Steel Making

Rolling Process
Metallurgical Aspects
Material Specifications and Chemistries
Standard Mill Practices
Miscellaneous Tables & Data
Elastic Section Modulus
Plastic Section Modulus
Moment of Inertia
SI Conversion Factors
Structural Shape Size Groupings for Tensile Property
Classifications
Nomenclature

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Modern Long Product Manufacturing

Process Flow Chart

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Steel Making Process

Gerdau Ameristeel utilizes the Electric Arc Furnace - Continuous Casting method in the
production of structural steel products.
Recycled steel scrap provides the raw material for the Electric Arc Furnaces (EAF). After the
scrap is loaded into the EAF, electrodes are lowered through the retractable roof into the EAF
near the scrap metal charge. Electricity transfers from one electrode to the scrap metal charge,
then back to another electrode. Heat to melt the scrap metal charge is developed by resistance
of the metal to the flow of the massive amount of electricity and by the heat of the arc itself.
Oxygen is injected into the EAF to speed up the melting process. Fluxes and alloys may be
added to EAF at the end of its melt cycle or at the ladle upon tapping the EAF to establish the
chemistry of the heat of steel.
Molten steel is tapped from the EAF to a ladle. The ladle is then sent to a ladle metallurgy
refining station (LMF). While the ladle is at LMF the chemistry of the heat of steel is verified
to determine that proper alloy additions were made during the tapping of the heat. Additional
alloys and fluxes may be added at the LMF if required. Homogenization of temperature and
chemistry of the heat of steel is accomplished by the bubbling of inert gas through the ladle.
Upon completion of LMF treatment the ladle is then sent to the continuous casting operation.
The continuous casting or strand casting operation produces billets, beam blanks, and near-net
shape profiles. These semi-finished products are utilized in the rolling mills to produce structural
shapes. Molten steel is poured through a slide gate controlled nozzle on the bottom of the ladle
into a tundish. The tundish acts as a reservoir and releases the molten steel in a continuous
stream through a series of nozzles in its base. The steel flows out at a steady rate into oscillating
molds. The hollow interior of the oscillating molds have inside dimensions corresponding to the
width and thickness of the billets, beam blanks, and near-net shape profile that is being cast. The
molds are contained within water cooled jackets that direct water flow around the outside walls
of the mold. As the surface of the metal begins to solidify, a thin skin is formed on the outer
edges. During this freezing operation, the metal in the mold continuously moves downward as
the mold oscillates up and down to keep the metal from sticking. As the billet leaves the mold,
it enters a secondary spray cooling process. The metal solidifies from the outside skin toward
the center as it continues to move through the process. When the metal has solidified, the billets,
beam blanks and near-net shape profiles are torch cut to length and may be direct charged to a
rolling mill or placed in inventory for rolling at a later date.

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Metallurgical Aspects
Gerdau Ameristeel produces Carbon and High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels for its structural
products.
Carbon Steel - Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for
chromium, columbium (niobium), molybdenum, nickel, titanium, vanadium, or any other element, to obtain
a desired alloying effect and when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 percent, or when
the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the following percentages:
manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60.
High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steel - is comprised of a group of steels with chemical composition
developed to impart higher mechanical property values and, in certain grades of these steels, greater
resistance to atmospheric corrosion than is obtainable from carbon steel.
Common Elements found in steel
Carbon - is used as a strengthening element. It is maintained at a level consistent with weldability and
ductility.
Manganese - contributes to strength and hardness.
Phosphorus - results in increased strength and hardness, and improves resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
Sulfur - higher levels decrease ductility, toughness and weldability, aids machinability.
Silicon - is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking and contributes to strength and hardness.
Copper - contributes to strength and enhances resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
Other elements such as chromium, columbium (niobium), molybdenum, nickel, nitrogen, titanium, and
vanadium may be added singly or in combination for their beneficial effects on strength, toughness,
atmospheric corrosion resistance, and other desirable properties.
Incidental or Residual Elements - In all steels small quantities of certain elements are unavoidably retained
from raw materials. This is especially true of steel produced from recycled steel scrap. The elements of
copper, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and tin are always present as residual elements in steel produced
from a scrap base. Unless the chemical composition of the steel specifies a minimum and maximum of these
elements, they and others that may be present are considered as incidental and are commonly referred to as
residual.

