J Vet Intern Med 2004;18:109112

The Effects of Oral Magnesium Hydroxide Administration on

Rumen Fluid in Cattle
Geoffrey W. Smith and Maria T. Correa
This study was conducted to determine the effects of oral magnesium hydroxide administration on rumen fluid in cattle. Six
lactating Holstein cows (47 years of age) with rumen fistulas were studied. Cattle were randomly assigned to receive boluses of
magnesium hydroxide (162 g) or a powdered form (450 g dissolved in 3.5 L of water) PO daily for 3 days. Analysis of rumen
fluid, blood gas tensions, and pH and measurement of serum magnesium concentrations were conducted daily. The study was
discontinued after 72 hours, or sooner if rumen pH exceeded 8.0. After at least 3 weeks, the study was repeated with each cow
receiving the other form of magnesium hydroxide (powder or bolus). Compared with baseline rumen pH (mean 6 SD: 6.22 6
0.28), magnesium hydroxide boluses caused a significant increase (P , .05) in rumen pH after 48 (7.27 6 0.11) and 72 (8.01 6
0.16) hours of administration, whereas the powdered form caused a significant increase (P , .05) in rumen pH after 24 (7.54 6
0.19) and 48 (8.43 6 0.22) hours of administration. Both the powdered and bolus forms of magnesium hydroxide decreased rumen
protozoal numbers and increased methylene blue reduction times compared with baseline values. There was no change in blood
pH, bicarbonate, or base excess values. Serum magnesium concentrations were significantly increased (P , .05) in cows that
received the magnesium hydroxide powder. The results of this study indicate that magnesium hydroxide has a potent alkalinizing
effect on rumen pH and significantly decreases rumen microbial activity.
Key words: Bovine internal medicine; Nutrition; Pharmacology; Toxicology.

agnesium hydroxide is a potent alkalinizing agent labeled for use in ruminants as an antacid and a mild
laxative. Magnesium salts have cathartic effects resulting
from soluble but unabsorbed magnesium salts that remain
in the intestine and retain water and are considered useful
as a source of supplemental magnesium.1 Largely based on
these effects, magnesium hydroxide is widely used by ruminant practitioners for the empirical treatment of various
conditions, including anorexia of unknown origin, simple
indigestion, ileus, suspected rumen acidosis, and hypomagnesemia. Often these treatments are administered without
use of laboratory data (ie, rumen fluid analysis, serum biochemistry), and administration is sometimes continued for
days.
Despite the popularity of this drug, it is capable of causing serious adverse effects, including metabolic alkalosis
and hypermagnesemia.2 The drug also could have adverse
effects on the rumen microenvironment. The results of an
in vitro study demonstrated that magnesium oxide was a
potent rumen alkalinizing agent.3 One of us (GWS) has
observed that ruminants receiving multiple treatments of
magnesium hydroxide have abnormal rumen function indicated by increased pH, decreased rumen protozoal numbers, and decreased bacterial activity. However, these clinical observations were made in sick cattle that may have
had an abnormal rumen environment due to reasons other
than magnesium hydroxide administration. The purpose of
From the Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606. Previously presented
at the 2003 American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine Forum,
with an abstract published in J Vet Intern Med 2003;17:391.
Reprint requests: Geoffrey W. Smith, DVM, PhD, Department of
Population Health & Pathobiology, North Carolina State University,
4700 Hillsborough Street, Raleigh, NC 27606; e-mail: geoffreyp
smith@ncsu.edu.
Submitted July 1, 2003; Revised August 25, 2003; Accepted September 16, 2003.
Copyright q 2004 by the American College of Veterinary Internal
Medicine
0891-6640/04/1801-0015/$3.00/0

the study reported here was to examine the effects of oral

magnesium hydroxide treatments on rumen fluid health in
cattle.

Materials and Methods

Animals
This study was approved by the institutional committee on the care
and use of laboratory animals at North Carolina State University. Six
healthy Holstein cattle, between 4 and 7 years of age, that were housed
at the North Carolina State University dairy were used for this study.
These cows had been surgically fitted with rumen fistulas about 18
months prior to the start of this project. None of the cattle had been
used for research in at least 6 months, and all were lactating. Throughout the experimental period, all cattle were fed a total mixed ration
containing corn silage, alfalfa silage, whole cottonseed, ground corn,
soybean meal, soybean hulls, and minerals. The ration also contained
sodium bicarbonate as a rumen buffer (24.5 g/kg). The cattle had limited access to grass pasture and were not fed hay.

