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EXPERIMENT I

SOLUBILITY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

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ABSTRACT
This experiment aim at determining the solubility of organic compounds such as
phenol, Naphthalene, 1-propanol,2 butanol, cyclohexanol, Benzyl alcolol, aniline
and Benzamide in water, cyclohexene, Ethyl acetate, Toluene, dilute HCl, NaOH and
NaHCO3 .
A sample of each organic compound was taken into a test tube with addition of
solvent. Some of organic compound appeared to dissolve in solvent when were
shaken thoroughly at room temperature and other at warm condition (heated in
steam bath) while other appeared not to dissolve at all due to polarity and
intermolecular force existing between them. Compounds that are insoluble in water
can become soluble in aqueous environment if they form an ionic species when
treated with acid or base. This is because the ionic form is more polar. From general
rule that like dissolve like, polar solute dissolved in polar solvent and non-polar
solute in non-polar solvent.

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INTRODUCTION:
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the solubility characteristics of some
simple organic compounds. Predicting the solubility of organic compounds is a
useful skill. For example it can be useful when trying to purify (e.g recrystallization:
picking a suitable solvent) solute from a multi-compounds reaction mixture (e.g via
extraction) or when extracting molecules from a natural source such as plants. This
knowledge is also important when performing reaction to synthesize molecules,
usually reagents and starting materials are mixed together in solution.
Solubility is really controlled by intermolecular forces. General rule is like dissolve
like and it is based on the polarity of the system i.e. polar molecules dissolve in
polar solvents and non-polar-molecules in non-polar solvents. The polarity of organic
molecules is determined by the polar bonds due to the presence of electronegative
atoms in polar bonds due to the presence of electronegative atoms in polar
functional groups such as amines (-NH 2) and alcohols (-OH).
We are going to determine what compounds can be dissolved in each other or are
miscible in each other in a qualitative manner. As a result we should be able to
determine which compounds have similar characteristics with regard to solubility.

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THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES
When two substances are mixed together they may or may not dissolve in each
other depending on a variety of characteristics and properties associated with each
substance. If they dissolve in each other, they are considered to be soluble or
miscible with each other. For example, table sugar can be dissolved in water and
alcohol is miscible in water. When sugar or alcohol is dissolved in water, a solution is
formed. This solution would be a homogeneous solution because it looks uniform
throughout. You can determine the solubility of a substance in a solution by
determining how much of the substance dissolves in another substance. Usually the
substance that is present in the largest amount in a solution is called the solvent,
and the substance present in the least amount is called the solute. If a substance
does not completely dissolve or is not miscible in the solvent, a heterogeneous
mixture may be formed.
When a substance (compound) dissolves in a solvent, it probably has similar
physical and/or chemical properties as the solvent. Sometimes we (chemists) say
like dissolves like. For example, sugar and water have similar chemical and
structural features in common. Every compound has a maximum solubility at a
given temperature. That means you can only dissolve so much solute in a given
amount of solvent. You can dissolve a lot of sugar in 100 mL of water (10 grams per
5 mL water). If a compound does not dissolve in a solvent they may not have similar
chemical properties. For example, vegetable oil and water are not miscible or
soluble in each other because they have different properties.
Organic compounds that have both hydrogen bond donors and acceptors will be
water soluble if they have 5 carbons or less (more carbons if multiple H-bond donor
acceptors present).
Examples of water soluble compounds with H-bond donors and acceptors:

Organic compounds that have only hydrogen bond acceptors will be water soluble if
they have 3 carbons or less (more carbons if multiple H-bond donor acceptors
present).
Examples of water soluble compounds with H-bond acceptors only:

The least soluble water soluble organic compounds are hydrocarbons and alkyl
halides
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METHODS AND RESULTS:

In the following tables of solubility of organic compounds
I= Insoluble
SLS= Slightly soluble
S= Soluble
M= Miscible
IM= Immiscible
PART A:
TABLE 1: SOLUBILITY OF PHENOL
PROCEDURE

OBSERVATION

A small quantity (20-25 mg) of

phenol is transferred with
spatula into a test tube and
addition of about 1mL of
water and shaken thoroughly
them warmed by heating test
tube in steam bath.
A small quantity (20-25mg) of
phenol is transferred with
spatula into a test tube and 1mL
of Cyclohexene was added
and shaken thoroughly.

At room temperature (cold) phenol

did not dissolve in water.
When the test tube was heated
phenol appeared to dissolve in
water.

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At room temperature (cold

condition), phenol appeared to
dissolve in cyclohexene by formation
of golden solution.

INFEREN
CE
S

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A small quantity (20-25mg) of

phenol is transferred with
spatula into a test tube and
about 1mL of EthyI acetate is
added and shaken thoroughly.

At room temperature (cold condition)

phenol appeared to dissolve in Ethyl
acetate by formation of golden
solution.

A small quantity (24-25mg) of

phenol is transferred with
spatula into a test tube and
about 1ml of Toluene is added
and shaken thoroughly.

At room temperature (cold

condition), phenol appeared to
dissolve in toluene by formation of
orange solution.

PROCEDURE

OBSERVATION

A small quantity ((20-25mg) of

Naphthalene is transferred into
test tube and about 1mL of
Cyclohexene is added, shaken
thoroughly and then heated in a
steam bath.
A small quantity ((20-25mg) of
Naphthalene is transferred into
test tube and about 1mL of
water is added, shaken
thoroughly and then heated in a
steam bath.
A small quantity ((20-25mg) of
Naphthalene is transferred into
test tube and about 1mL of
Ethyl acetate is added, shaken
thoroughly.
A small quantity ((20-25mg) of
Naphthalene is transferred into
test tube and about 1mL of
Toluene is added and shaken
thoroughly.

At room temperature (cold

condition) Naphthalene did not
dissolve in cyclohexene.
When the test tube was heat, it
appeared to dissolve and form
precipitate after some time.
At room temperature, Naphthalene
did not dissolve in water.
When the test tube was heated
suspension were formed.

INFEREN
CE
SLS

At room temperature, Naphthalene

appeared to dissolve and formation
of clear solution

At room temperature, Naphthalene

appeared to dissolve and formation
of clear solution.

