Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of
Earth (or that of another planet). In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely
approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by theweight of air above the measurement
point. On a given plane, low-pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their location,
whereas high-pressure areas have more atmospheric mass above their location. Likewise,
as elevationincreases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure
decreases with increasing elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimeter in crosssection, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kg and
weight of about 10.1 N (2.28 lbf). (A column one square inch in cross-section would have a
weight of about 14.7 lbs, or about 65.4 N.) Atmospheric pressure is sometimes called barometric
pressure.

Standard atmosphere[edit]
The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure equal to 101325 Pa[1] or
1013.25 hectopascals ormillibars. Equivalent to 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92 inHg, 14.696 psi. (The
pascal is a newton per square meter or in terms of SI base units, kilogram per meter per secondsquared.)

Mean sea level pressure

The mean sea level pressure (MSLP) is the atmospheric pressure at sea level or (when
measured at a given elevation on land) the station pressure adjusted to sea level assuming that
the temperature falls at a lapse rate of 6.5 K per km in the fictive layer of air between the station
and sea level.
This is the atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television, and
newspapers or on the Internet. When barometers in the home are set to match the local weather
reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level, not the actual local atmospheric pressure.
The altimeter setting in aviation, set to either QNH or QFE setting, is another atmospheric
pressure adjustment, but the methods of making these adjustments are different:

QNH is the barometric altimeter setting that causes an altimeter to read airfield elevation
above mean sea level when on the airfield. In ISA temperature conditions the altimeter will
read altitude above mean sea level in the vicinity of the airfield.

QFE is the barometric altimeter setting that causes an altimeter to read zero when at the
reference datum of a particular airfield (in practice, the reference datum is either an airfield
center or a runway threshold). In ISA temperature conditions the altimeter will read height
above the airfield/runway threshold in the vicinity of the airfield.

QFE and QNH are arbitrary Q codes rather than abbreviations, but the mnemonics "nautical
height" (for QNH) and "field elevation" (for QFE) are often used by pilots to distinguish them.
RENAISSANCE IN INDIA
Indian Renaissance occurred after the emergence of the British forces, when a mass religious and social
awakening took place. The foremost reformists had undertaken the task with a lot of eagerness and enthusiasm.
Renaissance stands for rebirth and Indian renaissance refers to that period which was marked by the quest of
knowledge and development of science and arts. The incredible effects of Indian Renaissance were reflected in
the quality of life and the new frontiers scaled by dance, music and other performing arts. Behind the famous
creeds and ceremonials of the country, stand the Bhagavad Gita, the Upanishads, the Tantra, the Vedas; these,
though referable to receding ages as regards their rise, are living influences at the present era.
Emergence of Indian Renaissance
The period when the Hindu religious system was revived can be termed as Hindu renaissance, which was
marked with the restoration of the Hindu deities and tradition. The Guptas, pioneer of the Golden age
resuscitated all lost glory by setting up a tradition, which was very Indian, with developments in Sanskrit
literature, art forms and religion at its peak. The late 18th century marked the beginning of a new era with
movements essential for a complete reformation. The reformists did never think of discriminating on the basis of
caste or sub caste, gender, or race. Hindu nationalism also rose to a great extent during this period.
During the Renaissance in Europe, India witnessed a renaissance of its own; the Taj Mahal was built during this
period; sacred texts were translated into different languages and there was development of overseas trade.
Moreover, the Grand Trunk Road was constructed during this extensive period and many social reformers also
had lived during this period. The most significant renaissance had occurred during the period of colonial rule in
India. The British imperialists had ruled and dominated for the most prolonged period, during which both worse
and beneficial incidents passed by, till the year 1947. The Indian Independence had earned the countrymen their
vision of Swaraj and made them their own masters. Indian renaissance had rediscovered roots of economic and
administrational stability. Renaissance was a solemn effort by a differentiated and higher class of people, who
had made them distinguishable in every sphere of art, culture and education.
As a result, these native intellectuals earned themselves an opportunity to interact with the English class, when
speaking, writing, or associations are being spoken about. And the territory of Bengal was absolutely leading in
this Indian renaissance context, beginning from writers, politicians, historians, freedom fighters and religious
saints. Such was their influence upon the then Indian society, that Bengal renaissance has now come to be
coined as a cardinal element under British Indian episodes.
Social Reformers in Indian Renaissance
Indian Social Reformers had germinated mostly from Bengal, which was inclined towards a tendency to
continuously produce luminaries in every field. Beginning from Raja Ram Mohan Roy and perhaps ending in the
last days of Indian Freedom StrugglewithNirad Chaudhuri, reformist movements had incessantly procured multifaceted results. In this context, the Muslim League was also not left far behind. In the erstwhile undivided India,
with the concept of brotherhood, Muslims made major contributions into Indian renaissance, making the Englishnative interface much facilitating. Muslim renaissance thus counts into a unique amalgamation of religious and
nationalistic concepts, mingling well with British Indian history.
Ramakrishna Paramahansawas a religious teacher and his contributions were important for a traditional revival
of Hinduism comparable to Chaitanya's. Swami Vivekananda had established Ramakrishna Mission on May 1st,
1897, with a motto for assisting in welfare services with a spiritual point of view. He had advocated Vedanta
philosophy and Yoga not only to India, but also the West. The Ramakrishna Math and Mission are the integral
institutions of faith for the Hindus currently.
Aurobindo Ghose was a nationalist, scholar, poet and philosopher who preached a new spiritual path called the
integral Yoga. He had contributed to Hinduism greatly with a new interpretation of Vedas concerned with inner
spirituality. Ram Mohan Roy was founder of the Brahmo Samajand among the pioneers of the Indian socioreligious reform movements. He had exerted supreme influence upon politics, social life, education and religion
alike. Swami Dayananda Saraswati was the founder of Arya Samaj.

SQUARE AND SQUARE ROOTS DISCOVERY

The Yale Babylonian Collection YBC 7289 clay tablet was created between 1800 BC and 1600
BC, showing 2 and 302 as 1;24,51,10 and 42;25,35 base 60 numbers on a square crossed by
two diagonals.[3]
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is a copy from 1650 BC of an earlier Berlin Papyrus and other
texts possibly the Kahun Papyrus that shows how the Egyptians extracted square roots by an
inverse proportion method.[4]
In Ancient India, the knowledge of theoretical and applied aspects of square and square root was
at least as old as the Sulba Sutras, dated around 800500 BC (possibly much earlier). [citation needed] A
method for finding very good approximations to the square roots of 2 and 3 are given in
the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra.[5]Aryabhata in the Aryabhatiya (section 2.4), has given a method for
finding the square root of numbers having many digits.
It was known to the ancient Greeks that square roots of positive whole numbers that are
not perfect squares are always irrational numbers: numbers not expressible as a ratio of two
integers (that is to say they cannot be written exactly as m/n, where m and n are integers). This
is the theorem Euclid X, 9 almost certainly due toTheaetetus dating back to circa 380 BC.[6] The
particular case 2 is assumed to date back earlier to the Pythagoreans and is traditionally
attributed toHippasus.[citation needed] It is exactly the length of the diagonal of a square with side length
1.
In the Chinese mathematical work Writings on Reckoning, written between 202 BC and 186 BC
during the early Han Dynasty, the square root is approximated by using an "excess and
deficiency" method, which says to "...combine the excess and deficiency as the divisor; (taking)
the deficiency numerator multiplied by the excess denominator and the excess numerator times
the deficiency denominator, combine them as the dividend."[7]
Mahvra, a 9th-century Indian mathematician, was the first to state that square roots of negative
numbers do not exist.[8]
A symbol for square roots, written as an elaborate R, was invented by Regiomontanus (1436
1476). An R was also used for Radix to indicate square roots inGerolamo Cardano's Ars Magna.
[9]

According to historian of mathematics D.E. Smith, Aryabhata's method for finding the square root
was first introduced in Europe by Cataneo in 1546.[10]
The symbol '' for the square root was first used in print in 1525 in Christoph Rudolff's Coss,
which was also the first to use the then-new signs '+' and ''.