Midlands Mathematical Experiment Vol 2

MIDLANDS
MATHEMATICAL
VOLUME
EXPERIMENT
TWO
CSE
Part A
Puhlished for
MIDLANDS
MATHEMATICAL
EXPERIMENT
hy
HARRAP
LONDON
LTD
First published in Great Britain 1970

by GEORGE G. HARRAP & CO. LTD
182-184 High Holborn, London WC1V 7AX
for
MIDLANDS
MATHEMATICAL
EXPERIMENT
LTD
DIRECTOR .. Raymond Stokes B.Sc.
Reprinted 1974-
Jlidlnllds
.\lallll'lI/nlieni
Experill/I'II/ Ltd, 1970
All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced in any form or by any
means
without the prior
permission
of
George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd
ISBN 0 245 59845 6
Composed in Baskerville type and printed at

The Pitman Press, Bath
Made in Great Britain
Preface
THIS is the second of a series of books designed to cover a course suitable to those pupils
advancing towards a CSE examination. It has been designed to follow on from the MME
Volume I Parts A and B and is aimed at the 13-14 year age-group. Volumes lIB and IIC
complete the course. Answer books are available for all volumes.
Provision has been made for pupils transferring between a GeE and CSE type of
course when they are fourteen by covering more or less the same topics in this book and
in the parallel GCE volume. The rate of progress and the depth of study needed are
obviously a little greater in the GCE volume.
It is hoped that the text will be used as a basis for discussion between teacher and
pupil and that this discussion will not be terminated merely because it leads away from
the original topic. But not all questions will demand discussion; some have been included
for those pupils who need a little extra practice in the techniques evolved during discussion.
The extra examples at the end of the book have been assembled into ten groups of
eighteen. In each group the number of each question refers to the chapter in the book
on which the question is based. For example, every question numbered 4 is based on
work covered in Chapter 4. Exceptions to this are questions numbered 17 and 18 which
are of a more general nature. Questions have not been grouped in order of difficulty.
Each set contains questions of mixed difficulty.
Many pupils in the lower streams of Comprehensive Schools who are not aiming at
the CSE examination have studied and seem to have enjoyed and benefited from much
of the material in this book. Their rate of progress has not been fast, but at times the
results obtained have been oustandingly good for pupils of their alleged ability.
The MME books for the CSE course cover much more than is included in the MME
examination syllabus and many schools will find them useful for their own or regional
modern mathematics syllabus.
.
Throughout this book vectors have been denoted by bold type although we suggest
that both pupil and teacher write a as.Q either on the board or on paper.
I would like to thank M. C. Escher for permission to reproduce his drawing 'Riders',
Fig. 419.
The contributions of so many teachers from so many schools are far too numerous to
list here. This is really their book.
I would also like to thank Betty Mastrantone for all the initial preparation of this
book, and G. Barrott for many of the illustrations. Above all I would like to thank
Cyril Hope for his inspiration and his readiness to help and advise.
JOHN
CORDINGLEY
Contents
PAOB
Preface
CRAPTBJl
1. Order, Vectors and Chess
2. Fractions of Fractions
17
3. Relations: Ordering and Equivalence
21
4. Tessellations
38
5. Sets of Points
51
6. Shape and Size-Area
58
7. Modular Arithmetic
67
8. Distributive Law with Numbers and Vectors
72
9. About Area and Polygons
81
10. Circles and Ellipses
91
11. Shape and Size-Volume
99
12. Approximations
112
13. Speed and Time Graphs
118
14. Combining Relations-Matrices
125
15. Statistics
141
16. Percentages
155
Extra Examples
162
CHAPTER
Order, Vectors and Chess
YOU PROBABLY remember from the work in Volume I that one way of indicating
direction is to start by facing North and then to turn to the right through a part of a
revolution, which we measure in units called degrees.
North
i of a complete
turn
FIG. 101
Suppose I start by facing North and turn right through i of a complete turn. Does
the order of instruction matter? Must you face North and the? turn through i of a tum
or could you turn through i ora tum and then face North? Discuss this with your friends.
Would you be facing the same direction in both cases after completing these instructions?
A plane flies 200 krn NE; or couldwe say NE for 200 km? We must ask the question,
is our destination the same? Does the ORDER in which we Sq)' things matter?
In Fig. 102, 1 unit represents 1 krn.
Is this the same as Ikrn represents I unit?
FIG. 102
Navigating from 0 to B we could say we go 5 km at nearly 053 or (4,3). Rearrange

the orderand illustrate'your answer. Com~ent on the results.
0
[10]
MIDLANDS MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENT
EXERCISE 18
1. On squared paper, or on a pegboard, represent the following vectors. From your
diagram find out where the order does not matter. After completing this exercise
discuss and comment from your observations.
(a)
(h)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(1, 2)
(-I, 2)
(I, -2)
(-1, -2)
(-3, -2)
(3, -2)
(i) (3, 3)
U) (3, -3)
(k) (-3, -3)
(l) (-3, 3)
(-3, 2)
(3, 2)
2. 2nd June 1953was the date of the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. If we were to
write this as an ordered triad ofnumhers we could write: Coronation = (2,6, 1953)
or, perhaps (2,6,53).
On 13th March 1968 Manchester United played Gornik in the European Cup.
Which is the usual way to present this data as a triad?
(13,3, 1958) (3, 13, 1968) (1968,3, 13) (3, 1968, 13) (13,3, 1968)
Comment on the other triads.
World War I ended on 11th November 1918. This date could be written as
(11, 11, 18). Does (18, 11, 11) refer to the same date?
Find out the following dates and then write them as triads:
(a) England won the World Cup
(h) Date World War II ended
(c) Funeral of Sir Winston Churchill
(d) Date of last General Election
(e) St David's day in 1971
Find four other examples and list them as above.
3. You set out to purchase sugar, bacon and flour from the supermarket. You have been
told that the weights to buy are 3 kg, i kg and 2 kg. Unfortunately you have
forgotten how much sugar, bacon or flour you must buy but you can remember
the three weights.
Write down all the possible ways you can buy the three foods:
Sugar
(3
(3
Bacon
Flour
2)
1)
and so on.
How many vectors do you have? Which solutions do you consider to be the
most likely? Give your reasons.
Now if sugar costs 8lP for 1 kg, bacon 30p for 500 g, and flour 4p for 500 g,
work out the cost of each likely vector, e.g.
3 kg of sugar at 8lP for 1 kg cost 0251
1kg of bacon at 30p for 500 g cost
2 kg of flour at 4p for 500 g cost
Total:
Do all these solutions give the same cost total?
Make up similar problems and discuss them with your friend or group.
[11]
ORDER, VECTORS AND CHESS

4. We are really concerned with order and its interpretation.
The ordered pair (socks, shoes) or (:~~:)
suggest that we put on our socks and
then our shoes. It is a little difficult doing this in the reverse order. However
if we do reverse the order, i.e. (shoes, socks) or (:~~~) we obviously can interpret
the situation by saying we take off our shoes and then take off our socks.
From this list of ordered pairs interpret the order of each in sentence form.
Then re-write each in reverse order, and interpret the new order in sentence form.
(a) (shirt, tie)
(h) (open door, enter room)
(c) (homework, school)
(f) (cook, eat)

(g) (leap, look)
(Plan )
(h) build
(d) (gl~paper)
pamt
(i) (decide)
U) (:~en, egg)
(e) (:~~)
5. Look at the diagram below or an examination hall-perhaps you will be able to insert
friends' names at the various desks. A suitable colour shading may help you
answer the questions.
Those people in columns 1 and 2 are sitting the CSE Maths paper, pupils
in columns 3 and 4 '0' level Russian, and column 5 sit GCE 'A' level Maths.
RoweD DDDD
RowsD DDDD
Row4D DDDD
RowaD DDDD
ROW2D
ROW1D
Column
DDDD
DDDD
Column
. 2
Column
Column
Column
I
Blackboard
FIG. "03
[12]

Write comments on the effect of the following (unlikely, we hope!) statements
and instructions.
(a) Pupils in column 1were given question papers intended for pupils in column 3.
(b) Pupils in columns 1 and 2 interchanged question papers.
(c) Candidate at column 3 and row 5, i.e. (3, 5), was given paper intended for
pupil at column 5 and row 3.
(d) Pupils (1, 1) and (2,6), had each others' question papers.
(e) Candidates (5,5) and (2,2) changed seats.
(f) Could a misunderstanding lead to rows and columns being interchanged?
Now create a similar situation and discover possible misunderstandings and
comment on the effects.
&
~1.j.:!.ffii.:..
<.'.i.:.I.il..'~'~
a~
.:.:.;..:.:.:.;.:.:.:.:.:.:.
FIG. 104
Those of you who play chess will recognize the board and the chessmen in the illustration. If you do not know already, find out how the chess pieces are allowed to move.
A knight is allowed to move 1 square along a rank Of file and then 1 diagonally.
Here are two of the possible moves:
or
FIG. 1'0&
FIG. "06
[13J
EXERCISE 1b
1. If the knight is placed centrally on the board, there are eight possible moves. Find
them and sketch them in separate diagrams.
2. The movement in Fig. 105 could be expressed in Eastings and Northings as (1E, 2N),
or (1,2). Write down all the eight moves of the knight in this vector form.
Remember that (IW, 28) will be written as (-1, -2).
3. Write down the moves of the other chessmen.
4. Here is a picture of the chessmen in their starting positions on the chessboard. As
shown here the white king is on square (~).
FIG. 107
Copy and complete the following table showing the coordinates of the starting
positions of the chessmen.
White
Queen's Castle
Queen's Knight
Black
Position
Queen's Castle
Position
(~)
(~)
Queen's Knight
(~)
..,..,..,.,~
Note that we have listed the coordinates or the starting positions. (If you have a
travelling chess set, which is similar to a peg-board, your vectors will define
lattice points as on graph paper.)
[14]
5. Consider the moves of each chessman placed singly on the board. The castle at the
position (~) may move to any position along the lowest rank or the left-hand fik.
A possible move is from position (~) to position (~). Its move could be written
as (3E, ON) or simply as (3, 0). Suppose the castle is now moved to the position
(:).
The move from (~) to (:) may be written as (OE,4N) or (0,4).
The two moves have taken the castle from (~) to (:). The actual moves
have been (3, 0) followed by (0, 4).
Copy and complete the following table that shows some moves for a castle:
Starting
Position
First
Move
Second
Move
(~)
(3,0)
(0,4)
(3,4)
(i)
(0, 3)
(2,0)
(2,3)
(0,5)
(-2,0)
(~)
(~)
(-2,0)
Combined
Move
Finishing
Position
(:)
(0, -1)
6. The table below shows some more complicated moves of a castle. Complete the table
and extend by making up some further moves of your own.

Starting
Pcsition
(~)
(~)
(~)
First
Move
Second
Move
(4,0)
(0,2)
(-2,0)
(0, -2)
(2,0)
(-3,0)
(4,0)
(-2,0)
(0, -2)
Third
Move
Combined
Move
(2, 2)
Finishing
Position
(~)
A chessman starts at position (~) and after a certain number of moves its
finishing position is also (~). List a possible set of moves for the particular pieces
you have selected. What is the sum of these moves for each piece? What single
~ove would !eave any chessman at the same position as his starting position? This
~mglemove IS the null or zero move and we write it in vector form as (0,0) which
IS, of course, the null or zero vector.
[I5J
7. Look again at the set of knight's moves. One of them was (-1,2).
Another one was
the exact inverse of this one. Which was it? It was, of course, the move which took
the knight in the opposite direction but along an equal distance. List each knight's
move with its inverse. Make a sketch on a single diagram of all possible moves
of a knight centrally placed on a board.
8. Look at the two moves (1, 2) and (2, -1). What do you notice about them? One
thing we can see is that their components have changed' place and that one of the
signs has also been changed. The directions of the two vectors are different;
what about the lengths? What is the angle between these two vectors? List other
pairs of 'knight's moves' which are related in this same way.
9. Check on the moves of other chessmen. Make up some examples and questions e.g.
Queen starts at the position (~) and after some moves finishes at the position (~).
List a possible set of moves. What is the minimum number of moves possible?
What are they?
FIG. 108
10. A knight makes a move (1, 2) followed by the same move (1, 2). The combined
move is (1,2) then (1,2) i.e. (2,4). We may say
(1,2)
+ (1, 2) = (2,4)
alternatively
2(1, 2)
= (1,2)
+ (1,2)
= (2,4)
Draw diagrams to illustrate the following 'multiple' moves. In each case find
alternative ways of recording the moves.
(a) (2, 1)
(2, 1) = 2(2, 1)
(h) (-1,2)
(-1,2)
(-1,2)
(c) 2(1, -2)

(d) 3(1, -2)
(e) (-1,2) + 2(-1,2)
(f) 2(2, 1) 2(2, 1)
[16]

DISCUSSION
Many newspapers and children's papers have a 'chess feature'. Here is a diagram
showing the code letters of the moves in each square:
White
Black
QR8 QN8 QB8 Q8 K8 KB8 KN8 KR8
QRI QNI QBI QI Kl KBI KNI KRl
QR2 QN2 QB2 Q2 K2 K.B2 KN2 KR2
QR6 QN6 QB6 Q6 K6 KB6 K.N6 KR6
QRS QNS QBS QS K5 KBS KNS KRS
QR4 QN4 QB4 Q4 K4 KM KN4 KR4
QR4 QN4 QB4 Q4 K4 KM KN4 KR4
QRS QN5 QB5 Q5 K5 KB5 KN5 KR5
QRI 'QNI QBI QI KI KBI KNI KRI
FIG.
FIG. b
When White moves, the move is recorded according to Fig. a; when Black moves,
it is recorded according to Fig. b. Each move is shown by giving the initial letter of the
piece to be moved, followed by the square to which it moves. Thus, if White's first move'
is to place the pawn in front of his queen forward two places, the move is recorded
as P-Q4.
Does this method use vectors? Is it an easy method, or would you advise the chess
world to change over to the method we have been working with?
CHAPTER
,2
Fractions of Fractions
FIG. 201
In Fig. 201 a square has been divided into four equal pieces, and one piece shaded.
What fraction of the large square is this?
FIG. 202
In Fig. 202 a further division of one piece into four equal pieces has taken place and
one of these smaller squares shaded. How much of the original square is now shaded?
The large square was first divided into quarters and now one of these quarters has
been divided into quarters. The amount of the original square shaded is thus:
1, and! of 1
or
1+!X!
=1+*
=1\+-h
=/r
[18]
Remember that:
1X 1
IX I
=4x4
and
=*
1=1=11=1\=.
are all equivalent fractions.

You could imagine that the larger square had been completely divided into sixteen
smaller squares as Fig. 203 shows. Now it is clear that five of these squares have been
shaded. In other words 5/16 of the large square is shaded.
I
I
I
I
____
.JI
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-----1- ---I
I
I
I
FIG. 203
FIG. 204
FIG. 206
In Figs. 204 and 205 further divisions have taken place. What fraction of the large
square is shaded in each case?
Draw Fig. 205 as accurately as you can making the large square with side 12 em.
Work out the sides of each square. '
Work out the area of each square. Remember that 1i can be thought of as 3 halves
ort.
Divide one of the smallest squares in your drawing yet again into quarters and shade
the top left-hand quarter. You might have to estimate the division. Work out the size
and area of the new shaded square.
Imagine that you can continue to subdivide the squares and shade in as before. How
many squares are there of the same size? What fraction of each size of squares have you
shaded? Approximately what fraction of the original 12 em square have you shaded?
FRACTIONS OF FRACTIONS
[19]
EXERCISE 2
1. In Fig. 206 an equilateral triangle has been divided into four congruent triangles.
In what way can you divide a triangle like this?
What fraction has been shaded in?
FIG. 206
FIG. 207
Fig. 207 shows a further subdivision and shading.

What additional fraction of the original triangle has now been shaded? What
fraction of the original triangle has been shaded?
Sketch a diagram to show another subdivision and shading. What fraction of
the original triangle has now been shaded?
If the subdivision and shading is continued as far as you can imagine, approximately what fraction of the original triangle will be shaded?
How would your results compare if a different shaped triangle had been used?
2. What are the missing numbers in the following equations?
(a)
5 X 3 =-
2
(6) 3
3 =9
224
(c)
3 X 3 =-
(d)
2 of 4 = -
(I) 4 of 8 = 5
3 + 4 = 12
3 + 12 = 12
(n)
3 - 4 = 12
+~
=~
3
(0)
3 - 4 = 12
(g) ~
3
I
(h)
313
= I
(m)
(e) 4
(f)
(k) Ii of2
+ 1.6 =I
-16
16
(p)
3 + 4 = 12
MIDLANDS MATHEMATICAL
[20]
EXPERIMENT
3. Spot and correct the mistakes in the following:
326
(h) - X
437
(a) - X - =538
1 1 1
(h) - of - = 246
224
(c) =336
(d) 12
= ~=
27
1
9
1
(e) - - 4
3
(f)
. x
(j) 1
(k) - - x
=-
12
347
(I)
a -:-
7/1
(m)
3 = 7/3
4 + 16 = 20
213
(g) - X -
1, x
1
3
=-
2
a
= -
13
5
(n) 20 - 30
=-
+ 2 = 3' x = 1
2
3
3
1
!+!=~
347
(i)
+-
- =-
34
60
4. What sort of figure is a rhombus?

Draw as accurately as you ean a rhombus of side 12 em. Find the area of the
figure by any method you like. Divide the rhombus into quarters just as you
divided the square in Fig. 205. Work out the size and area of each size of rhombus.
6. In the following, find the fraction used to change one number to the next. Write
down the next two terms in each case.
(a) 64, 16, 4, 1
(b) 27, 18, 12, 8
(c) 32, 16, 8, 4

(d) 2, 2/3, 2/9, 2/27
(e) 2, 4/3, 8/9, 16/27

(f) 5, 3, 9/5, 27/25
6. Write down the multiplying fraction used to change the first number of each of tqe
following pairs to the second.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(64, 16)
(64, 4)
(18, 12)
(27, 8)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(2/3, 2/27)
(2, 2/27)
(i) (9/5, 27/25)

(j) (5, 27/25)
(2, 4/3)
(4/3, 16/27)
7. Make up an example to show that

same quantity.
1of i of
a quantity is the same as
1of 1 of the
CHAPTER
Relations: Ordering and

Equivalence
EXERCISE 3a
1. If x andy can be elements of the set below, discuss the truth or falsity of the statement
x i. heavier than) J '.lOr vanous

eIements x an d y ta k en firom t h e set:
{a quarter of a stone of potatoes, an egg, a rhinoceros, a two-pound weight, a
mini-car, an elephant, a bus, a feather, four half-pound boxes of chocolates}
For example, afeather is heavier than a bus, produces a false statement.
.
'.
2. I nvesttgate
m i. younger than) n lor
eIements m an d n ta ken firom t h e set:
{Harold Wilson, John Lennon, Prince Philip, Petula Clarke, Mary Quant, Prince Andrew}
3. List a set of well-known buildings, e.g.
{St Paul's, Empire State Building, Tower of Pisa, Eiffel Tower}
Find the height of each building (to the nearest metre).
order. Are any the same height?
Arrange them in
4, Find the average life-span of:

(a) a horse
(b) a rabbit
(e) a cat
(f) a goldfish
(c) a pig
(d) a man
(g) a dog
(h) a hen
Arrange them in order of life expectancy, Are any the same?

Write down the number of legs each of these creatures has.
Inves t'19at e X has more legs than~ y.
5. (a) Consider x ~
y if x andy both belong to S
We can agree:
1~3
1~2
1~4
2~3
2~4
3~4
= {I,
3,4, 2}.
[22]
This can be summarized in one diagram or arrow graph:
FIG. 301
How
How
What
Ifwe
many arrows begin at the number I ? at 2? at 3? at 4?

many arrows end at the number 1 ? at 2? at 3? at 4 ?
do these results tell you?
rearrange the numbers 'in order' (1,2,3,4)
then we have
FIG. 302
(b) Investigate
X
is greater than
)
x~y
hi
we wnte t s x
>y )
(x=y)
6. Using the family set {Mother, Father, John, Bill, Alan} which we will refer to briefly as
C = {M, F,], B, A}
(a) Wh en
IS
t e statement
is a brother or
)
Y true.
Draw an arrow graph of this relationship.

Draw arrow graphs for the following:
( b)
()C
is married to
X
X
)J
is a parent of
)y
(d)x~J
e
( )
belongll to the same family as
)y
Investigate the number of arrows (i) leaving, (ii) going to, each element.
7. Repeat Question 6 using the members of your own family as members in the set.
8.
FIG. 303
RELATIONS:
ORDERING
AND EQUIVALENCE
[23]
The incomplete arrow graph represents the relationship 'is taller than' between
five people Anna, Bill, Charlie, David, and Edith.
Write out all the true statements you can about these five people, e.g.
David 'is taller than' Charlie
Copy the graph and add all the missing arrows that you know should have
been included.
Make a new graph for the five people and draw in arrows for the relationship
'is shorter than'.
What extra information would you need to be able to arrange the five people
in order of size?
9.
-1/
8~11
FIG. 3,04
The arrow graph shows the relationship 'is three more than' between five
numbers.
Using the information in the figure, write down four true statements containing
the phrase 'is three more than'.
Copy the graph into your book and using a different colour add arrows to
represent the relationship 'is six more than' between the numbers. What do you
notice?
Make a fresh copy of the graph and using a contrasting colour, add arrows
to represent the relationship 'is three less than' between the numbell. What do
you notice?
10. CansI'd er x
i'.
h e set 0fl' mes sown
h
b e1ow:
) J J.ort
i.longcr than
d
b
FIG. 3-06
[24]
Draw an arrow graph and find out how many arrows point away from and to
each element.
Which line is the longest? Which line is the shortest? Are any equal in length?
In Volume I we have used (x,y) as a shorthand for x ~ y, and this suggests we
make a table:
e
d
c
b
a
Rob
FIG. 306
The shaded square represents (a, d) or a -+ d or a 'is longer than' d. Copy

and complete the table for the set of lines.
Which column has the most squares shaded? the least? Which columns are
the same? Why?
We could rearrange the elements in order of size:
b
a
d
d
R
FIG. 307
Draw tables for the various relationships in Question 6.

11. Write down the names of six people in your class. Find (a) their heights, (b) their
months of birth.
Draw arrow graphs and tables for:
'is taller than'
'was born in the same month'
12. Investigate 'is less than' between the members of the set A
= {~3,
4, 0, -I}.
13. For the members of the set of figures in Fig. 3,08, draw up tables to show:
(a) 'covers more squares than'
(b) 'covers the same area as'
(c) 'has a greater perimeter than'
RELATIONS:
ORDERING
AND EQUIVALENCE
[25]
d
a
FIG. 3-08
Note: We will agree that a 'covers the same area as' a, since it certainly does
not cover a different area! Similarly b 'covers the same area as' b, and so on.
14. Draw up tables for:
(a) 'is steeper than'
(h) 'has the same slope as'
between the members of the following set of vectors:
a = (2,2) b = (1,5) c = (4,2)
d = (3,3) e = (2,4) f = (2, 1) g = (1, 1)
15. Investigate the tables for the relationships 'parallel to' and 'perpendicular to' between
the members of the set of lines below.
c
h
b
9
FIG. 309
Remember (a) ~ (a), (b) ~ (b), etc. for 'parallel to'.

Is (a) -+ (a) for 'perpendicular to' ?
16.
FIG. 310
Investigate the tables for the relationships:

'has more sides than'
'has the same number of sides as'
'has the same shading as'
between the set of polygons shown in Fig. 310.
[26]
SUMMARY
I. Sometimes with a relation we can say that each element is 'related to itself' (see
Question 13). This is called the reflexive property, and can be seen by the patterns below:
d
0 0
0 Q
c
b
a
R abc
FIG. 311
2. Sometimes a relation goes 'both ways' for any pair of elements, e.g. Questions 6(a),
13(6). This is called the symmetric property. Look at the illustrations below. Can you see
why this property is called symmetric?
fFb~C
d
FIG. 312
3. Sometimes a relation has a 'carry-over' or transitive property, is x 'is related to' J andy
'is related to' z then x 'is related to' z:
FIG. 313
Look back over the graphs and tables you have drawn and look for reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive properties.
Which questions had to do with ordering elements?
Which questions had to do with the sameness of elements ?
You will see that to put elements into an order, the transitive rule must hold, e.g.
1 is less than 2 and 2 is less than 3
1-+2-+3
1-+3
i.e.
1 is less than 3
Relations which obey the three rules for all the elements concerned are called relations
of equivalence.
RELATIONS: ORDERING AND EQUIVALENCE
[27]
Here is an example of a table for an equivalence relation:
FIG. 314
Copy and complete the arrow graph below:
/\
FIG. 316
What do you notice? Which column has one square shaded? Which columns have
two? three? How does this show up on the arrow graph? Refer back to your answers to
Questions 13, 14, 15, 16. Which elements are 'the same', i.e. equivalent, for the relations
in these questions ?
Which columns have the same squares shaded?
We could rearrange the tables so that equivalent elements are together: from the
example above we would get:
FIG. 316
Try this with some of your tables, and see how the blocks of squares appear.
Take some examples to show that the arrow graphs divide the sets into 'compartments'
as in our example.
(a)
(h, d, e)
(e,j)
[28]

EXERCISE 3b
1. Copy and complete the arrow graphs for the relations shown in the tables below.
Which of them represent equivalence relations?
~D
B
F
C
FIG. 317
d
c
b
B
0
'\
a
R
E
D
FIG. 318
0/
e
d
c
R
FIG. 319
/B
0
A
C
FIG. 3'20
e
A
C
B
c
b
R abc
e
FIG. 321
[29]
2. (a) Copy and complete these diagrams when the relations shown are transitive:
c~
o
FIG. 322
(h) Copy and complete these diagrams when the relations shown are reflexive:
)x
/1
z<
FIG. 323
(c) Copy and complete these diagrams when the relations shown are symmetric:
~d
\/
V~W~/l
x
FIG. 324
(d) Complete the following when relations of equivalence are shown:
FIG. 326
(e) Draw tables for the eight arrow graphs above.
[30]
SOME
MIDLANDS
USES
MATHEMATICAL
EXPERIMENT
OF EQ.UIVALENCE
Take a fairly long piece of string and wrap it round a tin or some other cylindrical
object. Make marks on the string at the top and bottom along the length of the cylinder,
and at each side, so that the string is marked at equal distances, each being a quarter of
the circumference of the tin.
Alternatively, you might measure the diameter of the cylinder, calculate the circumference C, and mark points on the string so that the distance between the points is a
quarter of the circumference.
Stick labels made of paper by the marks, and numbered 0, I, 2, 3, 4, and so on as far
as you can (Fig. 327).
Re-wind the string around the cylinder. (Fig. 328)
FIG. 328
FIG. 327
4-
7 3
FIG. 328
15
2
6
FIG. 329
RELATIONS:
ORDERING
131]
AND EQUIVALENCE
We will say two numbers are 'equivalent' if they are in the same line of numbers.
Let us consider the numbers 0 to 7.
Complete the arrow graph and table below:
o
1
.4
7
2
5
.4
2
1
0
R 0
.4
FIG. 330
We have divided the counting numbers into four sets by an equivalence relation.
(Check that the three rules are true.) Suppose we call the four sets 0, I, II, III. Then:
o = {O,4,
8, 12,
{I, 5, 9, 13,
II = {2, 6, 10, 14,
III = {3, 7, 11, 15,
I
}
}
}
}
We can do some interesting adding of numbers from these sets.

1. Let us look at 6 3.
(a) Start at card 6.

(b) Move out along the string for three cards.
(c) Find to which of the four sets 0, I, II, III, the answer belongs.
In this case:
6 3 = 9 and 6 E II, and 3 E III, and 9 E I

6+3=9~6+3EI
II ~ III
I or 6 3 I
2. What about 4
+ =
+ 7?
(a) Start at card 4.

