Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Andean uplift and climate evolution in the southern Atacama Desert deduced from
geomorphology and supergene alunite-group minerals
Thomas Bissig ,1, Rodrigo Riquelme
Departamento de Ciencias Geolgicas, Universidad Catlica del Norte, Avenida Angamos 0610, Antofagasta, Chile
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 5 February 2010
Received in revised form 21 September 2010
Accepted 21 September 2010
Available online 18 October 2010
Editor: T.M. Harrison
Keywords:
Atacama Desert
Andes
uplift
climate evolution
supergene alunite
El Salvador
Potrerillos
geochronology
stable isotopes
Chile
a b s t r a c t
Supergene alunite group minerals from the Late Eocene El Salvador porphyry Cu district, the El Hueso
epithermal gold deposit and the Coya porphyry Au prospect located in the Precordillera of Northern Chile
(~ 26 to 26 30 Lat. S) have been dated by the 40Ar/39Ar method and analyzed for stable isotopes. These data
support published geomorphologic and sedimentologic evidence suggesting that the Precordillera in the
Southern Atacama Desert had been uplifted as early as the late Eocene and, thus, signicantly prior to the
Altiplano which attained its high elevation only in the late Miocene.
The oldest supergene alunite from the Damiana exotic deposit at El Salvador was dated at 35.8 1 Ma and
yielded a D (VSMOW) value of 74 which indicates elevations of the Precordillera near El Salvador of at
least 3000 m in the Late Eocene. In contrast, Miocene supergene alunite from El Salvador, El Hueso, and Coya
have less negative D signatures reaching values as high as 23 to 25 at El Hueso and El Salvador between
about 8.2 and 14 Ma. Late Miocene to Holocene supergene alunite, jarosite and natroalunite ages are restricted
to El Hueso and Coya located near 4000 m above sea level in the Precordillera, roughly 1000 m higher than the
present elevation of El Salvador. The D values of samples younger than ~ 5 Ma vary between 57 and 97.
The complex evolution of the D signatures suggests that meteoric waters recorded in supergene alunite
group minerals were variably affected by evaporation and provides evidence for climate desiccation and onset
of hyper arid conditions in the Central Depression of the southern Atacama Desert after 15 Ma, which agrees
well with published constraints from the Atacama Desert at 2324 Lat. S. Our data also suggest that wetter
climatic conditions than at present prevailed in the latest Miocene and early Pliocene in the Precordillera.
The new and previously published age constraints for El Salvador indicate that supergene mineralization at
the Damiana exotic Cu deposit occurred periodically over 23 Ma in a locally exceptionally stable
paleohydrologic and geomorphologic conguration.
2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Andean uplift history, its causes and effects on the climate
have been subject of signicant research in recent years (e.g.,
Garzione et al., 2008; Lamb and Davis, 2003; Schlunegger et al.,
2006). Much of this work has been concentrated in the northern Chile
and Altiplano transects (~ 1820 Lat. S, Fig. 1). Faras et al. (2005) and
Victor et al. (2004) suggest that up to 2600 m of uplift occurred in the
late middle Miocene and was accommodated by high-angle west
verging faults in the western Cordillera. Geomorphologic (Garcia and
Hrail, 2005; Hoke et al. 2007; Schlunegger et al., 2006; Thouret et al.
2007) and stable isotope evidence (Garzione et al., 2008) places the
major uplift which gave rise to the present day high elevations of the
Altiplano in the late Miocene. The southern Atacama Desert (~ 2627
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tbissig@eos.ubc.ca (T. Bissig).
1
Mineral Deposit Resarch Unit, Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University
of British Columbia, 6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, B.C., V6T 1Z4, Canada.
0012-821X/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.09.028
448
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
69 W
70 W
18 S
Altiplano Segment
ARICA
SouthAmerica
O C E A N
IQUIQUE
P A C I F I C
TRENCH
WC
1
CALAMA
CB
CD
23 S
PD
CC
3 SP
4
5
COPIAPO
0
50
100 km
PC
CCG
PER
CHAARAL
CHILE
ANTOFAGASTA
TALTAL
50
68 W
27 S
Fig. 1. Map of the western Andean slope of northern Chile. The study region is outlined
(Fig. 2). Dotted lines indicate physiographic boundaries from Riquelme et al. (2007).
