and have in vitro
antifungal activity. However, their role in plant
resistance against pathogens still has to be elucidated.
This contrasts with saponins from other plant species

Fig. 5 Aglycon
biosynthesis in Allium
saponins

123

Phytochem Rev

Fig. 6 Sapogenins isolated from Allium

such as oat (Avena sativa) and tomato (Salanum

lycopersicum) for which the role of avenacin and atomatine in plant defense has been clearly demonstrated (Morrisey and Osbourn 1999; MartinFig. 7 Examples of
saponins isolated from
A. minutiflorum, A. sativum
var.Voghiera, and A. cepa

123

Hernandez et al. 2000). Bowyer et al. (1995) reported

that the fungus Gaeumannomyces graminis var. avenae is able to infect oat because it produces the
enzyme avenacinase that detoxifies avenacins, the
antifungal oat saponins. To clarify the biological
significance of Allium saponins in plant defense, future
studies should assess if these compounds accumulate
in plant tissues at concentrations which can inhibit
pathogens in vivo, and identify the molecular mechanisms involved in their antimicrobial activity.
In contrast with organosulfur compounds, Allium
saponins have weak or negligible antibacterial activity.
Barile et al. (2007) tested five saponins on eight fungi
(Table 2), seven bacteria (Xanhomonas campestris pv.
campestris, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Streptomyces
turgidiscabies, Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae,
Clavibacter michiganensis pv. michiganensis, Bacillus mycoides and P. fluorescens) and an oomycete
(Pythium ultimum). The five saponins inhibited the
growth of all fungi but were ineffective against
Pythium and the tested gram-negative and grampositive bacteria. The different response of fungi,
oomycetes and bacteria to saponins is likely related to

Phytochem Rev

differences in their membrane structure. It has been

hypothesized that saponins exhibit their antimicrobial
activity by forming complexes with the sterols that are
present in the membrane of microorganisms, thus
damaging the membrane with consequent cell collapse
(Morrisey and Osbourn 1999). The limited toxicity of
saponins to pathogens such as the oomycetes Pythium
and Phytophthora may depend on the lack of sterols in
their membranes (Arneson and Durbin 1968; Barile
et al. 2007). Some reports indicate that saponins from
non-Allium plant species such as Acacia (Mandala
et al. 2005), Hedera (Cioaca et al. 1978), Medicago
(Avato et al. 2006) and Yucca (Wang et al. 2000) can be
inhibitory against bacteria. However, comparative
studies between fungi and bacteria usually indicate
that fungi are more sensitive than bacteria (e.g. Avato
et al. 2006; Barile et al. 2007), although the mechanisms underlying the different sensitivities are still
unclear.
Data obtained from antifungal tests carried out with
analogous saponins (Barile et al. 2007; Lanzotti et al.
2012a, b) allowed the definition of some structure
activity relationships that are summarized in Fig. 8,
where the pharmacophoric elements for this activity are
highlighted. In particular, positive effects have been
found for hydroxyls at positions 3 and 6, and a spirostane
aglycone, while negative effects have been found for a
furostane aglycone, for oxygenation at C-5, and increasing number of sugars at C-3. However, further studies are
needed to clarify the mechanism of action of saponins and
to determine how these compounds are detoxified by
pathogenic fungi resulting in the degradation of their
chemical structure with the loss of activity.
Despite the fact that in Allium species organosulfur
compounds, saponins, phenols, alkaloids and antimicrobial proteins occur together within plant tissues,
most studies have addressed only the antifungal
activity of single molecules. A recent study reported
that the antifungal activity of some saponins from A.
cepa against the plant pathogen B. cinerea and the
biocontrol agent Trichoderma harzianum can be
synergically enhanced when they are supplied in
combination (Lanzotti et al. 2012b).

more recently, to saponins, other antimicrobial compounds that belong to different chemical classes have
been discovered (Fig. 1; Table 3).
Several proteins and peptides with antimicrobial
activity have been found. For instance, the 10 kD
AceAMP1 protein from A. cepa inhibited twelve
fungal and two bacterial species (Phillippe et al. 1995).
Wang and Ng (2002, 2004) discovered ascalin and
allicepin, two peptides with antifungal activity from A.
ascalonicum and A. cepa, respectively. In addition, it
has been found in garlic and leek roots and bulbs the
presence of high amounts of two N-feruloyl amides,
N-feruloytyrosine (32) and N-feruloyltyramine (33)
(Fig. 9) (Fattorusso et al. 1999). Because the infusion
of garlic roots is used in traditional medicine as
antielminthic, the possible antimicrobial activity of
these two compounds was evaluated. Both compounds
were active against the pathogen Fusarium culmorum
with ED50 of 20 and 22 lg/ml, respectively. Recently,
ODonnell et al. (2009) discovered from A. stipitatum

Other organic compounds with antimicrobial

activity
Although the antimicrobial activity of Allium species
has been ascribed to organosulfur compounds and,

Fig. 8 Key pharmacophoric elements for the antifungal activity of Allium saponins

123

Phytochem Rev
Table 3 List of other organic compounds with antimicrobial activity extracted from the genus Allium
Species name

Compounds

Activity

References

A. ascalonicum

Ascalin (peptide)

Antifungal

Wang and Ng (2002)

B. cinerea
A. cepa

Allicepin (peptide)

Antifungal
B. cinerea

Wang and Ng (2004)

F. oxysporum
Mycosphaerella arachidicola
Physalospora piricola
A. cepa

Quercetin (Flavon) (41)

Antibacterial

Santas et al. (2010)

B. cereus
E. coli
L. monocytogenes
M. luteus
P. aeruginosa
S. aureus
A. cepa

Kaempferol (Flavon) (39)

Antibacterial

Santas et al. (2010)

M. luteus
S. aureus
A. cepa

Protein (10 kDAceAMPl)

Antifungal
Alternaria brassicola
Ascochyta pisi

Phillippe et al. (1995), Tassin et al.