Rumen Fluid Collection

Samples of rumen fluid were obtained from the caudoventral ruminal sac through the rumen fistula using a custom-made aspiration
device. The device was a long metal rod that was passed through the
fistula and positioned in precise locations within the rumen. When a
rubber bulb was squeezed, negative pressure was generated and rumen
fluid was aspirated through the lumen of the rod into a 1-L plastic
flask. The ruminal position of fluid collection was kept constant in all
cows throughout the study, and at least 400 mL of rumen fluid was
obtained during each collection.

Experimental Protocol
A sample of rumen fluid was collected from each cow at 12 and 24
hours before baseline data were collected. The purpose of these samples was to ensure that rumen pH was relatively stable before the study
began. Following collection of a baseline rumen fluid sample (day 0)
and a venous (jugular) blood sample, all cows were administered magnesium hydroxide either as a bolusa or as a powderb in water. Three
cows were randomly selected to receive the boluses, and the other 3
cows received powder. Both products were given according to label
directions of either 6 boluses per day (162 g MgOH) or 450 g of
powder dissolved in 3.5 L of water per day. The boluses were admin-

110

Smith and Correa

Fig 1. Rumen pH values in cows after oral administration of either

magnesium hydroxide boluses or magnesium hydroxide powder. *P ,
.05, compared with baseline values for that treatment.

istered PO with a balling gun, and the dissolved powder was administered via orogastric tube. After the initial treatment with magnesium
hydroxide, rumen fluid and blood samples were collected at 24-hour
intervals, and magnesium hydroxide treatments were repeated daily
for up to 48 hours (maximum of 3 magnesium hydroxide treatments
total). Administration of magnesium hydroxide was discontinued if
rumen pH became $8.0 or if blood pH became $7.60. At 72 hours
after baseline (or sooner if the study was discontinued because of high
pH values), the final rumen fluid sample was collected and all cows
were given transfaunations with rumen fluid from a healthy cow. No
magnesium hydroxide was administered for a minimum of 3 weeks.
After this 3-week period, the study was repeated with each cow receiving the opposite form of magnesium hydroxide. By the completion
of the experiment, all 6 cows had received the boluses and the powder.

Rumen Fluid Analysis

After collection of rumen fluid, pH was measured within 1 minute
using a pH meter.c Within 5 minutes of collection, rumen protozoal
numbers were determined by placing a drop of rumen fluid on a glass
slide under a cover slip. Direct microscopic examination was performed at 103, and the numbers of rumen protozoa per field were
counted.d Rumen protozoa were identified as small, ciliated protozoa
(holotrichs) and medium and large protozoa (entodiniomorphs) and are
reported separately.4 For each sample of rumen fluid, protozoal numbers were counted in 5 different microscopic fields, and the average
number of protozoa in the 5 fields was used as the value for each time
period. A methylene blue reduction test was also done on each sample
to estimate rumen bacterial activity. A 0.03% methylene blue solution
(0.5 mL) was added to a 10-mL tube of rumen fluid. The tube was
inverted, and the time necessary for the rumen fluid to clear (blue
color returns to the original green) was recorded.5,6

Blood Gas and Serum Biochemical Analysis

Two daily venous (jugular) blood samples were collected from each
cow during the study at the time of rumen fluid collection. One blood
sample was collected into a heparinized syringe for blood gas analysis,
and the second sample was collected into a serum tube and used for
measurement of serum magnesium concentration. Blood pH and PCO2
were measured using a portable blood gas machine,e and values were
corrected for rectal temperature, which was recorded daily. Plasma
bicarbonate concentration and base excess values were calculated. Serum from jugular venous blood was harvested by centrifugation and
submitted for magnesium analysis.f

Fig 2. Numbers of medium and large, and small rumen protozoa

after oral administration to cows of either magnesium hydroxide boluses or magnesium hydroxide powder. Each value represents the average number of protozoa seen in 5 different microscopic fields. *P
, .05, compared with baseline values for that treatment.

Statistical Analysis
Data are presented as mean 6 SD. Descriptive statistics were obtained for all variables of interest by treatment group (ie, powder or
bolus). Paired t-tests were used to compare values for each measurement time with baseline values. Mean values obtained for powder and
boluses were compared only within group and not to each other. Significance of differences was determined at a probability value of #.05,
and a Bonferroni correction was used to account for the number of
paired comparison.