Abbreviations: CC: Coastal Cordillera; CD: Central Depression; PC: Precordillera; PD:
Preandean Depression; SP: Salar de Pedernales; WC: Western Cordillera; CB: Calama
basin; CCG: Cordillera Claudio Gay. Ore deposits and prospects relevant for this paper
are 1: Chuquicamata, 2: Escondida; 3: El Salvador; 3: Potrerillos/El Hueso/Coya; 5: La
Coipa.
Folding and thrusting in the Precordillera took place during the late
Eocene Incaic Orogeny and is evident in the Potrerillos area (Niemeyer
and Munizaga, 2008; Tomlinson et al., 1994). This orogenic phase led to
uplift, exhumation and supergene oxidation of the El Salvador porphyry
Cu district as early as 36 Ma (see below; Mote et al., 2001; Nalpas et al.,
2005). In the Oligocene, following the Incaic orogeny, a deeply incised
drainage network developed in the Precordillera and valleys formed at
that time were as deep as 2 km below the highest neighbouring
summits, indicating that the Precordillera was already uplifted and
reached altitudes of at least 2000 m (Riquelme et al., 2007). No
signicant movement has been documented on the principal Incaic
faults, which includes the Sierra Castillo fault (Fig. 2) representing the
local segment of the extensive Domeyko Fault system, since the late
Oligocene (Cornejo and Mpodozis, 1996; Niemeyer and Munizaga,
2008). At that time, the focus of thrusting shifted east to the western
edge of the Cordillera Occidental (Cordillera Claudio Gay: Mpodozis and
Clavero, 2002). This shift in the locus of deformation led to the present
day conguration of the internally drained Preandean depression
hosting the Salar de Pedernales (Figs. 1, 2).
The deeply incised Oligocene valleys in the western Precordillera
were lled with continental clastic sediments with a minimum age of
16.3 Ma at their base, as constrained by the oldest intercalated tuff
layers (Nalpas et al., 2008). Inlling of the incised landscape of the
western Precordillera was probably accompanied by pediment
formation as represented by the early Miocene Sierra Checo del
Cobre surface in the Coastal Cordillera (Mortimer, 1973). Low relief
surfaces are present above El Hueso and La Coya in the eastern
Precordillera and are tentatively assigned to the Sierra Checo del
Cobre surface (Fig. 2; Bissig and Riquelme, 2009). A pediplain with a
local base-level in the Salar de Pedernales incised the Sierra Checo del
Cobre surface in the early to middle Miocene (Asientos pediplain:
Bissig and Riquelme, 2009). Later landscape evolution was largely the
result of slow tilting of the Precordillera and Central Depression that
began in the middle Miocene. A relatively low tilting rate resulted in
the middle Miocene alluvial fan backlling in the Central Depression
and the formation of the Atacama Pediplain in the western
Precordillera (Riquelme et al., 2007; Sillitoe et al., 1968). The El
Salvador porphyry Cu deposit is situated at the back-scarp of the
Atacama Pediplain (Fig. 3). The Atacama Pediplain is composite in
nature and likely formed over several stages between ~14 and 10 Ma
(Bissig and Riquelme, 2009). Minimum age constraints for this surface
are given by an ignimbrite deposit covering the pediment surface
dated between 9 and 10 Ma (Clark et al., 1967; Cornejo et al., 1993;
Riquelme et al., 2007), which is in good agreement with the
radiogenic nuclide exposure age of 9 Ma reported by Niishizumi
et al. (2005). A change from alluvial fan backlling to incision of the
Asientos and El Salado canyons into the relict Atacama pediplain has
been interpreted as being the result of slightly increased tilting rates
which allowed the transition from a depositional to erosional regime.
This led to incision of the Salado in the Central Depression and
moderate (b800 m) uplift of the Precordillera in the Late Miocene
(Mortimer, 1973; Riquelme et al., 2007).
3. The use of supergene alunite group minerals
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
70
7030
449
6930
C. Doa Ins
A
Not mapped
Q.
ue
Salar de Pedernales
rq
Tu
sa
El Salvador
El S
ald
a
o Ca
nyo
Damiana
26
26
As
ie
nt
os
C
an
yo
n
Jernimo
Potrerillos
El Hueso
2615
2615
C. El Hueso
Coya
Pediment surfaces
Sierra Checos
del Cobre
Asientos
10 km
Early Atacama
(> 14?)
