Volcanology

Key Reading
Volcanoes (2nd Edition) (2004)
P. Francis & C. Oppenheimer, Oxford Univ. Press, 521 p.

Volcanoes: Global Perspectives (2010)

J.P. Lockwood &. R.W. Hazlett, Wiley-Blackwell, 541 p.
Le Volcanisme (1994)
J.L. Bourdier, BRGM dition, Manuels et Mthodes n25, 420 p.
Volcans, source de vie, cause de mort (2003)
C. Jaupart et al., 2003, Vuibert, 328 p.

Outline

Basic definitions and concepts, classification

Magma and Volcanic rock properties
Melt properties I: goechemistry, SiO2
Melt properties II: temperature
Vesicles, bubbles and control on viscosity
Magma properties III: crystals

After A. Harris et rfrences cites

Magma and Volcanic Rock Properties

Magma at depth is a mixture of:
= Melt (liquid) + crystals (solids) + volatiles
Magma (upon reaching the surface) is a mix of:
= Melt (liquid) + crystals (solids) + bubbles
So we need to consider the properties of:
(1) Melt (chemistry, temperature)
(2) Crystals
(3) Volatiles, gas and bubbles (vesicles)
Together these define the magma rheological (e.g., viscosity) &
physical (e.g., density) properties

Magma and Volcanic Rock Properties:

Basic Definitions & Concepts
(1)

Magma:

Molten rock containing volatiles + crystals;

Volatiles will, however, exsolve at shallow depths to
create bubbles (vesicles);
The term is maintained as long as the molten rock
remains below the Earths surface.

(2)

Lava and pyroclasts:

The term lava (or pyroclast) is applied to molten rock that

has been erupted onto the Earths surface.
Molten rock from which the volatiles have largely exsolved;
Contains bubbles (otherwise termed vesicles in lava);
Lava = effusive product; pyro-clast = explosive product

Melt Properties I, Chemistry:

SiO2
SiO2 content can for volcanic rocks span <35 wt% to ~80 wt %;
Cas & Wright (1987) define 4 classes on the basis of SiO2 content:
Term

SiO2 (wt%)

(Note)

Acid (felsic/salic)

>63

(High silica)

Intermediate

52-63

(Intermediate silica)

Basic (mafic)

45-52

(Low silica)

Ultrabasic

<45

(Very low silica)

Felsic Rock Type: Properties

End Member Type I: - FELSIC (or Salic / ACID):
Magmas composed of minerals that melt (faire fondre)
at the lowest temperatures.
Felsic magma is K- and Na-rich, and contain plagioclase
feldspars.
While K- and Na-rich plagioclase feldspars are rich in
aluminum (Al), feldspars and quartz are rich in silicon (Si).
The presence of these elements give Felsic rocks a light
(clair) color.
The presence of the feldspar and silica gives rise to the
name of these magmas: Felsic (fels for feldspar; sic for silica)

Mafic Rock Type: Properties

End Member Type II: - MAFIC (BASIC):
Magmas composed of minerals that melt (faire fondre)
at the highest temperatures.
Mafic magma is Ca-rich, and contains olivine and
pyroxene.
Olivine and pyroxene are rich in iron (Fe) and/or
magnesium (Mg).
These elements give Mafic rocks a dark (fonce/sombre) color.
The high Mg and Fe contents give rise to the name of these
magmas: Mafic [ma for magnesium; fic for ferric (2+)
iron].

Classification of MacDonald (1972):

Table A2-2, Page 462
Name of volcanic rock with
Characteristic (or case type) composition
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
FeO
MgO
MnO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
H2O+
P2O5

Rhyolite
73.6
0.2
13.4
1.2
0.8
0.3
0.3
1.1
3.0
5.4
0.8
0.1

Rhyodacite
66.3
0.7
15.4
2.1
2.2
1.6
0.1
3.7
4.1
3.0
0.7
0.2

Dacite
63.6
0.6
16.7
2.2
3.0
2.1
0.1
5.5
4.0
1.4
0.6
0.2

Trachyte Phonolite Andesite

58.3
56.9
54.2
0.7
0.6
1.3
18.0
20.2
17.2
2.5
2.3
3.5
2.0
1.8
5.5
2.1
0.6
4.4
0.1
0.2
0.1
4.2
1.9
7.9
3.8
8.7
3.7
7.4
5.4
1.1
0.5
1.0
0.9
0.2
0.2
0.3