Results
Rumen Fluid Analysis
Rumen pH was stable for at least 24 hours before the
study began and ranged from 6.21 6 0.26 to 6.36 6 0.11
in healthy cattle. Rumen pH values were significantly increased within 24 hours after receiving the powder form of
magnesium hydroxide and at 48 and 72 hours after receiving the boluses (Fig 1). Forty-eight hours after receiving
the magnesium hydroxide powder, all cattle had rumen pH
values $8.0, and the study was discontinued.
The numbers of medium and large protozoa were significantly decreased after 24 hours in cattle receiving both the
magnesium powder and the boluses and continued to decrease throughout the study (Fig 2). The numbers of small

Magnesium Hydroxide in Cattle

111

Discussion

Fig 3. Rumen methylene blue reduction time following oral administration of either magnesium hydroxide boluses or magnesium hydroxide powder to cows. *P , .05, compared with baseline values for
that treatment.

rumen protozoa had also significantly decreased from baseline values at 24 and 48 hours after the cattle had received
magnesium hydroxide powder but were not significantly
different from baseline until 48 and 72 hours after receiving
the boluses (Fig 2).
Methylene blue reduction times were significantly prolonged at 24 and 48 hours after administration in cattle that
received magnesium hydroxide powder and at 48 and 72
hours after administration in cattle that received the boluses
(Fig 3).

Blood Gas and Serum Magnesium Analyses

There were no significant differences in blood pH, PCO2,
HCO3, or base excess values at any time during the study
(Table 1). There was no increase in serum magnesium concentrations in cows that received magnesium hydroxide
boluses. However, cows that received magnesium hydroxide powder had significantly increased serum magnesium
concentrations 24 and 48 hours after the first treatment (Table 1).

The results of this study demonstrate that magnesium

hydroxide is a potent rumen alkalinizing agent and can significantly decrease rumen microbial activity. Therefore, this
drug should be used only in cattle with rumen acidosis and
should not be used for symptomatic treatment of other idiopathic rumen disorders or hypomagnesemia.
The magnesium hydroxide powder used in this study had
more rapid and severe effects on rumen fluid health than
did the boluses. This finding was expected because 450 g
of the powder delivers 361 g of magnesium hydroxide,
whereas the 6 boluses together deliver only 162 g of magnesium hydroxide. A single dose of powder caused a significant increase in rumen pH, decreased rumen protozoal
numbers, increased methylene blue reduction time, and increased serum magnesium concentrations. The second treatment with magnesium hydroxide powder increased rumen
pH above 8 and almost totally eliminated rumen microbial
activity. This finding indicates that magnesium hydroxide
powder should never be administered to cattle unless rumen
pH has been measured and severe rumen acidosis has been
identified. For the treatment of acute rumen acidosis (grain
overload), our results indicate that the powder form of magnesium hydroxide would be a much more effective rumen
alkalinizing agent than the boluses, which did not significantly increase rumen pH after 1 treatment.
Rumen methylene blue reduction time is an indirect measure of the oxidation-reduction potential of rumen fluid.7
Normally, this potential is constant, and variations are the
result of the activity of ruminal bacteria. Although somewhat subjective, the methylene blue test is simple to perform and the results are closely correlated with bacterial
activity in rumen fluid.7,8 The reduction in numbers of live
protozoa observed in this study is also important. Although
the function of protozoa in ruminant digestion is still poorly
understood, protozoal activity is thought to be closely correlated with overall rumen health.9 As expected, the numbers of medium and large (entodiniomorph) protozoa declined faster than did the numbers of small (holotrich) protozoa because the larger organisms are more susceptible to
acute changes in pH.4 However, the significant prolongation

Table 1. Blood gas values and serum magnesium concentrations after oral administration of magnesium hydroxide boluses
or magnesium hydroxide poser to cows.
Parameter

Baseline

24 Hours

48 Hours

Magnesium hydroxide powder

Blood pH
PCO2 (mm Hg)
HCO3 (mM/L)
Base excess (mEq/L)
Serum magnesium (mg/dL)