Cerros Bravos
Atacama >10 Ma
Atacama < 10 Ma
Pediment
backscarp
Sierra Castillo Fault
(approx. trace)
A`
El Salado Canyon
Asientos Canyon
2630
Asientos Canyon
Cerros Bravos
m a.s.l. A
A`
El Hueso
Potrerillos Coya
5000
El Salvador
4000
3000
2000
Early Atacama
Atacama pediplain
SCF
20
40
80
80 Km
Fig. 2. Map and cross section of the Precordillera showing principal landscape elements, locations of ore deposits and other features mentioned in the text. A and A' indicate the end
points of the cross section on the map. Cross section is slightly angled at Potrerillos. Modied from Bissig and Riquelme (2009).
450
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
6937 W
1km
.T
ur
qu
21.5
14.4
es
14.8
16.3
22.9
21.4
El Salvador
townsite
13.6, 13.5, 13.2
13.0, 12.9, 12.0
35.8, 15.3,
14.2, 13.8
2615 S
na
ia
Da
35.4
25.3
13.9
11.1
19.4
Landscape elements
Alunite age
(this study in bold)
Main Atacama
Exotic Cu deposit
Inselbergs
Primary Cu deposit
(El Salvador)
B
El Salvador
Town
Damiana
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
451
Fig. 4. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra and inverse isochron diagrams for supergene alunite from El Salvador dated in this study. Samples STB12A-1, 2 and STB12B-1,2 are from Quebrada
Riolita, samples STB22 and STB26 were collected upstream from Quebrada Turquesa.
452
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
Table 1
List of new ArAr data.
40
Ar/39Ar data.
Sample
Mineral
Location
STB12A-1
STB12A-2
STB12B-1
STB12B-2
STB22
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
ES, Qebr.
ES, Qebr.
ES, Qebr.
ES, Qebr.
ES, Qebr.
STB26
HTB04
CTB43
CTB46
CTB48
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Jarosite
Natroalunite
CTB49
Riolita
Riolita
Riolita
Riolita
Turquesa
Coord. UTM;
elevation (m)
443.038/7096.252; 2700
443.038/7096.252; 2700
443.038/7096.252; 2700
443.038/7096.252; 2700
443.881/7096.874; 2770
14.220.16
35.820.95
15.310.63
13.830.23
N/A
14.31 0.36
36.3 1.4
14.7 1.5
13.64 0.4
N./A
443.701/7096.691;
460.300/7069.153;
461.189/7064.792;
460.554/7065.736;
460.713/7065.450;
16.310.12
8.19 0.1
20.090.14
N/A
0.07 0.6
15.92 0.31
8.31 0.39
20.11 0.4
4.29 0.12
0.39 1.4
N/A
4.83 0.5
2860
3940
3800
3600
3690
Comment
14.22 0.16
35.82 0.95
15.31 0.63
13.83 0.23
9 to 14 Ma
Mix between 2
or more ages
16.31 0.12
8.19 0.1
20.09 0.14
4.29 0.12
Excess Argon
0
Age based on two aliquots,
excess Ar in spectrum
4.83 0.5
Age based on two aliquots,
excess Ar in spectrum
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
30
12
HTB4 Alunite
10
Age (Ma)
453
CTB43 Alunite
8.19 0.1 Ma
25
20
8
20.09 0.14 Ma
15
6
10
4
2
5
0
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
100
.004
.0030
HTB4 Alunite
CTB43 Alunite
36Ar/40Ar
.0026
.003
Inverse isochron
8.31 0.39 Ma
.0022
Inverse Isochron
20.36 0.95 Ma
.002
.0014
.001
.0010
.0006
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.7
0.8
.002
39Ar/40Ar
30
25
Age (Ma)
25
20
50
20
40
15
30
10
20
10
15
2 steps at ~4.4 Ma
10
5
0
20
40
60
Cumulative
39Ar
80
100
20
percent
40
60
Cumulative
30
39Ar
80
20
100
60
80
100
50
CTB48, Natroalunite, run 2
25
40
percent
30
CTB46 Jarosite, run 2
Age (Ma)
.008
.006
39Ar/40Ar
24
40
18
30
12
20
10
20
15
10
5
0
20
40
60
Cumulative
.004
39Ar
80
20
.001
40
60
Cumulative
.004
Inverse isochron
4.29 +/- 0.12 Ma
36Ar/40Ar
percent
.003
100
39Ar
80
.004
.005
.01
.015
39Ar/40Ar
.02
.025
60
80
100
Inverse Isochron
4.83 +/- 0.28 Ma
.002
.002
.001
.001
(calculated age excluding large error fractions)
0
0
40
.003
20
percent
.003
100
.005
.01
.015
39Ar/40Ar
.02
.025
.001
.002
.003
.004
.005
39Ar/40Ar
Fig. 5. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra and inverse isochron diagrams for supergene alunite group minerals from El Hueso and Coya dated in this study. Sample HTB04 is from El Hueso, the
remainder of samples are from Coya.