(1998)

B. cinerea
Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum
F. culmorum
F. oxysporum f.sp. pisi
F. oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici
Nectria haematococca
Phoma betae
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis
Pyricularia oryzae
Verticillium dahliae
Antibacterial
Bacillus megaterium
Sarcina lutea
Allium
fistolosum

Fistulosin (octadecyl
3-hydroxyindole)

Antifungal
F. oxysporum
F. solani
Fusarium moniliforme
Verticillium dahliae
Penicillium roqueforti
Aspergillus oryzae
Magnaporthe grisea
Rhizopus oryzae

123

Phay et al. (1999)

Phytochem Rev
Table 3 continued
Species name

Compounds

Activity

References

A. porrum

Chitinase protein (34 kDa)

Antifungal

Vergawen et al. (1998)

Cercospora musae
C. lindemuthianum
Trichoderma viride
Trochoderma hamatum
A. sativum

Allivin (36 kDa protein)

Wang and Ng (2001)

Antifungal
B. cinerea
M. arachidicola
Physalospora piricola

A. sativum

N-amides (3233)

A. porrum
Allium
stipitatum

Antifungal

Fattorusso et al. (1999)

F. culmorum
Pyridine-N-oxide alkaloids (3436)

Antibacterial

ODonnell et al. (2009)

S. aureus
M. phlei
M. smegmatis
Mycobacterium fortuitum

A. tuberosum

Chitinase-like protein (36 kDa)

Lam et al. (2000)

Antifungal
B. cinerea
Coprinus comatus
F. oxysporum
M. arachidicola
R. solani

three pyridine-N-oxide alkaloids (3436, Fig. 9) with

potent antibacterial activity on fast-growing species of
Mycobacterium, methicillin-resistant S. aureus, and a
multidrug-resistant (MDR) variants of S. aureus.
Flavonoids are ubiquitous in photosynthesising
cells and are commonly found in fruits and vegetables.
The common flavonoids found in garlic and onion are
reported in Fig. 10 (3742) with their content in fresh
bulbs. Although preparations containing these compounds have been used for centuries to treat human
diseases, only recently this class of natural products is
becoming the subject of research about infectious
diseases, and many groups have isolated and identified
the structures of flavonoids possessing antifungal,
antiviral and antibacterial activity. In particular,
quercetin (41) and kaempferol (39), the major flavonoids from A. cepa, showed antibacterial activity to
Bacillus cereus, E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes,
Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and S.
aureus (Table 3). Concerning the mechanism of
action, it seems that the activity of quercetin and the
flavonoids with B-ring hydroxylation, could be

partially attributed to the inhibition of DNA gyrase

(Ohemeng et al. 1993), although other mechanisms
could not be excluded.

Conclusions
From the ancient Egyptian period to the discovery of
antibiotics, garlic has been used as an antimicrobial
remedy in folk medicine. Scientific investigations
have demonstrated that besides the well-studied
sulphur compounds there are other classes of compounds, e.g. saponins, flavonoids, nitrogen compounds and peptides, that make garlic and Allium
species effective against pathogenic microbes. Despite
the great number of antimicrobial compounds isolated,
Allium species may still be an important source of such
molecules. Isolation and identification of other antimicrobial compounds should be pursued to meet the
urgent need for new classes of drugs. However, the
development of more effective antimicrobial agents
or a group of agents can also be achieved through

123

Phytochem Rev
Fig. 9 Aromatic N-amides
and N-oxides from Allium

Fig. 10 Flavonoids in
onion and garlic and their
contents

Compound

Substituents

Onion content Garlic content

3
3
4
5
5
7
mg/Kg
mg/Kg
_________________________________________________ ___________________________________
Apigenin (37)
H
H
OH
OH
H
OH
n.d.
217
Isorhamnetin (38)
OH
H
OH
OH
H
OMe
m.a.
n.d.
Kaempferol (39)
OH
H
OH
OH
H
OH
832
n.d.
Luteolin (40)
H
OH
OH
OH
H
OH
391
n.d.
Quercetin (41)
OH
OH
OH
OH
H
OH
1497
47
Myricetin (42)
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH OH
n.d.
693
____________________________________________________________________________________
m.a. minor amounts; n.d. not detected

structural modifications of the already known compounds. Existing structureactivity data suggest that it
might be possible, for example, to prepare potent
antibacterial saponins by obtaining compounds with a
spirostanol skeleton and oxygenation at C-3 and C-6.
Further studies are also required to completely understand the mechanism of action of the known compounds. This is an important step to be able to use
these antimicrobial compounds to the maximum of
their potential. For instance, it has been shown that
these compounds may synergistically increase their
activity when they work together. Future studies can
address this issue by testing combinations of antimicrobial compounds (e.g. organosulfur compounds and
saponins) that co-occur in plant tissues. In addition,
characterization of the interaction between the antimicrobial compounds and their target sites could
reduce resistance mechanisms thus allowing the

123

design of second generation inhibitors that are more

active and less toxic.

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