Tholeiitic
Basalt Pyroxenite
50.8
50.5
2.0
0.5
14.1
4.1
2.9
2.4
9.1
7.4
6.3
21.7
0.2
0.1
10.4
12.0
2.2
0.4
0.8
0.2
0.9
0.5
0.2
0.1

Alkalic
Basalt
45.8
2.6
14.6
3.2
8.7
9.4
0.2
10.7
2.6
1.0
0.8
0.4

Peridotite Serpentine Nephelinite

43.5
40.4
40.3
0.8
tr
2.9
4.0
1.9
11.3
2.5
2.8
4.9
9.8
4.3
7.7
34.0
36.0
13.3
0.2
0.2
3.5
0.7
13.0
0.6
3.1
0.2
0.2
1.4
0.8
10.5
1.1
0.1
tr
0.8

Dunite
40.2
0.2
0.8
1.9
11.9
43.2
0.2
0.8
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.1

Place into 4 classes: Felsic, Intermediate, Mafic & Ultra-Basic

Define the oxide amounts that define each class: are there anomalies?
after Nockolds SR (1954): Average chemical compositions of some igneous rocks
Geol Soc Am Bull, 65, 1007-1032.

Classification of MacDonald (1972):

Acid-to-Intermediate (Felsic) End

SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
FeO
MgO
MnO
CaO
Na2O
K2 O

Rhyolite

Rhyodacite

Dacite

Trachyte

73.6
0.2
13.4
1.2
0.8
0.3
0.3
1.1
3.0
5.4

66.3
0.7
15.4
2.1
2.2
1.6
0.1
3.7
4.1
3.0

63.6
0.6
16.7
2.2
3.0
2.1
0.1
5.5
4.0
1.4

58.3
0.7
18.0
2.5
2.0
2.1
0.1
4.2
3.8
7.4

Classification of MacDonald (1972):

Intermediate-to-Basic (Mafic) End

SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
FeO
MgO
MnO
CaO
Na2O
K2 O

Andesite

Tholeiite
Basalt

Pyroxenite

Alkali
Basalt

54.2
1.3
17.2
3.5
5.5
4.4
0.1
7.9
3.7
1.1

50.8
2.0
14.1
2.9
9.1
6.3
0.2
10.4
2.2
0.8

50.5
0.5
4.1
2.4
7.4
21.7
0.1
12.0
0.4
1.4

45.8
2.6
14.6
3.2
8.7
9.4
0.2
10.7
2.6
1.0

Classification of MacDonald (1972):

Ultra-Basic (Ultra-Mafic) End

SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
FeO
MgO
MnO
CaO
Na2O
K2 O

Peridotite

Serpentine

Nephelinite

Dunite

43.5
0.8
4.0
2.5
9.8
34.0
0.2
3.5
0.6
0.2

40.4
tr.
1.9
2.8
4.3
36.0
0.7

40.3
2.9
11.3
4.9
7.7
13.3
0.2
13.0
3.1
1.4

40.2
0.2
0.8
1.9
11.9
43.2
0.2
0.8
0.3
0.1

0.2

Al2O3 Saturation Classes

Peraluminous:
Molecular Al2O3 > (CaO + Na2O + K2O)
Metaluminous:
Molecular Al2O3 < (CaO + Na2O + K2O)
but
Molecular Al2O3 > (Na2O + K2O)

Subaluminous:
Molecular Al2O3 ~ (Na2O + K2O)
Peralkaline:
Molecular Al2O3 < (Na2O + K2O)

Simple Chemical Classification for

the Common Volcanic Rock Types
Rock Type

SiO2
Al2O3 Saturation Class
(wt%)

Class

Rhyolite

>68

Peraluminous+Metaluminous

Acid (silicic, salic)

(FELSIC)

Dacite

63-68

Peraluminous+Metaluminous

Andesite

57-63

Metaluminous

Basalt
Tholeiitic
Hawaiite

52-57

Metaluminous-to-Subaluminous

Alkali Basalt

45-52

Leucite

<45

Metaluminous-to-Subaluminous Basic
(MAFIC)
Subaluminous
Ultrabasic
(UltraMAFIC)

Cas and Wright (1987) Table 2.1, page 17

Intermediate

Some physical properties of magma (or lava) related to differences

in chemical composition. Basaltic lavas have lower SiO2 contents,
higher temperatures, and lower viscosity when compared to more
evolved lavas such as dacites and rhyolites.
Credit: J. Johnson, U.S. Geological Survey Photoglossary of Volcanic Terms.