(b) Move out along the string for seven cards.
(c) Find to which of the four sets 0, I, II, III, the answer belongs.
In this case:
4
4
+ 7 = 11 and 4 E 0, and 7 E III,

+ 7 = 11 ~ 4 + 7 E III
o Ee III
= III
or 4
+ 7 == III
and 11 E III
[32]
EXERCISE 3c
1. Try the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Of
+
+
(e) 3 3
3
(f)2+1
3
2
(g) 1 I
3
1
I
3
what type of arithmetic does this remind you?
+
+
+
+
2+2
(h) 3 0
(i) 0 + 2
(j)
2. Now complete:
+
+
+
+
(k)
(I)
(m)
(n)
(f)3+5
(a) 2
7
(b) 6 + 3
(c) 7
3
(d) 3
4
(e) 7
I
What do you notice?
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
7
I
4
1
+4
+5
+3
+9
+7
+5
+7
4 +4
We can put the results in an addition table. The answer to our question II
i.e. 0, goes in the shaded square. (Fig. 331)
+
+ II,
n m
o
[
IT
m
FIG. 331
Copy the table into your book and complete the entries.
You can see that any member of a particular set can be replaced by another member
of the same set without changing the result:
9+4=:1+4=1+0=:1
~
~
Additions of numbers from the four sets is now very easy but suppose our first question
had been a subtraction, i.e. 6 - 3. Look back at the instructions we used for the sum
6
3. How would you modify these instructions for the new sum? Check that:
6-3=3
so
II - III
III
Do you agree that 10 - 3 = III?
EXERCISE 3d
1. Complete these subtractions:
(a) 9 - 8
(b) 9 - 4
(c) 5 - 4
==
==
==
(d) 11 - 9 =
(e) 11 - 5 =
(f) 7 - 4 =
(g) 11 - 4 =
(h) 7 - 3 ==
(i) 3 - 1 =
[33]
2. Doesthe replacing still work with subtraction? Put your results in a subtraction table.
We can still replace numbers by any other number equivalent to the original:
1-2=5-2
'---'"
5-7=5-3
~
4-7=8-7
~
4-7=4-3
~
This should remind you of the clock arithmetic modulo 4 (mod 4) we did in Volume I.
You probably remember questions like:
2-3=
(mod 4)
Try to do these questions:

(a) 6 - 11 (mod 4)
(b) 4 - 11 (mod 4)
(c) 4 - 9 (mod 4)
(d) 2 -7 (mod 4)
(e) 6 - 10 (mod 4)
(f) 4 - 6 (mod 4)
So replacing a number by an equivalent one often makes calculations easier. In

ordinary arithmetic we are used to talking about equivalent fractions and using them like
this:
ORDERED PAIRS
'Normally we only say two ordered pairs are 'equivalent' if they have the same Easting
and Northing; e.g.
(3,2) followed by (I, 3) is equivalent to (4,5)
What meaning has this equivalence? In what way are the courses the same? Are
there any differences?
We will look at.a more unusual 'equivalence'.
EXERCISE 3e
1. (I) How are the three ordered pairs (0, I), (1,2), (2,3) the same? Can you write
down the next three ordered pairs to follow on?
(II) (0, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), ... What have these ordered pairs in common? Write
down the next three pairs.
Write down some more vectors 'equivalent' in this way to:
(III) (0,3), (1,4),
'(IV) (0,4), (1,5),
(V) (0,5), (2, 7),
.
.
.
2. On a sheet of squared paper mark axes with scales both 'East' and 'North' from
o to 10 units. On Fig. 332 the points (0, 1) and (1, 2) are plotted already.
[34]

Plot the other points obtained from the ordered pairs in I-V.
notice?
Write down some other ordered pairs equivalent to (0, 1).
What do you
10
9
8
r-
7
6
5
4
.-
3
2
10
FIG. 332
3. Copy and complete the arrow graph below:

(0,2)
(0,3)
(1,3)
(1,4)
4. Now let us see what happens when we add together two ordered pairs:
(1,4)
+ (2,3) =
(3, 7)
On which line does (1, 4) lie? (2, 3)? (3, 7)? Complete:
(2, 5)
+ (0,
I)
On which line does (2,5) lie? (0, I)? Your answer?

In the same way find to which lines the given ordered pairs, and your answers,
belong:
(a) (0, 1)
(b) (1,5)
(e) (1,2)
(d) (0, 1)
(e) (1,2)
+ (5,6)
+ (5,6) =
+ (3,4) =
+ (1,3) =
+ (1,3) =
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(1,3)
(0, 2)
(0, 2)
(0,4)
U) (1,5)
+ (2,4)
+ (2,4)
+ (0, 2)
+ (0,3)
+ (0,3)
=
=
=
=
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
+ (2,4)
+ (2,4)
+ (2,4)
(0, 3) + (1,5)
(1,4)
(2, 5)
(0, 3)
(0) (1,4)
+ (1,5)
=
=
=
=
=
As in the previous section, we see that this equivalence relation allows us to replace
any element by another element of the same set. The ordered pair answer will look
different, if we make a replacement, but it will be on the same line. We can summarize
by saying
line I
+ line II = III
RELATIONS:
ORDERING
AND EQUIVALENCE
[35]
and so on. Copy and complete the addition table.
I II
Ii
n
]I[
Ii
FIG. 3'33
That was very easy, wasn't it? Of course, if we labelled each line with its equation
we would have:
I
II
III
x
x
x
+ I =Y
+ 2 =y
+ 3 =Y
'plus one' line

'plus two' line
'plus three' line, etc.
Each line so far matches with an element of the natural numbers, and behaves just like
that element.
5. Now try these:
(a) (5,8)
(b) (4, 7)
(c) (3, 6)
(d) (5,8)
6. On what line
do
(0, 1) =
(e) (4,6) - (1,3) =
(i)
(0, 1) =
(1) (4,6) - (0,2) =
U)
(0, I) =
(g) (3, 5) - (0,2) =
(k)
(2,3) =
(h) (4,5) - (0, 1) =
(l)
the five new points in the last question lie?
(3,4)
(0, 1)
(6, 7)
(6, 7)
(1,2)
(0, 1)
(5,6)
(3,4)
=
=
=
W~at is special about these order pairs?

Find the results of:
(a) (2,3)
(I, 1) =
(c) (3,6)
(2,2) =
(h) (4,5) - (I, 1) =
(d) (4,5) - (3,3) =
7. On your graph plot the line of 'zero' points. What is the equation of this line?
8. What do you think will happen if we take a 'plus two' ordered pair away from a 'plus
one' pair? Let's see if you were right.
(a) (2,3) - (1,3) =
(h) (6, 7) - (2, 4) =
Plot the points given by
YOUT
(c) (3,4) - (1,3) =

(d) (8, 9) - (3, 5) =
answers. Did you expect this pattern?
We can avoid using negative numbers for.a while by doing 'replacements':
7) - (5,7) == (1,0)
(3,~~,~
If our first ordered pair is too small, all we have to do is replace it by another ordered
pair from the same line. You can probably cut out the steps, and say:
(3,4) - (5, 7)
= (6, 7) -
(5~7)
= (1, 0)
~
It doesn't matter if you choose a new 'first' ordered pair which is too big:
(3,4) - (5, 7)
== (7,8)
- (5, 7)
== (2, 1)
~
since the answer will still belong to the correct line: (2, I)
= (1,0).
[36]
9. Make up several examples of your own for each 'line' sum below. Plot the points
representing your answers.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
line 2 -line 3
line 2 - line 4
line 3 -line 5
line 0 - line 3
line I - line 4
e.g.(4, 6) - (1,4)
10. Name some ordered pairs which would lie on the 'minus four' line; the 'minus five'
line. Join the points on each line and label it with the correct equation.
Can you remember how to do addition and subtraction with negative numbers?
Try them in the new disguise:
line I
+ line (-2)
e.g.
+ (4,2)
(1,2)
(5,4)
What line does the answer belong to?

1
+ (-2)
Make up your own examples for:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
+
+
line (-3)
line 5
line (-2)
line (-1)
line 2 - line (-1)
line 2 - line (-3)
line 1 - line 4
line (-2) - line 3
SUMMARY
Before we end this chapter, please notice that we have nowhere said any untruths like:
(0,3) = (1,4).
(0,3) is not 'equal to' (1,4). The equals sign is a special equivalence reserved for cases
where the two ordered pairs have the same Eastings, same Northing, the same distance of
movement, and the same direction. This is a very strong equivalence compared with the
other equivalences.
(0,3) ~ (1,4)
There is the same difference between the Easting and Northing of each ordered pair,
but there does not seem to be anything else about them that is the same.
Can you find any?
A relation where each element is 'related to itself. is called a reflexive relation. The arrow
graph (Fig. 334) shows this:
FIG. 334
a~b
~
FIG. 335
A relation that goes 'both ways' for any pair of elements is called a symmetric relation.
The arrow graph (Fig. 335) shows this:
RELATIONS:
ORDERING
AND EQUIVALENCE
[37]
A relation with a 'carry over' property is called a transitive relation. The arrow graph
(Fig. 336) shows this:
FIG. 336
o~o
FIG. 337
A relation which is, reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equivalence relation.
The arrow graph (Fig. 337) shows this.
CHAPTER
Tessellations, from Brick Walls

to Footballs
THE PATTERN of bricks in a typical brick wall is shown in Fig. 401. The bricks have
a rectangular face and cover the surface with th~.same pattern. (We are not concerned
with the edges at this stage.) The surface is said to be tessellated.
FIG. 4-01
FIG. 402
TESS ELLA TIONS
[39]
Fig. 402 shows a pattern frequently used in laying wood blocks for a parquet floor:
your assembly hall floor might well be like this. This surface is again tessellated using a
rectangle.
EXERCISE 48
1. Copy Fig. 402 and extend the pattern.
2. Try to make up another tessellation using rectangles.
3. The rectangle is not the only quadrilateral that will tessellate. In Fig. 403 you can
see that parallelograms will tessellate. Why must the parallel.lines in anyone set
of lines be equally spaced?
FIG. 403
Make a list of the other kinds of quadrilateral and either by drawing or cutting
out about a dozen of each shape see if they will tessellate. Of course the pattern
must always be the same wherever you look at it.
4. Triangles are another simple shape that tessellate easily. Study Fig. 404 carefully.
Can you spot three sets of parallel lines that are used to form the triangles? Now
draw a different shaped triangle and use the shape to form a tessellation.
FIG. 404
[40]
/ I
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIG. 406
(3)
(b)
FIG. 408
(c)
TESSELLATIONS
[41]
(d)
FIG. 406 (Contd.)
5. Try to tessellate the following regular polygons: triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon,
heptagon, octagon, nonagon, decagon, and dodecagon. You can draw the tessellation but you will find the task easier if you draw round cut-out shapes of the regular
polygons and try to fit them together. Remember that a tessellation must cover
the surface leaving no gaps between the shapes and the shapes must not overlap.
Can you see why only some of the regular polygons tessellate?
Each individual unit of a tessellation is often called a tess. Much experimentation
has been done with tessellations by interested artists, in particular the Dutchman, M. C.
I
--I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-- ... - - - --'- - - I
---I
- - ------I
-- ... --
__
I
I
...1 __
I
I
I
FIG. 407
--,
I
I
- - 1- - - - -
-1
[42]
Escher. It has been found that a basic tess can be modified to form quite intriguing
designs. If the tesshas one pair of parallel sides of equal length, a new tess can be formed
by adding any shape to one of the parallel sides, providing it is also subtracted from the
opposite parallel side. Fig. 405 gives an illustration of this idea.
If the original shape has more than one pair of equal parallel sides, the addition to
one parallel side and subtraction from the other can be repeated for each pair of sides.
Fig. 406 showshow this works in practice. A tess whose sides are no longer straight has
been produced.
Draw a tess with one or more pairs of parallel sides and by adding and subtracting
parts produce a new tess. Produce a piece of tessellation using your new tess.
Fig. 407(b) again shows a modification where congruent pieces have been added to
top and bottom of a quadrilateral, this time a square. Suppose now we add and subtract
congruent pieces on just one side of the tess as in Fig. 407(c). Check that the shapes A
and B differ in shape and size.
If the curves at the top and bottom orB are reversed as shownin Fig. 407(d) the shapes
A and B become congruent, B being the same as A but upside down. If we made a
tracing of A and rotated the paper through 180 about the point CD which is the mid-point
of the side common to A and B, the tracing would cover shape B. A tess can always be
built up in this way. Fig. 407(e) and Fig. 4'07(j) show further development of the tess
to form a recognizable object at the end.
0
(a)
(b)
FIG. 408
TESSELLATIONS
[43]
Starting with a simple shape try to develop this idea for yourself. With luck you will
be able to produce an interesting pattern. Fig. 408 shows another illustration of this
technique and might give you inspiration.
FIG. 409
By rotating any quadrilateral about the mid-point of its sides, you can see it will
always tessellate. In Fig. 409 p, q, r, s, are the mid-points of the sides of an irregular
quadrilateral shown shaded.
r - - - - - -,- - - - - -,- - -- - - '"\-- - - I
I
,
I
1
I
r- ----
I
I
I
I
,
:
-1-- - ---l
I
1
I
I
I
:
I
-----1
~_______
I
I
I
I
,
I
~- - - - - - -r- - - - - - -
- - - -,-
,I
'I
I
"
:
I
1
I
I
I
t------f-----'I
I
I
I
I
I
------~------~
I
I
I
,I
r------.J------
------t-----
"
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
1
1
I
I
I
,I
- - - --,
I
I
I
~ __ - - - -
- - - - - ~ - - - - - -~ - - - - -
"1
I
I
,
I
.1
I
I
I
1
-1I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'L
I
I
I
1
I
FIG. 410
MIDLANDS
[44]
MATHEMATICAL
EXPERIMENT
A 180 rotation about the point p will take the shaded shape into position A. Similar rotation about q, f, s will take the shape into B, C and D. The points p, q, r, s are called centres
of rotation. Rotations through 180 of A, B, C, and D will extend the tessellation further.
About which points could you rotate one of the quadrilaterals to fill the position E?
Choose any irregular quadrilateral and use the shape to draw a tessellation. Try
modifying the sides to produce a more interesting drawing.
Some capital letters form curious tessellations and their shapes intriguing modifications
of a simpler tess. The capital letter T shown in Fig. 410 is such an example. The shaded
area shows one possible quadrilateral tess that could have been used to form the T shape.
Check that the modifications to the sides are symmetrical about their mid-points,
and also that the area of the quadrilateral and the T are the same. Work out some other
possible quadrilaterals that could be modified to form the same T shape. How do their
areas compare? Give reasons for your answers.
0
EXERCISE 4b
1. A tessellation of the letter T is shown below. Points p, q, r are on the edge of the
shaded T shape.
c
I
I
I
FIG. 411
(a) Trace Fig. 411 and extend the tessellation to include the shapes F, G and H.
(b) If the shaded shape A was rotated through 1800 about point q its position
would be transformed to cover B. Mark in the diagram a point s about which
rotation would take the shaded shape A into position F.
TESSELLATIONS
[45]
(c) Describe in words the position of point r on the shaded shape A.

(d) Shape A is rotated through 180 about point p and then rotated through 180
about point q. Shade and label] the new position of shape A.
(e) Mark any necessary points on your diagram and describe how you would
transform a shape over G to cover shape A.
(f) What is the effect of rotating shape A through 180C!about point q and then
carrying out the same operation again? How many other pairs of rotations have
the same final effect?
(g) Shade in the final position of shape A if rotations of 180 take place about the
following points one after the other:
0
first p, then q, then r, and finally p

(h) Is the system of rotations commutative?
Give reasons for your answer.
2. In Fig. 412 each illustrated tess has been formed by ~odifying a quadrilateral.
Copy the shapes onto squared paper and superimpose (draw on top) a quadrilateral
which could be modified to form the tess. Describe the modifications needed.
How does the area of the tess compare with its quadrilateral?
Using each tess in turn draw a portion of a tessellation.
r - -,- - - - - - - - r - -, - :
j--
I
I- - -
:,.:
--
- -
T -
; __
:__
I
I
I
-,-
,. - -
r - -r -
-1-
r--
---
I
1
:_- -
- - _:~_ - -
- -
- - T - -
--
--
I __ ;
t---
--
II!
L _.J
L _
r - ., - - r - , - - ~- - ~
r- - -
I
--
I
I
I: __
1--
1
-I
--'--1
- - ~ -
1- - -:
l __,_
_
I
--j
1
__~__
1 __
--1
I
- - -.- -
- _I
I
I __
I
I
,
..1 __ L __ L _ ...J __
: : :
__
- -,
L__1
-:-
--'--.--
1
I
r--
,. -
j __
,: : :__
J __ .,..:__~~_;
I
-' __
~
I
_ _
_ __
I
I
..1 _ - 1 _ - - - - - - - - - -1- - _1- - - L - _1__ .J - _ .J
FIG. 413
[46]
3. Shapes constructed from five equal-sized squares, each joined together with at least
one other square along an edge, are called pentominoes. There are twelve different
pentominoes of which seven are shown in Fig. 4,13.
(a) Find and draw the other five pentominoes.
(b) Each of the pentominoes will tessellate and all are modified triangles. Draw
out the seven pentominoes on squared paper and see if you can superimpose on
each a triangle which could be modified to form the pentomino tess. This is
difficult.
(c) How doesthe area of the tesscompare with the area ofits superimposed triangle?
Can you draw alternative triangles?
(d) Using some of the more interestingly shaped of the twelve pentominoes draw
portions of tessellations.
4.
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
---'---1---'--- - -,-
- -1- - -,-
--~--~--~--~--~-I
FIG. 414
How can you divide this pentomino into four smaller similar pieces all of the
same size?
5. A tess has been modified to form the following design.
,
"
"
"
I'
I
I
I
I
I
I
II
I
I
'
I
'
I
\
",
"
",
I
,
I
,
, I
FIG. 415
What is the basic shape? Describe the modifications that have taken place.
Reproduce the tess and draw a piece of tessellation.
With your friends you might like to cut out fifty-fourof these tesses and try to
assemble them to form an approximately hexagonal piece of tessellation. Very
careful drawing and cutting is needed to assemble these shapes without leaving
small spaces in between.
6. Draw a piece of tessellation using modified hexagons. What kind of hexagon must
you use for a tess?
TESSELLATIONS
[47J
FIG. 4'16
7. The centres of four regular hexagons have been joined in the hexagonal tessellation
shown in Fig. 416. What shape has been made? Does this shape tessellate?
The hexagonal lattice has at least one other shape embedded in it. How many
can you find?
Draw a lattice of squares. What other lattices can you find embedded in this
lattice?
8. The hexagonal tile in Fig. 417 has been drawn so that the angle at A is 90. The
hexagon has all sides equal in length and three sets of parallel sides. Draw two
different ways of arranging the tiles so that they will cover a floor. Are they both
tessellations? In each case what is the least number of colours needed for the tiles,
if no two tiles of the same colour touch each other along an edge?
<.
FIG. 417
A template of the tile is useful in this question.
[48]

0
9. Repeat Question 8 with a hexagonal tile whose angle at A is 72
10. Devise and draw a tessellation using an equal sided pentagon. Four pentagons will
meet at some vertices and three at others. What other lattice is embedded in the
tessellation?
11. If the followingregular polygons were cut out of thin card and assembled by means
of Sellotape into well known three dimensional figures or polyhedra, what are
their names?
(c) 12 hexagons
(d) 20 triangles
(a) 6 squares
(b) 8 triangles
A tessellationuses only one kind of polygon or modified polygon such as a quadrilateral

or the T-shaped pentomino. However, patterns regularly covering a surface can be
made using two or more different shapes. Fig. 418 shows a design using three regular
polygons: a triangle, square, and hexagon. At any vertex of the design, such as A, there
is a hexagon, two squares and a triangle.
A semi-regular tessellation is a design using two or more regular polygons so that at every
vertex the number and order of these are the same. The design in Fig. 418 is a semiregular tessellation.
FIG. 418
TESS ELLA TIONS
[49]
EXERCISE 4c
1. In forming one of the semi-regular tessellations, the sum of the angles at any vertex
must be 360 State in which cases it is clear that a semi-regular tessellation cannot
be formed if the following regular polygons are assembled at one vertex:
0
(a) 2 hexagons and 2 squares

(b) I octagon and I square
(c) I square and 4 triangles
(d) 2 squares and 3 triangles
(e) I dodecagon, 1 hexagon and 1 square
(f) 1 decagon and 2 pentagons
2. To form semi-regular tessellations the regular polygons all have the same length side.
Either by using cut-out shapes or by drawing, form semi-regular tessellationsusing
the following regular polygons at each vertex:
(a) 1 hexagon and 4 triangles
(b) 2 squares and 3 triangles
(c) 2 hexagons and 2 triangles
(d) 2 octagons and I square
Rather more laborious to produce are those using:
(e) 2 dodecagons and I triangle
(f) 1 dodecagon, I hexagon and 1 square
3. Cut out regular polygonS from thin card and assemble the following polyhedra.
The edges of all polygons must be the same for any model.
(a) 4 hexagons and 4 triangles form a truncated tetrahedron
(b) 6 squares and 8 triangles form a cuboctahedron
(c) 6 hexagons and 8 triangles form a truncated cube
(d) 8 hexagons and 6 squares form a truncated octahedron
Rather more complex polyhedra are:
(e) 6 squares and 32 triangles form a snub cube
(f) 6 octahedra, 8 hexagons and 12 squares form a truncated cuboctahedron
4. Try to persuade each of your class to make a truncated octahedron of the same size.
Stack the completed collection. What do you notice? Are there any other
polyhedra that have this property?
5. Find out what shaped panels are used for footballs.
SUMMARY
A tessellation is an arrangement of polygons fitting together so as to completely cover a

surface without overlapping.
A tess is the individual polygon used in a tessellation.
The sides of a tess do not have to be straight so long as they are symmetrical about their
mid-points, or congruent pieces have been added and subtracted to parallel sides of a
basic tess.
[50]
EXPERIMENT
Any figure will be a tess if its perimeter can be divided up by three or four vertices into
sides each of which is symmetrical about its mid-point.
Useful books on tessellations:
Mathematical Models
Mathematical Recreations and EssaJ~
Introduction to Geometry
Geometric Dissections
Grafiek en Tekeningen
H. M. Cundy and A. P. Rollett (Oxford)

W. W. Rouse Ball (Macmillan)
H. S. M. Coxeter (John Wiley)
H. Lindgren (Van Nostrand)
M. C. Escher (Koninklijke)
CHAPTER
Sets of Points
YOU HAVE already plotted sets of points according to given mathematical rules.
For instance, you have met the rules:
{(x,y):
+y
= 12} and
{(x,y):
xy
= 12}
These can be represented on graph paper as shown in Figs. 501 to 504.

y
6
3
6
3
0 3 6 9 12x
0 369
FIG. 6-02
FIG. 601
i~
1
369
FIG. 604
FIG. 603
Can you tell, in each case, from what set of numbers x andy are taken? Assume in this
chapter that x andy are rational numbers.
EXERCISE 5a
1. Using Fig. 505 write down the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D. State in each
case which of the following points do not lie on the line 81:
(5,5)
( -2, 2)
(73, 73)
(3, 4)
Give reasons for your answers.
-4
FIG. &05
FIG. 5,08
[52]

We can define the set of points 81 as:
SI
{(X,y): y
= x}
2.
(a) Write down the coordinates of the points E, F, G, H, on 82 in Fig. 506.
(h) Name two other points that lie on S2.
(c) Copy and complete:
(5, .. )
82, (-3,
.. )
82
We can define the set of points S2 as:
S2 = {(x,y): y = 2x}
3.
y
,--rH--,-r~
:
, --- ..'-i-o-:
I
t--i--~
I
i.
,
:
I
-4
FIG. 507
(a) Write down the coordinates of the points I,], K, in Fig. 507.
(b) By considering the coordinates, verify that:
S3
= {(x,y) : y = ix}
Is it also true to say that:
S3 = {(x,y):
3) = x},
and
S3
{(x, 3xH?
4.
~-4
FIG. 508
(a) Write down the coordinates of the points L, M, P, N, on S4 in Fig. 5,08.

(b) Verify that: 84 = {(x,y): J = x
I}
(c) Is it also true that:
84
= {(x,y):
y - x
= I} and that 84 = {(x,
+ I)}?
SETS OF POINTS
[53]
EXERCISE 5b
By folding a piece of graph paper divide it into four rectangles of the same size.
In each rectangle draw x andy axes with -3 ~ x ~ 4, and -4 ~y ~ 4.
1. In one section draw in the set of points Ll = {(:t,y): y = x}. You might like to write
down the coordinates of some points. To do this, choose a few values of x and work
out the values ofy to go with these, i.e. the corresponding values ofy. For convenience these could be set down in a table in your exercise book like this:
x
-3
-3
.y
-I
-2
-2
Do the points fall into any pattern?

(a) Draw in all the members of the set L1 for -3 ~ x ~ 4.
On the same set of axes and using the same method, draw the following sets
of points:
(b) ~ = {(x, y) : y = x
(c) La = {(x,y): y = x
+ 1J
+ 2}
(d) L4 = {(x, y) : y = x-I}

(e) Ls = {(x,y) : y = x - 2}
What do you notice about the lines LI, 14, La, L4, Ls?
Note that Ll may be written in several ways:
Ll
= {(x,y)
:y
x}
{(x,y) : y - x
O} = {(x, x)}
Write out Lt., La, L4, Ls in different ways.
2. (a) On the second set of axes again draw Ll = {(x,y): y = x}. Choose some points
which do not lie on the line. Write down their coordinates. How many of your
points have J greater than x, i.e. y > x?
Write down the coordinates of a few points for whichy < x. Mark these on
your graph paper.
Where do you find the set of points {(x,y): y > x}?
Where do you find the set of points {(x,y) : y < x}?
Use colours or shading to show these two sets of points on your graph paper.
Carefully label each set.
(b) With the help of your drawing for Question 1, describe where the following
sets of points lie:
+
+
{(x,y): y> x
I} and
{(x,y) : y > x
2} and
{(x,y) : y > x - I} and
{(x,y): J
{(x,y) : y
{(x,y) : y
< x + I}
<x
<x
+ 2}
- I}
3. In these examples you may find it easier to rewrite the equations given, so that they
start with y. The first equation has been rewritten li~e this for you. So, using
another set of axes, draw in the following sets of points:
(a) SI
(b) 82
(c) Sa
(d) 84
(e) 85
= {(x,y): x + y = O} or SI = {(x,y): Y
= {(x,y): x + y = I}
= {(x,y): x + y = 2}
= {(x,y): x + y + 1 = O}
= {(x,y): x + J + 2 = O}
-x}
What do you notice about the sets of points and their graphs?
[54]
Where are the following sets of points

sets can be rewritten in a different form.
(f) {(x,y):
(g) {(x,y):
(h) {(x,y):
(i) {(x,J):
U) {(x,y):
(k) {(x,y):
(I) {(x,y):
(m) {(x,y):
+ y < O}
+ J > O}
x + y < I}
x + y > I}
x + y < -I}
x + y > -I}
x + J < -2}
x + y > -2}
x
x
{(x,y) : y
EXPERIMENT
? It might help if you remember that the

The first has been rewritten.
<
-x}
4. Using another set of axes, shade in with a coloured pencil (blue) the set
B = {(x,y):
+y
~ 2}
Using a different colour (red) shade in the set Y = {(x,y) : y ~

If X = {(x,y):
O} where is the set S = B () Y () X?
x>
x}.
6. On the second side of your graph paper draw four more sets of axes again using
-3 ~ x ~ 4, and -4 ~y ~ 4. It might be a good idea to make up tables of
values for the next examples. Choose values of x and work out values of y to go
with them.
(a) VI = {(x,y): y = 2x}

(b) V2 = {(x,y): y = 2x
(c) Vs = {(x,y): y = 2x
(d) V4 = {(x,y): y = 2x - I}
(e) V6 = {(x,J): y = 2x - 2}
+ I}
+ 2}
Where are the following sets of points ?
(f)
(g)
(h)
( i)
{(x,y): y < 2x}, {(x,y): J - 2x > O}, {(x,y): y > 2x}

{(x,y): y - 2x > I}, {(x,y): y < 2x
I}
{(x,y): J < 2x
2}, {(x,y) :.y - 2x < 2}, {(x,y): y > 2x
What would be the picture or representation
+ 2}
of the set:
+ IO}?
{(x,y):
y =
2x
{(x,y):
y -
2x < lO}?
Where is the set:
EXERCISE 5c
The representation
gradient m.
of {(x,y):
1. What are the representations

without drawing graphs.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
{(x,y): J
{(x,y):)
{(x,y): y
{(x,y): y
3x}
= 4x}
=
=
5x}
6x}
mx} is a straight line through the origin having a
of the following sets?
(e)
(1)
(g)
(h)
Try to answer the questions
{(x,y): y = Ix}
{(x,y): 2y = x}
{(x,y): y = -x}
{(x,y):) = -2x}
Name two points in each set.