PART B:
TABLE 2: SOLUBILITIES OF 1-PROPANOL, 2-BUTANOL AND CYCLOHEXANOL IN H 2O
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PROCEDURE

OBSERVATIION

INFERENCE

1ml of 1-propanol was placed in attest

tube with a dropper, followed by
addition of 1ml of water and shaken
thoroughly.
1ml of 2-butanol was placed in a test
tube followed by addition of 1Ml of
water with dropper and shaken
thoroughly.
1ml of cyclohexanol was placed in a
test tube followed by addition of 1mL
of water with a dropper and shaken
thoroughly.

A clear solution was

formed.

Two separate layers were

formed

IM

Two separate layers were

formed.

IM

PART C: 1
TABLE 3: SOLUBILITY OF PHENOL
PROCEDURE

OBSERVATION

About 50mg of phenol was placed

in test tube, followed by 1mL of
water and then shaken thoroughly.

Formation of two separate

layers. Bottom layer being
phenol and upper layer being a
solution of phenol.

About 50mg of phenol was placed

in test tube, followed by addition
of 1mL dilute HCl acid and then
shaken thoroughly.
About 50mg of phenol was placed
in test tube, followed by addition
of 1mL NaOH and then shaken
thoroughly.

Formation of two layers with

some amount of emulsion.

About 50mg of phenol was

placed in test tube, followed
by addition of 1mL NaHCO3
and then shaken thoroughly.

Formation of two separate

layers.

INFERENCE
I

Dark green solution was

formed
S

TABLE 4: SOLUBILITY OF BENZYL ALCOHOL

PROCEDURE

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OBSERVATION

INFERENCE

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1ml of Benzyl alcohol was placed

in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of water and
then shaken thoroughly.
1ml of Benzyl alcohol was placed
in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of dilute HCl acid
and then shaken thoroughly
1ml of Benzyl alcohol was placed
in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of NaOH and
then shaken thoroughly
1ml of Benzyl alcohol was
placed in a test tube followed
by addition of 1ml of NaHCO3
and then shaken thoroughly

Formation of emulsion milk in

color

IM

Formation of two separate

layers

IM

Formation of two separate

layers.
The upper layer was milk in
color.
Formation of two separate
layers.

IM

IM

PART C: 2
TABLE 5: ACIDIFICATION OF NaOH OF PHENOL WITH DIL.HCl
PROCEDURE

OBSERVATION

INFERENCE

About 50mg of phenol

were introduced in a
test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of
NaoH, then acidified
by 1mL of dilute HCl
acid

At room temperature phenol dissolved

NaOH and acidified to form light pink
solution.

PART D:
TABLE 6: SOLUBILITY OF CYCLOHEXANOL
PROCEDURE
About 1mLof cyclohexanol was
placed in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of water and
then shaken thoroughly.
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OBSERVATION
-

Formation of two
separate layers with
emulsion

INFERENCE
IM

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About 1mLof cyclohexanol was

placed in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of dilute HCl
acid and then shaken thoroughly.

Formation of two
separate layers with
emulsion

IM

About 1mLof cyclohexanol was

placed in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of NaOH and
then shaken thoroughly.

Formation of two
separate layers

IM

About 1mLof cyclohexanol was

placed in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of NaHCO3 and
then shaken thoroughly.

Formation of two
separate layers

IM

TABLE 7: SOLUBILITY OF ANILINE

PROCEDURE

OBSERVATION

About 1mL of aniline was placed

in a test tube using a dropper
followed by addition of 1mL of
water and then shaken
thoroughly.
About 1mL of aniline was placed
in a test tube using a dropper
followed by addition of 1mL of
dilute HCl acid and then shaken
thoroughly.
About 1mL of aniline was placed
in a test tube using a dropper
followed by addition of 1mL of
NaOH and then shaken
thoroughly.
About 1mL of aniline was placed
in a test tube using a dropper
followed by addition of 1mL of
NaHCO3 and then shaken
thoroughly.

INFERENCE

Formation of two
separate layers

IM

Formation of two
separate layers

IM

Formation of two
separate layers

IM

Formation of two
separate layers

IM

TABLE 8: SOLUBILITY OF BENZAMIDE:

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PROCEDURE

OBSERVATION

About 20mg of benzamide was

placed in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of water and
then shaken thoroughly.
About 20mg of Benzamide was
placed in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of water and
then shaken thoroughly.
About 20mg of Benzamide was
placed in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of water and
then shaken thoroughly.
About 20mg of Benzamide was
placed in a test tube followed by
addition of 1mL of water and
then shaken thoroughly.

Suspension were formed

INFERENCE

I
Suspension were formed
I
Suspension were formed
I
Suspension were formed
I

DISCUSSION:
This experiment was conducted to show solubility of some organic compound. Some
of organic compound appeared to dissolve at room temperature while some appears
to dissolve at warm condition. Consider the following table;
TABLE 9: General solubility of organic compound
Structure and name of the
compound
Phenol

Naphthalene

1-propanol

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Expected solubility behavior according to the theory and

experiment.
Phenol is moderately soluble in water about 8g of phenol
dissolved in 100mL of water. If exceeded more than that,
two layers appear. It is insoluble in NaHCO3 and soluble
in NaOH,
It is soluble in aromatic hydrocarbon, alcohols, ketones,
acids and halogenated hydrocarbon.
Insoluble in water (3mg/100mL) and soluble in organic
compound.

Miscible in water because it has less than five carbon

atom.

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2-butanol

Immiscible in water since increase in molecular weight

leads to an increase in intermolecular force in solid and
decrease solubility.

Cyclohexanol

Immiscible in water because it has six carbon atom.

Immiscible in dilute HCl, NaOH and NaHCO 3.

aniline

Benzyl alcohol

Benzamide

Immiscible in water because has six carbon atoms. It is

basic in nature, only one aryl group being attached to the
amino group hence insoluble in 5% sodium hydroxide and
NaHCO3.

Immiscible in water because it has more than five carbon

atoms.
Immiscible in dilute HCl, NaOH, and NaHCO 3
Insoluble in water because has more than five carbon
atoms.
Insoluble in 5% of sodium hydroxide sodium hydrogen
carbonate solution.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSION
When two substances are mixed together they may form solution or may not
dissolve in each other depending on a variety of characteristics and properties
associate with each properties of the substance. From the experiment, it shows that
solubility of organic compound involves the formation of one layer, if the
compounds are miscible or formation of two layers, if the compounds are
immiscible.