454
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
s Canyo
Asiento
Coya
n: ~4.8 Ma
and zero age
j: ~4.3 Ma
Coya Maya
Fig. 6. View from Cerro El Hueso (see Fig. 2 for location) towards the E showing the Coya prospect with sample locations and supergene alunite (a), natroalunite (n) and jarosite
(j) ages. The horizon is represented by the Cordillera Claudio Gay. Gravel covered relics of the Asientos Pediplain are indicated.
Eocene would be no more than 500 m lower if the long term oxygen
isotopic variations in seawater (Zachos et al., 2001) are considered.
Miocene meteoric waters are considerably less deuterium depleted
and the least negative D values of 23 to 34 were obtained for
samples between 8.2 and 16.3 Ma from both El Hueso and El Salvador.
Early Pliocene waters at Coya were at D = 88 to 97 similar to
present day precipitation around the 38004000 m elevation at which
Coya is presently situated (Poage and Chamberlain, 2001). The most
recent sample yielded a less negative D value of 57. Our data
starkly contrast earlier work (Taylor et al., 1997) which suggests
sharply decreasing D values from ~15 in the Late Oligocene to as
much as 60 in the middle to late Miocene which they interpret as
evidence for a marked uplift pulse in the Middle Miocene. The
discrepancy between the two datasets can probably be explained by
the different scales of the two studies. Taylor et al. (1997) analyzed
alunite samples from 20 to 27 S Lat S (see also Sillitoe and McKee,
1996) which likely reect signicant along strike variations in
geomorphology, uplift history and climate. North of about 23 Lat. S,
there is no Preandean Depression (Fig. 1) and independent evidence
suggests that much of the uplift of the Altiplano has occurred in the
middle or late Miocene (e.g., Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000; Hoke et al.,
2007). In the southern Atacama Desert, the Precordillera attained
elevations of at least 2000 m in the early Oligocene (Riquelme et al.,
2007) and our stable isotope data suggest a Late Eocene elevation of
3000 m a.s.l. or more for the Precordillera near El Salvador. These high
elevations may be attributed to intense folding and thrusting
(Niemeyer and Munizaga, 2008) and crustal thickening (e.g., Haschke
et al., 2002) affecting the region in the late Eocene.
The increasing D values throughout the middle Miocene are
contrary to the trend expected for an uplifting mountain range.
However, the isotopic composition of meteoric water is not only
controlled by orographic effects, but also by evaporation and recycling
of meteoric water (Godfrey et al., 2003). Thus, we interpret the higher
than expected Miocene D values largely as an effect of evaporation.
Bird et al. (1989) and Sillitoe (2005) suggested that high rates of
evaporation are conducive for supergene alunite formation, providing
support to our interpretation. Thus, the least negative D values
would coincide with the most intense evaporation and hyper arid
conditions which likely persisted between about 15 and 8 Ma. The
timing of the onset of hyper-arid conditions is also recorded by a
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
A
Nwa Chile
te r
M
lin e t e
e
or
ic
0
-20
-60
Altiplano
~4500 m
a.s.l.
-80
-100
jarosite
supergene alunite
sulfate field
wa
te
rd
-120
-140
air dominan
t
om
ina
nt
D (VSMOW)
-40
-160
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
18OSO4(VSMOW)
B
-20
ect
2500
ic eff
raph
3000
Dess
Orog
D (VSMOW)
-40
-60
icatio
n tren
455
3500
8. Conclusions
-80
4000
-100
10
20
40Ar/39Ar
30
40
age (Ma)
Symbols
El Salvador, Damiana
Other El Salvador
Coya
El Hueso
Table 2
Stable isotope data.