. ~an you tell by looking at the given definition of the set if your representation
IS gomg to be a straight line? How many points are needed to draw a straight line?
SETS OF POINTS
[55],
2. What is the representation of each of the following sets ?
+
+
(a) {(x,y):.y = 3x
I}
(h) {(x,y): .1 = 3x
2}
(c) {(x,y): J = 3x - 2}
+ 2}
(d) {(x,y): .1 = 5x
(e) {(x,y): J = 5x - 2}
(f) {(x,y): .1 = 2 - 5x}
Name two points in each set. How could you use these two points to draw quickly
a representation of each set?
A line divides the plane into two half planes. A half plane does not include the line.
3. What is the representation of the following sets?
(a) {(x,y): .1 < 3x}

(b) {(x,y): .1 < 3x - I}
(c) {(x,y): J :;> 3x}

(d) {(x,y): .1 ~ 3x - I}
The set of points {(x,.1) : .1 = mx

c} may be represented by a straight line through
the origin having gradient m and passing through the point (0, c).
Later you will meet sets of points which cannot be represented by straight lines.
All our straight lines were made by sets of x and y but if we had something like x2 or .13
we would not get straight lines. What do you think we would get?
EXERCISE 6d
Figs. 509 to 5,16 represent sets of points. Match each set listed below to its diagram.
{(i,y):
{(x,y)
{(x,y)
{(x,y):
y
:y
:y
y
x}
-2x}
-x}
{(x,y):
{(x,y):
{(x,y):
{(x,y):
+ x}
y = -x - 2}
y =2
2x}
y = ix}
y = 2 - x}
",/
/'
~
V
/"
/'
-~
"'"
-4
-:~
./"
1/
...
-2
~
~
-4
-4
FIG. 609
y
)
4
'"
x
,,,
-4
-4
FIG. 613
5c
-2
Y'
"\
""
"'-
2"'-
-2
1/
-4
""
'"
-2
FIG. &11
-2
FIG. &12
FIG. 610
V
/2
-2
I'"
-2
-2
-4
FIG. &14
1\
"\
[56]
i
/
-4
-/1
/ !
1\
+------
\
-4
XI
-2 /
r\
-2
1--
1/
/
/
-2
-4
-4
'\
f\
FIG. 5,16
FIG. 616
NUMBER
PUZZLES
I think of a pair of numbers. Their difference is 1. Call one number x, the other y,
and as one number is larger than the other (why?) let's suppose that this isJ. Can you
guess what the two numbers are? Obviously you cannot because there is an infinite set
of number pairs {(x,y): y - x = I}, e.g. (1,2), (4,5), (117, 118), (43,53), and so on.
I think of two numbers. Their difference is 1, and their sum is 5. Now can you guess
what numbers I have thought of?
You can probably see an answer straight away. Is there only one pair of numbers
{(x,y): x y = 5, y - x = I}? A simple graph will tell you. Fig. 5.17 shows the
set Sl = {(x,Y):J - x = I}.
\,
5'\.
/A
V
c,)'
"r\
I
I
51'.
FIG. 6'17
FIG. 618
/
\,
Sr\
3
"" 1/
1/
1/ "" I"
C,v
0
i/
~
5~
FIG. 619
[57]
SETS OF POINTS
Remember this means that for any point on this line, for instance the point A (3,4),
you wi}lfind} - x = I,in this case 4 - 3 = 1.
Fig. 518 shows the set 82
= {(x,y):
+ 'V =
5}.
What can you say about every point on this line?

In Fig. 519 how many points are there in S1 () ~? What conditions are satisfied at
Sl () S2?
If we have two unknowns, x and j, we need two equations to determine the values
of x and}. If both these equations have solution sets which may be represented by straight
lines,they will, in general have one, but only one, number pair in common. Can you think
of a case where there is no solution? What will happen if the two lines are parallel?
Is it likely that three equations in x and y written down at random have one common
solution?
EXERCISE 5e
Fold a piece of graph paper into four equal-sized rectangles.
1. In each rectangle draw a set of axes for x and y so that 0 ~ x ~ 6, and 0 ~y ~ 6.
By drawing graphs of sets of points and finding their intersection, solve the following
pairs of equations:
.
(a)
+y
+y = 5
(c) x
Y=~
y=x+I
+}
x
=6
(d) x y = 6
3} :- x = 6
} =x
4
2. On the other side of your graph paper draw four more sets of axes so that -3 ~ x ~ 3
and -3 ~y ~ 4. By finding the intersection of the sets of points solve the following
equations:
(c) y
x = 2
(a) 2x + } = 0
}x=2
x+ y=2
(b)
(h)
}+
(d)
y = -2x
3x= 1
2y
+ 3x = 4
+3
<
3. On a new sheet of paper and using sets of axes where 0 ~ x

6 and 0 ~y
shade in areas where both statements in each of the following are true:
(a) x y < 2
(c) x
2y < 6
x>}
x+ }<4
(b) 2x
~ 6,
+y
<6
(d) x
x <y
+ 2y
x-
<6
y> 4
SUMMARY
The set of points {(x;y):.'1 = mx

c} may be represented by a straight line having
gradient m and passing through the point (0, c).
If we have two unknowns, we need two equations to determine the two unknown values.
CHAPTER
Shape and Size-Area
EXERCISE 6a
1. (a) Compare the two reproductions or prints of the same illustration. What shape are
they? One is, of course, an enlargement of the other. Copy and complete the
table of dimensions for the two.
Print B
Print A
Line Segment
AlAs
A"Aa
AsA4
A~l
A1Aa
AzA4
Length em
Line Segment
Length cm
BIB:a
B:aBa
BaB4
B~l
B1Ba
BzB4
(b) Compare the lengths AlAs and B1Bz What can you say about the two lengths?
What is the ratio of the lengths AIA2/Bl~? Find the ratio between the other pairs
of corresponding lengths. Is the ratio the same?
(c) Trace the two print outlines and draw the diagonals on each. Cut out the
two tracings. Compare the angles in the two tracings by fitting one tracing on
the other. What do you notice about the two sets of angles?
How many copies of print A could be made on a piece of paper of the size
of print B?
2. (a) Copy the outlines of the two prints onto plain paper. Join the corresponding corners with straight lines and extend the lines so that they meet. Fig. 602 showsyou
the idea but make sure you can get the extended lines on your paper.
Now find the centre of each rectangle. Join the centres and extend this line.
What can you say about all the joining lines? If you are not satisfied with your
drawing perhaps you would like to make another.
(b) Measure the distances from where the extended lines meet to each corner
of the two prints. Compare these lengths. Are they in a simple ratio? What
would you expect if you measured and compared distances to the centres of the
rectangles? Measure these lengths. Were you right?
(c) What effect would there be if you used a square with side 2 cm and a square
with side 6 em, instead of the two rectangles? Draw the squares and lines if you
are not sure.
SHAPE AND SIZE-AREA
Print A
[59}
Print B
Aa
B4
FlO. "01
FIG. 8-02
B9
[60]

(d) Draw another rectangle having its dimensions double that of print A. Call
this rectangle C. Cut it out and see if you can fit it on the )oining lines' of the
rectangles A and B so that the corresponding points of all three rectangles are
joined.
(e) Can you cover rectangle C with an exact number of replicas of rectangle A?
How many will you need? (Call A the unit rectangle.) What would be the
dimensions of rectangle D if its dimensions were double rectangle C? Make a
table of your findings.
Rectangle
Height
Width
Perimeter
Number of unit rectangles
EXERCISE 6b
How would you find the perimeter of a rectangle? How would you find the area of
a rectangle? If a rectangle has a height of 3 em and a base of 12 cm, what is its perimeter?
What is its area? If h is the height and b the base of a rectangle, check that a formula
for the perimeter is 2b
2h. What is the area of this rectangle?
1. (a) Here are some tables of dimensions of three sets of rectangles. Copy and complete
the three tables.
Set A
Height
Base
Perimeter
Area (sq. units)
1 2
3
1
2
Ii 2
2t
3
6
3t
Set B
Height
Base
Perimeter
Area (sq. units)
2
2
3
3
4
4-
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
Set C
Height
Base
Perimeter
Area (sq. units)
2 4
1 2
6 8 10 12 14 16
3 4- 5 6 7 8
(b) If the sets can be extended, in which one would you place a rectangle whose
height is 18 and base 36? Why? What special name is given to the set of rectangles
B? For each set, name three more rectangles that are elements.
(c) Can you find:
(i) any rectangle which is a member of all three sets, i.e. belongs to set A,
set B, set C.
(ii) any rectangle which is an element of two of the sets but not the third.
(d) Draw x an? y axes, so that 0 ~ x ~ 18, and 0 ~y ~ 18, with 1 em to represent one umt on the axes. On these axes draw a graph of height (y) against
SHAPE AND SIZE-AREA
[6IJ
base (x) for each of the sets A, B, C. What do you notice about the graphs? Is
there any relationship between the sets?
(e) On another sheet of graph paper, draw x andy axes so that 0 ~ x ~ 8, and
o ~y ~ 50. Take I cm for 1 unit along x and 4 em for 10 units alongy. Draw
a graph of perimeter (y) against base (x) for each set of rectangles. Write out
what you observe about the graphs.
(I) On another sheet of graph paper, draw x andy axes so that 0 ~ x ~ 8, and
o ~y ~ 140. Take 1 cm for 1 unit along x and 1 em for 10 units alongy. Draw
a graph of area (y) against base (x) for each set of rectangles. Again write down
your observations.
(g) Compare the three sets of graphs. Can you find any way in which they are
alike?
2. (a) Copy and complete this table of dimensions of another set of rectangles.
Height (cm)
Base (em)
Perimeter
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Area
Could a rectangle of size 11 X 1 be included in an extended set? How do
you decide if a rectangle belongs to this set?
(h) Draw graphs of (i) height against base
(ii) perimeter against base
(iii) area against base
Write out what you find.
(c) Are all the rectangles the same shape? Cut out the nine rectangles and ask
ten people, not in your class, to choose the rectangle they like best.
Your teacher will collect the results from your class and show you how to
construct a histogram. Draw the histogram of the choices of the most pleasing
rectangle (i.e. a block diagram in which the height of eaeh block will represent
the number of people who chose the rectangle associated with the block).
Find a shop selling cards and ask which shapes are the most popular. Compare
these shapes with your histogram.
(d) If you had twenty-four metres of wire netting with which to enclose a rectangular
chicken,;,pen, and you wanted to enclose as large an area as possible, what shape
would the pen have to be? What would be its dimensions?
Compare the graph in Fig. 603 with the ones you drew for Question I (f), the graphs
of area against base.
The graphs are curves because the area 'grows more quickly' than the base. If the base
'grew more quickly' than the area, what do you think the graph would look like?
The points on the graph in Fig. 603 are for an enlarged set of rectangles B. The points
on the graph satisfy the condition that the area is the square of the base, i.e. if the base is 3,
the area is 32 or 9.
In other words:
area = base2
or
Y =x2
[62]
60
50
o
~l.
40
30
20
10
2345678
Base
FIG. 603
The graph could be extended because our highest value of x is only 8 and if we call
the set of points that lie on this line S,
S
{(x,y) : y
x2}
EXERCISE 6c
1. Which of the following points lie on the graph ofJ = x2 shown in Fig. 603?
(a) (4,30)
(b) (2,4)
(c) (0,20)
(d) (7, 35)

(e) (3, 10)
(f) (5,25)
(g) (12, 144)

(h) (12,6)
(i) (1'2,1)
U) (33, 10)
(k) (65,42)
(l) (80, 640)
2. Which of the points in Question I would lie below the line if plotted? Check that
y < x2 for each of them.
3. For which points in Question I isy > x2? Where would these points lie if plotted in
Fig.603?
EXERCISE 6d
1. What does similar mean? Fig. 604shows two similar rectangles. The shaded area in
each is made by joining the mid-points of the two adjacent sides.
(a) What fraction of the rectangle A is the shaded triangle a? Is this the same
for Band b?
(h) How many of rectangle A will fit into rectangle B? How many of triangle a
will fit into triangle b? Compare your two answers.
SHAPE AND SIZE-AREA
[63]
B
FIG. 604
2. Are the two rectangles in Fig. 605 similar? Give reasons for your answer.
FIG. 606
3. Identify the following shapes. Trace, and cut them out.

a
2
FIG. 606
If we call each one a 'size l' shape, what is a 'size 2' shape? How many 'size I'
shapes will fit in a 'size 2' shape? a 'size 3' shape'? a 'size 4' shape?
All these shapes are called replicating shapes, i.e. shapes which have the property
of extending themselves to form similar shapes.
[64]
4. Fig. 607 showsa 'size l' regular hexagon.
FIG. 6'07
Draw a 'size 2' hexagon. Can you fit 'size l' hexagons into a 'size 2' hexagon?
(You may use scissors.)
EXERCISE 6e
1. Here is part of the composition table for multiplication.
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 1201/4~
'1\
22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110)21 132
10 '2Q,,30 40 50 60 70 80 gO 100 110120

9
18 '2Z',,36 45 54 63 72/8(90
16 24 '.32"40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
14 21 28 3~',,~/49
12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
/12
/6
'\
~ 1/2
56 63 70 77 84
"",
99 108
"",
15 18 21 24""27, 30 33 36
8
10 12 14 16 18"'~0 22 24
10"""1.12
FIG. 608
(a) Why is the line joining the numbers I to 144 called an axis of symmetry?
What set of numbers lies on this line?
Look at the set of numbers on the dotted line. What set of numbers are these?
SHAPE AND SIZE-AREA
[65]
In Fig. 609 these numbers have "been plotted against the number of the column
in which they lie. For example: 20 in the second column has been plotted against
the 2 on the x axis. Study the graph carefully.
IU'I'lber
.....+~-- +--"--1- ..
3S
*"....'....
,
"""'~
,,
,,
30
2S
..
..
..
\
..
,f
'~..
..
I
I
20
I
~
\
,,
,
,
lS
10
\
\
\
\
~
\
10
11
12 column
FIG. 609
The graph shows a parabola. Using lcm for 2 units on the J axis, and 1 cm
for each unit on the x axis, make a copy of this graph.
(h) Find the diagonal with numbers that start 10, 18, 24. Again, using the same
axes, plot numbers of this diagonal against the number of the column in which
they lie. How does this graph compare with the last one?
(c) Using the numbers on the diagonal that starts 12, 22, 30, plot another graph
on the same axes and again compare the curVe.
2. A set ofrectangles have a perimeter of thirty-six metres. Find the areas of the rectangles
whose bases are 2,4, 6, 8, .. , 16 metres. Draw a graph of area (y) against
base (x). Comment on your graph.
3. The height and base of a set of rectangles are given in the table:
Height
Base
2 3 4 6 8 12
12 8 6 4 3 2
Perimeter
Area
Copy and complete the table of values. Draw a graph of height against base.
What do you notice? Draw a graph of area against base. Comment on the shape
of your graph.
[66]
4. Each member of a set of rectangles has an area of 36 cm2 Find the perimeters of the
rectangles whose bases are: 2,4,6,9, 12, 18 em. Draw graphs of height against
base, and perimeter against base. Comment on the shapes of these graphs.
In Volume I we found that:
area of a circle
7Tr2
Remember that '7TT2 means 7T X r X r and not (7T X r) X (7T X r). What do 7T and r
represent?
5. What is the ratio of the area of:
(a) a I cm radius circle to that of a 2 cm radius circle
(b) a 2 cm circle to that of a 4 em radius circle
(c) a 3 em radius circle to that of a 6 em diameter circle
6. If the dimensions of a rectangular metal sheet are doubled, how many times as much
paint would be needed to paint it?
7. CarRet is sold at so much a metre square. If the dimensions of a plain one colour
carpet are halved, what should happen to the cost of the carpet?
8. A manufacturtl' doubles all the dimensionsof a packing casehe uses. If the man painting the outside of the case works at the same rate as before, how will the times of
painting the two cases compare? Would you expect the same result for the times
taken by the man packing the cases with goods?
SUMMARY
In a set of similar shapes:

(a) corresponding lengths and part lengths, when graphed, produce a.straight line;
(b) corresponding areas and part areas are related bya square law; their graphs are
parabolas;
(c) angles do not change;
(d) homothetic shapes are similar and similarly orientated (corresponding sides are
parallel); the lines joining corresponding points come together at a single point (are
incident); there is a constant ratio between corresponding lengths of the joining lines.
CHAPTER
Modular Arithmetic
IN MODULAR arithmetic we call numbers congruent if they leave the same remainder
when divided by a number (the modulus or base), e.g.
13 == 5 (mod 8)
because when both numbers are divided by 8, the remainder is 5 in each case.
Check that:
36 = 29
22
15 == 8 = I (mod 7)
= =
Find the modulus when:

32
== 26 = 20 =
14
=8
Many people call this remainder arithmetic, and we often meet the ideas of modular
arithmetic in practical situations, although we rarely use the modular notation to solve
problems.
EXERCISE 7a
1. Seven players Ann, Bill, Carol, Dolly, Egbert, Fred, and Gert sit in order round a
circle. Cards are dealt so that Ann gets the first, Bill gets the second, and so on.
Who gets the 30th card, who the 40th, who the last, the 52nd, card? If Fred
wants the last card, who must have, the first card? If Bill has the 10th card, who
had the first and who will have the last?
2. (a) There are five children standing in a circle. They use the old rhyme:
Eenie, meenie, mynie, mo,
Catch a chicken by its toe,
If it hollers, let it go,
Eenie, meenie, mynie, mo
to find out who is to start the game. The child who does the counting is a 'mathematician' . Where must he start counting to make sure he has first turn? (Note
that the rhyme counts up to sixteen.)
(b) Another child is invited to join the game. Where must the child who does the
counting start to make sure that he has the first turn?
(c) The six children now decide to play hide-and-seek. For this game, the child
who is counted 'mo', is one who has to hide. He now stands outside the circle
while the 'counter' again begins counting the remaining children. This continues
until the 'counter' is the last child left, and will be the 'seeker'. Draw diagrams
to show how each counting has been done.
(d) Do you know any other rhymes used in this way?
[68]
3. A new town boasts of a very efficient bus service around the City Centre. The bus
takes twelve minutes for one complete circuit and immediately continues in the
same direction. Below is the time schedule for one complete circuit:
Art Galler)
9.00
Baths
9.02
Comert Hall
Depot
9.04
9.06
EveningInstitute
Fun Fair
9.08
9.10
9.12
Write out all the times between nine o'clock and ten o'clock when the bus is at
the Evening Institute.
Where would the bus be 50 minutes after leaving the stop by the Baths?
Where was the bus exactly half-an-hour before arriving at the Fun Fair? How
does modular arithmetic help you in this?
4. What are warp and weft: two words used in weaving?
Suppose you want to set up a loom to weave the pattern shown in Fig. 701
with coloured thread on a plain background. You would have to calculate the
number of black threads required in your warp. If you wanted to start and finish
with four short lines, why is twelveblack threads the smallest number you can use?
Check that you could use 20, 28, 36, and 44 black threads. Oan you see the pattern
in these numbers?
If n is the number of black threads, we have the result:
n
= 4 (mod 8)
But we must use more than 4 threads.

(a) Investigate the patterns shown in Fig. 702 to 704.
Write down the number of threads required to produce the patterns:
(i) starting with a complete group of short threads,
(ii) starting with a complete group of long threads.
Use the modulus notation in your answers.
I I I I , , , I' I "
I " II I I I III!
II I I
FIG. 701
FIG. 702
I I I II
'II
II II "
FIG. 703
FIG. 704
11
'1111
III I
MODULAR
ARITHMETIC
[69]
(b) (Harder example) Suppose the width of your material requires sixty threads,
and you want to place the patterns symmetrically, leaving the same number of
odd threads at each end. Try to discover how modular arithmetic helps you to do
this, and show how you would place each of the given patterns.
EXERCISE 7b
1. In Volume I you have already investigated if modular arithmetic behaves like ordinary
arithmetic but you have possibly forgotten the results. If you have, write out again
the addition and multiplication tables for:
(a) modulo 2
(b) modulo 3
(c) modulo 4
(d) modulo 5
(e) modulo 6
(f) modulo 7
(g) modulo 8
(h) modulo 12
Of course you might have saved these tables for reference; if so, make sure you
know how they were made up.
2. The set of numbers involved in modulo 7 is:
87
{I, 2, 3,4,5, 6, O}
In what follows a and b are any two members of the set 87.
(a) Does the number (a
b) mod 7
If so we say that arithmetic mod 7 is
always belong to the set?
closed under addition.
(b) Does the number (a X b) mod 7
Arithmetic mod 7 is closed under maltiplieabelong to 87 ?
tion.
(e) Does a
b
b
a (mod 7)?
Arithmetic mod 7 is commutative under
addition.
(d) Does a X b
h X a (mod 7) ?
Arithmetic mod 7 is commutative for multi
plication.
(e) Is there an element x belonging to
x is called the identity element for addition.
S7 such that a
x = a (mod 7) ?
(j) Is there an element J belonging to
y is called the identity element for multipliea87 such that a X y = a (mod 7)?
tion.
(g) Is there an element n belonging to
n is called the additive Inverse of a.
87 such that a n 0 (mod 7)?
m is called the multiplicative inverse of a.
(h) Is there an element m belonging to
87 such that a X m
1 (mod 7) ?
(i) Does (a - b) mod 7 always belong
Arithmetic mod 7 is' closed under subto 87?
traction.
+ = +
+ =
3. Now examine each of the tables you drew up in Question I against a list of questions
like those in Question 2.
'
Is modular arithmetic closed under addition and under multiplication?
Is there an identity element for addition and one for multiplication? Can you
always find an additive inverse? Can you always find a multiplicative inverse?
Is the multiplicative inverse, ifit exists, always unique? What have prime numbers
to do with the last question?
4. In the algebra of ordinary numbers, if 3x = 0, what can you say about the values of x?
If xy = 0, what can you say about x or J?
If XJ
0 (mod 5), is it true that either x or J must be 5 ?
If xy
0 (mod 12), is it true that either x ory must be 12? What have prime
numbers to do with the last question?
=
=
[70]
5. How many numbers are there in the arithmetic modulo 3? If you write down the
values (mod 3) of 21, 22, 23, 24,. how many different answers do you think
you will get? Try it and see.
6. How many digits are there in arithmetic modulo 5? How many different answers do
you think you will get if you write down the values (mod 5) of:
(a) 21,22,23, 2n
(c) 41,42,43, 4n
1
2
3
n
(b) 3 ,3 ,3 , 3
(d) 51,52,53, 5n
Try them and see. Remember that powers can be 'split-up' e.g.
45 = 42 X 43
7. Try the same for arithmetic modulo 7.
8. Can you discover any rules about the possible number of answers you can obtain if
you were to write down all the powers to some prime modulus? Check if your
results are correct by using mod 13.
9. See if these rules apply if you use a modulus that is not prime. Write about the patterns
you obtain.
10. Write out the powers of 1,2,3,4, ... 12 (mod 12) and solve the following equations:
(a) x2 == x (mod 12)
(b) x3 == x (mod 12)

(c) x2 == 1 (mod 12)
11. Using any multiplication tables or lists of powers that you have worked out, write
out ten equations similar to those of Question lOusing different moduli. Ask your
partner to solve these.
EXERCISE 7c
1. Are the following statements true?
(a) 37 == 1 (mod 6)
(c) 48 3 (mod 5)
(e) 94
2 (mod 12)
(b) 17 == 23 (mod 3)
(d) 13 22 (mod 2)
(I) 59
119 (mod 10)
(g) All even numbers are congruent (or equivalent) mod 2.
(h) All odd numbers are congruent mod 2.
(i) Any two numbers which are congruent (mod 10) end in the same digit.
2. Give the following numbers in their simplest form with respect to the mod indicated:
(a) 17 (mod 10)
(d) 130 (mod 11)
(g) -7 (mod 5)
(b) 18 (mod 2)
(e) -4 (mod 5)
(h) -12 (mod 12)
(c) 19 (mod 12)
if) -2 (mod 8)
3. Write down the following sets by listing all the elements in each. The first one is
done for you.
(a) A = {x: x == 3 (mod 10), 0 < x < 50}
A = {3, 13, 23,33, 43}
(h) B = {x: x == 1 (mod 10),0 < x < 70}
(c) C = {x: x == 5 (mod 12),0 < x < 80}
(d) D = {x: x == 2 (mod 3),0 < x < 30}
4. Use the language of modular arithmetic to describe the following sets whose numbers
are listed. Again the first one is done for you.
(a) A = {7, 11, 15, 19}
A = {x: x == 3 (mod 4), 3 < x < 20}
(b) B = {O,5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
(c) C = {I, 12,23, 34,45, 56}
(d) D={-I,2,5,8,
Il}
(e) E = {-10, -3,4, 11,18,25}
=
=
MODULAR
ARITHMETIC
[711
5. Write down the squares of the first twenty-five natural numbers. Using these write
down the following sets by listing all the members:
(a) A = {x: x2 == 5 (mod 10), 0 ~x ~ 25}
(h) B = {x: x2 == I (mod 10), 0 ~ x ~ 25}
(c) C = {x: x2 == 4 (mod 10), 0 ~ x ~ 25}
(d) D = {x: x2 == 10 (mod 10), 0 ~ x ~ 25}
(e) E = {x: x2 == 0 (mod 9), 0 ~ x ~ 25}
(j) F = {x: x2 = 0 (mod 4), 0 ~ x ~ 25}
6. Find the values of a for which:
{x: x2
x2
== a (mod 10)} =
7. Solve the equation

x (mod 10)
3
8. Solve the equation x == x (mod 10)
9. Find the values ofy which satisfy:
(i.e. the empty set)
(a) 13 == 1 (mody)
(c) 38
2 (mody)
(d) 125
5 (mody)
(h) 21 == 3 (mody)
10. Complete the following:
If x == 3 (mod 5) and y == I (mod 5), then x y ==
xy == .. (mod 5). Can you prove this?
11. Work out the powers of I and 2 for the integers (mod 3) i.e.
12 ==
(mod 3), 13 ==
(mod 3), 14 ==
22 ==
(mod 3), 23 ==
(mod 3), 24
How m,any different answers do you expect at most?
(mod 3),
(mod 3),
(mod 5)
and
CHAPTER
Distributive
Law ~Tith
Numbers and Vectors
EXERCISE 8a (Revision)
1. Write down answers to the following:
(a) (+2) + (+2)
(d) (+2) - (-2)
(b) (+2) - (+2)
(e) (-2) + (-2)
(c) (+2) + (-2)
(f) (-2) - (+2)
(g) (-2) + (-2)

(h) (-2) - (-2)
(i) (-3)
(-2)
2. In each statement x represents a missing number. Find x.

(a) (+3) + x = +12
(g) (+2) + x =
(b) (-3)
x = +12
(h) (+4) ~ x =
(c) (+4) - x = +12
(i) x + (+4) =
(d) (-4)
x = -12
U) x - (-8) =
(e) (-2) - x = + 10
(k) x - (+4) =
(f) x
(-5) = +10
(l) (-4)
X =
MUL'TIPLICATION
USING
DIRECTED
+6
-16
+20
-16
-20
+8
NUMBERS
Here is part of the multiplication table for positive whole numbers (integers, ]+) :
+3
+0 +3
+6
+9
+2 +0 +2 +4 +6
+1 +0 +1 +2 +3
+0 +0 +0 +0 +0
+0 +1 +2 +3
Examine row A. It represents (+2) X m where m takes the values of +0, +1, +2, +3,
I.e.
(+2)
(+0),
(+2)
(+1),
(+2)
(+2), (+2)
(+3)
Which row represents (+3) X m?