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EXPERIMENT 2

CRYSTALLIZATION AND MELTING POINTDETERMINATION

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ABSTRACT:
This experiment aimed at determining crystallization and melting point of unknown
compound. The first part of this experiment involve carrying solubility test to find a
suitable recrystallization solvent among the given five solvent, such as water,
methanol, P-Ether, Ethyl acetate and Toluene.
A small amount of impure sample was introduce in a test tube with addition of
solvent and then shaken. If all solid had nearly dissolved in a cold solvent and no
precipitates, the solvent was considered unsuitable. If not the mixture was heated
gently to the boiling point with stirring in the steam bath. If the most of the solid did
not dissolve, the solvent was also unsuitable.
Ethyl acetate was found to be the best among the given solvents. Before
preparation of the solution, the mass of the remainder of unknown sample was
recorded as 1.22g. A solute in a minimum of near boiling point solvent is dissolved
and the solution was allowed to cool slowly undisturbed to room temperature. Once
the crystal had formed a flask of crystallization solvent was placed in water-ice bath
for a few minutes. The crystal were collected by suction filtration and allowed to dry
for one night. Before determining the melting point range the mass of the purified
sample was found to be 0.835g. so as to determine the melting point range a small
amount of the purified sample was introduced in a test tube which was then placed
in a melting point apparatus. The temperature at which the solid began to melt and
that at which it was completely liquid was recorded as the melting point range of
the substance, which was found to be 133-147.
The percentage yield was found to be 68.4%. It is recommended that the rate of
heating is the most critical factor affecting experimental results and should be
carefully monitored particular close to the expected melting point. Also careful
transfer of the sample from one component to the other to avoid loss of the sample.

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INTRODUCTION
The objective of this experiment is to determine the crystallization and melting
point of unknown compound. The hypothesis of crystallization and melting point
determination is that recrystallization help in purification of impure solid compound,
also can be used to separate enantiomers from each other while melting point
verifies the purity of the compound and aids in the identification of unknown
compound. It is typically reported as the range where an impure solid will have a
lower melting point than the pure solid.
When a solid organic compound is prepared in the laboratory or isolated from some
natural
source, such as leaves, it is almost always impure. A simple technique for
the purification of such a solid compound is crystallization.
The first part of this experiment involves carrying out solubility tests on known
compounds. Later on such solubility tests will be used to find a suitable
recrystallization solvent for an unknown compound. A compound usually exhibits
one of three general solubility behaviors: (1), the compound has a high solubility in
both hot and cold solvent, (2), the compound has a low solubility in both hot and
cold solvent, and (3), the compound has a high solubility in hot solvent and a low
solubility in cold solvent. Solvents which exhibit the first two behaviors are not
useful for recrystallizing a compound. A solvent showing the third behavior, that is,
high solubility at high temperatures and low solubility at low temperatures, is one
that is suitable for use as a recrystallization solvent.
Again solute in a minimum of
near boiling solvent is
dissolved, allow the solution
to cool slowly and
undisturbed at room
temperature then possibly to
rise temperature, collect the
crystals by filtration and allow
them to dry.
So as to determine the purity
and identify the compound
melting range must be
determined.
Figure: 1
In this report you will find a brief theory on crystallization and melting point
together with the principle used, experimental procedure, apparatus used, results
and discussion of the results obtained during the experiment, conclusion,
recommendation and reference used.

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THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES
Crystallization is the process in which a solid compound precipitate from a saturated
solution in the form of crystals. During the process of crystal formation, a molecule
will tend to become attached to a growing crystal composed of the same type of
molecule because of the better fit in crystal lattice for molecules of the same
structure than for other molecules. When the impure solid is dissolved in a minimum
volume of a suitable hot solvent and the resulting solution is gradually cooled,
saturation and eventually crystallization of the pure compound occurs.
Impurities are of two kinds: soluble and insoluble, recrystallization involves the
removal of both to purify a solid. Insoluble impurities are first remove by gravity
filtration of the hot solution while the soluble impurities remain dissolved in cold
saturated solution after filtration of the desired compound. The pure crystals are
separated from the supernatant liquid by suction filtration. After drying, purify is
checked by a melting point determination.
Melting point is the temperature at which transition from solid to liquid occurs at
atmospheric pressure. Many organic compounds are solid at room temperature as
the result of stronger intermolecular forces which hold the individual molecules
together in a crystal lattice. The nature and strength of the intermolecular forces are
responsible for the observed differences in melting point. The melting point of a
solid is practically unaffected by changes in external pressure making it a
convenient physical constant for the identification of solids.
The solubility of a solid solute in a solvent is determined by two factors:
a) The relative polarities of the solvent and solute. Like dissolve Like is the
best summary of solubility behavior. Polar solvent dissolve polar solute and
non- polar solvent dissolve non-polar solute.
b) The lattice energy of the crystalline solute. The crystal lattice, holding solute
molecules together in the solid state, is broken down upon dissolution. The
stability of crystal lattice is roughly reflected by the melting point.
A suitable solvent for crystallization should possess the following. Important
properties;
a) Dissolve a large amount of the solid to be purified at high temperature, but
very little at room temperature.
b) Dissolve impurities readily at low temperature or not at all even when at the
boiling point.
c) Not react with the substance to be purified.

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d) Evaporate readily from the crystals.

If two or more solvent appear to be equally suitable, it is preferable to choose a
solvent which is non-flammable, non-toxic and cheap,

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENTS:

MATERIAL AND APPARATUS
1. Test tube: used to study the solubility of impure substance.
2. Steam bath: used to heat the test tube containing the impure substance
3. Analytical balance: used to weigh the sample
4. Conical flask: used to heat the sample in water bath
5. Filter flask : used to filter crystal by vacuum filtration
6. Capillary tube :used to study the melting point of the sample
7. Melting point apparatus: used together with capillary tube to determine the
melting point of purified sample.
8. Buchner flask : used to collect crystals during suction.
METHODS:
EXERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
The following steps were involved during recrystallization.
1) Selection of suitable solvent.
A small amount of the impure sample was introduced in a test tube with
addition of solvent and then shaken. If all sold had nearly dissolved in the
cold solvent, the solvent was considered unsuitable. If not the mixture was
heated gently to the boiling point with stirring in the steam bath. If most of
the solid did not dissolve, the solvent was also unsuitable.
2) Preparation of the solution
The rest of the sample was weighed and transferred to the conical flask,
where a small portion of a selected solvent was added. The mixture was
stirred and heated to boil where a small portions of the solvent was kept
added until all the solute dissolved. A slight excess of the solvent was added
to compensate for any losses (through evaporation) during filtration.
3) Cooling
So as to induce crystallization, the clear, hot filtrate was allowed to cool at
cool at room temperature, undisturbed until a large amount of crystals had
formed. The mixture was finally chilled in ice to complete crystallization.
4) Collecting and drying crystals.