Sample
Mineral
dD
d34S
d18OSO4
age (Ma)
HTB004
STB-022
STB-026
STB-12A-1
STB-12A-2
STB-12B-1
STB-12B-2
CTB-43
CTB-46
CTB-48
CTB-49
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Alunite
Jarosite
Natroalunite
Natroalunite
25
23
34
54
74
61
50
53
97
57
88
1.8
1.4
0.5
0.9
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.8
1.1
3.0
3.7
4.8
6.8
5.3
9.7
4.1
3.9
10.7
11.0
2.8
2.6
8.19 0.1
9 to 14
16.31 0.12
14.22 0.16
35.8 1
15.3 0.6
13.8 0.2
20.1 0.1
4.3 0.1
0
4.8 0.6
Acknowledgements
This study has been funded by Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo
Cientco y Tecnolgico de Chile (Fondecyt) grant # 11060516. Kerry
Klassen is thanked for the stable isotope analyses whereas Paul Layer
and Tom Ullrich provided the Ar/Ar analyses. Fritz Schlunegger and an
anonymous EPSL reviewer are thanked for their constructive reviews.
This is MDRU publication P-264.
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
Climate
Literature This study
WP
EP
moderate tilting
in the fore-arc
Pliocene
hyper arid
Canyon Incision
Coya
El Hueso
Tectonics
Late
Miocene
10
Other, El Salvador
Q. Turquesa, El Salvador
Damiana, El Salvador
Landscape
Supergene ages
Pediment formation
456
A3
A2
A1
?
3
Oligocene
?
35
40
thrusting and
folding, Potrerillos
Fold and Thrust
belt
Eocene
30
SC
semi-arid
25
thrusting and
uplift, Cordillera
Claudio Gay
semi-arid
20
Early
Miocene
AS
Hyper aridity
(Hartley and Chong, 2002)
Hyper aridity
(Alpers and Brimhall, 1988)
15
slow tilting
in the fore-arc
Middle
Miocene
Fig. 8. Chart integrating landscape chronology, tectonic episodes, ages of supergene minerals and climate. Abbreviations: A1: early stage Atacama pediplain, A2: Main stage Atacama
pediplain; A3: late stage Atacama pediplain; AS: Asientos surface; SC: Sierra Checos del Cobre surface. WP: Western Precordillera; EP: Eastern Precordillera. Supergene ages are
plotted individually (black bars; bold correspond to this study) or as groups of ages (boxes; number of dates indicated). References as follows: supergene ages from El Hueso: Marsh
et al. (1997); supergene ages from El Salvador: Mote et al. (2001); Pediment formation: Mortimer (1973), Sillitoe et al. (1968), Bissig and Riquelme (2010); canyon incision:
Riquelme et al. (2003, 2007); Gravel deposition: Riquelme et al. (2007); Tectonic episodes: Niemeyer and Munizaga (2008), Mpodozis and Clavero (2002), Riquelme et al. (2003,
2007).
References
Alpers, C.N., Brimhall, G.H., 1988. Middle Miocene climatic change in the Atacama
Desert, northern Chile: evidence from supergene mineralization at La Escondida.
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 100, 16401656.
Arancibia, G., Matthews, S.J., De Arce, C.P., 2006. KAr and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of
supergene processes in the Atacama Desert, Northern Chile: tectonic and climatic
relation. J. Geol. Soc. 163, 107118.
Arehart, G.B., Kesler, S.E., Oneil, J.R., Foland, K.A., 1992. Evidence for the supergene
origin of alunite in sediment-hosted micron gold deposits, Nevada. Econ. Geol. 87,
263270.
Bird, M.I., Andrew, A.S., Chivas, A.R., Lock, D.E., 1989. An isotopic study of surcial
alunite in Australia 1: hydrogen and sulphur isotopes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
53, 32233237.
Bissig, T., Riquelme, R., 2009. Contrasting landscape evolution and development of
supergene enrichment in the El Salvador porphyry Cu and Potrerillos-El Hueso CuAu
districts, Northern Chile. In: Titley, S. (Ed.), Society of Economic Geologists Special
Publication No. 14, Supergene Environments, Processes and Products, pp. 5968.
Bissig, T., Ullrich, T.D., Tosdal, R.M., Friedman, R., Ebert, S., 2008. The timespace
distribution of Eocene to Miocene magmatism in the Central Peruvian polymetallic
province and its metallogenetic implications. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 26, 1635.