If we write the row down in the reverse order with values of m above the products,
check that we will get:
m
A
+3
+2
+1
+0
+6 +4 +2 +0
You can see that both these sequencescan be extended to form the following pattern:
m
A
+3 +2 +1
+6 +4 +2
What numbers would extend the line further?
-1
-2
-2
-4
-3
-6
LAW WITH NUMBERS AND VECTORS
DISTRIBUTIVE
[73]
Using our extended lines we can draw up a larger multiplication table:

n
+3
-9 -6 -3
-6 -4 -2
-3 -2 -1
+2
+1
0
X
Column B represents n
(0) X (-2)
-3 -2
-1
0 +3
0 +2
0 +1
0
0
0
+6
+4
+2
+9
+6
+3
+1 +2
+3 m
(-2) where n takes the values 0, + 1, +2, +3, i.e.
(+2)
(+1) X (-2)
(+3)
(-2)
(-2)
Writing the column with the corresponding values of n above the products we get:
n
+3
-6
0
0
+2 +1
-4 -2
Once again both these sequences can be extended, to obtain the following pattern:
-3
-2 -1
+1 +2
+3
-3
-2
-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+3 +6
+2 +4
+1 +2
+9
+6
+3
-9 -6
-6 -4
-3 -2
+3
+2
+1
0
-I
+3 +2
+6 +4
+9 +6
-2
-3
+1
+2
+3
-2
-2 -4
-3 -6
-3
-6
-9
0
-I
Multiplication in this table follows a pattern:

(a minus number) X (a plus
(a minus number) X (a minus
(a plus number) X (a minus
(a plus number) X (a plus
number) = a minus number

number) = a plus number
number) = a minus number
number) = a plus number
Does this work for all numbers in the table?

Can we extend in any direction our multiplication table and the pattern work for
all numbers?
EXERCISE 8b
1. Write down answers to the following:
(a)
(h)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
+3
-3
X
X
X
+2
+2
-3
--:-2
+3 X -2
-3 X 0
-I X -2
(g)
0 X -2
(h) -2 X +3
(i) +4 X -5
U) -5 X +3
(k) -5 X -4
(I)
+5
+4
(m)
(n)
(0)
-7 X
-7 X
-9 X
(p) '-10
(q)
(r)
X
X
-3
-8
+9
-9
+7
-10
+4
+8
(s) +m X +n
(t) -m X +n
(u) -n X +m
(v) -m X -n
(w) -a X +y
[74]
+ c) = a X b + a
a X (b + c)
= -1 X (-2 + +3)
2. In general: a
(b
-I
-I
EXPERIMENT
Ifa= -l,b=
c.
-2,c=
axh+axc
= -1 X -2
+1
+2 +-3
+ -1
+3:
+3
= -1
So, with this substitution, the equation is true.

Verify the equation using the following substitutions:
(a) a = -3, b == -2, c = +5
(d) a = +3, h = -5, c
(b) a = -3, b = +2, c = -5
(e) a = -3, b = -5, C
(c) a = +3, b = -2, c = -5
The equation:
(b
= +2
= -2
+ c) = a X b + a X c
illustrates the Distributive Law.

ALTERNATIVE
METHOD
FOR MULTIPUCATION
OF NUMBERS
On a sheet of graph paper draw axes Ox, 0 y taking 1 em to represent I unit of x

and 2 em to represent 4 units of) (see Fig. 801). Draw in the line LZL' and label a
number scale, the m scale, on it as shown. If you pin your graph paper to a board and
put a small nail at 0, the remainder of this section will be easier to carry out. Use a
piece of shirring elastic to represent the lines through D. Make the line DA which passes
through m = 4. The point G corresponds to x = 2. Herey = 8. Similarly the point H
corresponding to x = 3 has y = 12.
Using your shirring elastic you should be able to make any line quickly. The line DA
is a 'multiplying line'; it may be used to find mx. Try it to find the following products:
(a) 4
(d) 6
X
X
3
2
(b) 4
(e) 6
X
X
2t
It
(c) 4
(f) 6
3!
You ought to be satisfied now that the graph set up is a multiplying device. Now using
the same technique let us find (-4) X 3. We use the line DB in the figure. H' on DB
has x = 3 andy = -12. If the set-up is a multiplying device:
(-4)
3 = (-12)
EXERCISE Be
1. Using your graph find answers to the following:
(a) (-2)
(c) (-2)
(b) (-2) X 2t
3t
(d) (-6) X It
(e) (-6) X
1.
(1) (-6) X 2t
So using this device, if we multiply a positive number by a negative number the

result will always be a negative number.
2. To multiply a negative number by a positive number, by 4 say, we have to extend the
line AO beyond 0 to A'. We can now read off the product of any number with 4.
Thus 4 X (-3) = -12 (see point K). Similarly, to multiply a negative number
by a negative number, we have to continue the line DB beyond 0 to B', e.g.
(-4)
(-2) = (+8)
(see point P)
Make up a series of multiplications and using the device find answers. Get your
friend to check your results.
DISTRIBUTIVE
,,
,
,,
16
16
14
14
12
12
,
/
/
/
,,
,,
"
10
,,"
,
,
,
10
,,
"" ,
" ,
,
,,
,,
" ,,
,"
,,
" ,,,
""
-4
-3
-2
,,"
A Device
," "
,,
",
" ,,,
-5
(+2)x.
",
"
-6
[75]
for
Multiplying
'2
"
""
"
z
2
-1
",
""
", (-2)x
-2
" ,,
""
-6
-8
-8
-10
-10
""
",
"
""
",
"
""
" ,,
" ,,
-12
-12
-14
-14
-16
-16
L'
FIG. 8-01
" ,,
MIDLANDS
[76]
MATHEMATICAL
EXPERIMENT
3. How does the device work for division?

Our device again shows very clearly:
(a positive
(a positive
(a negative
(a negative
number) X (a positive
number) X (a negative
number) X (a positive
number) X (a negative
number)
number)
number)
number)
is positive
is negative
is negative
is positive
In addition, our device shows that the same rules work for fractions as well.
USING VECTORS
EXERCISE 8d
1. Plot the following courses on squared paper. In each case give the Easting and
Northing of the final point from the starting point.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2. Ifa
(4E,2N)
+ (3E, 3N)
+
+ (8W,3N)
+ (5W, 3N)
(3E,48) + (4W, 3N)

(2E, IN)
(3E,45)
(3W,2S) + (4W,35)
(6E, ON)
(4W,25)
= (2,3), b
(a) a b
(h) a c
(c) b a
(4, 1), c
+
+
+ (3W,45)
(-3,2), plot:
(d) b
c
(e) a b c
+
+ +
(f) b+a+c
(g) c
+a +b
In each case give the answer as an ordered pair.

What do you notice about your last three answers?
3. If a = (2,3), b
(a)
(h)
(c)
(k)
(4, 1), c = (-3,2),
+ (-a)
+ (-b)
c + (-c)
-a
-b
(d) a
(e) b
-c
(f)
write down the values of the following:
+
+
U) b - a
(g) a (-b)
(h) a - b
(i) b
(-a)
Carefully examine Figs. 802 and 803. What do the drawings represent?
g + (-g)
FIG. 8'02
g-~
FIG. 803
DISTRIBUTIVE
4. Using the same values of a, band

ordered pair:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
b +
b b +
ba
(-a)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(-c)
c
+ (-c)
[77]
c as in Question 3, give the resultant vector as an

a
a
a
+ (b - c)
+b - c
- (b + c)
(l)a-b+c
(m) b - c (n) b - (c
(0) b - a
(p) b - (a -
+ a)
+c
a - b- c
a - (b - c)
c)
a - c
Comment
on your resul~.
5. Write without brackets:

(a) a - (b
c)
(b) a
(b - c)
(c) a - (b - c)
(d) b - (a
c)
6. For the same values of a, band
(a) a
+a
(e) b
(a - c)
b - (a - c)
if)
c used in Question 3, find as ordered pairs:
(h) 2a
(c) a
+a +a
(d) 3a
Plot the following:
(e) a, 2a, 3a, 4a

Comment
(g) c, 2c, 3c
(f) b, 2b, 3b
on your results.
Now plot the following:
U) 2a
(h) a
2b
(i) 2(a
b)
(k) 3a
+b
(l) 2a
(m) 3(a
+ 3b
+ 2b
+ b)
+ b) = 2a + 2b
+ b) = 3a + 3b
+ b) = 4a + 4b
2(x + y) = 2x + 2y
3(4 + 3) = 3 X 4 + 3 X 3
= 4(10 + 3) = 4 X 10 + 4 X 3 = 40 + 12 = 52
2(a
3(a
4(a
4(13)
These results illustrate the Distributive Law.
EXERCISE Be
Look at these three examples and discuss what has been done:
a
a
+ 2(a + b)
- 2(a + b)
a - 2(a - b)
= a +2a
=
=
1. Choose ten examples

your answers:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
+
+
+ +
2b
a - 2a
2b
-a
2b
from the set below;
b
2 (b
a)
b - 2 (b
a)
b - 2(b
a)
c
3(c -b)
2a
3(b + 2a)
(I) 3c - 2 (c b)
(g) a + 2(a
b
c)
(h) 2b - 3(b - c)
+ 2b
= 3a
2b
= a - 2a = -a - 2b
fe-write without
brackets and simplify
( i) 2c - 4 (c - 2a)
(j) 3b - 3(b
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(0)
(p )
+ 2a)
2a - 4(c - 2a)
4(b
c) - 2(b
c)
3(c + a)
2(a - c)
2(a
b)
3 (b - a)
2 (a
b + c) - 3 (b - a
(a
b) - 3 (a - b)
+
+ +
+
+
+ c)
[78]
2. Make up some examples of your own and give them to a friend to do. Check your
answers together.
3. If you had to add together the three numbers 2, 3 and 4, how would you do it?
Find the answers to the following:
4+7+3
6+4+9
8+8+2
Did you always do it the easiestway?
If we have to find 4 6 9, it is easiest to add the 4 and 6 first, followed
by the 9:
(4
6)
9 = 10
9 = 19
Check that:
4
(6 9) = 4
15 = 19
If, however, we have to find 19 27
13, it may be easiest to add the 27 and 13
together first as follows:
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ (27 + 13) =
+ (40) = 59
(19 + 27) + 13 = 46 + 13 = 59
19
Check that:
19
Work out answers to the following trying to do them the easiest way:
(a) 3 5
5
(f) 31
19 71
(b) 8 17-+ 3
(g) 16 24 12
(c) 13 7 + 9
(h) 112 + 131 + 269
(d) 26 14 + 17
(i) 114 286 371
(e) 32 17 + 33
(j) 127 364 436
If we have to add three numbers together then:
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+
(a + b) + c = a + (b
This is known as the Associative Law for addition.
+ c)
EXERCISE 8f
1. Examine the illustrations, Figs. 804 and 805. Is
(a
+ b) + c = a + (b + c)?
--I
(g+ ~).
FIG. 804
Q +(~+)
FIG. 805
DISTRIBUTIVE
LAW WITH NUMBERS AND VEGfORS
[79]
Is vector addition associative?

With the help of the two drawings study the following working:
+ +
+
+
(a
b)
c
[(2,3)
(4, 1)]
= (6,4)
(-3,2)
= (3, 6)
+ (-3,2)
+ +
+
a
(b c)
(2,3)
[(4, 1)
= (2,3)
(1,3)
= (3, 6)
+ (-3,2)]
To which diagram does each piece of working refer?

2. Plot the vectors below using the values of a, band c in Question I:
(a) (2a
c)
b
(c) (a
c)
2b
(b) 2a
(c
b)
(d) a
(c
2b)
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
3.
9 +(2 E+}
FIG. 807
FIG. 806
+ 2(b + c)
+ 2[(4, 1) + (-3,2)]
== (2, 3) + 2(1,3)
= (2, 3) + (2, 6)
a
= (2,3)
(4,9)
+
+
+
+
+
+(
a
2b
2c
~ (2,3)
2(4, 1) 2( -3,2)
= (2, 3)
(8, 2)
(-6, 4)
= (10,5)
-6,4)
= (4,9)
So
a
+ 2(b + c) = a + 2b + 2c
How are Figs. 806 and 807 connected to this working?

By both drawing and substitution show that:
(a) b
2(a
c) = b
2a
2c
(b) a
3(b
c) = a
3b
3c
Use the same values of a, band c.
+
+
[80]
SUMMARY
If a number is an integer or a fraction:

(a positive number) X (a positive number) = (a positive number)
(a positive number) X (a negative number) = (a negative number)
(a negative number) X (a positive number) = (a negative number)
(a negative number) X (a negative number) = (a positive number)
Putting this in a simple chart:
plus number
minus number
plus number
minus number
Distributive Law
a
(b
+ c) = a X b + a
if, a, b, c are numbers, or a is a number and h, c are vectors.
Associative Law
(a
if a, b, c are numbers or vectors.
+ b) + c = a + b + c
CHAPTER
About Area and Polygons
EXERCISE 9a (Mainly revision)

1. (a)
A2
FIG. 9-01
Using a line acrossa pagein your book about 15 cm long for OA, copy Fig. 901.
"'"
Make sure that the angle AOB is 20 and all the AB lines are at right angles to
OA. You can put the A points anywhere you like on the line, but spread them out.
By measuring and calculation, complete the values in the table. You can us
your slide rule to work out the ratios.
Length AB
Length OB
R . AB
atlO OB
AIBI =
OBI =
A2B2 =
OB2=
AIBI
OBI =
-
~Bs=
OBs=
A4B4 =
ORa =
AsBs =
.';=
[82]
(b) From your book of tables find the value of sin 20.
How do your ratios compare with this value?
Does your class agree with you?
For any right angled triangle using the 20 angle, you will get the same result
.......
If we fix the size of the angle AOB in any right angled triangle AOB, we fix
the size of the ratio AB/OB at the same time. This ratio is called the sine of the
angle: we met this in Volume I.
For any right angled trian~le PQR:
p
FIG. '-02
sin
pRQ = PQ = length of the supporting or opposite side

PR
length of the hypotenuse
or
sin 0
2.
PQ
PR
(a) In your book copy Fig. 9-03 making the radius of your circle 5 cm and the
.......
marked angle 30 (AOP

~
= 30).
Vector OP is a radius vector for the circle.

Ox, OJ are the x andy axes.
What point of the circle is O?
-+
(b) Like any vector, OP can be written using coordinates. Which of the following
~
pairs of numbers most nearly describes OP?

(5,0)
(25,5)
(0, 5)
(5, 25)
(4'3, 25) (25, 43)
(4'3,5)
(5,4'3)
(0, 25)
ABOUT AREA AND POLYGONS
[83.]
What have the lengths of OA and AP to do with this pair?

How does the sine of the angle of 30 help?
y
- 5
FIG. 903
~
(c) On your drawing mark in a new position of P with the angle AOP increased
to 60.
~
The vector OP will now be represented
by a different pair of numbers.

-+
pair in the above list most nearly describes this vector OP?
Which
How does the value of sin 60 help?
(d) Choose other positions of P, find the new positions of A, and fill in the spaces
in the table below, again by measuring and with the help of your slide rule.
........
Angle AOP
Length AP
Length OP
'"
sin AOP
. AP
alIo OP
300
'600
050
i
!
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
[84]
_____
.JI
I
I,
---~ -_.~
I
.,
~- ----:-l---~
I
I
I
I
'
------,
------i -----
FIG. 904
r"
- -
'T
..
..
r - - - -.-
- - - ,,- - - - r - ....- r - - - ,. - - -
-,
..
-.-
: E:
:- -
---
I:::
,.
...
r - - - - ,.......
-. - - -
-I
-- -~
'
.. - - - -.I
I
L. .... _
I
I
I
-1--
I
I
- - --,
...---r---I
I
- -- - ~
~---~-_--:--
1---- .--I
I
.- - - - r - - -
:
.....
--
- - -
:
J_
I
-_.'"1
I
I
I
I
-1- ... -
'
,_ - - .,
A:
..
,_ - - - !.
'.
B
I
FIG. 905
I.
.L
0
I
.! _.
_ .: ..
.!. _ . __ :
I
I
,
I
.1
[85]
AOP
(e) How do your ratios and the corresponding values of sin

compare?
Do your friends agree?
(I) What would happen if you now used a circle of IOcm radius and repeated the
Question keeping your angles the same?
What would happen if you used a I km radius circle?
EXERCISE 9b
1. Have a good look at the parallelograms drawn in Fig. 904.
How do you know that all the shapes are parallelograms?
Why are the areas of II and IV the same?
Can you spot another shape with the same area as II?
How does the area of VII compare with the area of I ?
2. In Volume I we found that parallelograms with the same base and height had the same
area. How many parallelograms can you spot in Fig. 905 that have the same
area? What is the area of each?
The area of each parallelogram can be found by multiplying the length of the
side AB by the length of the height JD. Notice that these two lines are at right
angles to each other.
3. In the following table about the parallelograms in Fig. 904 complete all entries by
measuring and calculation. Once again use your slide rule for the multiplications
needed.
Shape
Length
a
Length
b
Length
h
Angle
()
Area
axh
sin 8 a X h X sin 8
I
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
What do you notice about your results in the last two columns? Does the rest of
your class agree?
When we find the area of a parallelogram we multiply the length of the base with
the perpendicular height. It does not matter where we measure the perpendicular
height; Fig. 906 shows two possible positions. In position AD, the height forms part
of a right angled triangle OAn.
[86]
A
I
:
I
I
I
:h
J
I
I
I
I
:0
FIG. 906
In the triangle DAD,
AD
II
smu=-
OA
or
sm
uII =-h
a. SInu = a.-h
t:J
a. sin 0
botb sides by a
multiplying
Area of parallelogram
OACB = h X h
=h
substituting for h
using commutative law
a sin 8
ab sin 8
What special kind of parallelogram has 8 = 90?

If () = 90 and a = b, what special kind of parallelogram
4. (a) Decide which of the following quadrilaterals

rectangle,
square,
kite,
have we?
are parallelograms:
rhombus,
trapezium
Could you use the formula ab sin 8 to calculate the area of each of these quadrilaterals?
(b) Find the area of each of the following quadrilaterals. It will probably be a
good idea to draw a sketch of each shape first.
Quadrilateral
Length a
Square
Rectangle
Rhombus
Rhombus
Parallelogram
Parallelogram
Parallelogram
Parallelogram
Kite
Kite
5cm
10 cm
6em
10em
15 em
20cm
20cm
20cm
10 cm
1'5m
Length
()
5cm
10cm
5cm
5cm
5cm
5cm
IOm
30
60
50
45
135
40
30
55
sin 8
Area
[8'Z]

Any triangle is half a parallelogram (Fig. 907).
FIG. 907
FIG. 908
In the diagram, the triangle ABC is half the parallelogram PBCA; the line segment
ABisthe diagonal of the parallelogram. Copy the diagram into your book.
Of course AC could be a diagonal and so could BC. Sketch the parallelograms of
which each of these is the diagonal. How many parallelograms have you sketched?
What can you say about them?
Knowing that the formula for the area of a parallelogram is ah sin 8, what would
be the area formula for the triangle above (see Fig. 908)?
EXERCISE 9c
Find the areas of the following (illustrations (e) and (f) show kites):
(d)
(0)
(g)
FIG. 909
[88]

EXERCISE 9d
1. (a) Here is a drawing of a regular hexagon.
Make a copy on a page in your book.
FIG. 910
What can you say about its sides?

'"
What can you say about the angle FED at the vertex E?
How many of the shaded triangles would cover the hexagon?
What do you think is special about the point M in the side AB?
(b) Produce the line segment MO .. Where will this again meet the hexagon?
Produce the line segment AO. Where will it again meet the hexagon?
AD produced and MO produced are both lines or axes of symmetry. How many
axes of symmetry does a hexagon have?
(c) Using the measured lengths ofOA and AB, find the area of the shaded triangle.
From this find the area of the hexagon.
2. For this next exercise, you will need a set of ten circles of radius 5 em.
(a) Using separate circles construct regular polygons containing from 3 to 12 sides.
(b) How many axes of symmetry has a pentagon? an octagon? a polygon with
n sides? (an n-agon).
If the n of your n-agon is 10,000 how many axes of symmetry are there?
Do you notice 3flything about the axes of symmetry if n is (i) odd, (ii) even?
Name
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Triangle
Square
Pentagon
Hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
Nonagon
Decagon
Undecagon
Dodecagon
Angle at
centre
Angle at
vertex
1200
600
Length of
Perimeter
side
Height
from
centre to
side
Area
I
I
514
1286
327
300
1473
150.0
0
[89]
(c) Using the polygons you have constructed complete the table. You will find
that some of the measurements can be entered in the table without actually
measuring first; which are they? Which measurements can you not forecast?
Why is this so? A few awkward measurements have been put in the table for
you.
Our table only goes as far as the dodecagon but of course you could extend it
as far as you like.
In each of your polygons, you have a set of small triangles.
\
\
"
FIG. 911
If in Fig. 911 r stands for radius and 0 the angle at the centre in one of your
drawings, check that:
360
0=-
U sing the formula for the area of a triangle, check that the area of this small
triangle is:
360)
1r2 sin ( -nand hence the area of the n-agon is:

n
.
'2.
,28m
(3600)
-n-
3. Usingthe results in the table of Question 2, on the same set of axes draw the graphs of:
(a) n against angle at the centre
(b) n against angle at the vertex
With the class, discuss the two graphs.
In each case what happens as n gets larger?
How large can n get?
When n gets infinitely large, towards what shape will your polygon tend?
We say that, as n approaches infinity (as n -+ 00)
1. the angle at the centre ~ zero
2. the angle at the vertex ~ 1800
Using colour draw in the two lines on your graph for zero and 1800 angles.
You will now see how the sizes of the polygon angles approach or tend to these
values. They will never quite reach these limits but you may get angles as near
to these values as you like.
[90]
4. Again using the results of the table on Question 2, on separate sets of axes draw the
following graphs:
(a) n against length of side
(b) n against perimeter
(c) n against distance from centre to side
(d) n against polygon area
Discuss your results as a class.
What happens in each case as n gets very large?
To what limit is your graph tending?
In what ways are your graphs similar?
SUMMARY
In a right angled triangle:

.
f
I _length of the supporting or opposite side
sme 0 an ang e Ien gth 0 f hypotenuse
Parallelograms on the same base and with the same height are equal in area.
Area of a parallelogram = ab sin (J
Area of any triangle = lab sin (J
(the triangle need not be right angled)
An n-agon is a polygon with n sides.
CHAPTER
10
Circles and Ellipses
YOU WILL need a supply of circles of diameters 5 cm, 10 cm, and 15cm.
What is the radius of each circle?
What is the area of each circle?
Remember that the area of a circle is given by 77'7'2, and this is 'IT X r X r.
EXERCISE 10a
1. (a) Using one circle of each size fold each in half. Is this fold an axis of symmetry?
Is it the only one?

Fold in half again at right angles to quarter your circles.
What is the size of each angle at the centre of a circle?
With each circle join, by folding, the ends of two adjacent radii: these folds
produce chords.
FIG. 1001
(b) Measure each of your chord lengths and compare them with the radius.
Fill in the table below and complete using a slide rule:
Radius (r)
Chord length (1)
Ratio llr
2! 5 7!
What do you notice about your values for the ratio?

Does your class agree with you?
A chord cuts a circle into two segments. It also cuts the circumference into two
arcs. How many times will your minor (or shorter) arc fit round the circumference?
How many centre angles will make a complete tum? (See Fig. 1002.)
[92]
FIG. 1002
(c) By making three more folds on each circle, form a square whose vertices are
on the circumference. Find the area of each square and enter your results in the
table.
Radius of circle
Area of circle (c)
Area of square (s)
Ratio
2! 5 7i
cIs
What do you notice about these results: do your friends agree with you?
What result would you expect for this ratio if we used a circle of 20 cm?
2. Fold each circle so that a point on the circumference meets the centre;
crease the
chord and measure as before. Tabulate your results.
Radius (r)
Chord length (l)
Ratio llr
2t
5 7t
What do you notice about your results?

What would be the ratio liT for a circle of radius 10 cm?
Would you expect this result for all similar chords that you could fold for the
set of circles?
3. Using another of each circle, fold into eighths.
by folding the ends of two adjacent radii.
FIG. 1003
How many folds do you need? Join
CIRCLES AND ELLIPSES
[93]
Draw up another table for radius and chord length. Do you get the results
you expected?
By making additional folds, make a regular octagon.
4. Take one circle of each size and place them so that their centres coincide. Fold the
circles along two diameters not at right angles.
(ril)
FIG. 1004
FIG. 1006
Separate the circles and fold the corresponding chords as shown in Fig. 1005.
Why are there only two entries in the table for the chords when there a~e
four of them?
Before doing any calculation, what sort of results would you expect for the
ratios? Complete the table.
21
Radius (r)
5 7+
Chord (i) (a)

Chord (ii) (b)
Ratio aIr
Ratio hlr
Were you right about the results?
5. Locate the centre of a large circle. Do you have to fold complete diameters? Fold so
that a point on the circumference meets the centre, crease the chord.
FIG. 1006
Crease a second similar chord so i:hat the end of the first chord is the beginning
of the second.
[94]
FIG. 1007
Crease a third chord in the same way. What sort of triangle do the three chords
form?
At what points do the three arcs meet:
(a) on each arc
(h) the paper circle
(c) the triangle
Hold your triangle to the light. What do you notice?
How does the area of the triangle compare with the area of the circle, e.g. is
the triangle area half the circle area? Keeping the circle folded, join the end of
each chord to the centre by making more folds. Open out the circle. How do these
folds divide the original triangle? What can you say about the six angles at the
centre? What other polygon have you formed on the circle? How does the area
of this polygon compare with the area of the original triangle?
Starting with another folded equilateral triangle shape, how can you fold to
form a regular hexagon whosearea is two-thirds that of the triangle?
6. Using a large circle, fold a chord. Join one end of the chord to some other point on
the circumference; join the other end of the chord to the same point. You have
now made an angle at the circumference. Make other angles at the circumference
using the same chord. Compare all these angles. The diagram shows angles in
the same segment.
FIG. 1008
What about the angles in the other segment?

On another circle, fold a chord through the centre. What is this chord called ?
What can you say about each angle at the circumference?
[95]
7. (a) Find the relationship between the angle at the centre and the angle at the circumference, sub tended by the same arc.
(b) Find the relationship between the angles subtended by the same chord in
both segments.
FIG. 1009
FIG. 10'10
8. Draw any right angled triangle.

Construct a semi-circle on each side as diameter.
Find the area of each semi-circle. Can you find a relationship connecting the areas
of the three semi-circles? Compare your results with those obtained by your
friends.
EXERCISE 10b (By way of recreation)

1. (a) Draw a small circle in the middle of a clean page in your book. This we will call
the base circle. Divide the circumference into twelve like a clock face. Mark a
small cross on any of these division marks.
(b) Choose another of your points on the circle and using it as a centre, draw a
circle passing through the cross.
(c) Draw the other circles whose centres are the marked points on the base circle
and pass through the cross.
You will have a cardioid or heart shape. This is the shape of the curve
joining the limits of your drawing. Any curve formed this way is called an
etWeloJH.
2. Repeat Question 1 but mark the cross anywhere outside the base circle. Your envelope
has the shape of a limtlfon with a loop.
3. Repeat Question I but mark the cross anywhere inside the base circle, but not at the
centre. Your new envelope has the shape of a liTTUlfon without a loop.
4. An interesting result is obtained if Question 1 is repeated with the cross at the centre
of the circle. Try to pick out a spiral pattern.
The test card on T.V. screens features, amongst other shapes, a circle. We know
when the T.V. set is properly tuned the circle is perfect. If the height control is not
[96]
properly
gives
adjusted, the circle alters its shape, it is transformed.
A 'too-high'
tuning
o
o
o
FIG. 1011
where 'top-to-bottom' is greater than 'side-to-side'.