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The crystals were collecting by suction filtration using a Burner funnel to

ensure rapid and complete removal of the solvent. Finally crystals were dried
in air by spreading them on the paper for one night.

Figure 2 Suction filtration

5)

Melting point determination

small amount of a substance
introduced into a capillary tube
which was then place in a
melting point apparatus. A melting apparatus was heated close to the
melting point. The temperature at which the sold began to melt and at which
it was completely liquid was recorded as the melting point range of the
substance.
A
was

Calculations
Percentage purity
Of the purified
Sample

Mass of the purified unknown

----------------------------------------- 100 %
Mass of the crude unknown

=
=

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0.835g
----------- 100 %
1.22g
68.4 %

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

RESULTS:
Recrystallization of an unknown compound:
TABLE: Solubility of the given solvent
Water

Methanol

P. Ether

Solvent

Solubility

cold

Ho
t

Cold

Crystal
YES.
Formation Faster
S- Means soluble

Hot

Cold

Hot

NO

NO

Ethyl
acetate
Cold Cold

S
YES
Slowly

Toluene
Cold

Hot

S
YES
Rapidly

I- Means insoluble
Suitable recrystallization solvent: Ethyl acetate
Mass of the crude unknown: 1.22g
Mass of the purified unknown: 0.835
% purity yield: 68.4%
Melting point range of pure unknown: 133-147 degree of Celsius
DISCUSSION
From trial and error technique, two solvents from the given list seemed to be good
solvent, which are water and Ethyl acetate. But ethyl acetate was found better than
water due to the following reasons.
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i)
ii)
iii)

The boiling point of ethyl acetate is less compered to water. Since the
boiling point of the solvent should be low enough so that it can readily be
removed from the crystals.
Slow formation of crystal in ethyl acetate than in water when the hot
solution is first cooled slowly at room temperature and the place on ice.
Rapid cooling of water than Ethyl acetate is undesirable because the
crystals formed tend to be very small and their resulting large surface
area may foster adsorption of impurities from solution.

The mass of the crude unknown was 1.22g and after purification was found to be 0.
835g and the percentage recovery was 68.4 which show that, the recovery was not
100%. This is due to;
i)
ii)

The low of sample during transferring from one flask to the other.
Loss of weight from slightly solubility of solvent.

The melting point range seemed to diverge from 133-147 degree of Celsius this is
due to density of packing in capillary tube or thickness of the capillary tube.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSION
Therefore the suitable solvent for the given unknown compound is Ethyl acetate
where its boiling point and melting point range are 78 C and 133-147 C
respectively. The percentage recovery was found to be 68.4% which means that the
sample was lost.

RECOMMENDATION
Bear in mind, the melting point range is affected by number of factors in addition to
that of purity. Particle size, amount of the material used, the density of packing in
the capillary tube and the rate of heating the melting point apparatus, are all
factors that should be carefully considered to ensure an accurate melting point. The
rate of heating the most critical factor affecting experimental results and should be
carefully monitored particularly close to the expected melting point.

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EXPERIMENT 3

SEPARATION OF A MIXTURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

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ABSTRACT
This experiment aimed at separating of a mixture of organic compound and
identifying the separated products. It involved four stages which are; Extraction,
Recrystallization, melting point determination and identification of the products.
Extraction: 1g of the given mixture was dissolved in 20mL dichloromethane. The
solution was decanted into separating funnel. Organic layer was extracted twice
using 10mL 10% aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The combined aqueous layer was
cooled in an ice-water bath for 10 minutes eventually neutralized with 6M HCl. The
precipitates were formed and collected by suction filtration. The organic layer was
shaken with 10mL saturated NaCl in a separated funnel and was dried with addition
of anhydrous sodium sulfate. The organic layer was decanted into a conical flask
and solvent was evaporated using steam bath.
Recrystallization: the separated products were recrystallized and weighed as
0.2312g and 0.1179g in aqueous and organic layer respectively. The percentage
yield was determined as 23% 12% in aqueous and organic layer respectively. Also
their melting points were determined.
Melting point determination: the temperature at which the solid stated to melt and
that solid turned into a liquid completely were recorded as 138-147C and 109119C in aqueous and organic layer respectively.
Identification of the product s:the solid in aqueous layer was white powder which
was found to be O-nitro benzoic acid and that in organic layer was white crystal
which was found to be Acetanilide.

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INTRODUCTION
The objective of this experiment is separation of the mixture and identification of
the separated products. This involves three processes, which are; Extraction of the
mixture, recrystallization of the separated products and determination of melting
point range of the products, finally identification of the compound.
This technique is commonly used in isolation and purification of the products of the
most organic reactions. It is very rarely possible to identify the constituents of the
mixture without separation. The separation of the compound in a mixture should be
as nearly quantitative as possible in order to give some idea of the actual
percentage of each component. This is done in four stages which are; preparation
of the separator funnel, adding the liquids, mixing the layers and separating the
layers.
Recrystallization of the separated products: During this process of crystal
formation, a molecule will tend to become attached to a growing crystal composed
of the same structure of molecule because of the better fit in crystal lattice for
molecules of the same type than of the other molecules. When the impure solid is
dissolved in a minimum volume of a suitable hot solvent and the resulting solution
is gradually cooled, saturation and eventually solution is crystallized by formation of
pure compounds.
Melting point determination: Many organic compounds are solid at room
temperature as the result of strong intermolecular forces which hold the individual
molecules together in a crystal lattice. Determination of the melting point help in
identification of the products separated from the mixture.

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THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES
Extraction is the separation of a substance from a mixture by means of a solvent that preferentially
dissolves that substance. If the substance is extracted from a solid phase, the process is called solid-liquid
extraction, as in the isolation of caffeine from tea leaves by means of hot water. Extraction of a substance
from a liquid phase is called liquid-liquid extraction. The most common applications of this latter
technique are:
a.