 Density

The density of a magma is determined by its temperature, pressure, and

composition.
Increasing temperature causes magma to expand, which decreases its
density, while increasing pressure causes magma to compress, which
increases its density.
The most important factor controlling magma density is composition.
In particular iron, which is relatively abundant in basalts, has a higher
mass-to-radius ratio than elements like potassium and silicon, which
are enriched in evolved magmas.
The density of most magmas ranges from 2.2 to 3.1 g/cm3, with basalts
being densest and rhyolites being least dense.

. Viscosity
One of the most important physical properties of magma in terms of determining its
behavior is its viscosity.
Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow, i.e. the thickness or stickiness of a liquid.
A low-viscosity liquid is runny (water). A high-viscosity liquid is thicker and less
runny (honey or caramel). The viscosity of a silicate liquid is determined by its
composition.
Viscosity is typically expressed in units of Pas (Pascal-seconds) or P (poises), where
1 Pas = 10 P
Silica (SiO2) in a melt tends to form an interconnected
network of ions, like a polymer. The more silica there
is in a melt, the more developed the network becomes,
giving the liquid a higher viscosity. Conversely,
increasing the temperature of a melt has the effect of
decreasing its viscosity.
Because basaltic liquids are characterized by both
higher temperatures and lower SiO2 contents than
rhyolitic liquids, basaltic liquids will also have lower
viscosities.

Viscosity, or the resistance of magma to flow when

subjected to a force.
Viscosity is measured in the units of Poise and there
is a tremendous range displayed by magmas erupted
on Earth.
In general, the viscosity of magma increases as the
silica content increases from basalt to rhyolite.
Magmatic viscosities are much larger than fluids that
we are familiar with, such as water or olive oil.

Viscosity of silicate liquids plotted as a

function of SiO2 content and
temperature.
Note that magmas at lower temperature
are more viscous than those at higher
temperature for any given SiO2 content. For a
given temperature, the viscosity increases
with SiO2 content.

A natural magma or lava is more complex than a pure silicate melt. A

magma (or lava) is typically a mixture of melt and crystals. Thus, the
viscosity of a magma also depends on the degree of crystallization.
The greater the percentage of crystals, the higher the viscosity. We
refer to this as the effective viscosity of the magma. The effective
viscosity is related to the liquid viscosity by the relationship
eff=0(11.35)2.5
where heff is the effective viscosity, h0 is the crystal-free liquid
viscosity, and f is the fractional volume of crystals.

SiO2: Control on Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow
Viscosity (h) increases logarithmically with SiO2
1015 Pa s

Lava domes (>109 pa s)

Silicic lava flows (108-1010 Pa s)

Log(h)

Lava flows (100 105 Pa s)

Lava lakes (10-103 Pa s)

1 Pa s
50
wt%

SiO2 (wt%)

70
wt%

Density increases with decreased SiO2

McBirney (2007), Fig. 2.11

Why?

Because:
(i) silica is one of the lightest
oxides, and
(ii) silica is the most dominant
oxide:
density decreases with
increased SiO2
Basalt is the most dense melt
(least SiO2).

Rhyolite is the least dense melt

(most SiO2).

Melt Properties II, Temperature

Melt temperature varies with composition
Generally, the lower the SiO2 content, the higher the melt T
(Plus le taux de silice est bas plus la temprature est leve)
Rock Type

Temperature (C)

Rhyolite

700 900

Dacite

800 1100

Andesite

950 1200

Basalt

1000 1200
From Cas & Wright (1987)

Some Lava Interior (Eruption) Temperatures

Location

Date

Temp, C

Technique (source)

Santiaguito
Santiaguito
Etna
Etna
Etna
Etna
Mauna Loa
Stromboli
Kilauea
Erta Ale
Vesuvius
Mauna Loa

1940
1990

725
850
1043-1111
1074
1070-90
1080
1143
1150
1150
1175
1200
1205

Pyrometer
(1)
Chemistry
(2)
Chemistry
(3)
Radiometer
Thermocouple (4)
Thermocouple (5)
Thermocouple (6)
Thermocouple (7)
Thermocouple (h)
Thermocouple (8)
Thermocouple (7)
Chemistry
(9)

2001
1975
1991-93
1984
1901
1999
1970
1913
1859

(1) Zies (1941); (2) Scaillet et al. (1998); (3) Pompilio et al. (1998); (4) Pinkerton & Sparks (1976); (5) Calvari et
al. (1994); (6) Lipman and Banks (1987); (7) from Table 4.2 of MacDonald (1972); (8) Le Guern et al. (1979); (9)
Riker et al. (2009); (h) field-measurement.