Bouzari, F., Clark, A.H., 2002. Anatomy, evolution, and metallogenic signicance of the
supergene orebody of the Cerro Colorado porphyry copper deposit; I Region,
northern Chile. Econ. Geol. 97, 17011740.
Clark, A.H., Mayer, A.E.S., Mortimer, C., Sillitoe, R.H., Cooke, R.U., Snelling, N.J., 1967.
Implications of the isotopic ages of ignimbrite ows, southern Atacama Desert,
Chile. Nature 215, 723724.
Clayton, R.N., Mayeda, T.K., 1963. The use of bromine pentauoride in the extraction of
oxygen from oxides and silicates for isotopic analysis. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
27, 4352.
Cornejo, P., Mpodozis, C., 1996. Geologa de la Region de Sierra Exploradora (Cordillera
de Domeyko, 2526S). Servicio Nacional de Geologa y Mineria-CODELCO,
Informe Registrado IR-96-09, 330 p. Santiago.
Cornejo, P., Mpodozis, C., Ramirez, C.F., Tomlinson, A.J., 1993. Estudio Geolgico de la
Regin de Potrerillos y El Salvador (26-27 Lat.S). Servicio Nacional de Geologa y
Minera-CODELCO, Informe Registrado IR-93-01, 12 cuadrngulos escala 1:50.000 y
vol.texto 258 p. Santiago.
Dunai, T.J., Gonzlez, G., Juez-Larr, J., 2005. OligoceneMiocene age of aridity in the
Atacama Desert revealed by exposure dating of erosion-sensitive landforms.
Geology 33, 321324.
Faras, M., Charrier, R., Compte, D., Martinod, J., Hrail, G., 2005. Late Cenozoic
deformation and uplift of the western ank of the Altiplano: evidence from the
depositional, tectonic, and geomorphologic evolution and shallow seismic activity
(northern Chile at 1930S). Tectonics 24. doi:10.1029/2004TC001667.
Garcia, M., Hrail, G., 2005. Fault-related folding, drainage network evolution and
valleyincision during the Neogene in the Andean Precordillera of Northern Chile.
Geomorphology 65, 279300.
Garzione, C.N., Hoke, G.D., Libarkin, J.C., Withers, S., MacFadden, B., Eiler, J., Prosenjit, G.,
Mulch, A., 2008. Rise of the Andes. Science 320, 13041307.
Godfrey, L.V., Jordan, T.E., Lowenstein, T.K., Alonso, R.L., 2003. Stable isotope constraints
on the transport of water to the Andes between 22 and 26S during the last glacial
cycle. Paleogeocgraphy, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 194, 299317.
Gregory-Wodzicki, K., 2000. Uplift history of central and northern Andes: a review.
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 112, 10911105.
T. Bissig, R. Riquelme / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 299 (2010) 447457
Gustafson, L.B., Orquera, W., McWilliams, M., Castro, M., Olivares, O., Rojas, G.,
Malvenda, J., Mendez, M., 2001. Multiple Centers of Mineralization in the Indio
Muerto District, El Salvador, Chile. Econ. Geol. 96, 325350.
Hartley, A.J., Chong, G., 2002. Late Pliocene age for the Atacama Desert: implications for
the desertication of western South America. Geology 30, 4346.
Hartley, A.J., Rice, C.M., 2005. Controls on supergene enrichment of porphyry copper
deposits in the Central Andes: a review and discussion. Mineralium Deposita 40,
515525.
Haschke, M., Siebel, W., Gnther, A., Scheuber, E., 2002. Repeated crustal thickening and
recycling during the Andean orogeny in north Chile (21_26_S). Journal of
Geoplysical Research 107 B1:ECV6-1ECV6-18.
Herrera, C., Pueyo, J.J., Saez, A., Valero-Garces, B.L., 2006. Relacin de aguas superciales
y subterrneas en el rea del lago Chungar y lagunas de Cotacotani, norte de Chile:
un estudio isotpico. Rev. Geol. Chile 33, 299325.
Hoke, G.D., Isacks, B.L., Jordan, T.E., Blanco, N., Tomlinson, A.J., Ramezani, J., 2007.