The recovery of an organic product from a reaction mixture containing excess unreacted
materials and by-products.
b. Isolation of an organic substance from its natural source, such as a plant.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction: This is the most common type of extraction. It involves shaking the liquid
mixture with an immiscible solvent which preferentially dissolves the desired compound. On standing,
the two immiscible phases (usually organic and aqueous) form two separate layers (upper and lower) that
can be separated by means of a separator funnel. The various solutes in the mixture distribute themselves
between the organic and aqueous phases according to their relative solubility in each solvent. At
equilibrium, the ratio of the concentration (C) or solubility (S) of the substance in the organic phase, (Co
or So) to that in the aqueous phase (Cw or Sw) is called the distribution coefficient (KD)

A large distribution coefficient implies that the compound is much more soluble in the organic phase than
in the aqueous one and, in this case, a single extraction suffices to remove the desired compound from the
mixture. When KD is small, it means that the compound distributes itself more evenly in both phases, so
that repeated extractions are required to recover such a compound from the aqueous mixture. In general, it
is more efficient to divide the total volume of extracting solvent over several extractions than to use the
whole volume in a single extraction.

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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENTS

APPARATUS:
1. Separating funnel
2. Buchner funnel
3. Buchner flask
4. Measuring
5. Conical flask
6. Beaker
7. Dropper
8. Spatula
9. Melting point apparatus
10. Analytical balance.
11. Steam bath
12. Capillary tube.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Mixing the layers:
1g of the given mixture was dissolved in 20mL dichloromethane. The solution was
decanted from beaker into separating funnel. By using 10mL 10%aqueous sodium
bicarbonate the organic layer was extracted twice as follows;
The stopper was inserted and by holding the stopper in the place will one hand, a
separator funnel was pecked up and inserted. Immediately the stopcock was
opened with other hand so as to vent solvent fumes or carbon dioxide. The
separator funnel was swirled gently to further drive off solvent vapors or gases.
After venting, the stopcock was closed and the mixture in the inverted funnel was
gently shaken up and down vigorously in a somewhat circular motion for 2-3
minutes so that the layers are thoroughly mixed. The stopcock was vented several
times during shaking.
A conical was placed under the stem of the separator funnel in case the stop cock
would have developed a leak. The separator funnel was allowed to sit until the
layers had separated.
2. Separating the layers:

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Before proceeding, the stopper was first removed (It is difficult to drain the lower
layer from a stoppered funnel. Because a vacuum is created in the top potion of the
funnel)
The aqueous layer was combined and labeled as SOLUTION 1.
3. Cooling and neutralization of aqueous layer.
The aqueous layer was cooled in ice-water bath for 10 minutes. After cooling, it was
neutralized by adding 6M HCl, where precipitates formed.

4. Collecting and drying the precipitates of aqueous layer:

The precipitations were collected by suction filtration using a Buchner funnel to
ensure rapid and complete remove of the solvent. Finally precipitates were dried in
an air by spreading them on the sheet of paper for one night.
5. Shaking the organic layer.
The organic layer was shaken with 10mL saturated NaCl in a separating funnel. By
repeating the same procedure in (1) above, the organic layer was extracted and
labeled SOLUTION 2. The organic layer was dried by addition of anhydrous sodium
sulfate. The dried organic layer was decanted into a dry conical flask. The solvent
was evaporated using steam bath. The crystals were collected by suction filtration
and finally dried in air.
6. Melting pint determination.
Before melting point determination, the mass of each pure sample were recorded. A
small amount of each sample was recorded. A small amount of each sample was
introduced in a capillary tube which was then placed in a melting point apparatus.
The temperature at which the soled began to melt and at which it was completely
liquid, was recorded as the melting point range.
Calculations:
Amount recovered (mg)
Percentage recovery

------------------------------ X 100 %
Amount dissolved (mg)

% recovery in aqueous
layer
% recovery in organic
layer

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=
=

0.23 x 100%
1

0.118 x 100 % =
1

23 %
12 %

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RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Acid component : Structure:
Name:

Weight recovered:

O-nitro benzoic acid

0. 2314g

% recovery:

23 %

Melting point; expected: 147 C

Found: 138- 147 C
Appearance: White powder
Neutral component:
Structure:
j

Name:
Weight recovered:
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Acetanilide
0.1179g
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% recovery:

12 %

Melting point; expected: 113-114 C

Found: 109- 119 C
Appearance: white crystals

DISCUSSION
It is important to identify the solvent in each layer. Dichloromethane is denser than
water, when it was dissolved as the non-polar solvent water layer appeared on top.
To confirm the identities of the layers, one or two drops of water are introduced just
below the surface of the top layer. If the drops of water fall through the top layer
below, then the water layer is the bottom one.
The mass of the crude/mixture was 1g, after purification and separation the masses
were as follows: 0.2312g and 0.1179g in aqueous and organic layer respectively.
These masses yield 23% and 12% respectively, which is not 100% of recovery. This
is due to the following reasons;
a) Poor decantation during the experiment.
b) Loss of the sample during the experiment (from one component to another)
The melting point of O-nitro benzoic acid started from 138-147C and that of
Acetanilide was 109-119C. this ids due to the presence of impurities in the
purified sample which tend to lower the melting points. Also it is contributed to the
tare of heating of the melting point apparatus.

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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSION
Therefor this given mixture contains O-nitro benzoic and acetanilide which melt at
138-147C and 109-119C respectively. The small range between melting points is
due to left impurities in the purified sample.

RECOMMENDATION

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Be sure to close the stopcock at the bottom of the separator funnel before
adding solution
Acetanilide is toxic irritating. Keep away from flames or other heat sources.
The solid may take 5 minutes or more to dissolve. You should stir the mixture
during this time.
Do not open the stopcock while the glass stopper is in the top of the
separator funnel, a slight vacuum will be created and the bottom layer will
not drain from the funnel.
Anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) is irritating and hygroscopic. Prevent eye,
skin and clothing contact.
The rate of heating should be controlled so that the melting range is as
narrow as possible.