Adjusting the height control produce further transformations,
but 'top-to-bottom' varies.
'side-to-side' is constant
FIG. 1012
Each of these transformations is an ellipse.

The ellipse has some of the properties of a circle, while the circle has all the properties
of the ellipse plus many of its own. We may regard the circle as a very special kind of
ellipse.
FIG. 1013
EXERCISE 10c
1. (a) An ellipse can easily be drawn using a couple of pins and a loop of string. Place
a pencil point in the loop so that it makes the string taut round the two pins:
[97]
see Fig. 1014. Now keeping the string taut but moving the pencil, draw a curved
line.
FIG. 1014
What can you say about the lengths of the string from the two pins to the point
of the pencil wherever the pencil happens to be?
Where is the centre of the ellipse?
(b) Experiment drawing ellipses using different positions for your pins and a
different length of loop.
(c) Other methods of drawing an ellipse can be found in Volume I on pages 349
and 350.
(d) Find out what you can about the Trammel of Archimedes.
2. (a) Trace the following ellipses and place your tracings on squared paper.
FIG. 10-16
[98]
(6) In each ellipse measure a (the semi-major axis) and b (the semi-minor axis)
and by counting squares, find the area of each ellipse. Tabulate your findings
and use a slide rule to work out the ratios.
iv
Ellipse
Vl
a
h
Area
a X 6
. area
R atzo --
a X b
(c) What do you notice about the ratios? Discussthis result with your friends.
Can you find the relationship between a X b and the area?
When a = h, what particular ellipse have we?
The area of a circle is '" X (square of the radius), which in this case is 7I'a2 or ,"h2
We could also say that it is ,"abo In the ellipse, the product ab can be regarded as the
area of a rectangle with length a and width b.
SUMMARY
Equal arcs of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre.

Equal chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre.
Equal arcs of a circle subtend equal angles at the circumference, in the same segment.
Equal chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the circumference, in the same segment.
The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
The minor axis (6) and major axis (a) of an ellipse meet at right angles and divide the
ellipse into quarters.
The area (A) of an ellipse is given by the formula:
A
1Ta
CHAPTER
11
Shape and Size-Volume
EXERCISE 11a
I
I
I
I
-----------
I
I
I
I
I
:
"'----------,
I
I
I
FIG. "'01
1. Youwill know by now the net of the cube illustrated above and realize that the net must
contain six squares, but do you know a rule for attaching the minimum number
of tabs to the edges? Can you see a pattern in the tab positions in the diagram?
Sketch another net and draw the tabs in a different position-make sure you have
enough tabs and not too many. If you are not certain that your result is correct
draw the net with its tabs onto stout paper, cut out the design and see if it works.
(You do not need two tabs together but you will need a tab wherever two edges
join.)
The net is not the only one possible for a cube, but there are only eleven ways
ofjoining six squares to form a cube. Overleaf are twelve drawings of nets all made
of six squares. Two drawings are really the same because one is the reflection of
the other. One net drawn will not form a cube. Find these nets.
With your friends draw the nets that will produce cubes, but make sure your
squares are all the same size. Add as few tabs as you need and then carefully cut
out your designs and assemble the cubes.
2. Altogether there are thirty-five different arrangements of six squares to form different
patterns and so far you have found twelve. With your friends to help, see if you
can find all the others but be careful to ,watch out for reflections of ones you have
drawn already. (See Fig. 1103.)
Of course the sides of squares must join completely and not overlap.
[100]
(0)
FIG. 1102
FIG. 11'03
3. Work out the size of a cube that will hold eight of your cubes and make a model of it
How do the large and small cubes compare:
(a) in volume
(h) in the area of one face
(c) in the total surface areas
(d) in thelength of one side?
4. How big must a cube be to contain twenty-seven of your cubes?
If you made the edge of a cube four times larger than one of your small cubes,
how would the volume compare with one of the small cubes?
Suppose you made a large paper cube so that you could just place twenty-five
small cubes on its top. How many layers of twenty-five small cubes would you
need to make up the same volume as the large cube?
How many small cubes would you need to do this? How do the volumes of
this new large cube and a small cube compare?
5. Fig. 1104 is a symmetrical design for a paper box. It has been made on a square
piece of paper by folding along the lines. All the folds are in the same direction.
Decide how the paper has been folded without any measuring.
SHAPE MfD SIZE-VOLUME
[101]
c
FIG. 1104
Starting with a square piece of paper, use the design to make your folds before
cutting away the shaded triangles and along the thick solid lines. Fold up the
flaps, c, d, e, f. Overlap the flaps Band D. Fold flaps A and C round them. Slip
flap a through slot b to hold the box together. Fig. 1105 should make all this
quite clear.
FIG. 110&
(a) How many squares make up the side of the box?

(b) How many squares make up the base of the box?
(c) Fill in the missing data in this table about folded paper boxes.
Side of square
tn cm
1.
Volume of box
cmS
16
4
5
5.
4
4000
6.
7.
Height of box
cm
2.
3.
4.
Base area of bo.

cm2
[102]
EXPERIMENT
(d) Design and make eight identical boxes to fit in your first box.
How does the area of the piece of paper needed for a small box compare with
that for the larger?
(e) What size of paper would you need to make a box (i) four times, and (ii)double,
the size of your large box?
How would you test that the volume was double once a box had been made?
Could you be sure that the volume was double?
6.
FIG. 1106
Study the net of the solid shown in Fig. 1106. No tabs have been included.
Draw the net on stout paper with the central square of size 5 cm. Sides
labelled a are to be joined and so must be of the same length: similarly for sides
labelled b and sides labelled c.
Are sides a and b the same length?
Are sides a and c the same length?
Add tabs to the drawing of your net; cut out and assemble to form a pyramid
with a square base. Make two more pyramids of the same size.
As an easy puzzle you can assemble these three pieces to form a cube and all
three can be hinged together with Sellotape if you wish.
(a) What is the volume of the cube that you have made?
(b) What is the volume of each pyramid you have made?
(c) If you drew your nets with a 10 cm square, what would be the volume of:
(i) the cube made of three new pyramids

(ii) each of these pyramids?
SHAPE AND SIZE-VOLUME
[103] ,
(d) Fill in the gaps in the following table whieh is about cubes made out of pyramids like the model you have just made.
Side of square
in net
1.
Volume of final
cube
Scm
IOcm
2cm
2.
3.
4.
Volume of each
pyramid
411 em3
64 cm3
gem3
72 em3
5.
6.
7.
x3
8.
7. Here is a design to make a square based box from five pyramids. In Volume I (page
383) there is a design to cut up or dissect a square based box into six congruent
pyramids. Pyramids that are exactly the same are called congruent.
FIG. 1107
FIG. 1108
One of these needed
Four of these needed
Make a model of the dissected box from stout paper but do not forget to
add the tabs on your designs before you eut out. With care you will be able
to hinge all five pieces together so that they form either a box or three pyramids
[104]
FIG. 1109
of the same size.

hingeing.
The illustration
should give you an idea how to do the
(a)
(h)
(c)
(d)
What are the dimensions of your final

Find for your box its volume and also
Find the volume of each piece of your
Into the table below enter the sizes for
for boxes similar to yours.
LARGE
PYRAMID
BOX
Base
Height
10 X 10
box?
its surface area.
model.
your box and fill in the remaining gaps
Volume
SMALL PYRAMID
Volume
Base
Height
10 X 5
Volume
I
1.
8 X 8
2.
3.
4.
5.
4X 2
36
6. 14 + 14
I
!
7.
10
8. a X a
9. 2a X 2a
[105]
FIG. 11'10
8. So far you have cut up or dissected cubes into pyramids but with one cut through a
cube you can produce two pieces of the same size and shape, i.e. congruent pieces.
Of course there are many cuts you could make to do just that, but the one shown
in Fig. 1110 would need pieces of paper in the form of a regular hexagon to close
the holes if your cube was hollow. The net with tabs for half the cube is shown
but the size of the hexagonal piece is left to you. If you make two half cubes
closed with hexagonal pieces you will find they fit exactly. A model with the hexagons of a contrasting coloured paper to the rest of the model looks very effective.
4cm
4cm
4cm
,,'
----,
"
"""
FIG. 1111
Cut along the the thick lines

and fold along the others
EXERCISE 11 b (Puzzles)
cubes are required. A line joining the mid-points of opposite edges
is to be drawn on each side of each cube. How many cubes can you produce that
are different from each other?
1. (a) A number
of
[106]
FIG. 1"12
(h) How many cubes can you produce that are different from each other if the
lines go diagonally across each face?
FIG. 1113
2. How many distinguishable cubes can you produce if each face must be painted a
different colour and you have only six colours?
3. Make eight cubes from paper. Colour the cubes all the same way so that every face
on a cube is different. Assemble the eight cubes into a larger cube so that its
colouring is just the same as that of the small cube.
I
I
\------1
,
FIG. 11 14
4. Using the design illustrated in Fig. 1114, cut along the thick lines and fold to form a
cube.
5. Using a strip of paper eight units long and one unit wide, try to fold it to make a one
unit cube.
[J~[J I D~I I
FIG. 1116
[107]
Can you make a one unit cube if the strip is only seven units long, or even only six
units long?
6.
G
D
FIG. 11 16
The drawing, Fig. 11,16, shows a child's building block made out of Perspex.
A 'spider at F sees a tasty fly at A and not being a mathematical spider it will
always walk along the edges of the cube. In how many different ways can the
spider go from F to A if it goes along each edge only once and goes along just:
(a) three edges
(h) fo~r edges
(c) five edges
(d) six edges
(e) seven edges of the cube?
You might find it a good idea to list the journeys as you find them and draw a
graph of your result.
What is the quickest way for the spider if it does not keep to the edges of the
cube?
EXERCISE 11 c
1. A 10 cm cube is painted red and by means of three cuts converted into eight smaller
cubes. Will these cubes be painted differently? If not, how many will be the
same?
FIG. 1''7
[108]

(a) Starting with a new red painted cube each time, imagine what would happen
if six cuts, nine cuts, twelve cuts, etc., were made so that small cubes were always
produced. Fill in values in the table:
Number
of cuts
Number of small cubes painted on:

2 sides
1 side
0 sides
Total number of
small cubes
3 sides
3
6
12
15
18
21
,3n
(b) Draw a graph to show the relationship between the number of small cubes
and the number of cuts made. Would it be sensible to read off from your graph
the number of small cubes produced by four cuts, six cuts, ten cuts? Give a reason
for your answer.
(c) If before our cuts had been made all our cubes had been the same size, what
would be the relationship between the volumes of the small cubes produced by
these cuts?
2. The chart gives an idea of some of the standard sizes for building bricks that have been
used in the British Isles through the years. Of course they are all in the old system
of units when inches were used; 39 in ~ 1 m
SIZE
DATE
Length
Width
14th Century
1620
1571
1738
1776
1803
1968
12
8
8-9
8
8!
10
9
5
3
3-3!
3
4
Thickness
Ii
2
21
2!
2!
3
4!
(a) You will see from the chart that in 1571 the statute regulating the size of
bricks allowed quite a variation in size. Work out the largest and smallest volumes
possible.
(b) Work out the volumes for all the other bricks. Which has the largest and which
the smallest volumes? Which has the largest and which the smallest surface area?
(c) Look at a brick wall and count the number of complete bricks you can see
within a square metre. Compare your results with those of your friends and try
to explain any differences there may be.
[109
3. A set of similar boxes with open tops (e.g. a shoe-box without its lid) have dimensions
as set out in the table below the diagram.
FIG.1118
L (em)
W (em)
H (em)
Area of hase
Area of front face
Area of side face
Total surface area
1
2
15
10
30
45
60
75
678
12
90
14
16
105 120
VOLUME
(a) Copy the table. What is the condition for a box to be an element of the set?
How do you find the area of the base? the front face? the side face? How many
of each face does the box have? (Remember that this is an open box.)
(b) Using a suitable material, construct some of these boxes. If you and your
classmates choose one ot two each of the boxes, you should be able to make up
several sets. What do you notice about the boxes?
h
h
----------------------_.------
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
:w
I
I
I.
,
'- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
FIG. 1119
(c) This is a drawing ofthe net of an open box. Copy it in your book. If 1 represents
the length, h represents the height, and w the width, mark all t~e dimensions on
your own drawing of the net. Some have been done for you.
[110]

Show that the formula for the total surface area of an open box is:
4h(l
w)
21w
(d) Complete the table.
(e) Draw three graphs:
(i) length against width
(ii) length against height
(iii) width against height
Discussa suitable scale with your friends.
What is the law (or equation) for each graph? What kind of graph do you
obtain?
(f) If the dimensions of each box are doubled, what happens to the surface area?
to the volume?
What happens to the surface area and volume if:
(i) the dimensions are trebled,
(ii) the dimensions are halved,
(iii) each dimension is reduced to one-third of its size.
(g) After discussing a suitable scale, draw graphs of
(i) length against volume,
(ii) surface area against volume for the same set of data.
(h) What is a prism? Make a collection of prisms. Measure the dimensions and
find the surface area and volume of each. Discussthe effects of doubling, halving,
etc., the dimensions on
(i) the surface areas,
(ii) the volumes.
4. (a)
FIG. 1120
If the dimensions of a pan are doubled, what happens to:

(i) the surface area
(ii) the volume
Measure the dimensions of a set of saucepans of the same shape. Find out the
capacity of each. Compare the capacity with the dimensions. A set of 4 pans of
the same shape have diameters of 15 dm, 30dm, 45 dm, and 6 dm respectively.
If the smaller one is filledwith water the water boilsafter three minutes. How long
will the others take to boil if:
(i) each is filled with water?
(ii) each contains water to the same depth as in the smallest pan?
(h) If a roll of meat 5 cm in diameter and 10cm long takes 40 minutes to roast,
howlong will it take to roast another 10 cm in diameter and 20 cm long? Compare
your answer with a cookery book (or ask your mother!). Can you explain the
difference?
Look up the recommended cooking times for poultry, joints of meat, and so
on. Try to explain or find out how these are arrived at.
[111]
5. All spheres are the" same shape. Suppose you had a sphere of radius 1 dm whose
surface area is A cm2 and whose volume is V emS. What would be the surface
areas of spheres having the.following radii?
(a) 2 dm
(c) 5em
(e) 3 dm
(b) 5 dm
(d) 33 em
(f) 3 em
8. Two spheres have volumes of 125 em3 and 64 cm3 What is the ratio of their radii?
SUMMARY
Volume = length X height X width

Area is measured in square units, e.g. cm2
Volume is measured in cubic units, e.g. ems
When making a model from a net, tabs are usually added to alternate outside edges.
If the dimensions of a shape are doubled, the surface area is multiplied by four, and the
volume multiplied by eight.
If the dimensions of a shape are tripled, the surface area is multiplied by nine, and the
volume multiplied by twenty-seven.
If the dimensions of a shape are multiplied by x, the surface area is multiplied by x2,
and the volume multiplied by x3 (x ean be any real number.)
CHAPTER
12
Approximations
EXERCISE 12a (Mainlydiscussion)

IN EACH of the following state which are exact (cc;mldbe found by counting) and which
are approximate (could be found by measuring)?
1. (a) Chelsea beat Stoke City 3-2 (F.A. Cup 1969)
(h) the distance between Liverpool and Portsmouth
(c) the number of yolks in a dozen whole eggs
(d) number of girls in your class
(e) the number of eggs in a dozen
(1) cost of 6 models at 12p each
(g) number of degrees in a right angle
(h) annual rainfall in London
(i) winner's time in a 100 m race
(j) number of days in one calendar year
(k) number of pieces of paper a machine counts out as a ream
2. What units would you use for the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(1)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(0)
winner's time in an Olympic 100 m race

weight of a load of coal
price of a packet of potato crisps
distance between Earth and the Pole Star
length of chain
score in a tennis match
size of a house brick
length bf a piece of 4" plank
distance between Scarborough and Solihull
weight of a pot of jam
area of a field
amount of acid used in a test-tube experiment
winnings on a football pool
temperature of a sick person
distance to the sun
The dimensions of the rectangle are stated to be 85 and 45 em. Check these lengths
and discuss your results as a class.
You will probably have found that not everybody agrees about the lengths
of the rectangle, possibly because some rulers are a little longer or shorter than
APPROXIMATIONS
[113]
others, and possibly because some people may be better at reading the divisions than
others.
The difference between the true length of the lines and the one obtained by measuring
is called the error. The size of the error can be reduced by using more accurate measuring
instruments, but measurements can never be exact, and so errors are always present
though they may be very small.
As a class you will probably agree that the size of the rectangle is 85 by 45 em if we
measure to the nearest millimetre. Our rulers are not graduated in sub-divisions of a
millimetre so we have to decide if the lengths we measure have to be rounded to the unit
above or below.
45em
85 em
FIG. 1201
What are the dimensions of the rectangle to the nearest centimetre? In this case we
have to make a decision because 85 em is exactly half-way between 9 cm and 8 em. It is
convenient to agree that in cases like this, we will always give the larger number. This is
a
convention.
If the. length of the rectangle to the nearest millimetre is 85 we must have decided
that the length was nearer 85 mm than either 84 or 86 mm. This will include all rectangles with a length between 845 mm and 854 mm: remembering that convention
makes us decide that 845 mm to the nearest millimetre is 85 and 855mm to the nearest
millimetre is 86.
845 mm is said to be the lower limit and 854 mm is the upper limit of85 mm. Using
centimetres we have the limits as 845 cm and 854 em and the length correct to the first
decimal place is 85 em.
What are the limits for the 45 em length?
EXERCISE 12b
1. Rewrite the following numbers, which are exact, to the:
(a) nearest 10
(b) nearest 100
(c) nearest II 000
(i) 13571
(iv) 3056
(vii) 123456
(ii) 7030
(v) 26344
(viii) 454545
(iii) 6 729
(vi) 126394
(ix) I 698495
(x) 2655
[114]
2. Rewrite the following numbers, which are exact, to:

(a) three places of decimals
(h) two places of decimals
(c) one place of decimals
(d) the nearest whole number
(i) 363872
(ii) 212347
(iii) 0831 7
(iv) 401390
(v) 41.939
(vi) 001645
(vii) 8216
(viiz) 10072992
(ix) 63449 5
(x) 471
3. Copy and complete the following table (the measures are not all lengths).
Measure
Least u,lit oj
measurement
Upper
limit
Lower
limit
15m
157 m
1003 km
382C
72 sec
426 kg
37 X 104 km
45 light years
62 parsec
10265 m2
60 g
4. The following are the apparent dimensions of rectangles. For each, find its apparent
area using the dimensions given, and also the upper and lower limits of the area.
(a) 8 dm X 4 dm
(h) 2 dm X 3 dm
(c) I dm X 1 dm
(d) 95 m X 4 m
(e) 3 cm X 123 cm
(f) 107 cm X 5 cm
(g) 86 mm X 3} mm
In each case find the difference between:
(i) the largest and apparent areas

(ii) the apparent and smallest areas
What do you notice about these differences?
5. The illustrated triangle has dimensions as shown.
375cm
50()0
em
FIG. 1202
APPROXIMATIONS
[115]
(a) Work out the perimeter of the triangle. Correct your answer to one decimal
place.
(h) Correct the lengths of the sides to one place of decimals, and then using these
lengths find the perimeter.
Which of the two ways of finding the perimeter do you think is the best?
6. (a) Work out the area of this triangle from the given dimensions.
Sc
12cm
FIG. 1203
(h) Calculate the triangle area using the lower limits of the dimensions.
(c) Calculate the triangle area using the upper limits of the dimensions.
(d) How do all your answers for the area compare?
7. Squares with a measured side of 6 cm to the nearest centimetre are cut from a'steel
sheet measured as 60 m X 30 m
What 'are the size limits of (a) the squares, (h) the sheet?
What do you think could be (i) the largest, (ii) the smallest number of squares that
can be cut from the sheet?
8. A boy said that the spokes of his bicycle wheel were 66 cm long and 185 mm in
diameter. Discuss this.
9. A farmer has a small field of 56 m by 78 m and reckons to put on 60 g ot fertilizer
per square metre. What are the least and greatest amounts he might use if he
does not waste any?
An agricultural expert reports that the farmer wastes 10% of his fertilizer.
How will this affect the figures you have calculated?
10. If you were finding the circumference of a circle using the formula C = 27T1' and had
measured r as 34 em, what value would you use for 'IT and between what limits can
you say C lies?
As you have probably realized, your logarithm tables are not exact. Check from
your tables that:
log 3
= 04771
To what base is this logarithm?

04771 is not an exact logarithm, but one that has been corrected to the fourth place
of decimals. A logarithm as small as O47705'and as large as 047714 could be corrected
to 04771. So we only know that from the four-figure tables the logarithm of 3 must
lie between the limits 047705 and 047714.
[116]
EXERCISE 12c
1. The following are four-figure logarithms: they have been corrected to four figures.
Write down the limits between which they must lie.
(i) 18394
(a) 05012
(e) 23010
U) 20399
(h) o7796
(f) 06200
(k) 07499
(c) 13011
(g) 17000
(l) 29999
(d) 08209
(h) 09439
2. Write down the limits for the logarithms of the followingexact numbers:
(a) 4
(b) 2
(c) 5
(d) 6
(e) 70
(f) 45
(g) 45
(h) 451
(i) 296
U) 10
3. Copy the table below.

Assuming that the following logarithms are exact, what are the limits for the
corresponding numbers?
Log
e.g.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
U)
07404
07721
06366
06365
03785
07050
06020
12642
21290
04691
30793
Number
Table
Lower
limit
Upper
5500
54995
55004
from
limit
4. Of course the limits you have been working out are extreme values, and the table
readings are often well within these limits. However, the process does help to
explain some odd results that can appear due to the blind use of logarithms.
Suppose we find the result of 3 X 2 and assume all our numbers are exact
throughout the calculation.
Check that:
Number
Logarithm
3 -+- 04771
2 -+- 03010
5999 ~ 07781
The result of 5999 and not 6 has appeared as a result of correcting to the fourth
place of decimals.
Can you find any other simple examples like this?
APPROXIMATIONS
[117]
5. Using some five or seven-figure logarithm tables, see how the answers to Questions
1 to 3 compare with those using four-figure tables.
Any large manufacturer who makes a complicated product, such as a motor car, is
unable to make parts that will exactly fit together especially when pieces are made in
separate workshops often miles apart and brought together for assembly. Often an exact
fit of parts is undesirable anyway and a certain slackness is needed. As a result the
components can be made within certain limits of size. This allowable error is called the
tolerance. For example, if rods are supposed to be 2625 em long and the tolerance is
005 cm, then in order for them to be accepted they must be made within the range
2620 em and 2630 cm. This range is often written as (2625
005) em. Rods outside
this range will be rejected.
EXERCISE
12d
1. What are the limiting measurements
in the following?
(d) (-36'5
25)OC
(e) (923 0005) sec
(f) (0-600 00005) g
(a) (262 1) mm
(b) (36 05) cm3
(c) (2675 025) em
2. Find the tolerance, given that the acceptable measurements are:

(a) 183 g and 181 g
(d) 30 em and 28 em
(b) 23604 sec and 23596 sec
(e) 3a and a
(c) 498 cm3 and 500 cm3
(f) a and b
3. The dimensions of ball-bearings must lie within the range (2
the following will be accepted?
(a) 204 em
(b) 25 em
(c) 198 em
(d) 195 em
005)
em;
which of
(e) 193 em
(f) 205 em
4. An equilateral triangular plate is made with side (6 005) em. Between what limits
does (a) the perimeter lie, (b) the area lie? (Use A = lab sin 0.)
5. A machine is cutting steel scaffolding pole from a continuous length of tube. The
poles are (10 01) m long. How long a run must be guaranteed for 100 poles?
If the machine consistently cuts at its lower length limit, how ~any extra poles
could be produced?
How much of the run would be wasted?
6. A machine is punching out circles of paper of diameter (100

01) em from a strip
of paper. How long must a strip be to guarantee being able to cut out 100 circles
if:
(a) the circles just touch each other
(b) the circles are (05 01) em apart.
SUMMARY
A length measured to the nearest millimeter as 85 could be anywhere between 845 and
854mm.
85 em to the nearest centimeter is 9; we approximate to the larger number.
A tolerance of I mm in a length of 25 mm gives a range of lengths from 24 mm to 26 mm.
CHAPTER
13
Speed and Time Graphs
EXERCISE 138
1. If a car is travelling steadily at seven metres per second, i.e. 7 m/sec, how far does it
travel in:
(a) 1 sec
(b) 2 sec
(c) 3 sec
(d) t sec
The distance (D) can be calculated ifwe know the velocity (V) and the time (t)
of travel.
D = Vt
Note
FIG. 1301
Fig. 1301 is another way of writing the formula and also enables us to derive the related
formulae:
v = D /t and t = D/ V
But in using the formulae the units of V and t must correspond:
20 km/h, then t must be expressed in hours.
2. We are going to use the formula D = Vt.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
for example, if V =
If V = 30 m/sec in what units would you need t?

If t = 10 min in what units could you have V?
How would you use the formula if V = 20 cm/sec and t = 2 min?
If D = 30 cm and V = 30 em/sec, in what units would t be measured?
If D = 60 m and t = 6 sec, in what unit would you measure V?
The formula D = Vt probably reminds you of the area (D) of a rectangle V units long
and t units wide. We can use the area of a rectangle to find the distance travelled by a car,
or any other object, moving at a given speed.
We can show this by using a goo-board and elastic bands to enclose the given area.
Suppose V = 4 m/sec and t = 3 sec. (See Fig. 1302.)
The distance travelled will be 12 m and this is represented by the twelve squares enclosed
by the bands. The area of each square represents a distance of one metre.
(Note that V and t both involved seconds.)
SPEED AND TIME GRAPHS
[119]
FIG. 1302
3. On squared paper, draw rectangles to represent the distance travelled in the following
and label the sides of the rectangle. In each case state the distance travelled~
(a) 4 kmfhr for 3 hours
(j) 60 km/hr for 3t hours
(h) 3 kmfhr for 5 hours
(g) 3 m/sec for 3 sees
(c) 5 krnfhr for 2 hours
(h) 6 mfsec for 5 sees
(d) 5 kmfhr for 3 hours
(i) 7 em/sec for 2 sees
(e) 10 km/hr for 4 hours
(j) 10m/sec for 3 sees
4. The graph below shows the fol1mftTing
information about a steadily moving car.
Time (sec)
Speed (m/sec)
0
7
I
7
2
7
3
7
4
7
V
8
y
A
(5
x:
0
3
FIG. 1303
5'
5
7
[120]

(a) The distance travelled during this time is represented by the area OAYX.
What is the distance?
(b) We can see that there is no change in s for each unit of change (1 sec) in t.
What does this tell us about the speed?
5. The following readings were made at one-second intervals of a go-kart starting from
rest:
Time (sec)
0
1
2
3
4
Speed (dm/sec)
0
3
6
9
12
Using axes for time (t) and speed (s) so that: 0 ~ t ~ 4 and 0 ~ s ~ 12, check
by plotting that the time-speed graph for the data looks like the graph illustrated.
s
12 - - - - - .. ,.- - - - - . - .- - - - - - - -,-. - -
I
I
I
IA
I
I
I
I
9 - _ --~ -- - - ~- _ -
-~.
:
I
I
I
(5 -------l--
::
-------,.-------,
- ----
I
I
I
I
,
3 -----.. _.:--.--.--~---.----:--- ..----~
I
I
I
t
I
I
,
X:
4t
FIG. 1304
The graph is a straight line.

