CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 2
WATER QUANTITY ............................................................................................................ 2
1. QUANTITY FOR DOMESTIC USE ................................................................................................... 2
2. QUANTITY FOR LIVESTOCK .......................................................................................................... 3
WATER QUALITY ............................................................................................................... 4
WATER SOURCES ............................................................................................................... 4
WATER STORAGE SYSTEM ............................................................................................. 5
1. CONCRETE-LINED EARTHEN RESERVOIR ................................................................................ 5
2. REINFORCED CONCRETE RESERVOIR ........................................................................................ 6
3. ELEVATED STEEL RESERVOIR ..................................................................................................... 6
4. FERROCEMENT TANK ................................................................................................................... 7
WATER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM .................................................................. 8
1. PUMPING SYSTEM ......................................................................................................................... 9
2. GRAVITY SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................ 10
3. DUAL SYSTEM .............................................................................................................................. 10
LAYOUT OF DISTRIBUTION NETWORK ................................................................... 11
1. DEAD END SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................... 11
2. REDIAL SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................... 11
3. GRID IRON SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................... 12
4. RING SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................... 13
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM OF A BUILDING ............................................................... 13
1. COLD WATER OR CLEAN WATER PIPE SYSTEM ................................................................... 14
a. Up-Flow / Direct Water Supplying System ................................................................ 14
b. Down Flow / Indirect Water Supplying System; ..................................................... 15
Operation and Maintenance ................................................................................................. 16
2. HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 17
a. Gravity System ....................................................................................................................... 17
b. Forced Circulation System ................................................................................................ 20
Operation and maintenance ................................................................................................. 21
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 22

Introduction
Water, a substance essential to human life, has always been used for many
different purposes. The constant demand forced men to create conditions so that it
would be possible to transport it to the necessary locations, thereby creating water
supply systems. Throughout the centuries of existence of the human race, there has
been a constant evolution of these systems, which has allowed current constructions
to include a wide choice of options. This increase of solutions is linked with the
concepts of quality and security which, other than having propelled the plumbing
industry, in pursuit of the raw material which provided the best quality conditions,
economy, safety or concern with the main environment, has also allowed the creation
of regulations, which are nowadays essential in building an effective system.
Water, along with food, is one of the essentials of life. Perhaps because of its
importance and scarcity in many locations, in most societies the use of water is
encompassed by very strong cultural/social precepts. The success of projects aiming
to improve water supply and water quality therefore depends on the full participation
of the village population, in particular the women, as they are the main users of water.
While relatively small quantities will sustain human life, much more is needed
for cooking, personal hygiene, laundry and cleaning. Water for a sanitary system is
desirable, although not essential if it is scarce. Water is also required for livestock and
perhaps for irrigating crops. Types of water required for the farmstead include: (a)
clean water for use in the home; (b) reasonably clean water for livestock; and (c)
water for irrigation.

Water Quantity
1. Quantity for domestic use
Location and convenience are significant factors in determining the
volume of clean water for domestic use, as Table 1 below shows.

Table 1: Domestic water consumption

The range of consumption given in Table 1 varies by a factor of over 100. It

seems obvious that people adapt their needs to the supply. At the low extreme, the
bare minimum is used for cooking and drinking, while at the upper extreme water is
used with abandon. When there is a shortage, much lower quality water may be used
for personal hygiene and for washing clothes. The suggestions that follow are
intended to improve both the supply and the quality of water.

2. Quantity for livestock

Table 2 gives the estimated water requirements for various classes of
livestock. This can be used to determine the total requirements.

Table 2: Water requirement for life stock.

If water for dipping livestock is to be drawn from the same source, 3 litres per
head of livestock per week must be added to the estimated amount needed.
Fish can be raised in a reservoir without any additional volume of water.
Although chickens, pigeons and turkeys can live on used water from the house, ducks
and geese need approximately 1 litre of fresh water a day per bird.
For the production of biogas, a weekly consumption of around 100 litres must
be included in the total requirement of water for livestock.

Water Quality
Water from a protected well is nearly free from harmful bacteria although it
may contain dissolved salts that make it less than desirable for drinking. A protected
well is located upgrade from sources of pollution such as animal yards and privies.
Twenty metres is an adequate distance in areas with fairly heavy type soils, while
double that distance is necessary for light soils and even more in areas with limestone
formations. Protected also implies a well head that extends high enough above the
ground level to prevent anything from washing or blowing into the well mouth and
narrow enough to discourage the users from standing on it. The other essential feature
is a concrete apron sloping away from the well on all sides. A sanitary means of
lifting the water is also necessary.
Streams and ponds, whether artificial or natural, are very likely to be
contaminated and should be used for domestic purposes only as a last resort.
When the only water available is turbid (cloudy) and suspected of being
polluted, it should be filtered through a well-designed sand filter. Even then, the
safety of the water for drinking is questionable and boiling or other purification is
recommended for complete safety.