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Carbon Equivalent - To a good approximation, the weldability of steel can be estimated from its chemical
composition. The most significant alloying element effecting weldability is carbon. The effects of other
elements can be estimated by equating them to an additional amount of carbon. The total alloy content has
the same effect on weldability as an equivalent amount of carbon. Several empirical formulas have been
devised to calculate this carbon equivalent. The result of the calculation is expressed as Ceq or CE. The most
commonly used formula comes from the International Institute of Welding and is listed in the supplementary
requirements of ASTM A6/A6M and in Appendix XI of the AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code.
Heat Analysis - applies to the chemical analysis representative of a heat of steel as reported to the purchaser.
The analysis is determined by analyzing test samples obtained during the pouring of the steel for the
elements that have been specified, or for elements that are required to be reported. Samples representing the
first, middle, and last portion of the heat are used to survey uniformity. The average of the three samples is
reported on the Certified Material Test Report.
Product Analysis - A product analysis is a chemical analysis of the finished steel to determine conformance
to the specification requirements and is typically performed by the purchaser. The chemical composition
determined shall conform to the listed chemistry specified in the product specification subject to the product
analysis tolerances in ASTM A6/A6M. Product analysis tolerances are not to be applied to the chemistry
reported on a Certified Material Test Report.
Killed Steel - Carbon and oxygen react in the steelmaking process to form a gas. If the oxygen available for
this reaction is not removed (deoxidized) prior to casting, the gaseous products continue to evolve during
solidification. De-oxidation of the steel is accomplished by the addition of silicon. The result of this practice
is silicon killed steel. The requirement for killed steel is met when the percentage of silicon in the steel is
0.10 or greater as shown on the Certified Material Test Report for the heat of steel.
Grain Size - Grain size is usually expressed as the average diameter or as a numeric value representing the
quantity of grains per unit area or volume. Two types of grain sizes are commonly expressed:
1) Austenitic (high temperature) grain size as determined by the McQuaid-Ehn test (ref. ASTM E-112).
2) various forms of room temperature grain sizes which are called as-rolled or ferritic/pearlitic grain size.
Gerdau Ameristeel produces all A992, A572, A588, and A36/A572-50 multi-cert steel to a fine grain
practice utilizing Columbium / Niobium or Vanadium. This practice has shown to provide a Fine Austenitic
Grain Size when the McQuaid-Ehn tests have been performed; however this test is not performed on all
material rolled and inventoried due to the time and cost involved in performing the test.
Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing - A charpy impact test is a dynamic test in which a selected specimen is
struck and broken by a single blow in a specially designed testing machine. The energy absorbed in breaking
the specimen is measured. The energy values determined are qualitative comparisons on a selected specimen
and although frequently specified as an acceptance criterion, they cannot be converted into energy figures
that would serve for engineering calculations. Test specimens for structural shapes and test frequency are