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EXPERIMENT 4

CHEMISTRY OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP

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ABSTRUCT:
This experiment aimed at passing through organic compound reactions basing on
functional group. The chemistry of functional group which we are dealing with are;
hydrocarbons, alcohols, phenols and halogen compounds.
Hydrocarbons: The provided hydrocarbons are Toluene, phenyl acetylene,
cyclohexene and n-Heptane. Different test were performed on each hydrocarbon
compound given. These are the tests which were performed; Action of bromine, the
positive test were observed on hydrocarbon with multiple bond ( double and triple
bonds ) which are phenyl acetylene and cyclohexene. Action of copper chloride, only
phenyl acetylene had positive test due to terminal acidic hydrogen. KMnO4 test, the
positive tests were observed on hydrocarbon with multiple bonds which were
oxidized. And these are phenyl acetylene and cyclohexene.
Alcohols: The provided alcohols are; 1-propanol, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, t-butanol and
cyclohexanol. Iodo form test was performed on each alcohol to test for terminal
methyl group. Only t-butanol and 2-butanol had positive test while the rest had
negative test.
Phenols: The provided compound are phenol and resorcinol. Different tests were
performed on each phenol group given, and these are tests which were performed;
Neutral FeCl3, both phenols had positive test. KMnO4 test, both phenols had
positive test with formation of carbonyl compound after being oxidized. Ag(NH3)2
test, only phenol had positive test.
Halogen compounds: Two halogen compounds were provided, these are t-butyl
chloride and Chloro benzene. Also different tests were performed. Action of water,
both of them had positive test on water with formation of acid (HCl) which changed
litmus paper blue to red. Alcoholic silver nitrate test, only t-butyl chloride had
positive test where AgCl were given out as white precipitate.

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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this experiment is to go through reactions of some important
functional group in counted in organic chemistry and to recognize the importance of
functional group reactions in the identification characterization of organic
compounds. Because functional groups influence the physical, chemical, and
spectral properties of an organic compound, a chemist can identify a compound's
functional groups by measuring certain physical properties, observing its chemical
behavior with different classification reagents, and studying other spectral data.
This predictable reactivity allows a chemist to attempt a variety of reactions on an
organic compound and determine what functional group(s) are present. To use any reaction as a test fora
functional group, it is necessary for the product mixture to appear significantly different fromthe
reactants. This may be due to formation of a precipitate or colored product, or it may bedue to
consumption of a solid or colored reactant .This may be due to formation of a precipitate,
colored product or consumption of a solid/ colored reactant.
Within this report you will find a clear procedure, observation, inference3 and
chemical equations involved in different tests of some organic compounds. The
compounds to be tested are hydrocarbon, alcohols, phenol and halogen compounds.

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THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES:
A functional group is a portion of a molecule that is a recognizable/classified group
of bound atoms or specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for
the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules.Rigorously speaking the
functional group is not the whole molecule but only that collection of atoms that
provides a specific chemical function. For example, the chemical family of alcohols
is characterized by the function of the hydroxyl (OH) group, and aldehydes, ketones
are characterized by carbonyl groups (C=O). In organic chemistry it is very common
to see molecules comprised mainly of a carbon backbone with functional groups
attached to the chain. The functional group gives the molecule its properties,
regardless of what molecule contains it, also they are centers of chemical reactivity.
.
Theory behind Functional Group:
a. Solubility Tests for Carboxylic Acids, Phenols, Amines and Small
Molecules
The solubility of an organic compound in water depends on both its size and
polarity.
Compounds with 4 carbons (or less) and at least one polar functional group tend to
be water soluble. Larger compounds tend to be insoluble in water unless they have
an ionized functional group or several polar functional groups. Thus, an insoluble
compound can be made water soluble if one of its functional groups can be ionized.
For example, amines are weak bases. If an insoluble amine is reacted with strong
acid, the amine will be protonated and become soluble in water. Similarly,
carboxylic acids and phenols are weak acids. If an insoluble phenol is reacted with
strong base, the phenol will be deprotonated and become soluble in water. Finally,
phenols are much weaker acids than carboxylic acids. As such, there are some
bases that are strong enough to deprotonate a carboxylic acid but not a phenol.
One such base is NaHCO3 (which will make a carboxylic acid soluble in water but not
a phenol).
b. Bromine Test for Alkenes and Alkynes
Most halogens (chlorine, bromine and iodine) react readily with carbon-carbon
multiple
bonds that are not part of an aromatic ring. In order to determine whether or not
the reaction has proceeded, it is therefore necessary to look at the halogen.
Chlorine is a green gas, bromine a dark brown liquid and iodine a purple-black solid.
Bromine is typically chosen as the test reagent for alkenes and alkynes because, if it
reacts, its rich brown color will disappear. If there the brown color persists, it is
because there are no alkenes or alkynes for the bromine to react with.
c. Lucas Test for Alcohols (2 and 3)
Alcohols are very weak bases (comparable to water) which react slightly with strong
acids.

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The product of such a reaction is an electrophile with a very good leaving group. In
the presence of a good nucleophile, a substitution reaction results. This is the basis
of the Lucas test. Tertiary alcohols (in which three carbon atoms are attached to
same carbon as the OH group) react very quickly in the Lucas test, producing alkyl
halides that are insoluble in the aqueous Lucas reagent. Secondary alcohols (in
which two carbon atoms are attached to same carbon as the OH group) react more
slowly while most primary alcohols (only one carbon atom is attached to the same
carbon as the OH group) do not react at all.
Because a positive test is indicated by formation of a product that is insoluble in
water, the
Lucas test is only useful for compounds that are water soluble.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENTS

APPARATUS:
Test tube: used to test the reactions of the substance
Test tube holder: used to hold the test tube for further warm
Measuring cylinder: used to measure the required amount of compound
Steam bath: used to warm the contained test tube
Dropper: used to take a required compound from its container
Ice-water bath: used to cool the test tube
Litmus paper: used to test the acidity and the basic of reactions
PROCEDURE
1. Test on hydrocarbons:
1.1.
Action of bromine:
The compound was dissolved in carbon tetra chloride with addition of bromine
solution. Simultaneously a blank test was run with solvent ( CCl 4) alone. Where
there was no decolonization, the solution was exposed to the strong light ( sun
light ) for few minutes. And if there was any change was recorded. Again a wet
litmus paper was inserted into the mouth of the tube and color change was
observed.
1.2.

KMnO4 test:

The compound was dissolved in 1 mL of acetone with addition of 1-2 drops of dilute
KMnO4. Simultaneously a blank test was run with solvent alone (acetone and
KMnO4). And finally a compound which decolorized the color of MnO4 was recorded.
1.3.

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Action of copper chloride:

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First, a reagent was prepared as follows; about 1-2 mL of 10% copper sulphate
solution was added in 5 mL dilute ammonia until the initial precipitate dissolved and
a clear solution was obtained. A solution of hydroxyl amine was added drop by drop
while shaking until the solution became first green and then completely colorless.
A portion of a prepared reagent was added to alcoholic solution of each hydrocarbon
and shaken. And there were observation of precipitate formation.
2. ALCOHOLS:
Iodoform test:
A mixture of about 10 drops of alcohol and 1mL of 10% KI was warmed drop wise
about 1mL NaOCl solution was added. Color changes were observed.