Water Sources
When planning a water supply scheme for an area, the potential sources of
water should first be assessed. Consideration should be given to the quantity of water
available to meet present and future needs in the supply area, as well as to the quality

of the water. Water that is unfit for human consumption will need to be treated before
being distributed.
Water for human settlements can be obtained from one or more of the
following sources:
Springs;
Wells and boreholes;
Rainwater;
Surface water rivers and dams; bulk-supply pipelines; and
A combination of the above.

Water Storage System

The water storage system can be classified as follow:
Concrete-lined earthen reservoir;
Reinforced concrete reservoir;
Elevated steel reservoir;
Ferrocement tank.

1. Concrete-lined

earthen reservoir

Lined earthen reservoirs can be built in natural depressions, or constructed by

excavating and building a dam around the reservoir. If possible, the quantities of
excavation and refill are kept nearly identical, to minimize the amount of work. The
inner and outer walls of such a reservoir are always sloped, and inlets and outlets are
installed during the earthwork. The
walls and bottom of the reservoir
must be compacted, especially the
parts made by refilling. The inside of
the reservoir is waterproofed by a
lining of concrete, which is usually
poured on-site in large slabs. The
slab size is limited by the ability of
the concrete slab to support its own
Figure 1: Concrete-Lined Earthen Reservoir

weight when it is moved into place during const ruction of the reservoir. Once in
place, the slabs are connected by a sealing of waterproof material. More recently,
reservoirs have been constructed using a single slab of concrete, using ferrocement
technology. Linings can also be made of clay, loam or plastic. It is used to store from
a few cubic meters to thousands.

2. Reinforced Concrete Reservoir

Reinforced concrete reservoirs are used to store clean water for release on demand. They are usually made of concrete reinforced with steel bars or steel mesh,
although some low-cost construction techniques use bamboo or other materials to
reinforce the concrete. Reservoirs may also be made of masonry, or ferrocement.
Chemical additives are of- ten mixed with the concrete to make it more impermeable
to water. Reinforced concrete reservoirs are built at the site on a solid foundation. If
the base is not solid enough, another site should be chosen, or arrangements made to
stabilize the construction.
To protect the water from contamination, the reservoir is covered with a roof,
usually made of reinforced concrete, but other materials can be used. In the top of the
tank an aeration pipe with a screen allows fresh air to circulate in the tank, but keeps
rodents and insects out. A manhole in the roof allows access to the tank for cleaning
and repairs. Water flows into the
reservoir through an inlet pipe above the
water level in the reservoir. This prevents
back-flow and allows the water to be
heard entering the tank. At this point, a
chlorine solution is often added for
disinfection. Outlets are built a little
above the floor of the reservoir, which
has a slope pitched down towards one
point with a washout pipe for flushing.

Figure 2: Reinforced Concrete Reservoir

3. Elevated steel reservoir

Elevated steel reservoir stores clean water in a steel tank on a raised stand or
tower. The elevation of the tank provides the water pressure to all points in the

pressure zone of the distribution system. Tanks may be cylindrical, rectangular or any
other convenient shape. For family use, the tank can be made of an old oil drum (duly
coated), and the tower of bamboo. For communal needs, elevated steel tanks are often
constructed from factory-made galvanized steel elements bolted or welded together.
However, even with galvanization, steel tanks are generally more sensitive to
corrosion than concrete reservoirs. On the other hand, steel tanks can be built faster
and the cost of transport- ing the material is generally lower, especially when concrete
aggregates are not locally produced. Several pipes are connected to the tank,
including ones for inlet, outlet, overflow and washout, and a screened vent hole or
pipe maintains atmospheric pressure in the tank. There is also an entryway in the
cover of the reservoir to allow the reservoir to be inspected. The entryway is normally
kept closed with a lid. If an electric
pump is used to pump water into the
reservoir, sensor electrodes in the tank
can regulate the water level in the
reservoir. Alternatively, a float valve
may be used to cut off the inflow when
the maxi- mum level has been reached.
The tanks may be placed on
steel, wooden or reinforced-concrete
towers, and special attention must be
given to the foundation structure. Major
water

users,

such

as

Figure 3: Elevated Steel Reservior

agricultural

enterprises and communities, typically

use big elevated steel tanks.