Lava Surface Temperature

Blue glassy (p-type) pahoehoe lobe, Kilauea

~50 cm

Lava Interior versus Surface Temperature

The surface temperature of the lava is always less than that of
the interior
Active pahoehoe lobe, Kilauea, 1999
Tinterior= Terupt= 1150 C

900-950 C
750-850 C

Temperature: Control on Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow
Viscosity (h) increases logarithmically as Temperature decreases

Log(h)

Temperature (C)

The large range of magmatic viscosities is related to differences in the structure of

magmas at the molecular level, which varies as a function of silica content.
Magmas are fluids but they possess structure in the form of silicon-oxygen building
blocks, that are linked together to form tetrahedra.
Magmas that are rich in silicon form many linked tetrahedra that result in the
polymerization of the liquids. The bonds that form between shared oxygen atoms are
strong, thus giving the liquid strength and high viscosity.
Lower silica magmas have higher contents of anions such as Ca, Mg and Fe that form
weaker bonds and inhibit the development of strongly linked silicon tetrahedron. Therefore
low-silica magmas have a lower viscosity.

Structure of silicon tetrahedron (A and B)

and the linkage of two tetrahedron by
sharing an oxygen (C)

Viscosity Relations and Data

Viscosity
decreases with
increased temperature

Viscosity
increases with
SiO2

From Oppenheimer (2003)

Vesicle Shapes: Rounded

No shearing; bubbles can grow in all directions

~2 cm

Vesicle Shapes: Sheared

Shearing, so bubbles are deformed, stretched and elongated

in the conduit

X500

50mm

in a lava flow

10 mm

Highly Vesicular Lava: Interior

Kilauea, 1997 Lava Sample: 42 94 % Vesicles

Highly Vesicular Lava: Surface

Vesicle Volume Fractions

For Lava
Location

Range (%)

Mean (%)

Notes (Study)

Etna

4 42

20

'a'a-dominated (1)

Etna

7 71

32

'a'a-dominated (2)

Kilauea

10 70

40 60

pahoehoe-dominated (3,4)

Kilauea

42 94

70

at-vent (1997 overflows)

(1) Herd & Pinkerton (1997); (2) Gaonach et al. (1996);

(3) Wilmoth & Walker (1993); Cashman et al. (1994).

Bubbles: Control on Viscosity

For round bubbles: Viscosity (h) increases with number of bubbles
For sheared bubbles: Viscosity (h) decreases with number of bubbles
Round bubbles

Power Law
(Einstein-Roscoe Relation)
Sheared bubbles

Bubble Content

Magma Properties III: Crystals

Lavas and pyroclasts usually contain a mixture of
glass, phenocrysts, microphenocrysts and bubbles

Phenocrysts:
microphenocrysts:
microlites:

>100-200 mm
30-200 mm
<30-50 mm

Crystals and Temperature

As temperature decreases
the relative proportions of
melt and crystals changes
Crystal content also
depends on cooling rate:
(1) Slow cooling:
Phenocrysts
(2) Fast Cooling:
Micro-phenocrysts
(3) Very Fast Cooling
Microlites
(4) Quenching:
Glass
McBirney (2007), Fig. 3.2, page 76 Proportions of crystals and liquid for a basalt

Crystal-Glass Mix in a Cooling Lava

(i) 1170 C

Kilauea lava cooled to 1170 C, then quenched:

Olivine phenocrysts + pyroxene microphenocrysts + melt (glass)

Crystal-Glass Mix in a Cooling Lava

(ii) 1130 C

Kilauea lava cooled to 1130 C, then quenched:

Olivine phenocrysts + larger pyroxene microphenocrysts

Crystal-Glass Mix in a Cooling Lava

(iii) 1020 C

Kilauea lava cooled to 1020 C, 80 % crystals:

Small pools of Fe-poor, SiO2-rich liquid remain in a crystal mush

Crystal-Glass Mix in a Cooling Lava

(iv) 990 C

Kilauea lava below 990 C:

Rock is almost totally crystalline

Crystals: Control on Viscosity

Mixture viscosity increases with crystal content
Power Law (Einstein-Roscoe Relation)

viscosity of the mixture

h

h = h0 (1 - 1.67 f)-2.5
h0

viscosity of the liquid

Offset
Crystal Content (f)