7.46
40.3
28.9
5.1
2.0

6
6
6
6
6

0.02
2.1
1.7
1.7
0.15

7.47
40.1
29.2
5.6
2.5

6
6
6
6
6

0.01
2.9
2.1
2.1
0.15*

7.41
46.3
28.2
3.1
3.0

6
6
6
6
6

0.03
3.3
1.5
1.5
0.13*

Magnesium hydroxide boluses

Blood pH
PCO2 (mm Hg)
HCO3 (mM/L)
Base excess (mEq/L)
Serum magnesium (mg/dL)

7.44
43.1
29.9
5.7
2.1

6
6
6
6
6

0.02
2.6
1.4
1.5
0.15

7.43
46.0
30.6
6.2
2.1

6
6
6
6
6

0.04
6.9
2.9
2.8
0.20

7.44
43.8
29.5
4.6
2.0

6
6
6
6
6

0.03
2.2
2.1
2.2
0.15

* P , .05, compared with baseline values.

72 Hours

7.45
42.6
29.4
5.1
2.0

6
6
6
6
6

0.02
2.4
1.2
1.2
0.13

112

Smith and Correa

of methylene blue reduction time coupled with the reduction in the numbers of protozoa seen in this study indicate
a significant decrease in rumen microbial fermentation associated with the alkalinizing effects of magnesium hydroxide.
None of the animals in this study developed any evidence
of metabolic alkalosis, which has previously been reported
to be a potential adverse effect of magnesium hydroxide
treatment. In one study, a single PO dose of magnesium
hydroxide powder at 1.5 g/kg of body weight produced
significant increases in blood bicarbonate concentrations
and base excess values that persisted for 36 hours.2 However, cows in that study were given roughly twice the dose
of magnesium hydroxide powder that was used in the study
reported here. In another study, mature Holstein cattle were
treated with oral magnesium oxide, and a small but significant increase in blood pH and base excess was detected
48 hours after administration.10 However, the metabolic
alkalosis resolved within 12 hours of magnesium oxide administration, and blood pH and base excess values returned
to baseline by 24 hours. The cattle in the current study may
have had transient changes in blood pH or base excess values that were missed by sampling every 24 hours; however,
such transient changes would be of little clinical significance. The development of a metabolic alkalosis should be
considered a potential deleterious effect of magnesium hydroxide treatment, but it likely appears later than do the
adverse effects on rumen health. When using recommended
doses of magnesium hydroxide, rumen alkalosis and rumen
microbial inactivity are likely more significant adverse effects than are changes in blood pH.
Supplementation with oral magnesium oxide can be effective in preventing hypomagnesemia in ruminants and has
even been suggested as a treatment for acute cases of hypomagnesemia.11,12 Based on this rationale, many practitioners give oral magnesium hydroxide to cattle presumed
to have mild to moderate hypomagnesemia. In this study,
magnesium hydroxide boluses were not effective in increasing serum magnesium concentrations, and a single treatment with magnesium hydroxide powder PO increased the
serum magnesium concentration by only an average of 0.5
mg/dL, which would not likely be clinically significant
when treating an acute case of hypomagnesemia. Therefore,
treatment with oral magnesium hydroxide may not be effective for clinical hypomagnesemia in ruminants.
The addition of magnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide as buffering agents to the diet of ruminants is very
common.13 However, this supplementation occurs at levels
well below those used in this study. Oral magnesium hydroxide, particularly in the powder form, is a potent alkalinizing agent and would be an important treatment in cases
of rumen acidosis. However, based on the results of this
study, the routine use of magnesium hydroxide at recommended doses for treatment of miscellaneous or poorly defined rumen disorders such as simple indigestion, anorexia
of unknown origin, or ileus is contraindicated. Although 1
treatment with magnesium hydroxide boluses did not significantly increase rumen pH or impair rumen microbial

activity, veterinarians should be strongly cautioned about

using this drug without first determining the rumen pH.
Many cows with reduced appetites for unknown reasons
already have an elevated rumen pH,14 and treatment with
magnesium hydroxide could further exacerbate the degree
of alkalosis. Based on the results of this study, oral magnesium hydroxide should only be used clinically in ruminants with documented rumen acidosis and should not be
used for treatment of other suspected rumen disorders or
hypomagnesemia.

Footnotes
Carmilax bolets, Pfizer Animal Health, Exton, PA
Carmilax, Pfizer Animal Health, Exton, PA
c
AB15 pH meter, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA
d
CH-2 microscope, Olympus, Melville, NY
e
I-Stat System, Heska Corporation, Fort Collins, CO
f
Roche/Hitachi 912 Automatic Analyzer, Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN
a

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