(a) For each unit change in t, what change is there in speed? Is this change the
same throughout the four seconds?
(b) What do we call an increase in speed?
(c) How is the speed changing? How does the graph show this?
(d) What distance does each square represent? How far has the kart travelled at
the end of one second?
What area represents the distance travelled during the four seconds?
(e) Use the graph to find out how far the kart travelled:
(i) in the first second
(ii) in the first two seconds
(iii) in the second second
(iv) from the third to the fourth second
(v) from start to finish of timing
6. A marble was rolled down a slope and the following speeds were recorded:
Time (sec)
Speed (dm/sec)
0
0
I
4
2
6
3
8
4
9
5
6
6
5
The data were graphed as illustrated and the question was asked:
marble go?
7
2
8
0
How far did the
[121]
9
8
7
-1-
r - - ..I
I
I
:
I
t-
I
I
-1- - -
..- - --
~- - ..-~..- .._..-:-.... ..-:-
I
4
I
I
I
I
I
I
__-.-_1
~ -- ..~
I
I
I
I
..__
:
..
~----.-{-----
~------~----.-:--
..,-------,--- ..---1---_
:
---t-- ---~---
I
I
~
I
I
;:
-----:- ...--~--I
I
..--
I
I
~-_-
I
..~
I,
..--.~--I
: ..__~_--.....--L---...,--:
-~-------;-------:-------1--.---
"
I'
I
I
,
:
,
_ ..
I
--
-----:-- ---:-----~-----:----..-,
I
I
I
- .- ., - _..
I
I
~--
i" .- .-,I
I
I
-1- -- - - --- ---:--- ---~-- --- --- -- i -----------~
5
4
...
-----:-----;-----:
I
I
I
'_ ..._ ...
.1
--r---- ...._,
':
I
1
I
I
.. _ . ;
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
:::::
-----~ ..---- ..i- ..----:------,-I
---~
t
FIG. 13-05
To find the distance travelled we must count the number of rectangles under
the graph. What distance does one rectangle represent? Draw the graph, count
the rectangles and check that the distance travelled is about 40 dm. It is impossible
in this case to find the distance exactly since we have to count parts of squares
and we have to guess the shape of the graph between the points given. Compare
the answers you get as a class.
You will see that the gradient of the graph is not constant but is always changing.
The speed increases to a maximum of 9 dm/sec after 4 seconds and then decreases
until the marble stops after 8 seconds. When the speed is increasing we say that
the marble is accelerating. When the speed is decreasing we say that the marble has
a retardation or deceleration.
(a) In which second is the marble gaining most speed?
(h) In which second is the marble losing most speed?
(c) When the graph is at its steepest in the first four seconds, is the acceleration
at its greatest or least?
(d) Where will you look for the greatest retardation?
(e) When do you think is the period of greatest retardation?
(1) What happens to the acceleration and retardation of the mar~le between
35 and 45 seconds?
In many graphs it is not convenient to let one square represent one unit of speed
because we are often restricted in the size of paper or board that we can use. Often one
square must represent many units of distance. In some graphs there will be a mixture of
units: the velocity in kilometres per hour and the time in minutes perhaps. Always check
for this. .
EXERCISE 13b
1. The rectangles represent distances travelled at the stated speeds for the given time.
In each case in Fig. 1306, state:
(a) what distance one square represents,
(h) what distance the rectangle represents.
[J 22]
(j)
(iil
...----r-----,-----
I-- __
-+-
+-~-_;
...------......,
2 sec
12 sec
6emJsec
2 roJsec
(iii)
(i~
3
sec
sec
10dm/see
(vi)
12m/sec
lid
2cm/sec
6see
20kmJsee
2 min
(vii)
(viii) r---~-~-~-~
30
sec
30sec
Skmfsec
Sdm/see
FIG. 1306
[123]
2. The shaded areas represent distances travelled at the stated speeds for the given time.
In each case, find:
(a) what distance one square represents.
(b) what distance the shaded area represents.
(i)
dm/sec
30
cmlsec
30
20
20
10
.10
sec
mo.
(iv)
kmlsec
20
40
1S
30
10
20
10
" sec 6
10
em/sec
" sec 6
4
sec
FIG. 13D7
EXERCISE 13c
In Questions 1-4:
,
(a) discuss the scales to be used for time and speed when plotting the data,
(b) draw the time-speed graph,
(c) discuss the acceleration and retardation during the journey,
(d) find the distance travelled "during the journey.
1. A sled running down a slope.
Time (sec)
0
1 2
3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10
Speed (dm/see) 0 21 42 60 60 60 42 30 30 15 0
2. A car backing out of a garage.
Time (sec)
0
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9
Speed (dm/see) 0 30 60 90 75 75 60 60 45 30
10
11
15
[124]
3. Flight of an aeroplane.
Time (min)
0
5
10 15 20
Speed (km/hr) 0 180 330 480 570
25
570
30 35
570 540
40
480
45
420
50
330
55 60
180 0
4. Voyage of a liner on sea-trials.
Time (hours)
Speed (knots)
0
1 2 3 4
5 6
7 8 9 10
0
9 16 21 24 25 24 21 16 9 0
One knot is 1 nautical mile per hour; one nautical mile is about 185 km.
5. The flow of water over a weir may be measured in litres per minute. If a flow-time
graph is drawn, the area under the graph will represent the volume of the water
that has flowed over in a certain time.
Draw a flow-time graph from the following data and find the volume of water that
flows over the weir during this eight minutes.
Time (min)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Flow (Htres/min)
0 60 100 125 135 125 100 60
0
6. Try to check the distance readings of a car using a graphical method.
SUMMARY
We have seen that if we have a time-speed graph, we can obtain the following information:
1. the distance travelled, by considering the area under the graph.
2. information about the acceleration, by considering the gradient of the graph.
Always check the units used in drawing the graph before working out areas. One square
rarely represents one unit of distance in speed-time graphs.
CHAPTER
14
Combining Relations-Matrices
EXERCISE 14
1. (a)
FIG. 1401
In the diagram the arrows show the relationship 'is the son of' for the set
of people {a, b, c, d, e}: for instance d 'is the son of' c. We can list this as:
{(a, c), (h, e), (d,
a set of ordered pairs.
(i) What do you notice about the order in which these pairs have been listed?
(ii) Which of the five people can you be sure are males?
(h) For the same five people the relationship 'is the brother of' has been drawn
(Fig. 1402).
en,
-----~-----=:-@
I(Jr
~-----7
~-----
-- ---~-----------
@ ~~= ~ ~ -
- - - - -(- --- - - -- - - --
o
FIG. 1402
~
~
[126]

(i) List this information as a set of ordered pairs.
(ii) What do you notice about the order in each pair?
(iii) Which of the five people can you now be sure are males?
(c) Draw the diagram for the relationship cis the son of' in your book using red
arrows. On the same diagram show the relationship Cisthe brother of' using green
arrows.
(i) Check that a 'is the son of the brother of' b.
(ii) What is another name for the expression Cson of the brother'? Think of
your own family if you are not sure.
(iii) List all the ordered pairs for this relationship. Mark all these ordered
pairs on your diagram using a different colour of arrow.
(iv) By considering the red and then the green arrows, can you see an easy way
to draw these last arrows?
(v) List all the ordered pairs for the relationship Cisthe brother of the son of.'
Mark these pairs on your diagram using another colour of arrow.
(vi) By considering thegreen and red arrows, can you see an easy way to draw
this last set of arrows?
(vii) Is the relationship 'is the brother of the son of' the same as the relationship
Cisthe son of the brother of'?
2.
\
FIG. 1403
(a) What do you think is the relationship between the numbers of the set shown in
the diagram (Fig. 1403)?
(b) Make a copy of the drawing and draw arrows for the relationship Cishalf of a
half of'. What do you notice about these arrows?
(c) Using a different colour, draw arrows to show the relationship Cishalf of a half
of a half of'. What do you notice about these arrows?
What is a simpler way of saying Cisa half of a half of a half of' ?
3.
(a) Make a copy of the diagram (Fig. 1404) in your book. Mark in the relationships Cisa half of' and 'is a third of' using different coloured arrows for each.
(b) Make a list of ordered pairs for the relationship Cisa half of a third of'. Mark
these in your drawing using a third colour. What is the easy way of doing this?
COMBINING
RELATIONS-MATRICES
[127]
FIG. 1404
(c) What would you expect to be the easy way of marking the pairs for the relationship 'is a third of a half of'? Try this. What do you notice? What is your list of
the pairs?
4. Make another copy of the diagram (Fig. 1404). Using this, draw arrows for the
relationships 'is a quarter of' and 'is a third of'. Draw arrows for the relationships,
and
'is a quarter of a third of'

'is a third of a quarter of'.
List the ordered pairs for one of these relationships.

How will the list for the other relationship compare?
5. Check that the diagram (Fig. J405) shows the relationship 'is two less than' for
the number set {5, 7, 9}.
FIG. 140&
Check that this information can beJisted as {(5, 7), (7,9)}.

Arrows have been drawn from the set {5, 7} to the set {7,9}. This can be
shown as (Fig. 1406):
[128]
5
EXPERIMENT
5
7
7
9
9
FlO. 1406
Mathematicians would call the set {5, 7}the domain and the set {7, 9} the range.
In the arrow graph the arrows start from members of the domain and go to members ofthe range. In the listsof ordered pairs, the first number of each pair is in
the domain and the second number is in the range.
Range-
Domain
FIG. 1407
6.
FIG. 1408
(a) Compare this diagram with Fig. 1405. Suggest a relationship between the
numbers shown in this new diagram.
(b) List the information as ordered pairs.
(c) What is the special name we give to the set {9,7}?
(d) List the set of numbers in the range.
COMBINING RELATIONS-MATRICES
[129]
7.
FIG. 14'09
(a) Suggest a relationship for the information in the arrow graph (Fig. 1409).
(b) What numbers are in the set called the domain?
(c) Is the range the set {12, 6,3, 9}?
Does the order in which we list the numbers in the range matter?
8. (a) Write down the domain and range for the information listed as:
{(2, 4), (I, 1), (5,25), (4, 16), (3,9)}
(b) Draw an arrow graph to show the list.

(c) Can you suggest a relationship connecting the domain and range?
(d) Would the answersto your last three questions have been the same if the list
had been given as:
A
{(I, I), (2,4), (3,9), (4, 16), (5, 25)}?
Try to give a reason for your answer.

(e) (i) How does the list:
B
{(4, 2), (I, 1), (25,5), (16,4), (9,3)}
compare with the first list A?

(ii) Write down the domain and range of B.
(iii) On your arrow graph of A, draw arrows for B using a different colour.
(iv) What is the connection between the domain and range of A and the
domain and range of B?
(v) Suggest a relationship between the domain and range of B.
9.
The diagram (Fig. 1410) shows a four-position switch that can only be turned
clockwise. The knob clicks into each position when turned. Position 3 Cistwo
clicks round from' position 1, and this could be written as (3, I).
(a) List all.other ordered pairs for the relationship 'is two clicksround from'.
(b ) Write down the domain and range"for this list.
(c) Complete the arrow graph for the relationship started in Fig. 14.11.
(d) Check that the same information is shown in the table, Fig. 1412.
[130]
FIG. 14-10
FIG. 1411
3
2
o
FIG. 1412
3
FIG. 1413
[131]
(e) Is thisinformation shown in the table Fig. 14.13?

(j) Does our list showing cistwo clicks round from' have:
(i) the reflexive property,
(ii) the symmetric property,
.
(iii) the transitive property?
Look back to Chapter 3 if you are not too sure.
10.
FIG. 1414
The diagram shows a five-position click switch which can only be turned
clockwise.
(a) Make a list for the relationship 'is two clicks round from'. Why is (1,3)
excluded from this list?
(b) W~at do you notice about the domain and the range?
(c) Draw an arrow graph to illustrate the list.
(d) Make a copy of the table below (Fig. 1415) and shade in the squares to show
the list.
Second
/'
Number
0
t..
Cb
..Q
E:J
Z
2
.
3
-4
FIG. 1416
(e) Does the list showing cis two clicks round from' have:
(i) the reflexiveproperty,
(ii) the symmetric property,
(iii) the transitive property?

Make a list for the relationship cis one click round from'. Why is (1,2)
excluded from the list?
if)
[132]

Using a different colour of arrow include the information in this list in your
arrow graph.
(g) Make another copy of the table Fig. 1415and enter your information.
(h) Does the list showing 'one click round from' have any of the reflexive, symmetric, or transitive properties?
(i) Make a list for the relationship 'is one click round from two clicks round
from'.
What is the quick way of spotting this relationship?
Try to rewrite the relationship in a simpler way.
(j) What sort of a list would you expect for the relationship 'is two clicksround
from one click round from'?
(k) (i) Make a list for the relationship 'is three clicks round from two clicks
round from'.
(ii) Illustrate the list in an arrow graph.
(iii) On another copy of the table (Fig. 1415) enter your information.
(iv) Does the list showany of the reflexive, symmetric or transitive properties?
11.
FIG. 1416
A four-position click switch can be turned in either direction (Fig. 1416).

(a) Make a list for 'is one click round from'.
(b) Draw an arrow graph.
(c) A start has been made in tabulating the information in a new type of table
(Fig. 1418). The first two rows have been completed.
Second
number
abc
First
number
a(o
b 1
d
1
(1) 0 0 )
0 1
c
d
(i) What do you think the CD stands for?

(ii) When is a 0 entered in the table?
(iii) How does this table compare with the type you have drawn before?
(iv) Complete the table.
(v) Does the list showany of the reflexive, symmetric, or transitive properties ?
This second type of table in which we have stored our information is called a
matrix (plural matrices).
[133]
12.
a
FIG. 1417
(a)
(h)
(c)
(d)
A five-position switch can only be turned clockwise (Fig. 1417).

List the relationship 'is either one or two clicks round from'.
Enter your results in a matrix.
Draw an arrow graph for the list.
Does the list show any of the reflexive, symmetric, or transitive properties?
13.
FIG. 1418
The arrow graph (Fig. 1418) shows the relationship, 'is perpendicular
to'
between a set of straight lines drawn on a flat piece of paper.
(a) Draw lines on a piece of paper to represent a, b, c, d, e. You will draw a
'perpendicular
to' c, and so on.
(b) From your drawing, list the ordered pairs for the relationship.
(c) Make a copy of the arrow graph and add any extra arrows you know from your
list must be included.
(d) Tabulate your information in a matrix.
(e) Using a different colour, nlark in your arrow graph the relationship 'is parallel
to'.
Can you do this by considering the arrows in your graph or must you study
the drawing you made for part (a)? (Remember that a 'is parallel to' a.)
(f) Tabulate the information for the relationship 'is parallel to' in a matrix.
(g) What properties (reflexive, symmetric or transitive) does the list for 'is
parallel to' have?
[134]
14.
abc
~(~
~!
~OI)
d 0 0
This matrix is a summary of the relationship, 'is the father of' between four
people Alan, Bert, Carol, and Daphne.
(a) List the relationship as ordered pairs.
(b) What is the domain?
(c) Draw an arrow graph for the relationship.
(d) Using a different coloured arrow, draw the relationship 'is the daughter of'
on your arrow graph.
(e) Write down the matrix for the relationship 'is the daughter of'.
(J) (i) Show on your arrow graph the relationship, 'is the daughter of the father
of'.
What is a quick way of doing this?
(ii) What do each of these matrices represent?
a b c d
a(o
h 0
0
0
c 0 I
d 1 0
(g)
0
0
0
0
~)T
h c d
I 0
h 0 0 1
c 0 0
d 0 0 0
a b c d
ar
0 0
h 0 0
!)
c 0 0 I
d 0 1 0
~)
(i) Show on your arrow graph the relationship 'is the father of the daughter
or.
What is a quick way of doing this?
(ii) What do each of these matrices represent?
abc
ar
d
I 0
h 0 0 I
c 0 0 0
d 0 0 0
15. L
= {(h, a), (e, b), (a,
en
h c d
0
b 0 0 0
!)
c 0 I 0
d I 0 0
!)
a b c d
0
b 0 I
c 0 0
d 0 0
0
0
0
0
!)
lists the relationship 'is on the left of' for three people sitting
round a table.
(a) Draw an arrow graph for the list.
(h) Mark in your arrow graph the relationship 'is on the left of on the left of'.
What is a simpler way of expressing this relationship?
Write down its matrix.
(c) What would you expect to be the matrix for 'is on the right of on the left of'?
Check that you are correct.
(d) What would you expect to be the matrix for 'is on the left of on the left of on
the left of' ?
COMBINING
RELATIONS-MATRICES
[135]
Check that you are correct.

(e) What do the following matrices represent?
a
b 1 0
cOl
abc
abc
af
h 0 0
g) a(
0 !)
16.
c 1
b 0
c 0
~)
b 0 0
ar
c 0 0 1)
The relationship 'is taller than' for Albert, Brian and Claud has been summarized in the matrix above.
(a) (i) Make a list of ordered pairs for the relationship.
(ii) What is the domain?
(iii) What is the range?
(iii) Copy the diagram (Fig. 1419) into your book, and draw arrows between
corresponding members of the domain and range.
a
range
domain
FIG. 1419
(b) What property does the list have?

(c) Draw an arrow graph.
(d) List the relationship 'is shorter than'. How is its domain and range connected
to the domain and range of the relationship 'is taller than'?
(e) Write down the matrix for 'is shorter than'.
How do the two matrices compare?
The relationship 'is the brother of' for Albert, Brian and Claud is summarized
as the matrix:
abc
~(!g g)
MIDLANDS
[136]
(f)
MATHEMATICAL
EXPERIMENT
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Make a list of ordered pairs for this relationship.

What is the domain?
What is the range?
Copy the diagram Fig. 1419 and draw arrows between the corresponding
members of the domain and range.
(g) Using a different colour, insert this information onto your arrow graph for
the r.elationship 'is taller than'.
(h) (i) By considering the two sets of arrows, list the relationship 'is taller than
the brother of'.
(ii) What is the domain?
(iii) What is the range?
(iv) Copy Fig. 1419 and draw arrows between corresponding members of the
domain and range.
(v) Write down the matrix for the last relationship.
(i) By considering the relationships 'is taller than' and 'is the brother oP we have
obtained the relationship 'is taller than the brother of'.
(i) Check that our domain-range diagrams give the following results:
domain
rangE'
a +-----")----+
domain
range
domain
rangE'
,
I
is tall:1"' than
is !hE' b;other-
is tallE'r- than the br-other
of
of
FIG. 1420
(ii) The only connection between
the domain of 'is taller than' and the

range of 'is the brother of' is from a -+ hand h ... Q.
Where does 1 occur in the matrix for 'is taller than the brother of' ?
17. (a) Check that the matrix A for 'is larger than' between the numbers in the set
{l, 2, 4} is:
1 2 4
1(0
A=21
4 1 ~
~)
COMBINING
RELATIONS-MATRICES
[137]
(b) Check that the matrix B for 'is the square of' between the same set of numbers
IS:
1 2
B=W ~ g)
By considering the matrix for 'is larger than' with the matrix for 'is the square
of' we would expect to get the matrix C for 'is larger than the square of'.
J
24
~(~ ~ ~)
4110
124
124
;(~ ~ ~)
4~(
4010
) =C
'is larger
with
'is the
leads to
'is larger than
than'
square of'
the square of'.
In C the first row must give information about the number 1.
I is not larger than any of our numbers,
so I is not larger than the square of any of our numbers.
We show this by filling the top row ofC with O. So we have so far:
1 2
=!r 0 0)
In C the second row must give information about the number 2. From the
second row of A we see that:
and
From B,
and
2 is larger than I
2 is not larger than 2 or 4
I is the square of 1
1 is not the square of 2 or 4
Hence, 2 is larger than the square of I and not larger than the square of 2 and 4.
So in the second row of C we can enter, I
O. Then we have so far:
1 2
C=~
1(01 00 00)
In C the third row must give information about the number 4. From the third
row of A we see that:
4 is larger than I
4 is larger than 2
4 is not larger than 4
1 is the square of 1
From B,
I is not the square of 2 or 4
2
is not the square of I, 2 or 4
and
[138]

Hence, 4 is larger than the square of 1 and not larger than the square of 2 or 4.
So in the third row ofC we can enter, 1 0 o. Finally we have:
1
1(0
C= 2 1
4 1
2 4
!~)
(c) Draw an arrow graph and check that the information in C is correct.
(d) Draw a domain-range diagram and again check that the information in
matrix C is correct.
18. (a) Using the set of numbers {I, 2, 4, 16}write down matrices A and B for 'is larger
than' and 'is the square of'.
(b) Without further diagrams, work out the matrix C for, 'is larger than the
square of'.
(c) Check matrix C with arrow or domain-range diagrams.
19. (a) Using the set of numbers {I, 3, 5, 7} write down matrices A and B for 'is larger
than' and 'is two more than'.

(h) Without further diagrams, work out the matrix C for 'is larger than two more
than'.
(c) Check matrix C with arrow or domain-range diagrams.
20. Four points can be joined together to make several different patterns as shown below
in Fig. 1421.
b
O~
__
""""*,"__
~b
\
I
00
FIG. 1421
"-f
[139]
(a) Write down matrices for each of the patterns. Make a note against each of
a possible relationship.
(h) Combine the matriCes of the following patterns:
(i)
(i)
(ii)
(i)
and
and
and
and
(ii)
(iii)
(iii)
(iv)
Comment on your results and patterns.

21. Five points can be joined together to make several different patterns as shown below
"in Fig. 1422.
{)
FIG. 1422
(a) Write down matrices for each of the patterns. Make a note against each of a
possible relationship.
(h) Combine the matrices of the following patterns:
(i)
(i)
(ii)
(i)
(i)
and
and
and
and
and
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(tv)
(c) Comment on your results and patterns.

(d) What is special about the matrix for (v) ?
MIDLANDS
[140]
MATHEMATICAL
EXPERIMENT
22. (Harder)
a b
1
b 0 0
c 0 0
d 0 0
c
0
1
0
0
l)
abc
d
B
a(
=b 1 0
c 0 1 0
d I 0 0
~)
A represents 'is the father of' between four people a, b, c, d.
B represents 'is the son of' between the same four people.
(a) Without diagrams, investigate the matrix C for 'is the father of the son of'.
(h) Check this result using arrow or domain-range diagrams.
SUMMARY
In an arrow graph, arrows start from elements of the domain and end at elements of the
range.
In a list of ordered pairs, the elements of the domain appear as the first number of each
pair. The second number of each pair is an element of the range.
A relationship between a group of objects, numbers, people can be represented by an
arrow graph, a domain-range diagram, a matrix.
Two relationships can be combined to produce a third relationship in certain cases.
Again in certain cases, two matrices can be combined to produce a third matrix.
CHAPTER
15
Statistics
PIE
CHARTS,
BAR
CHARTS,
PICTOGRAMS
IF WE are given a set of figures it is often rather difficult to understand them easily.
However, if these figures are shown in a diagram it is often possible to see the whole
situation at a glance.
Where a quantity is to be considered as a number of separate parts, it is often useful
to show it in a pie ,hart. Imagine a pie represented by a circle. Radii are drawn from the
centre to cut it into slices. The size of each slice depends on the size of each part compared
to the whole.
Look at the following household budget of a man earning 30 per week.
Savings
1200
600
300
225
375
300
TOTAL
3000
Food
Rent
Clothing
Fuel
Other expenses
In a pie chart, the 30 will be represented by the complete circle of 360 of the angle
at the centre.' This means that 1 will be represented by 12, and 25p, the smallest subdivision we have will be represented by 3.
.
Check the angle sizes in the table below.
Clothing
Fuel
Other expenses
Savings
1200
600
300
225
375
300
Angle
144
72
36
27
45
36
TOTALS
3000
360
Food
Rent
A pie chart to show this data is illustrated in Fig. 1501. No scale is required and the
items can be put in any order.
[142]
FIG. 1&01
16
14
12
10
8
6
Ul
4
0
...C
J:
...
a:
CIJ
"tJ
2
0
Q)
IJl
Q)
Ul
LC
"ii
C1JQ)
Ul
01
C
.
..x .~
:J
u. Ow U)
FIG. 1602
Numbe-r of people
SUDSO
50APOWER
In
100 uSing certoln soap powders.
qq~
ffqf
STURDY
f~
50BRITE
ff
Eoch symbol
represents
FIG. 1503
10 people
[143]
STATISTICS
Alternatively, the data can be represented by columns of equal width and with
heights depending on the items. As the items are all multiples of 25p, the heights wiU be
proportional to these multiples, i.e. the heights will be in the ratio 16:8: 4: 3 :5: 4. Check
that these numbers do represent the items as multiples of 25p.
This sort of diagram, which is commonly used to show variations of rainfall, trade,
temperature, etc., over the months of a year, is called a bar chart. (See Fig. 1502.)
Another way of representing data is by a pictogram where some unit symbol such as
a ~an or a coin may be used. Examine the pittogram in Fig. 1503 and discuss with your
friends the meaning of each symbol and part symbol. Do you see some of the disadvantages of a pictogram?
EXERCISE 158
In Questions 1-10 represent each set of data by, (a) a pie-chart, (b) a bar chart, (c) a
pictogram.
1. In a form, the number of pets kept by the pupils was:
Dogs
Cats
Bats
6
10
1
Fish
Pigeons
Horses
2
1
2. The B.B.C. on some of its radio wavelengths broadcasts for 20 hours a day, and a
typical programme, analysis for a station shows:
Radio One
Hours
Pop
12t
Light music and

variety
Radio Two
Hours
Pop
7t
3t
Variety
Light Music
News
Woman's Hour
Other programmes
1
I
1
3. The total votes polled (to the nearest hundred) in a certain by-election were distributed among the various candidates as follows:
Labour
Conservative
Liberal
Welsh Nationalist
14500
12500
5500
3500
4. A family television was switched on for twenty-four hours one week. The time
divided between the channels was:
Channel
B.B.C. I
B.B.C.2
I.T.V.
Hours
15
2
[144]
5. The number of cameras sold by a large shop during one summer week was:
4
12
14
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
5
14
23
6. On February 23rd 1969, as a result of twenty-four matches played in the Football

and Scottish Leagues, the following number of goals were scored:
Number of goals
Frequency
I
2
3
24
10
1
7. Early in 1969 the prices of Bentley cars advertised in a Sunday newspaper were:
3795
6950
6750
1150
3995
3950
4250
3950
4250
4895
475
3995
6750
1250
525
1350
Use these prices corrected to the nearest 500.