Geomorphic evidence for post 10 Ma uplift of the western ank of the central
Andes 183022S TC5021, Tectonics 26. doi:10.1029/2006TC002082.
Lamb, S., Davis, P., 2003. Cenozoic climate change as a possible cause for the rise of the
Andes. Nature 425, 792797.
Lanphere, M.A., Dalrymple, G.B., 2000. First-principles calibration of 38Ar tracers:
implications for the ages of 40Ar/39Ar uence monitors. U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 1621. 10 p.
Layer, P.W., 2000. 40Argon/39Argon age of the El'gygytgyn impact event, Chukotka,
Russia. Meteroitics and Planatary Science. 35, 591599.
Marsh, T.M., Einaudi, M.T., Mcwilliams, M., 1997. 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of CuAu and
AuAg mineralization in the Potrerillos district. Chile: Economic Geology 92, 784806.
Mortimer, C., 1973. The Cenozoic history of the southern Atacama Desert, Chile. J. Geol.
Soc. Lond. 129, 505526.
Mote, T.I., Becker, T.A., Renne, P., Brimhall, G.H., 2001. Chronology of exotic mineralization
at El Salvador, Chile by 40Ar/39Ar dating of copper wad and Supergene Alunite. Econ.
Geol. 96, 351366.
Mpodozis, C., Clavero, J., 2002. Tertiary tectonic evolution of the southwestern edge of
the Puna Plateau : Cordillera Claudio Gay (2627 S), Northern Chile. Andean
geodynamics: extended abstracts: Paris/Toulouse: Institut de recherche pour le
dveloppement. IRD Universit Paul Sabatier. Toulouse, France, pp. 445448.
Nalpas, T., Hrail, G., Mpodozis, C., Riquelme, R., Clavero, J., Dabard, M.P., 2005.
Thermochronologicals data and denudation history along a transect between
Chaaral and Pedernales (~ 26S), north Chilean Andes: orogenic implications. 6th
International Symposion on Andean Geodynamics (ISAG), Barcelona. Extended
Abstracts, Spain, pp. 548551.
Nalpas, T., Dabard, M.-P., Ruffet, G., Vernon, A., Mpodozis, C., Loi, A., Hrail, G., 2008.
Sedimentation and preservation of the Miocene Atacama Gravels in the Pedernales
Chaaral area, Northern Chile: climatic or tectonic control? Tectonophysics 459,
161173.
Niemeyer, H., Munizaga, R., 2008. Structural control of the emplacement of the
Portrerillos porphyry copper, central Andes of Chile. J. S. Am. Earth Sci. 26, 261270.
Nishiizumi, K., Caffee, M.W., Finkel, R.C., Brimhall, G., Mote, T., 2005. Remnants of a fossil
alluvial fan landscape of Miocene age in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile using
cosmogenic nuclide exposure age dating. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 237, 499507.
Poage, M.E., Chamberlain, C.P., 2001. Empirical relationship between elevation and the
stable isotope composition of precipitation and surface waters: considerations for
studies on paleoelevation change. Am. J. Sci. 301, 115.
Rech, J.A., Currie, B.S., Michalski, G., Cowan, A.M., 2006. Neogene climate change and
uplift in the Atacama Desert, Chile. Geology 34, 761764.
Renne, P.R., Swisher III, C.C., Deino, A.L., Karner, D.B., Owens, T., DePaolo, D.J., 1998.
Intercalibration of standards, absolute ages and uncertainties in 40Ar/39Ar dating.
Chem. Geol. 145, 117152.
Rieu, M., 1975. Les formations sedimentaires de la Pampa del Tamarugal et le Ro Loa
(Norte Grande du Chili). Fr. Off. Rech. Sci. Tech. Outre-Mer, Cah., Ser. Geol. 7 (2),
145164.
457
Riquelme, R., Martinod, J., Hrail, G., Darrozes, J., Charrier, R., 2003. A geomorphological
approach to determining the Neogene to Recent tectonic deformation in the
Coastal Cordillera of northern Chile (Atacama). Tectonophysics 361, 255275.
Riquelme, R., Hrail, G., Martinod, J., Charrier, R., Darrozes, J., 2007. Late Cenozoic
geomorphologic signal of forearc deformation and tilting associated with the uplift
and climate changes of the Andes, Southern Atacama Desert (26S28S).
Geomorphology 86, 283306.