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selected in accordance with ASTM A673 Sampling Procedures for Impact Testing of Structural Steel. An
impact test consists of three specimens taken from a single test coupon. The average of which shall comply
with the specified minimum with not more than one value below the specified minimum, but in no case
below either two thirds of the specified minimum or 5 ft.-lbf., whichever is greater. The impact properties of
steel can vary within the same heat and piece. The purchaser should be aware that testing of one shape does
not provide assurance all shapes of the same heat will be identical in toughness with the product tested.
Impact testing is performed only when required by the material specification or by request on the initial
purchase order from a customer. Gerdau Ameristeel's standard production is typically capable of meeting
a minimum impact value of 25 ft-lbf at test temperatures of 10F and above. Impact test values can not be
certified or guaranteed without the actual tests being performed. Requirements for lower test temperatures
require review on an individual basis.
Imperfections - may be present on the surface of structural shapes. Imperfections which do not affect the
utility of these products are not considered injurious. ASTM specification A6 makes allowance for these
types of imperfections in Section 9. Quality Section 9 states; The material shall be free of injurious defects
and shall have a workmanlike finish. Note 2 states; Unless otherwise specified, structural quality steels
are normally furnished in the as-rolled condition and subjected to visual inspection by the manufacturer.
Non-injurious surface, or internal imperfections, or both may be present in the steel delivered and may
require conditioning by the purchaser to improve appearance of the steel or in preparation for welding,
coating, or further processing.
Limitations of Inspection - There are a number of intrinsic features in the production of structural shapes
that affect the properties or conditions of the finished products. Those effects cannot always be precisely
known. It is not possible at the present time to identify any reasonable or practical methods of testing or
inspection that will ensure the detection and rejection of every piece of steel that varies from the specified
requirements with regard to dimensional tolerances, mechanical properties, surface or internal conditions.
Therefore, it is technically impossible to give unconditional certification of complete compliance with all
prescribed requirements. This fact is manifest to those having a technical knowledge of the subject and is
recognized in applying a factor of safety in the design of structural steel.

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Material Specifications & Chemistries
The following listings indicate the ASTM grades that Gerdau Ameristeel can produce in structural shapes.
The A36/A572-50 multi-cert. grade is our standard production grade and meets the requirements of A36,
A572-50, AISC Tech Bulletin #3 and ASTM A992. The ASTM A992 grade was recently approved by
ASTM and applies only to Wide Flange Shapes. Other ASTM, Industry or International specifications and
grades can be supplied from these grades provided the additional testing and certification requirements are
defined on the customer purchase order.

Structural Grades
ASTM A36

Mild Steel, General Building Grade.

ASTM A572-50

High-Strength Low-Alloy, General Building Grade.

A36/A572-50

Multi-Certified, Meets ASTM A36, ASTM A572-50, AISC

Tech bulletin # 3, and ASTM A992.

A572-50 w/ AISC Tech. Bulletin # 3

AISC Specification. Same as A572-50, except max. yield of

65, Fy/Fu of .85, and Carbon equivalent of .50% max.

ASTM A992

New ASTM HSLA Specification. Same spec. as AISC Tech.

Bulletin #3. Applies to WF Beams only.

ASTM A572-60

High-Strength Low-Alloy Specification.

ASTM A572-65

High-Strength Low-Alloy Specification.

ASTM A529-50

ASTM A588 A,B,&C

High-Strength Non-Alloyed. Generally used in the metal

building industry. Previous plate specification which now
includes structural shapes.
High-Strength Corrosion-Resistant. General Building Grade.

ASTM 328

Sheet Pile Specification.

ASTM A690

High-Strength Low-Alloy Corrosive-Resistant Specification

used in H piles and Sheet piles

CSA G40.21 50W

Canadian Specification for High-Strength Low Alloy General

Building Grade Specification.

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Standard Mill Practice

W Shapes
HP Shapes
Bantam Shapes

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Standard Mill Practice

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Standard Mill Practice

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Steel Products Tables and Data
Elastic Section Modulus
Plastic Section Modulus
Moment of Inertia
SI Conversion Factorsa
Structural Shape Size Groupings for tensile
Property Classifications
Nomenclature

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Sx

SX

Elastic Section Modulus

Weight Economy
Selection Table

Sections in bold are Weight Economy Sections

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Sx

SX

Elastic Section Modulus

Weight Economy
Selection Table

Sections in bold are Weight Economy Sections

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ZX

Plastic Section Modulus

Weight Economy
Selection Table

Sections in bold are Weight Economy Sections

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Zx

ZX

Plastic Section Modulus

Weight Economy
Selection Table

Sections in bold are Weight Economy Sections

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Ix

IX

Moment of Inertia

Weight Economy
Selection Table

Sections in bold are Weight Economy Sections

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Ix

IX

Moment of Inertia

Weight Economy
Selection Table

Sections in bold are Weight Economy Sections

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SI Conversion Factors

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SI Conversion Factors

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Structural Shape Size Groupings for

Tensile Property Classifications

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Nomenclature