8. A recipe for Peanut Ring Cake lists the ingredients as:
t cup butter
t cup molasses
t cup chopped peanuts
t cup sugar
2 cups self-raising flour
i cup milk
i cup
beaten egg
9. Paving ston~s are probably best laid on a three centimetre layer of I: 1:9 cement:
lime:sand mortar.
10. Survey your form to see what make of toothpaste they use. Tabulate the results.
In Questions 11-15 interpret each of the illustrations, making a note of the accuracy
of your estimation of the numbers involved.
11.
Vanilla
10
Favouri te ice cream flavour

in a class
survey
5
Strawberry
Raspberry
FIG. 1604
STATISTICS
[145]
12. Cigarette smoking habits of 179 factory workers.
FIG. 1606
13. Composition of a concrete.
FIG. 16-06
14.
100-
~
~
~
Numbeor of n(Ow cors

on Authority
during
rE'g;stE'rE'd by
a month.
80
~~
:::~ '/~
60
40
~ ~
~~
;;;~
20-
r:::
British
Ford
Vauxhall
Leyland
FIG. 1607
Rootes
Others
[146]
15.
t~~1~
t t f ~k1~
! t~~11~
! f~~k11
! t f ~ k1 1
t t~~~11~
LION
JENNINGS
HAMMERS
FOSTER
SAVILL
DOWLING
Each symbol
represents
20 pupils.
FIG. 1&08
The pupils in a class were testing the life of nine electric light bulbs and they obtained
these results: 23, 20, 49, 24, 25, 23, 22, 23, 25 hours. They then wished to know the
average life and it was calculated by adding together the life of all the bulbs, and dividing
by the number of bulbs, i.e.
23
+ 20 + 49 + 24 + 25 + 23 + 22 + 23 + 25 = 234
= 26
99
This sort of average is called the mean. The mean is always obtained by adding items and
dividing by the number of items, or by using some method based on this idea. In our
example the mean has produced a result which is not typical of the bulb life. In only one
case is the bulb life as big or bigger than this value while eight values are below. To say
that the average life of the bulbs is twenty-six hours gives a misleading impression of the
bulbs because of the one extreme value. If you had done this experiment you would have
probably asked yourself why one bulb was so different from the rest; it might have been
a different make, or different voltage, or wattage, or type of filament.
A more useful average to use for the bulb life would have been. the mode, or result
that occurred most often. Check that twenty-three hours occurs three times and no other
result occurs as often. The mode is twenty-three hours. The mode is a typical result and
is not affected by the life of forty-nine hours. This last reading could just as well have
been twenty-nine hours, or even nineteen hours and the mode would be exactly the same.
The mode is not affected by extreme observations.
EXERCISE 15b
1. Find the mean and mode of the following results:
(a) 4, 1, 3, 5, 7, 2, 3
(h) I, 3, 3, 2, 5, 5, 7, 1, 3
(c) 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 10
(d) 5, 6, 4, 5, 6, 4, 5, 6, 4, 5
(e) 24, 21, 23, 25, 27,22, 23
STATISTICS
[147]
2. Draw a line XV at the bottom ofa piece of graph paper. Now draw siXlines perpendicular to this line, on the same side of it and of lengths 5'5, 6,0, 6,8,5,5,4,7,4,5 eID.
Draw a dotted line AB parallel to XV and 55 em above it on the same side as the
lines you have drawn (see Fig. 1509).
y
FIG. 1609
CalcUlate the sum of the parts of the lines which lie above the dotted line AB.
Calculate the sum of the parts that lie below. How can you use these to calculate
the mean length of the lines ?
3. Repeat
(a)
(b)
(c)
the method of Question 2 to find the mean average of the lengths:

130, 95, 105, 104, 125, 89, 90
.
70, 9,2, 10,5, 11,2, 9,9, '10'0, 115
9-2, 92, 92, 11,0, 11,0, 10-4
4. Try to modify the method used in Question 2 to find the mean of the sets of numbers:
(a) 27, 30, 35, 28, 32, 27, 26,30, 31, 33
'
(b) 21, 19, ~6, 29, 30,22, 23,24, 25
In- an experiment two square tops showing the numbers 2,3, 4 and 5 were spun
together and the two final numbers added together. The following results were obtained:
4
7
6895898
10
47
Check that these scorescan be sorted out to form the following table:
Score
Frequency
6
7
8
9
10
2
443
1
[148]
A guess of 7 was made for the mean of these results and a table showing how the
scores differ or deviate from this guess drawn up.
Frequency (f)
&ore
Deviatioll (d)
-3
5
6
2
2
2
8
9
10
2
3
4-
-2
-I
The deviation of the scores below 7 and above 7 are now calculated. If we multiply
the numbers in the f and d columns together we shall get these. Why? How does this
compare with what we did in Question 2?
Score
4
5
Frequenc:; (f)
Deviation (d)
2
2
2
-3
-6
-4
-2
0
-2
-1
0
I
2
6
7
4
4
8
9
10
Total deviation of scores from 7

Number of scores
= 13 + (-12) = 1
=
Mean deviation of scores from 7 =

~Iean of scores
fx
6
3
13
-12
18
1
1 8
=7
+n
= 711.8
To help our calculation we assumed that 7 was the mean; 7 was the assumed mean.
Our guess was a little small and to get the correct mean we had to add ls'
Notice that we have been able to keep the arithmetic very simple using this method,
and how the entries in the J X d column were sorted into positive and negative values.
Here is part of a calculation for the mean using the same scores as before.
Score
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Frequency (1)
2
2
2
4
4
3
I
Deviation (d)
jxd
-2
-I
[149]
STATISTICS
(a) What is the assumed mean?

(b) What do you expect the final mean to be?
(c) What do you expect to add to your assumed mean?
(d) Complete the calculation.
Sometimes in a calculation we assume a mean that is too high. What effect do you
think this will have on the calculation? Using the data above, assume the mean to be 8,
and repeat the calculation for the mean score.
EXERCISE 15c
Find the mean average of the following sets of data using the tabular layout above:
1. Score of a top I 2 3
4 5 6
Frequency
0 5 12 14 7 2
2. Score of a die
Frequency
I
2
3. (6) Observation
Frequency
(b) Observation
Frequency
2 3
10 9
4
11
5
12
6
16
21 23 25 27 29
2 6
8
3
1
21 23 25 27 29
2
6
8
3
1
4. Observation
Frequency
13 15 17
1228962
5. Observation
Frequency'
021 022
2
5
19
023
17
21 23 25
024
19
025 026
4
2
027
1
6. Calculate the mean number of weed seeds in a packet offlower seeds from this data
concerning 100 packets.

Number of weed seeds
Number of packets
0123456789
3 17 26 17
18
10 3 5
7. Groups of ten bottles were inspected in a factory after they had been through a new
washing process. The number of breakages out of ten for sixty groups was:
4 1
4 1
2 2
4 3
4 5
3 7
3
4
2
6
1
2
0
2
2
4
5
3
3 6 2 6 3 3
1 6 3 3 4 2
5
2
3
5
5 1
4 3
5 2
5 5
2
4
8
6
5 2
5 1
3 6
0 4
Draw up a frequency table and construct a histogram. What are the mode and
and mean numbers of bottles broken during the washing of each group of bottles ?
8. If the mean of ten numbers is 8, what will be the new mean when the additional
numbers 7 and 9 are included with the original ten numbers?
9. The batting average of Albert is 22 runs taken over 10 innings and that of Brian is
22 runs taken over 9 innings. What will be the new averages if Albert scores 11
runs and Brian scores 33 runs in their next innings?
[150]
10. Take a pack of playing cards from which the picture cards have been removed but
the aces left in. Count the clubs as units, the diamonds as tens, the hearts as
twenties, and spades as thirties, so that, for example the 3 of clubs counts 3, the 3 of
diamonds counts 13, the 3 of hearts counts as 23, and the 3 of spades counts as 33.
(a) Draw four cards from the pack and find the mean value of the count. Repeat
ten times, shuffling the pack between each draw.
(h) Find the mean value of the ten means. Draw a histogram of the means of the
draws for the whole class, and draw a histogram of the means of the ten means.
Discussyour results with the rest of your class.
DISTRIBUTION-GROUPlNG
OF DATA
We saw in Volume I that if we represent data by a diagram of columns, where the

area of each column is proportional to the frequency with which the number of the
column occurs, we have a histogram. A bar chart is not necessarily a histogram: why is
this?
Write your shoe size on a slip of paper and give it to your teacher. All the sizes can
now be collected together. Draw a histogram to showthis information. This is fairly easy
because there are only a limited number of shoe sizes.
Supposeyou wanted to draw a histogram for the weights of your class. In this case
we will have difficulties because there are so many different weights and added to this,
each weight will be approximate. For example, to say that a boy weighs 42 kg often
means that his weight is between 41, kg and 42, kg. Two boys who record the same
weight could well be slightly different in weight.
A classof boys recorded their weights in kilograms to the nearest kilogram:
40
35
41
49
35
35
38
42
53
40
44
49
36
40
45
41
43
45
45
40
44
46
44
41
49
47
46
50
42
48
47
49
43
51
47
42
45
51
45
42
How many boys are there?

What do you think their mean weight might be?
What are the mean and mode weights ?
What was the weight of the heaviest?
What was the weight of the lightest?
Check that the difference in these weights is 18 kilograms.
If we wish to draw a histogram to represent the distribution of weights in the class
we are faced with the job of drawing columns for each different weight. Or are we? If
we put the weights into groups we can reduce the number of columns we will have to
draw. For instance, all boys whoseweights lie in the range 34-35 kg can be put together,
those whose weights lie in the range 36-37 kg put together, and so on. In our example
check that we can put the boys into eleven groups of this size. The number of boys who
fall into each group or range is still called a frequency.
In the first table below, one group or class interval is labelled 36-37 kg. In this
range will be placed all weights between 355 kg up to 375 kg. A weight of 355kg will
be placed in the range. Why would a weight of 375kg be placed in the range labelled
38-39 kg?
STATISTICS,
[lSI]
Copy and complete the following tables using the class weights listed.
Class
interval
Frequenty
(f)
34-35
36-37
38-39
40-41
42-43
44-45
46-47
48-49
50-51
52-53
54--55
Class
interval
Class
interval
Frequency
(f)
34-36
37-39
40-42
43-45
46-48
49-51
52-54
55-57
Frequency
(f)
34-37
38--41
42-45
46-49
50-53
54-56
Draw the histograms associated with each table of frequencies.

Comment on the differences and similarities. How would you describe the distribution of weights in the class?
EXERCISE 15d
1. In an agricultural experiment the lengths of 100 worms were measured to the nearest
millimetre.
'
225
103
150
218
200
199
207
149
188
151
125
151
199
153
217
186
227
185
216
142
206 218 228 176 203

175 194 175 162 170
216 177 256 210 162
157 229 221 209 135
180 200 159 183 192
125 158 223 121 202
261 197 211 136 222
316 213 172 192 234
197 141 195 160 179
214 177 132 182 219
267
186
136
208
181
279
191
178
166
191
184
140
220
166
236
188
173
203
190
246
The smallest and largest lengths are shown in bold type.

(a) Using a copy of the table below, sort out this data.
Class Interval
100-119
120-139
140-159
160-179
180-199
200-219
'220-239
240-259
260-279
280-299.
300-319
Frequency (f)
241
186
169
207
274
220
139
206
119
188
[152]

If you could measure a worm to a tenth of a millimetre, in which class interval
would you put worms oflength (i) 1994 (ii) 1795?
How large is the class interval 180-199?
Are all class intervals of the same size?
Draw a histogram to show the data.
(b) Part of a table showing different class intervals is shown below.
Class Interval
100-124
125-149
150-174
175-199
200-224
225-249
250-
Frequenc.' (j)
How large is the class interval 100-124?

Are all the class intervals listed the same size?
Complete the listing of class intervals. Sort out the data and draw a new histogram.
(t) Using class intervals of 50 mm construct a new table and draw a histogram of
your data.
(d) Compare the three histograms you have drawn. Work out the mean length of
a worm. In which class intervals would this value lie? Do you think that the
mode length of the worms has any significance?
2. On the introduction of a new long distance bus route a check was made on the punctuality of arrival at one terminal. The number of minutes late on arrival was
recorded for 60 trips.
2
0
1
7
4
3
3
1
0
4
2 3
6 0
5 17
8 10
1
6 4 21
I
2
7
1 3 2 5 11
4 -1
10 1 9 3
5 4 0
3 11
2
3
2 14 7 15 2
1 4 12 13
9
0
8
6
0
5
1
The entry in the third row and fifth column is -1. What do you think this
represents ?
Using class intervals of two minutes, e.g. 4-5, 6-7, sort out this data and draw
a histogram.
Using class intervals of three minutes, e.g. -1-1, 2-4, 5-7, draw a second
histogram. How do the two histograms compare?
Work out the mean number of minutes late for sixty trips. In which class
would this be shown in each of the two histograms? What is the mode number of
minutes late? In which class would this be shown in each of the two histograms?
[153]
STATISTICS
3. During a routine medical check in a factory the heights of all the workers were measured and recorded. The first 100 appear in the table below. Using a suitable
class interval, group the data into about ten groups. Draw a histogram of your
results. Compare your grouping and histogram with those of your friends.
Heights of 100 workers measured to tke nearest centimetre

162
180
170
179
160
169
166
178
170
165
175
166
171
165
175
170
174
156
175
172
169
162
151
177
169
164
172
171
164
175
176
165
171
159
176
170
168
169
174
158
160
174
170
179
172
161
182
166
168
178
175 164 171 179

178 166 174 155
166 172 169 161
171 184 162 170
163 180 176 164
183 169 154 178
159 187 181 168
181 171 165 185
180 160 174 172
169 166 177 168
166
172
164
183
170
166
174
161
171
158
4. Draw up a frequency table of the times taken by members of your form to travel from
home to school. Select a convenient class interval. Draw the histogram of the
distribution and describe the distribution of the times obtained by your form.
Calculate the mean and mode of your data. Where would these calculated
results appear if included in your histogram?
5. Measure the length of 100 paces taken by yourself and by the other members of your
form. Draw up frequency tables and, selecting a suitable class interval, draw a
histogram of the lengths. Describe the distribution of the results you obtain and
find the mean and mode.
A new boy is to join the form next week. Before you see him make a guess as
to which interval in your table his 100 paces is most likely to lie. Suggest two
lengths that you would be very surprised to find the boy produces. Discuss this
as a class.
6. Class Activib'
The form is to work in pairs, each pair being given two potatoes. Make sure
everybody has the same variety of potato and they come from a fairly representative sample containing large and small sizes. Each pair is to measure width,
length, and height by taking maximum measurements in three directio'hs. Tabulate in suitable class intervals. Work out the mean for each of the three sets of
measures, weigh the potatoes and find the mean weight of a potato.
Draw histograms of the four sets of data and discuss the results.
7. You have never seen the person of whom I am thinking. Guess her weight. She is a
young lady aged twenty-three. Draw up a frequency table for the estimates of
your class. Now draw the histogram. Describe the distribution of the results you
obtain, and find the mean and mode.
EXERCISE 15e (Mainly discussion)

1. The journey from Chicago to Denver and return is 2000 miles. If the journey West is
travelled by train at 50 m.p.h. and the journey East by air at 200 m.p.h., what is
the average speed for the return trip?
[154]
The mean speed of 125m.p.h. suggests the average time for the 1000mile trip
is 8 hours and the total time for the round trip is 16 hours. But the trip West took
20 hours and that East took 5 hours which givesa total time of 25 hours and not 16.
Can you explain this and say just what is the average speed of the complete
trip?
2. If you bought a 1 of pop at lOp per bottle, and 1 of pop at 5p per bottle, what is
the mean average price per bottle?
3. The owner of a small factory pays his workers 500, 500, 500, 500, 500, 500,
600, 600, 800 and himself 5000 per year. If a new pay deal was being
negotiated, which average wage would you use if you were:
(a) the boss, (b) one of the workers?
4. Jupiter Petroleum has six petrol stations along a road at the distances shown. These
have all been measured from an old storage depot. A new depot is to be built
on the road to serve the six stations. Where would you build it so that the sum of
the distances of the stations to the depot is least?
A
BCD
15
13
12 11
FIG. 1610
5. Everton played Liverpool and won by 2 goals to I. Which of the followingdescriptions

do you agree or disagree with?
(a) Everton won by 100%.
(b) Everton won by 50%.
(c) Liverpool lost by 1 goal.
(d) Everton were twice as good as Liverpool.
(e) Liverpool were just unlucky.
6. The average wages for men and women in an industry are 21 and 19 .per week
respectively. There are twice as many men in the industry as women. What is the
mean wage for all the workers? How would your calculation differ if there were
three times more men than women?
SUMMARY
Bar charts show comparative sizesbecause it is easy to spot different lengths placed side by
side.
Sectors of a pie chart are better able to show the relationships of the parts to the whole.
Pie chart slices have their anglesproportional to the frequency of the data. The chart can
be confusing if there are many groups or if some groups are very small. In general, the
bigger the pie the more clearly the data is represented.
Symbols are attractive to younger people but because of the difficulty of sub-division are
not very accurate.
The mode is the most frequent observation in a set of data. It gives a typical result but
has little numerical significance. The mean is obtained by adding items and dividing by
the number of items. It is often upset by extreme values in the distribution, but is good
for numerical purposes.
In a histogram the area of each column is proportional to the frequency with which the
number of the column ocelll'O
CHAPTER
16
Percentages
EXERCISE 16a
1. If 056 as a percentage is 56, express the following decimals as percentages:
(a) 055
(d) 0375
(g) 0065
(j) 2007
/
(h) 025
(e) 02981
(h) 0302
(c) 037
(.f) 006
(i) 163
2. If 53 %
(a)
(h)
(c)
as a decimal is 053,
26
(d)
20
(e)
245
(f)
express the following percentages as decimals:

3
(g) 1-03
U) 10603
32
(h) 102
016
(i) 1006
625
625
25
5
3. If 62,50/0 can be thought of as 625 out of 100 or .100 or 1000 or 40 or 8' express the
following percentages as fractions in their simplest form:
(a) 66 '.
(f) 125
(k)
(b) 33
(g) 125
(l)
(c) 661
(h) 84
(m)
(d) 99
(i) 29
(n)
(e) 125
(j) 10
(0)
7
5
725
6375
6373
4. If an object is divided into 100 parts, i of these 100 parts is 25. This is 25 out of 100,
or 25% of the object. So! expressed as a percentage is 25. By what number has
1been multiplied to express it as a percentage?
Express the following fractions as percentages using your slide-rule as necessary:
(a) i
(f) i
(k) 11
(b) i
(g) t
(I) it
(c) f
(It) if
(m) it
(d) t
(i) H
(n) lo
(e) h
U) -Ir
(0) H
5. In building a dam a contractor underestimates.
Instead of excavating 3300 cu. m of rock, 7900 cu. m were dug. Instead of
drilling 3200 m of blast holes, 12 500 m were drilled. Instead of using 4500 bags
of cement dressing, 6500 were used. And instead of costing 250 000 the job cost
6300pO.
Write down the fraction,
actual ambunt
estimated amount
for each item. Discuss with your friends if the increase in cost is reasonable.
[156]
6. Interpret the information expressed in the following pie-charts in terms of percentages:

b.
TimE' spent
doing
Savings
homework.
Pocke-t
money
spent.
c.
Composition
of a gas mixture-.
Rooting of cuttings.
Number
of pl?tols on rOSl?s.
FIG. 1801
7. "This year profit in the School tuck shop has increased by 100;0from 1800 to 2000,
and that for the School dances by 15 % from 1700 to 2000; thus our total profit
of 4000 is 25% more than last year. As a result every pupil from Form 3 upwards
will receive a free slide-rule." So read the Senior master in Assembly one morning.
Do you agree with his calculations?
PERCENTAGES
[157J
We had better look at the figures a little more closely. Profits for this year are
being compared against those for last year, and the last year profits must be the
starting point in any of our calculations.
Copy and fill in the blanks in the following statements.
(a) Tuck shop
Last year's profit was
This year's profit was
Increase in profit is
The increase in profit is on 1800
Fractional increase in profit is 1800
Percentage increase in profit is
100
100 =
(b) Dances
The increase in profit is on
. I Increase
.
. pro fi t IS. 300
F ractiona
In
(c) On total receipts

The increase in profit is on
Fractional increase in profit is
(d) Can you spot the mistakes the master made in his report?
Percentages cannot be added together as our last question showed and the following
question will make this clear.
8. As a result of wear and the change in fashion the depreciation on a particular pop
record is 50% per year. If the record cost 240 new, what will be its value in
(a) 2 years, (h) 3 years? Obviously the record has some value at the end of three
years and you would not pay somebody to take it away after that time.
Copy and fill in the blanks in the following statements.
Cost of record new
50
Value at the end of I year 100
50
Value at the end of 2 years 100
Value at the end of 3 years 100
240
[158]
9. Look again at the Senior master's figures. An increase of 100/0on 1800 would give:
1800
+ J.Q.
x 1800 = 1800 + 180
100
= 1980
So an increase of 10% gives1980, and this represents ~~~of the 1800, which is
often expressed as 110% of 1800.
!fan increase of20% were to give 2400, the 2400 would represent 120% or
120
..
1 amount-suppose It
.. IS x. We now h ave
1000 f an ongma
120 x
100
2400
100
120
2000
2400
(a) If a decrease of20% were to give 2400, the 2400 would represent 1~~of the
unknown quantity. Find this amount.
Find the original value if:
(b) 50% increase gives 12
(c) 25% increase gives20
(d) 10% increase gives 330 cm
(e) 10% increase gives 1100ml
(j) 100/0increase gives99
(g) 10% decrease gives90
(h) 10% decrease gives 1800g
(i) 50% increase followedby another 50% increase gives 99
U) 50% increase followedby another 50% increase gives 27
(k) 500/0increase followedby another 500;0increase gives 36
(/) 50% decrease followedby another 50,10decrease gives 9
(m) 50% decrease followedby another 50% decrease gives 20
(n) 50% increase followedby a 250/0increase gives 30
(0) 25%) increase followedby a 50% increase gives 30 ml
(P) 500/0decrease followedby a 25% decrease gives 30 g
(q) 25% decrease followedby a 50% decrease gives 30 g
EXERCISE 16b
1. A car cost 800 new and depreciated in value by 25% in the first year and by 20%
for the next three years. Calculate its value at the end of the second, third, and
fourth years. What is the total percentage depreciation on its cost price?
2. It is estimated that a certain sPecies of cherry tree will increase its height by 10% in
the first year after transplanting, and then by 20% in each of the next three years.
Using this estimate, work out the height of the tree at the end of four years after
transplanting if it was 500 cm high when planted in a front garden.
3. A county cricketer scores 1428, 1683, 1291 runs in successive seasons. What percentage increase or decrease has there been on this year's total of 1501?
PERCENTAGES
[159]
4. Due to devaluation an imported dish-washer costs 15% more, but in a sale all goods
are available at 1{)% below list price. If the machine cost 100 before devaluation, .
what was its price after devaluation? What was the price during the sale? What
is the percentage difference between the pre-devaluation and sale prices?
5. A bookseller buys paper-backs at 12p each but receives a 10% discount if he buys
over 100 and also 50/0ifhe pays within a month. He sells the books to the public at
20p each. What percentage profit does he make providing he sells all his
stock and if:
(a) he buys 50 books and pays for them within a month,
(b) he buys 150 books and takes two months to pay,
(c) he buys 200 books and pays immediately,
(d) he buys 120 books, pays immediately but loses 10% of the stock through
pilfering?
6. A local library decides to use the following scheme to assesscharges to borrowers who
lose books: 'To the list price, add 100/0handling charge, artd deduct 25% for
d~preciation' .
(a) Does it matter in which order the library apply the 10% and 25%? Try both
ways with a book costing 1.
(b) How much would the following books be charged at if their list price was:
(i)
(iv) 160
(v) 240
(iii) 40p
(vi) 525
7. At the fnd of a season a rose-grower offers his remaining stock to the public at a
reduction of331%. The grower offers a shop-keeper stock at a reduction of 10%
on the price to the public, or 45% of the list price.
(a) Which scheme should the shop-keeper take?
(h) The shop-keeper makes a guess and accepts the 45% reduction offer. What
will be his percentage profit if he sells a listed60p tree at 2p more than it would
cost the public direct from the grower?
(ii) 50p
8. A florist bought 500 bulbs at 5p each from a nurseryman who added 5% to this
price for postage and packing. On arrival the florist finds that 5% of the bulbs are
unfit for sale, 44% are of first-class grade whilst the rest are second-class. The
florist aims to make an overall 50% profit. The first-class bulbs are to sell at 2p
more than the second-class ones.
'
(a) How many of the bulbs are first-class?
(b) How many of the bulbs are second-claSs?
.
(c) List possible pairs of prices that the florist could charge for his bulbs.
(d) Using these prices, does one pair give the florist exactly 50% profit?
(e) At what prices do you recommend that the florist sell his bulbs?
9. A scouring powder manufacturer introduces a different cylindrical container for his
product that is easier for packing. It is 10% shorter in height. Does this make a
10% difference in:
(a) the surface area,
(h) the volume?
(The ends of the container are circular).
If the old container full of powder sold at 8p, what price do you advise the
manufacturer to charge if he is also raising the price by at least 10%?
[160]
10. Grass seed A-4K)o!<> Chewingsfescue, 200/0 browntop bent, is mixed with seed B70% Chewings fescue, 30% browntop bent. What are the percentages of each
type of seed in the combined mixture if the mixing is in the proportions:
(a) 1:1
(b) 2:1
(c) 1:2?
11. Grass seed C-450/o Chewings fescue, 300/0 rye-grass, 15% crested dog's tail, 10%
browntop bent, is mixed with grass seed"B in the following proportions:
(a) 1:1
(b) 2:1
(c) 1:2
(d) 3:1
Work out the percentage of each in the final mix.
12. A general fertilizer consistsof:
2 parts sulphate of ammonia
1 part dried blood
4 parts superphosphate
1 part bone meal
"
1 part sulphate of potash (All measured by weight)
Work out the percentage of each item in the final mix.
A second fertiliser containing:
2 parts sulphate of ammonia
4 parts superphosphate
I part sulphate of potash
is mixed with the first fertilizer in the ratio 2 of the first with 1 of the second.
Work out the percentage of each constituent in the final mixture.
If 500 g of this mixture are to be applied to a square metre oflawn, how much
of each is a gardener going to need for a lawn whose dimensions are given in the
diagram?
15m
10m
20m
FIG. 1602
INVESTIGATIONS
1. Sow several seed trays with bean seeds and keep each tray under different conditions.
At regular intervals, note the percentage of seedsthat have germinated and draw
graphs for each tray of seeds. Under what conditions do you get the best germina-
tion?
Obtain some seeds that have been treated with Captan or some similar
compound that gives 'quick healthy growth'. How do these compare with the noncoated varieties?
Is the rate of germination different for different species of bean?
Find out if the rate of germination is directly proportional to the crop yield.
PERCENTAGES
[161]
Is it the percentage of germinating seeds after a certain time or the final germination percentage that matters to the commercial grower?
Write up your results.
2. A wheat seed is advertised as being 995% pure. Will this percentage be by weight or
volume?
Obtain samples of wheat seed of a known purity and examine for impurities.
Estimate the percentage of 'impure' seeds. Will the 'impure' seeds be uniformly
distributed in a sack of grain and does it matter if they are or not?
What effect could seed impurities have?
3. Plant and grow two dock seeds amongst a sample of wheat seeds. Comment on the
percentage of the total area contributed by the docks at certain time intervals.
4. I% of sheeps sorrel in 500 g of wheat seed number nearly 11,500seeds. What is the
approximate weight of one seed? How would this number compare with 1% of
poppy seed?
An Easy Method of Germinating Seeds

Equipment: Coffee tin with two translucent lids, blotting paper.
Method: A wick is made from a strip of blotting paper threaded through two slots
in one of the plastic lids and arranged so that the ends are immersed in water contained
in the tin. The seeds to be germinated are placed on a circular piece of blotting paper
laid on the lid with its wick. The second lid, or a plastic Petrie dish, is placed over the
seeds to maintain them in a moist atmosphere.
Extra Examples
Ten sets of eighteen examples have been assembled.

The number of each question refers to the chapter in this Volume on which the
question is based. For example: every question numbered 6 is based on work covered in
Chapter 6. The exceptions to this are questions numbered 17 and 18 which are general
questions depending on the work of no particular chapter.
Each set of examples contains questions of mixed difficulty. Because a question is
numbered 1 in set A it does not mean that it is easy; and similarly questions at the end of
set J are not all difficult.
SET A
1. You set out to buy bars of chocolate, packets of gum, and gob-stoppers for your
friends. You can remember that you want 6 of one, 8 of another and 4 of the
third, but you cannot remember which quantities apply to which item. Copy and
complete the table for all the possible ways in which you could buy these goods.
Chocolate
6
Gum
8
Gob-stoppers
4
How many vectors do you have?

Now if chocolate costs 3p for a bar, gum lp for a packet, and gob-stoppers 2 for Ip,
work out the cost of each vector.
You have 27p in your pocket and know that you should have more than Ip
change when you have bought the goods. What orders are now impossible?
2. In the following find the fraction used to change one number to the next. Write
down the next two numbers in each case.
4- 8 16
(a) 2,
3' 9' 27
(h) 128, 32, 8, 2

(c) 625, 250, 100, 40
729 243 81 27
(d) 625' 125' 25' 5"
(e) 10, 2, 04, 008
EXTRA EXAMPLES
[163]
3. Using the set M,
M = {2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, IO}

draw an arrow graph for the relationship 'x divides y' and enter the information in
a table.
4. Draw any quadrilateral and make a template of this shape. Produce a piece of
tessellation using the shape.
Using your basic quadrilateral, make modifications to all the sides so that the
shape will still remain a tess. Describe the modifications you have made and
produce a piece of tessellation using this new shape.
5. If
{(x,y): y = x}
and LA = {(x,y): x + y = 2}
LI
draw diagrams and shade the areas where:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
y >x
x +y < 2
y > x and x
y < x and x
+y < 2
+y > 2 and y > 0
6. Two packing cases (cuboids) have bases measuring 90 cm X 70 cm and 80 cm X

80 em. Which has the larger base?
If both cases have the same height 40 cm, and the larger case costs 256 for
materials, how much would you expect the smaller case to cost?
7. Find the values of p which satisfy:
(a)
(b)
13 6
23 == 2
(c) 44 == 8
(d) 171 == 1
(e) 153 = 9
(mod p)
(mod p)
(mod p)
(mod p)
(mod p)
8. If a = (-1,2), b = (3, -I), c = (-4, -I), give the following resultant vectors
as ordered pair~:
(a)
(h)
(c)
(d)
+
+-
a
b
a
b
(-b) + (-c)
a
(b c)
(e) a - (b c)
+ +
+
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
c' + (a
b - c)
c
(a - b)
b - (a + c)
c - (b - a)
-a - b - c
9. Complete the table below about the parallelogram shown in the diagram.
FIG. A01
[164]
Length a
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
2
9
2
15
EXPERIMENT
Length b
Angle 8
14
35
6
3
17
79
sin 8
Area
35
18
2504
44 30'
Why not use your slide rule for this question?
0 is the centre of the circle.
10. In the diagram
E
FIG. A'02
" is 120
(a) If the size of angle AOB
(i) 120
is the size of angle ACB:
(ii) 60
.-...
(iii) 240
(iv) none of these?
(h) What is the size of angle ADB?