3. PHENOLS:
3.1.
Neutral FeCl3 test.
An aqueous solution of 1mL FeCl3 solution was treated drop wise with a dilute 0.1N
Sodium hydroxide solution until a faint precipitate was observed. Few drops of the
neutral FeCl3 solution were added to a neutral aqueous solution of phenol.

3.2.

Bromine water test:

About 1mL of bromine water were added few drops of phenol and shaken.
3.3.

KMnO4 test:

A compound was dissolved in 1mL acetone with addition of 1-2 drops of dilute
KMnO4. Simultaneously a blank test was run with solvent alone (acetone and
KMnO4). The compound which decolorized the color of MnO 4 was recorded.
3.4.

Ag(NH3)2 test.

First, the Tollens reagent was prepared. 6 drops of NaOH were added into 1mL
aqueous AgNO3 followed by dilute ammonia solution drop wise until the precipitate
Ag2O were just dissolved.
Phenol was tested with litmus paper to observe if it is acidic or not. If acidic NaHCO3
solution was added drop wise with shaking until the solution was just alkaline. The
resulting solution was tested with few drops of Tollens reagent and shaken
thoroughly.
4. HALOGEN COMPOUNDS:
4.1.
Action of water.

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In a test tube of 1mL of water, few drops or about 100mg of the compound were
added and shaken. Solubility of the compound was observed together with any sign
of reaction (eg. Evolution of heat). The solution was tested with blue litmus paper.
4.2.

Alcoholic silver nitrate

In 1mL ethanol, 10 drops of each compound was dissolved in separate test tubes.
Into each, about 0.5mL alcohol AgNO3 solution was added and it was allowed to
stand. The rate of AgCl precipitate formation was observed.
4.3.

Action of hot NaOH.

In separate test tube, about 10 drops of each compound was dissolved in 1mL
mixture of 1:1 ethanol 2N NaOH solution and boiled to about 1 minute. Then it was
cooled, the solution was acidified with about 1mL dilute nitric acid together with
addition of aqueous AgNO3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSTION:

Experiment 4 part A results: Test on hydrocarbons.

1. Action of bromine
Test substance
Observation
Toluene

Phenyl
acetylene

Cyclohexene

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Dissolved in CCl4.
After addition of Bromine
two layers were formed,
where by the bottom layer
was brown and top was
cloudy.
Dissolved in CCl4 and after
addition of bromine, the
color of bromine
disappeared and yellow
precipitates were observed
after being exposed to sun
light.
Did not dissolve in CCl4, on
addition of bromine color
changed to colorless and
two layers formed.

Inference
Negative
test.

Equation
No reaction.

Positive
test

Positive
test

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n- Heptane

Tetra Chloride
( CCl4)
Blank test

Test substance
Toluene

Dissolved in CCl4
When bromine was added,
the color of bromine was
retained and when it was
exposed to sun light
excess bromine
evaporated.
Formation of two layers
when dissolved in bromine,
where bottom was brown
and top was CCl4 color.

Negative
test

No reaction

Negative
test

No reaction

2. KMnO4 test
Inferen
ce
Dissolved in acetone,
Negati
when KMnO4 was
ve test
added two layers
formed
Observation

Phenyl acetylene

Dissolved after acetone

was added.
When KMnO4 was added
brown precipitates were
formed and color of
KMnO4 was decolorized.

Positive
test

Cyclohexene

Dissolved in acetone
.when KMnO4 was added
the solution changed to
brown and precipitates
were formed.

Positive
test

n- Heptane

Formed two layers with

acetone.
When KMnO4 was added,
two layers formed.

Negativ
e test

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Equation
No reaction

No reaction

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Acetone

When KMnO4 was added

into acetone two layers
formed, where by the top
layer was colorless and
bottom was purple.

Negativ
e test

No reaction

3. action of copper Chloride

Test substance

Observation

Inferen
ce
Negati
ve test

Equation

Toluene

Formation of two layers

No reaction

Phenyl acetylene

Yellow precipitate were

formed

Positive
test

Cyclohexene

Formation of two layers

Negativ
e test

No reaction

n- Heptane

Formation of two clear

layers

Negativ
e test

No reaction

Experiment 4 part B results: Reactions of Alcohols

Iodoform test ( KI and NaOCl )
Test
Observation
substance

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Inferenc
e

Equation

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1propanol

1-butanol

2-butanol

t- butanol

Cyclohexa
nol

Formed a clear solution after

addition KI at room
temperature and remain the
same after warm.
On addition of NaOCl, clear
solution formed.
On addition of KI formed two
colorless separate layers at
room temperature and remain
the same after warm. When
NaOCl was added a colorless
solution was formed.
Two layers were formed on
addition of KI. After addition of
NaOCl, two layer were formed,
one of yellow ppt and another
colorless
On addition of KI a clear
solution was formed at room
temperature and remained the
same after warm. It formed a
yellowish and changed to
colorless.
On addition of KI, a clear
solution was formed. After
addition of NaOCl it formed an
orange color solution.

Negativ
e test

No reaction

Negativ
e test

No reaction

Positive
test

Positive
test

Negativ
e test

No reaction

Experiment 4 part C results: Reactions of Phenols

1.
Test
substance
Phenol

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Neutral FeCl3 test

Observation
Formation of purple
precipitate
Violet color appear

Inferenc
e
Positive
test

Equation

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Resorcinol

Formation of purple
precipitate
Deep violet color
Appear

2.

Test
substance
Phenol

Resorcinol

Test
substance
Phenol

Resorcinol

KMnO4 test

Observation
Dissolved and
there was
formation of grey
solution
Dissolved in
acetone
Black precipitate
formed at the
bottom after
addition of
KMnO4
3.

Positive
test

Inferenc
e
Positive
test

Positive
test

Ag(NH3)2 test

Observation
Was acidic for litmus
paper
On addition of NaHCO3
became alkaline and
precipitate were formed.
No acid

Equation

Inferen
ce
Positive
test

Equation

Negativ
e test

No reaction

Experiment 4 part D Result: Reaction of halogen compound

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1.
Test substance

Action of water
Observation

t- butyl
chloride

Two layers were formed

on addition of water
Litmus paper changed
from blue to red

Chloro
benzene

Two layers were formed

Litmus paper changed
from blue to red.