Riquelme, R., Darrozes, J., Maire, E., Hrail, G., Soula, J.C., 2008. Long-term denudation
rates from the Central Andes (Chile) estimated from a Digital Elevation Model
using the Black Top Hat function and Inverse Distance Weighting: implications for
the Neogene climate of the Atacama Desert. Rev. Geol. Chile 35, 105121.
Rivera, S.L., Vila, T., Osorio, J., 2004. Geologic characteristics and exploration
signicance of gold-rich porphyry copper deposits in the El Salvador region,
Northern Chile. In: Sillitoe, R.H., Perell, J., Vidal, C.E. (Eds.), Andean Metallogeny:
New Discoveries, Concepts, and Updates. Society of Economic Geologists Special
publication, 11, pp. 97111.
Rye, R.O., Bethke, P.M., Wasserman, M.D., 1992. The stable isotope geochemistry of acid
sulfate alteration. Econ. Geol. 87, 225262.
Schlunegger, F., Zeilinger, G., Kounov, A., Kober, F., Hsser, B., 2006. Scale of relief
growth in the forearc of the Andes of NorthernChile (Arica latitude, 18_S). Terra
Nova 18, 217223.
Sillitoe, R.H., 2005. Supergene oxidized and enriched porphyry copper and related
deposits. In: Hedenquist, J.W., Thompson, J.F.H., Goldfarb, R.J., Richards, J.P. (Eds.),
Economic Geology 100th Anniversary volume, pp. 723768.
Sillitoe, R.H., McKee, E.H., 1996. Age of supergene oxidation and enrichment in the
Chilean porphyry copper province. Econ. Geol. 91, 164179.
Sillitoe, R.H., Mortimer, C., Clark, A.H., 1968. A chronology of landform evolution and
supergene mineral alteration, southern Atacama Desert, Chile. Institution of Mining
and Metallurgy Transactions, section B. 77, 166169.
Taylor, B.E., McKee, E.H., Sillitoe, R.H., 1997. D and 18O maps of South American
meteoric waters: contrasts between the present and Tertiary and their
implications for Andean uplift. Geological Association of Canada/Mineralogical
Association of Canada annual meeting, Ottawa, Canada, abstracts with programs,
A-146.
Thompson, J.F.H., Gale, V.G., Tosdal, R.M., Wright, W.A., 2004. Characteristics and
Formation of the Jernimo carbonate-replacement gold deposit, Potrerillos district,
Chile. In: Sillitoe, R.H., Perell, J., Vidal, C.E. (Eds.), Andean Metallogeny: New
Discoveries, Concepts, and Updates. Society of Economic Geologists Special
publication, 11, pp. 7595.
Thouret, J.-C., Woerner, G., Gunnell, Y., Singer, G., Zhang, X., Souriot, T., 2007.
Geochronologic and stratigraphic constraints on canyon incision and Miocene
uplift of the Central Andes in Peru. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 263, 151166.
Tomlinson, A.J., Mpodozis, c, Cornejo, P., Ramirez, C.F., Dumitru, T., 1994. El Sistema de
fallas Sierra Castillo-Agua Amarga: transpresion sinistral Eocena en la precordillera
de Potrerillos-El Salvador. 7 Congreso Geolgico Chileno, actas 14591463.
Vasconcelos, P.M., 1999. 40Ar39Ar geochronology of supergene processes in ore
deposits. In: Lambert, D.D., Ruiz, J. (Eds.), Reviews in Economic Geology 12,
Application of Radiogenic Isotopes to Ore Deposit Research and Exploration,
pp. 73113.
Vasconcelos, P.M., Conroy, M., 2003. Geochronology of weathering and landscape
evolution, Dugald River valley, NWQueensland, Australia. Geochim. Cosmochim.
Acta 67, 29132930.
Victor, P., Oncken, O., Glodny, J., 2004. Uplift of the western Altiplano plateau: evidence
from the Precordillera between 20 and 21S (northern Chile). Tectonics 23.
doi:10.1029/2003TC001519 TC4004.
Wasserman, M.D., Rye, R.O., Bethke, P.M., Arribas Jr., A., 1992. Methods for
separation and total stable isotope analysis of alunite. U. S. Geol. Surv. OpenFile Rep, pp. 9299.
Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., Billups, K., 2001. Trends, rhythms, and
aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science 292, 686693.