(c) (i) There are two angles at 0, one is 120, what is the other?
"
(ii) What is the size of the angle AEB?
11. A building firm decides to use thermal blocks that are twice as large in all dimensions
as those they previously used. However they are made of a different material that
only weighs half as much as the same volume of old material.
(a) How do the volumes of the two blocks compare?
(h) How do the weights of the two blocks compare?
EXTRA EXAMPLES
12. What
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
[165]
units would you use to measure the following:

amount of wine in a litre bottle,
weight of fertilizer used on a field,
diameter of a bicycle wheel,
length of panels used for fence making,
maximum load allowed for a lorry,
length of Sellotape on a roll.
13. On squared paper, draw rectangles to represent the distance travelled in the following
In each case label the sides of the rectangle.
(a) 4 km/hr for 2 hr
(b) 8 cm/min for 3 min
(c) 2 dm/see for 21 sec
(d) 3! km/hr for 2! hr
14. Two brothers Alan and Dave work with their friend Clive in a machine shop making
nuts and bolts. Alan makes nuts, Dave makes bolts and Clive makes nuts and
bolts.
(a) Draw an arrow graph for the relationship 'are made by'.
(b) Complete the matrix representing this relationship.
a c d
~(
) = M
(c) Write down the matrix B for the relationship 'is the brother of'. Show this
information on your arrow graph using a contrasting arrow.
(d) By considering the arrows, mark in the graph arrows for the relationship 'are
made by the brother of'.
(e) Write down the matrix C for this last relationship.
(f) Investigate the statement about the matrices:
MB=C
15. The heights of a group of plants were sorted into groups as below:
Height (em)
78-80
75-77
72-74
69-71
(a) How large is each class interval?
(h) If the heights were measured to the nearest millimetre what is (i) the largest,
(ii) the smallest measured length which could be included in the group 72-74?
16. Find the original amounts if:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
a
a
a
a
(e) a
50% increase gives 36 g

25% increase gives 40 cm
10% increase gives 330C
100/0 decrease gives 180 cm
10% increase gives 198
[166]
EXPERIMENT
17. IfS={1,2,3,4,5}
(a) Write down
(6) Write down
(c) Write down
(d) Write down
(e) Write down
18. Write
+ or
a subset of S so that each element is an odd number.

a subset of S so that each element is greater than 2.
a subset of S which contains all the elements greater than 6.
a subset of S so that twice each element is not in S.
a subset of S so that three times each element is in S.
- in each blank to produce true statements.
+ (4
- 3)
(5
4)
(6) (8 - 3) - I
(3
1)
(a) 5
(c) 8 - (4
3) = (8 4)
3
(d) 16 - (6 - 2) = (16 6)
2
(e) (6 + 3) - 2 = 6 (3
2)
(/)(17-12)+8=17
(g) (a - h) - c = a
(h) (a + b) - c = a
(b
(6
(12
c)
c)
8)
SET B
1. A shortbread mix is:
1 part sugar
2 parts fat
3 parts flour
This is often stated as a (1, 2, 3) mix. In how many ways can you get the ingredients with the wrong quantities? List all the mixes you would produce.
2.
FIG. 801
(a) How does the area of the shaded region of the diagram compare with the
entire region? Write three fractions equivalent to your answer.
(6) If the total area of the figure is 100 square units, what is the area of the shaded
portion?
(c) If the area of the shaded portion is 18 square units, what is the area of the
entire figure?
(d) If the area of the entire figure is 12 m2, what is the area of the shaded portion?
EXTRA
EXAMPLES
[167]
3. A table to show the relationship 'is perpendicular to' between four lines a, b, c, d drawn
on a flat piece of paper, has been started in the figure. The table is not complete.
d
c
b
a
a
FIG. 802
(a) Copy the table and shade in blocks that you know should be shaded.
(b) Draw up and complete a table for the relationship 'is parallel to' between the
same four lines.
(c) Do either of the tables show reflexive, symmetric, or transitive properties?
4. Each of the following tesses have been formed by modifying a quadrilateral. Copy
the shapes onto squared paper and superimpose a quadrilateral which could be
modified to form the tess.
I""
r -- - r - --
T - - - -, - - - - ,-
::
::::':
- - - -,I
- - -, - - - - - - - ., - -I
- -, - - - -
"I
::::
I
[ -~ i:'iii(~)i:!'iillllllll!'i~!~!:i~ij
- - --:,!;ii~~:ii~:li;il~.~,~:;!!!llilllllii.i..!\liil!:illI
~
~b~~~~:-::.-]
.
I
I
I
,
..
- ... - - - ,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
----4-----J-----
.1
r~~~~ illllllllll!il\I~.:i!:'.,I!i,i..::i:I,.\ii
,----.
(c)
..---- ...----,-----t----T----~---:
'
I
t
~
r
1
I
I
'-
.. --:
----:
I
I
----~
I:
I
JI
I
I
I
I
__
__
I
.l.
FIG. 803
5. If
Ll = {(x,y): y = x}
and ~ = {(x,y): y = x
2}
draw dia~ams and shade in the areas where:
(a) y> x
(b) y < x - 2
(c) y > x andy < x
2
(d) y < x andy> x
2 and x is positive
I
I
'
I
I
I
J.
I
I
~I
[168]
EXPERIMENT
6. Information about a set of squares has been entered in the table.

the entries.
Copy and complete
Height
Base
Perimeter
Area (sq. units)
4 6 8 10 12 14
(a) What property does this set of squares have? Suggest the sizes of two more
squares that could be included in this set.
(h) If you drew a graph of height (x-axis) against base (y-axis) what sort of graph
would you get?
(c) If you drew a graph of height (x-axis) against perimeter (y-axis) what sort of
graph would you get?
7. In the algebra of ordinary numbers,
if 5x = 0, what can you say about the values
of x?
If x .y = 0 what can you say about x and y.
If 5x = 0 (mod 7) what can you say about the values of x?
If x .y = 0 (mod 7) is it true that either x or y must be 7?
8. lfa
= (3,1),
b = (-2,3), c = (4, -1) write down the values of the following:
+ (-a)
+ (-b)
(a) -b
(h) -c
(f) a
(g) c
Wa+b
Wa+b+c
(d) a
(~b)
(e) b - c
(j) a - b - (-c)
(i)
9. Complete the table below about the parallelogram
- b
+ (-b) + (-c)
shown in the diagram.
b
FIG. 804
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Length a
Length h
Angle 8
2
1
2
60
60
30
20
2
2
4
9
4
sin 8
01736
Area
EXTRA EXAMPLES,
10. Using
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
[169J
a paper circle how many folds would you need to divide it into:
halves,
quarters,
eigh ths,
sixteenths?
11. The internal size of a box is 16 em X 12 cm X 8 em. The box is to be filled with
16 packets of the same size. Suggest six different sizes of packet that could be used.
What is the volume of each?
12. The following numbers are exact. Rewrite them to the:
(a) nearest tenth,
(b) nearest whole number,
(c) nearest 25,
(d) nearest 100.
(i) 2336
(ii) 3791
(iii) 8377
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
8149
121212
6214
730909
(viii) 14905
(ix) 279027
(x) 1499
D = Vt
13.
or distance = velocity X time

Suppose we are going to use this formula, and the time is measured in seconds.
Suggest in what units the velocity could be measured. Give at least three possibilities.
14. Five small children in the playground throw the ball to each other according to the
pattern shown in the matrix.
~)
A BCD
B 0
A(O
C 0
D 1
o~
o
E 0
1 0
E'
~ ~
0 0 1
0 0 0
0
(a) Show what happens by using an arrow graph.

(b) Write down a matrix to show what happens to t4e ball when the direction in
which it is thrown is reversed.
(c) Compare the two matrices. What do you notice?
15. Just before the end of the Summer term, the maths master gives his third year set a
short test paper. Marks, out of 20, turned out like this:
Score
Frequency
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
20
1
19
2
18 17 16
4
7 5
15
2
14 13 12 II
3 0 2 3
How many pupils took the test?

How many scored more than 75% ?
How many pupils scored more than the mode score?
Work out the mean score.
10
1
[170]
18. At the beginning of a year a boy was 150 em tall and at the end of the'year he was
165 cm tall. Which of these statements about the boy's height are true?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
It
It
It
It
increased
increased
increased
increased
by 15 em.
by 10%.
by 15%.
by 9ir%.
17. Using S = {a, b, c, d, t,fl and T = {b, c, d}, how are the sets S u T and S n T
related to the sets Sand T? Show this information in a Venn diagram where:
fI
= {a, b, c, d, e,f}
18. Copy these statements and make them true by inserting brackets in the appropriate
places.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
24 -;- 6 + 2 = 6
24 -;- 6 - 2 = 2
24 -;- 6
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
24 -;- 6 -;- 2 = 8
24 -;- 6
2 =3
24 -;- 6 - 2 = 6
24 -;- 6 X 2 = 8
24 -;- 6 -;- 2 = 2
SET C
1.
put water in a kettle I
\ put boiling water in the pot
light the gas
put tea in the pot
heat the pot
put kettle on the gas
I
I
Above is a simplified list of instructions for making a cup of tea. Put the
instructions in the correct order.
Is there only one possible order?
2. Make up an example to show that
quantity.
i of 1of a quantity is the same as 1of i of the
same
a is the father of b, c, i, e
father of g, h, i
j is the father of k
3.
f is the
(a) List this information as ordered pairs.

(b) Why can't the ordered pairs show the reflexive, symmetric or transitive
properties ?
(c) Show the information on an arrow graph.
(d) Suggest possible relationships between:
(i) g and!
(ii)
f andj
EXTRA EXAMPLES
[171J
4. (a) What shape has been modified to produce the design shown? Superimpose your
shape on a copy of the design. Describe the modifications needed.
FIG. C01
(h) Make a template of the design and by drawing round it show that it can be
used to form a tessellation.
5.
FIG. C02
(a) What are the equations of the lines L1 and L2 which are the edges of the shaded
area?
(b) Copy and complete the following statement about the set of points L1:
}
(c) Write down a similar description for the set of points Lz.
(d) Write down a description for the shaded set of points.
[172]
6. Information about a set of rectangles has been entered in the table below. Copy and
complete the table.
Height
Base
Perimeter
2 4
10
12
Area (sq. units)
4 8 12 16 20
24
(a) What is special about the set of rectangles?

Suggest the sizes of two more rectangles that have the same property.
(b) Draw a graph of height (x-axis) against area (y-axis). What do you notice
about the shape of the graph?
(c) How would you arrange to cut out the six rectangles from a'rectangular piece
of paper whose area is 84 sq. units. What size of paper could you use?
7. How many numbers are there in arithmetic mod 4? Write down the addition and
multiplication tables for this system.
8. Complete the following statement.
+ (b -
c)
+b .
Verify the equation using the following substitution:
(i) a
(ii) a
2, b
(iii) a
(iv) a
3, c = 4
= -2, b = -3, c = 4
-2, b
3, b = -2, c = -5
= 3, C
cm2
9. Find the area of each of the triangles if each square represents!

r - - - ,- - - -,- - - - r - - - -,-- - - -,- - - - - r - - - -r - - - -.- - - -
-4
T - - -
-,
- - - - -
r -- - - ,
'
::
,r
'
~- - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - ~~- - - - -: - - - -I- - - - - i- ---I
: (i):
~- - - - -
-r - - - -
'..
i- - --- -,----I
'j - - - - - : - - -
- - -,- - - - - -:
I
,
I
I
I
- --
I
I
: (iv):
.-----~----
-r----j----,----
'I
----
:.. - _ - _ 2
I
I
_ !. __. _~
'
-----l---_~
I
I
I
I
- - - . - - - - -
I
I
I
I
I
I
'
I
- - - T - - - - -,-
I
I
I
I
,
-i - - - -;
I
I
}---- -~-----i- ----.:.. -.- ----- .1 - ,I

I
I
.----,---
I
I
I::
I,
I
I
"
- - - - :- - - -
--:-----~----~-
(iii)
~-----'
~-----:-----~---I
I,
I
-:-----t----i
,
,
I
I
I
1
,
- - -- - ~
---;-----:-----:-
~---r-
'
I
,
I
i(II)
(v):
- - - - - - - -
I
I
I
I
.l
'
r - - - -- r - - - - ~
I
I
I
I
.:...
-----~
I
I
._l
I
I
.~
FIG. C03
If the area of each figure was quadrupled, how would this affect the length of
each side? Make some drawings if you are not sure.
EXTRA EXAMPLES
[173]
10.. What is the formula for the area of a circle?

Find the area of a circle with radius:
(a) 6 em
(b) 3 em
(c) 1 em
How many times larger is the area of a circle of radius 60 ,em than one of radius
6em?
11. The internal size of a box is 8 em X 6 em X 4 em. The box is to be filled with
eight boxes of the same size. Suggest six different sizes of box that could be used.
What is the volume of each?
12. A triangle has been measured as:
~Ocm
FIG. C04
(a) What could be the least size of the triangle?

(b) What could be the greatest size of the triangle?
(c) Compare the least and greatest possible sizes of the triangle.
13. The flow of water from a household tap is being measured in litres per minute. If
a flow-time graph is drawn, the area under the graph will represent the volume of
water that has flowed in a certain time.
Time (sec)
0 1 2 3 4 5
6
7 8 9 10
Flow (litre/min)
0 4 8 8 8 8 12 12 8 4
0
Draw a graph and work out the amount of water flowing in these 10 seconds.
14. The matrix represents the relatio~ship 'is three less than' between four numbers.
ABeD
~(~ ~)
~ ~
COl
0 0
D 0 0 1 0
By any method you like, produce a matrix to represent the relationship 'is six
less than' for the same numbers.
15. The heights of a group of plants in a hot house were measured and noted.
Height (em) frequency

78-80
7
75-77
12
72-74
69-71
20
3
Which interval contains (a) the mode, (b) the mean?
[174]
16. Could the postal service increase the first-class letter rate by:
(a) 20%
(6) 25%
(c) 50%
(d) 331%
(e) 100~~?
17. Suppose that Au B is the same set as A () B. What do you know about the members
of A and B? Make up an example to show this.
18. Copy the following and make them true statements by putting in one of these signs:
<, >, or =.
(m) 01
;
(e) 01
t
(i) 06
(a) 03
!
i
(j) 07
(6) 04
l
(n) 012
I
(f) t
0-2
i
06666
(c) 0333
i
(g) 014
t
(0) t
0111
(k) f
(d) 0334
! (h) t 015
(~ f 0-6667 (P) I 0-112
SET 0
1. Plot the following pairs of vectors on the same piece of graph paper.
(i) a = (3, 1)
b = (1, 3)
(ii) c = (5, -1), d = (-5, 1)
(iii) e = (3, -2)
r = (-3, 2)
(iv) g=(-4,4)
h=(4,-4)
(v) j = (2, 3)
k = (3, 2)
What do you notice about these pairs of vectors ?
Does it matter in which order each vector is listed?
2.
FIG. D01
By shading copies of the diagram:

(a) illustrate i i = ii
(b) find t X 2
(c) find I X i
(d) if the entire diagram covered 6 cm2, find the areas of:
(i) 1 square
(ii) f of a square
(iii) 31 squares
3. Using the set P = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}

(a) draw an arrow graph for the relationship 'is less than or equal to' between the
numbers,
(h) list the information as ordered pairs,
(c) does your list show anyofthe reflexive, symmetric or transitive properties?
EXTRA EXAMPLES
[175]
4.
FIG. 002
(a) What sort of shape is illustrated?

(b) Cut out a shape like this from thin card. By drawing round the shape, show
that it is a tess.
(c) Colour one ofyaur shapes and on three afits sides mark points about which the
shape can be rotated to cover adjacent shapes.
5. On a sheet of graph paper, using sets of axis where 0 ~ x ~ 6, and 0 ~y
areas where both statements in each of the following are true:
(a) x
+y < 3
(b) x
x>y
~ 6, shade
+ 2y > 4
x+y>5
6. A child has wrapped mum's washing-line six times round dad's garden shed. The
shed measures 3 m x 2 m. What is the minimum length of the washing line?
Give reasons why your answer cannot be exact.
7. Write down the elements of these sets:
(a) A
(b) B
{x:x
==
(mod
(mod
(mod
(tl) D = {x:x -:- 6 (mod
(e) E = {x:x == 5. (mod
=
{x: x == 4
(c) C = {x:x == 3
=
3) 0 < x < IO}

5) 10 < x < 20}
7) 0 < x < 30}
10) -10 < x < 50}
9) -10 < x < 10}
8. Rewrite the vectors below without the brackets, and simplify your answers:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
a
a
b
(b
+ 2a)
(f) 2c - 2(c -b)
+ 2(b + 2a)
+ 2(b - a)
+ +
+
+
(g) 2(a
b
c) - 2(a - b
(h) 2(a-b)
3(b - c)
(i) 3 (a - b) - 2(b - c)
(j) 2(a b) - (a + b)
b - 2(b + a)
(e) 2(b - a) - b
9. Complete the table below about the triangle shown in the diagram.
a
FIG. 003
+ c)
[176]
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Length a
Length b
3
2
2
4
2
2
1
2
9
4
EXPERIMENT
Angle 8
Area
sin 0
3
30
60
70
08988
10. Draw two circles of about 5 cm radius.

(a) Mark where you would put folds in a cut-out circle to produce two chords at
right angles.
(b) Mark where you would put folds in a cut-out circle to produce the largest
equilateral triangle.
11. A box whose internal size is 16 cm X 12 em X 8 cm is filled with eight blocks with
a shape similar to the box.
(a) What is the size of each block?
(b) What is the volume of each block?
(c) What is the surface area of each block?
(d) What is the area of contact between each block and the box?
12. Which of the following are exact (could be found by counting) and which are approximate (could be found by measuring) ?
(a) Bricks loaded on a five-ton lorry.
(b) Height of a small tree.
(c) Bars of chocolate in a vending machine.
(d) Amount of wine in a litre bottle.
(e) Times the digit 1 appears on 100 bus tickets.
(f) Trees in an orchard.
13. Sketch a speed-time graph for a bus travelling between two bus stops in a very busy
city. Mark clearly when the bus is accelerating and when it is retarding.
14. For the set of numbers {I, 3, 5, 7,9, 11, I3} write down matrices to represent the
relationships:
(a) 'is smaller than'
(b) 'is four less than'
(c) 'is smaller than four less than'
15. A set of marks in an English examination was set out in a table:
Score frequency
76
I
73
1
71
1
70
3
69
4
68
6
67
7
66
3
Score frequenty
65
1
64
1
63
1
62
3
61
2
60
2
59
4
58
3
Score frequency
57
5
56
7
55
54
53
4
3
52
1
1
1
51
46
[177]
EXTRA EXAMPLES
(a) Decide on a Classinterval that will produce about twelve classes and sort out
the scores using these interVals.
(b) Draw a histogram using your class intervals.
(c) How would you describe the distribution of marks?
16. An architect models a building using a scale of 1 : 160. How, expressed as a percentage,
does the length of his model compare to that of the building?
17. Is it true that if a> band b > c, then a> c when a, b, c are integers? Using the
numbers 6, 5 and 4 illustrate this statement in a diagram.
18. For the following pattern, show how you could group the dots to show that the
number of dots in the set is 1325.
FIG. 0-04
SET E
1. Plot these vectors.
(e) b+a
(a) a = (3, 1)
(I)
b+c
(b) b = (5, -1)
(g)
c
+ b
(c) c = (3, -2)
(h)
a
+ b + c
(d) a + b
Write down the last five vectors as ordered pairs. Does it matter. if you draw
a + bar b + a if you want the resultant of the two vectors?
2.
By shading copies of the diagram. (Fig. EOI) :
(a) illustrate: ;
(b) illustrate: ; -
:4
:4
and find the answer.

and find the answer.
(c) find 14 X "3
(d) if the area of the entire diagram is 7 m2, find the areas of:
(i) I square,
(ii) i of a square,
(iii) 3i squares.
[I78J
EXPERIMENT
FIG. E01
3. Consider the following lists of ordered pairs about the elements of the set P.
P = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(i) Ql = {(I, 1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5)}
(ii) Q2 = {(I, 2), (2, 1), (3,4), (4,3)}
(iii) Qs = {(2, 2), (2,3), (3,2), (3,3)}
(iv) Q4 = {(2, 2), (2,3), (3,2)}
(v) Qs = {(4, 4), (4,5)}
Decide which of these are reflexive, symmetric, or transitive. Some have more
than one of these properties.
4. (a) Copy a portion of the tessellation.
FIG. E'OZ
EXTRA EXAMPLES
[179]
(6) (i) Mark in a point about which rotation will take shape A onto shape B.
(ii) Through how many degrees do you need to rotate the shape?
(c) (i) Mark in a point about which shape A can be rotated to cover shape C.
(ii) Through how many degrees do you need to rotate the shape?
5. I think of a pair of numbers, their difference is 2 and their sum is 12. What are the
two numbers?
.
6.
If the dimensions of a circular sheet of metal are doubled, how many times as much
paint would be needed to paint it?
7. Using the squares of the first twenty natural numbers, write down the following
sets by listing the members:
(a) A = {x:x2 = 1 (mod 7) 0 ~ x ~ 20}
(h) B = {x: x2 = 5 (mod 7) 0 ~ x ~ 20}
(c) C = {x:x2 = 3 (mod 6) 0 ~ x ~ 20}
(d) D = {x: x2 = 4 (mod 7) 0 ~ x ~ 20}
(e) E = {x:x2 = 0 (mod 10) 0 ~ x ~ 20}
8. If for three vectors,
(a
b)
c =a
(b
c)
what law has been illustrated?
Using a = (3,2), b = (1,4), c = (2, -3) make drawings to show:
(a) (a
b)
c
(6) a
+ +
+ (b + c)
9. Copy and complete the table below about the triangle shown in the diagram.
FIG. E'03
Length a
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
43
}8
71
14
196
Length 6
27
32
93
03
142
Use your slide rule for this question.
Angle 8
sin (]
Area
90
05000
20
23
09397
[180]
EXPERIMENT
10. Draw a circle about 5 cm in radius. Mark lines where you would put folds on a cutout circle to produce a square. Label your lines in the order in which you would
make the folds.
11. Electric light bulbs are packed in containers of external size 12 em X 7 em X 7 em.
24 bulbs are packed in two layers in a box. Suggest possible sizes for the internal
dimensions of the box.
12. What are the limiting measurements of the following:
(a) (0 18)
(b) (988 01tC
(c) (100 10) em
(d) (156 001) mm
(e) (235 15) g
13. On squared paper, draw rectangles to represent the distance travelled in the following,
and label the sides of the rectangle.
(a) 4 km/hr for 2 sec
(b) 8 em/min for 3 hour
(c) 2 dm/sec for 21 min
(d) 3! km/hr for 10min
In each case work out the distance travelled.
14. For the set of numbers {O, 2,4, 6,8, 10, 12, l4} draw arrow graphs to show the
relationships:
(a) 'is larger than'
(h) 'is a half of'
(c) 'is larger than a half of'
15. Find the mean and mode of these results:
(a) 7,2,0,8,1,4,0
(h) 2, 7, 9, 5, 8, 4,5
(c) 70, 70, 70, 69, 69, 68, 66, 64, 64, 63
(d) 9,1,8,9,8,8,8,8,8,0,
7'8,77, 7'7, 75, 7'4, 73
(e) 059, 059, 058,058, 057, 056, 0,56, 056, 0,56, 056, 053, 051
16. 96% of a quantity of seed is expected to germinate. How many seeds would you
expect to germinate from packets of:
(a) 35
(b) 36
(c) 37
17. How many different squares can you find in the drawing (Fig. E04)?
18. A new operation
* has been made
+b
4 * 5 = (4 X 2) + 5
a
where a and b are integers.
up. For example:
*b=
(a X 2)
=8+5
13
(a) Show that: 2 * 4 =1= 4 * 2
What conclusion do you come to about the operation?
(b) Are (4 * 3) * 2 and 4 * (3 * 2) the same?
Make up some more examples like this.
What further conclusions do you come to about the operation?
=

Midlands Mathematical Experiment Vol 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Midlands Mathematical Experiment Vol 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MIDLANDS

First published in Great Britain 1970

DIRECTOR .. Raymond Stokes B.Sc.

Experill/I'II/ Ltd, 1970

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

ISBN 0 245 59845 6

Composed in Baskerville type and printed at

1. Order, Vectors and Chess

3. Relations: Ordering and Equivalence

6. Shape and Size-Area

8. Distributive Law with Numbers and Vectors

9. About Area and Polygons

10. Circles and Ellipses

11. Shape and Size-Volume

13. Speed and Time Graphs

14. Combining Relations-Matrices

Order, Vectors and Chess

Navigating from 0 to B we could say we go 5 km at nearly 053 or (4,3). Rearrange

MIDLANDS MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENT

ORDER, VECTORS AND CHESS

suggest that we put on our socks and

(f) (cook, eat)

MIDLANDS MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENT

ORDER, VECTORS AND CHESS

MIDLANDS MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENT

The move from (~) to (:) may be written as (OE,4N) or (0,4).

and extend by making up some further moves of your own.

ORDER, VECTORS AND CHESS

(c) 2(1, -2)

MIDLANDS MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENT

QR8 QN8 QB8 Q8 K8 KB8 KN8 KR8

QRI QNI QBI QI Kl KBI KNI KRl

QR7 QN7 QB7 Q7 K7 KB7 KN7 KR7

QR2 QN2 QB2 Q2 K2 K.B2 KN2 KR2

QR6 QN6 QB6 Q6 K6 KB6 K.N6 KR6

QR3 QN3 QB3 Q3 K3 KB3 KN3 KR3

QRS QNS QBS QS K5 KBS KNS KRS

QR4 QN4 QB4 Q4 K4 KM KN4 KR4

QR4 QN4 QB4 Q4 K4 KM KN4 KR4

QRS QN5 QB5 Q5 K5 KB5 KN5 KR5

QR3 QN3 QB3 Q3 K3 KB3 KN3 KR3

QR6 QN6 QB6 Q6 K6 KB6 KN6 KR6

QR2 QN2 QB2 Q2 K2 KB2 KN2 KR2

QR7 QN7 QB7 Q7 K7 KB7 KN7 KR7

QRI 'QNI QBI QI KI KBI KNI KRI

QR8 QN8 QB8 Q8 K8 KB8 KN8 KR8

MIDLANDS MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENT

are all equivalent fractions.

Fig. 207 shows a further subdivision and shading.

3. Spot and correct the mistakes in the following:

4. What sort of figure is a rhombus?

(c) 32, 16, 8, 4

(e) 2, 4/3, 8/9, 16/27

(i) (9/5, 27/25)

7. Make up an example to show that

a quantity is the same as

Relations: Ordering and

x i. heavier than) J '.lOr vanous

4, Find the average life-span of:

Arrange them in order of life expectancy, Are any the same?

y if x andy both belong to S

MIDLANDS MATHEMATICAL EXPERIMENT

This can be summarized in one diagram or arrow graph: