133

131
127

CHAITIR J
the activities and topics they are presented with. We need to provide them
with
a variety of subjects and exercises to keep them engaged (see Chapter 22.11).
The
choice of material to take into class will be crucial too. but even more
importantthanthiswillbethewaysinwhich it isused in thelesson.
Our attempts to initiate and sustain our students motivation are absolutely
critical
to their learning success (as we shall see with the need for Engagement in
Chapter 6,
A3), for as Alan Rogers writes. motivation ... is as much a matter of concern
for the
teacher as it is for the lnmer; it depends as much on the attitudes of the
teacher as
on the attitudes of the students (Rogers 1996: 66).
Chapter notes and further reading
0 Youngchildreu
On teadiing children at and before primary level. see S Reilly and V Ward
(1997),
W Scott and LYtreborg (1990). I Brewster et aL (1993). and S Halliwell (1992).
I Adolescents
On the young person's search for identity. see the work of E Erikson (1963)
reported in M Williamsand R Burden (1997).
The idea that adolescents present an ideal teaching and leaming age is put
forward
in P Ur (1996: 286) and R Ellis (199 434-494).
0 Adult learners
On adult learners. see especially I Rogers (1977), A Rogers (1996), and H
Mclioy
and A Tom (2000).
0 Aptitude
The best discussion on aptitude I know is in P Skehan (1998: Chapters 8 and
9).
See also H D Brown (2.000: 98-99).
The two most widely quoted aptitude test instrurnents from the 1950s and 1960s
were the Modem Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) designed by I Carroll and
S Sapon (Carroll and Sapon 1958) and the Pimsleur Iarigtmge Aptitude Battery
(P Pimsleur 1966).
9 Psychology for language teodters
The two most approachable books I have come across on the psychology of
leamingarePSkehan (1998) andMW'1lliams andRBurden (1997). _
0 Learning styles
For more on learning style, see P Slrehan (1998: Chapter 10), A Rogets (1996:
110-112.), and H D Brown (moo: Chapter 6).
S4

DESCRIBING LIAINIIS
Increasing and directing student motivation is one of a teachers
responsibilities,
though as Dick Allwright argued, we cannot be responsible for all of our
students
motivation. In the end it is up to them (Allwright 1977). However. there are
three arm
where our behaviour can directly inuence our students continuing
participation:
0 Goals and goal setting: we have said that motivation is closely bound up
with
a person's desire to achieve a goal. A distinction needs to be made here
between
long- and short-term goals.
Long-term goals may include the mastery of English, the passing of an
exam (at the end of the year), the ofa benerjob in the future. etc.
Short-tenn goals, on the other hand, might be the learning of a small amount
of new language, the successful writing of an essay, the ability to partake in
a
discussion or the passing of the progress test at the end of the week
Teachers need to recognise that long-term goals are vitally important but
that they can often seem too far away. When English seems to be more dilcult
than the student had anticipated, the long-term goals can begin to behave like
mirages in the desert, appearing and disappearing at random.
Short-term goals. on the other hand, are by their nature much closer to the
students day-to-day reality. lt is much easier to focus on the end of the
week
than the end of the year. If the teacher can help students in the achievement
of
short-term goals. this will have a signicant effect on their motivation.
After all,
nothing succeeds like success!
0 Learning environment: although we may not be able to choose our actual
classrooms, we can still do a lot about their physical appearance and the
emotional atmosphere of our lessons. Both of these can have a powerful eect
on the initial and continuing motivation of students. When students walk into
an attractive classroom at the beginning ofa course, it may help to get their
motivation for the process going When they come to an unattractive place
motivation may not be initiated in this way.
We can decorate even the most unattractive classrooms with all kinds of
visual material to make them more agreeable as leaming environments. Even
where this is not possible because the classroom is not ours, we can still
change
the atmosphere through such things as the use of music; even the immovability
of the fumiture (if this is a problem) can be ameliorated by having students
get

up and walk around the room when this is appropriate.

All of this is less important. however. than the emotional atmosphere that
teachers are able to create and sustain. That is why they have to be careful
about
how they respond to students, especially in the giving of feedback and
correction (see Chapter 7). There is a need for a supportive. cooperative
environment to suit the various learner types we discussed in Section a of
this
chapter. Above all, the teacher's rapport with the students is critical to
ueating
the right conditions for motivated leaming.
Q Interesting classes: if students are to continue to be intrinsically
motivated
they clearly need to be interested both in the subject they are studying and
in
S3

DESCIIIING I-IAIN!!!
individuals it.Yet suchapositionmakesno sense.Studentsdodevelopasa
residtofdassmomexpenenoesofwaessmurelheywlalnmstceminlydtange
' tandtbetaskstheyperform.
in some way as a result of their learning environmen
F Motivation
elds of learning that motivation is essential to success: that
it is accepted for most
we have to want to do something to succeed at it. Without such motivation we
will
almost certainly fail to make the necessary etfort if motivation is so
important.
therefore, it makes sense to try and develop our understanding ofit. Are all
students

th teachers role in a student's motivation?

motivated in the same way? What is e
How can motivation be sustained?
c1 Dening motivation
At its most basic level, motivation is some kind of internal drive which
pushes
someone todo things in ordertoachievesomething,AsH Douglasliruvwnpointsout.
a oognitw view of motivation indudcs tisctors such as the need for
exploration, activity,
stimulation, newltnowledge, and ego enhancement (Brown 2.000: 160-166). The
adult
whostartsgoingroagym,forexample,|-nzyhope thatanewbodyimagewillaid
ego enhancement and be stimulated by the active nature of this new tmdenalting
Marion Williams and Richard Burden suggest that motivation is a state of
cognitive arousal which provokes a decision to act as a result of which
there is
sustained intellectual and/or physical effort so that the person can adiieve
some
previously set goal (Williams and Burden 1997: izo). They go on to point out
that
the strength of that motivation will depend on how much value the individual
places on the outcome he or she wishes to achieve. Adults may have darly
dened
(ten more amorphous and
or vague 863 Children's goals, on the other hand, are o
describe but they can still be very powerful.
less easy to .
ln discussions of motivation an accepted dktinction is made between extrinsic
and motivation. that is motivation which comes from outside and om
Enrinsic motivation is caused by any number of outside factors, for example,
the
need to pass an exam, the hope of nancial reward, or the possibility of
future travel.
Intrinsic motivation, by contrast, comes from within the Thus a person
' ' 'tself or by a desire to
might be motivated by the en)oyment of the learnutg process l
ake th Ives feel better
m emse .
Most researchers and methodologists have come to the view that intrinsic
motivation is especially important for encouraging success Even where the
original
reason for taking up a language course, for example, is extrinsic, the chances
of
' ' ude tsoometolovethelearningprocea.
suocesswtllbegreatlyenhancedifthest n
Q Sources of motivation
The motivation that brings students to the task of leaming English can be
atfected
and influenced by the attitude of a niunber of people. It is worth considering
what
' the ld around students feeling and
and who these are since they form part of wor
engagement with the learning process.
51