2.
Test substance

Observation
Dissolved in ethanol
Formation of white
precipitate on addition
alcoholic AgNO3

Chloro
benzene

Dissolved in ethanol
Formed two layers on
addition of AgNO3

3.

Action of hot NaOH

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Equation

Positive
test

Alcoholic silver Nitrate

t- butyl
chloride

Test
substance
Chloro
benzene

Inferenc
e
Positive
test

Observation
On addition of dilute
nitric acid heat evolved
and dark brown
precipitates were formed
after addition of silver
nitrate

Inferenc
e
Positive
test

Equation

Negativ
e test

Inferenc
e
Positive
test

Equation

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CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENTIONS

CONCLUSION:
The study of function group is based on -carbon and -carbon. -carbon is carbon
which carry the functional group and -carbon is the carbon next from -carbon.
From these tests it shows that most of the functional group have atoms which are
more electronegative. These more electronegative atoms draw electrons by
negative inductive effect away from the functional group. Extent to which negative
inductive effect is significant is only to the -carbon.

RECOMMENDATION

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After each of your chemical test is complete, dispose of the chemicals and
disposable test tube in the waste container in the hood where the test was
conducted.
Dispose of any of your unused unknown chemical after you are sure of its
identity in the waste container and place the empty vial in the collection bin
provided.
Do not mix up the unknown vials with the new ones.
Bromine is corrosive handle it with care.
Do not exceed the required amount on the test.

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APPENDICES:
REVISTION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. A mixture of benzoic acid, aniline and phenol is dissolved in chloroform and
the solution is treated with NaOH, HCl and NaHCO3. Show a separation chart,
identify the composition of each phase and explain the chemistry of the
separation process.
Answer:

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2. Why is gravity
filtration and
not suction
filtration used
to remove
suspended
impurities and
charcoal from
a hot solution?
ANSWER:
Under suction a hot
solution is likely to
boil due to lower
pressure of the
suction flask. Then
you would have
sucking lots of vapor
lather than liquid. By
evaporation of the
liquid, this would
also decrease the
solution temperature
and increase the
concentration of the solute, which could cause some of the solute to precipitate out
of solution.

3. An unknown sample was crystallized from benzene. On cooling to 0 C in ice

bath the amount of crystal in flask was quite large, but much of it seemed to
disappear when an attempt was made to collect it by suction filtration.
Explain.
ANSWER:
Under suction filtration a hot solution is likely to boil. Then would be sucking lots of
vapor rather than liquid, because by evaporating liquid decrease the solution
temperature and increase the concentration of solute which could cause some of
the solute to precipitate out of benzene solution.

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4. What is the reason for activated carbon during crystallization? Why is

recommended to use little and not a lot during process.
ANSWER:
Activated carbon is used to remove the colored impurities from the sample.
Activated carbon provides a high surface area to absorb colored impurities. It is
recommended to use little because when you add to much the significant amount of
the desired compound will also be absorbed and low recovery will result.

5. Draw a flow chart for the separation of the given organic mixture in this
experiment.
Answer

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6.

You are provided with two test tubes, each containing one or pair of
compound. Outline a simple chemical test/ experiment you would perform to
distinguish between the compounds. Write balanced equations for reactions
you expect to take place in your test.

a)

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and
Answer: Reaction with Cl2 under UV light, which will yield HCl acid detected
by color change of litmus paper.
, but

b)

and

Answer: Reaction with Ammoniacal silver nitrate. Is a compound with a general

formula of [Ag(NH3)2]NO3 . Alkynes with terminal acid hydrogen react with
ammoniacal silver Nitrate solution to form a white precipitate of alkalide.

, but

c)

and

Answer: Test of phenolic solution by using Ferric ions (Fe 2+), this will give purple
colorization on the addition of ferric ions to phenolic solution. First dissolve FeCl 3 in
water to give ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3

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REFERENCES:
1. Grovedd. 2009. Separating Acids and Neutral Compound by solvent Extraction. GPL
Glostscript 8.15
2. Wheel, e. 2011. Organic chemistry laboratory procedure.
3. Lawton show, Drscott MC Gavin. 2011. Organic chemistry 11, Report Book. Athabasca
university.
4. Andyint, A. 2009. An introduction to Functional group in organic chemistry. Microsoft office
word 2007.
5. H. Controy, A. Raphael.1960. Advanced in organic chemistry: Methods and Results.ed E.C
Taylor. New York.
6. Emerson.L.; Hampton, J. Writing Guidelines for science and Applied Science.
7. M. Jones and S.A. Flewing, Organic chemistry Norton, 4thedn.,pp 14-16.
8. King Abdul Aziz University. 2010. Fundamental organic chemistry. Department of chemistry.
9. Peter Samal. 2010. Rerystallization. Mac OSX 1064 Quartz PDF context.
10. Tim Minger,. 2009. Crystallization (Recrystallization and melting point Determination.
Acrobat Distiller 6.0.1 (windows).
11. Stainislawskonieczny. 2008. Recrystallization. Acrobat PDF Distiller 7.0 (windows).

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EXPERIMENT I............................................................................................................. 1
SOLUBILITY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS......................................................................1
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................ 2
INTRODUCTION:...................................................................................................... 3
THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES....................................................................................... 4
METHODS AND RESULTS:........................................................................................ 5
DISCUSSION:......................................................................................................... 10
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION..................................................................11
EXPERIMENT 2.......................................................................................................... 12
CRYSTALLIZATION AND MELTING POINT DETERMINATION.........................................12
ABSTRACT:............................................................................................................. 12
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 13
THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES..................................................................................... 15
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENTS:...................................................16
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.................................................................................... 18
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION..................................................................19
EXPERIMENT 3.......................................................................................................... 20
SEPARATION OF A MIXTURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS...........................................20
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. 21
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 22
THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES..................................................................................... 23
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENTS....................................................24
RESULT AND DISCUSSION...................................................................................... 26
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION..................................................................28
EXPERIMENT 4.......................................................................................................... 29
CHEMISTRY OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP........................................................................29
ABSTRUCT:............................................................................................................ 30
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 31
THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES:.................................................................................... 32
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND EQUIPMENTS....................................................33
RESULTS AND DISCUSTION:................................................................................... 35
CONCLUTION AND RECOMMENTIONS....................................................................40
APPENDICES:............................................................................................................ 41
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REVISTION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:................................................................41

REFERENCES:........................................................................................................... 45

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