4. Ferrocement tank
Ferrocement water tanks are made of steel mesh and wire, covered on the inside and outside with a thin layer of cement-and-sand mortar. The walls may be as
thin as 2.5 cm. The tanks can be used for individual households or for whole
communities, and they provide a relatively inexpensive and easy-to-maintain

storage method. To avoid bending forces in the material, most ferrocement tanks
have curved walls, in the form of a cylinder, a globe or an egg. Compared to concrete
reservoirs, ferrocement tanks are relatively light and flexible. To protect
the water from contamination, the tank is covered with a lid or a roof that can be
made of various materials, but is usually ferrocement. Figure 4.
In this case, an aeration pipe with a screen is needed to allow fresh air to
circulate in the tank, while keeping out rodents and insects. A manhole in the roof
gives access to the tank for
cleaning and repairs. Water
flows into the reservoir through
an inlet pipe, which is normally
above the water level.
Often,

chlorine

solution is adde d to the stored

water for disinfection. Outlets
are built a little above the floor
of the reservoir, which slopes
down towards a washout pipe
for flushing into a drain. The
site is fenced, to keep out cattle

Figure 4: Ferocement Tank

that can damage the thin walls

of the reservoir.

Water Supply Distribution System

Infrastructures for the collection, transmission, treatment, storage, and
distribution of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry and irrigation, as
well as for such public needs as firefighting and street flushing. Of all municipal
services, provision of potable water is perhaps the most vital. People depend on water
for drinking, cooking, washing, carrying away wastes, and other domestic needs.

Water supply systems must also meet requirements for public, commercial, and
industrial activities. In all cases, the water must fulfill both quality and quantity
requirements.
For efficient distribution it is required that water should reach to every
consumers with required rate of flow, quality and pressure. Pressure in pipe is
important and necessary, which should force the water to reach at all the places.
Water Supplying System are classified as:

Pumping system

Gravity system

Dual system

1. Pumping System
o Water is directly pumped in the mains
o Number of pumps are required to work at different time & pressure
rate in a day.
o If the power fails the whole supply will freeze.
o The pressure in pipe is controlling by water pump.
o We use this method when the storage is almost the same level or lower
than supplying area. Figure 5.

Figure 5: Pumping System

2. Gravity System
o When the reservoir and/or storage are sufficiently higher than the
supplied area.
o Water will flow in mains using gravity which pumping system will not
be required. Figure 6.

Figure 6: Gravity System

3. Dual System
o Is also known as combined gravity and pumping system.
o Pump is connected to the mains as well as to the elevated reservoir
o When there is less water demand, water is stored in elevated reservoir.
o With increase in water demand, water will come from both pumping
station as well as reservoir.
o During power failure and fire fighting water stored in the reservoir can
be used. Figure 7.

Figure 7: Dual System

Layout of Distribution Network

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as
such their layouts generally follow the layouts of the roads. In general there are four
types of pipe networks, and the are as follows:

Dead end system

Radial System

Grid Iron System

Ring System

1. Dead End System

It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads.
Figure 8.

Advantages:

Figure 8: Dead End System

Relatively Cheap

Determination of discharge and pressure easier due to less number of valves.

Disadvantages

Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.

2. Redial System
The area is divided into different zones and water is puped into the distribution
reservoir kept in the middle of the each zone and the supply pipes are laid radially
ending towards the periphery. Figure 9.

Figure 9: Radial System

Advantages

It gives quick service

Calculation of pipe size is easy.

3. Grid Iron System

It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and
branches are laid in rectangles. Figure 10.

Figure 10: Grid Iron System

Advantages

Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.

In the cases of breakdown in some sections, water is available from other

directions.

Disadvantages

Exact calculation of pipe sizes are not possible due to provision of valves on
all branches

4. Ring System
The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch
out from the mains. This system also followed the grid iron system with the flow
pattern similar in character to that of dead end system, so determination of pipe size is
easy. Figure 11.
Advantages

Water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions

Figure 11: Ring System

Water Supply System of a Building

Carries water from the water source, street main or a pump to the building and
to the various points of the building were water need to be used.
All water supply systems use a combination of pipes (of different dimensions
and materials), valves and outlets to deliver water to building users. Some water
supply systems also use storage tanks and pumps. Designing a water supply system
involves getting all of these elements right so that clean water is delivered to the user
at the appropriate rate and temperature
Water piping system in a building can be classified as follows:
Cold water or clean water pipe system for daily use.
Hot water piping system.

 Fire Hydrant piping system.

1. Cold Water or Clean Water Pipe System

In a building this system is classified in to two main parts as:
a. Up-Flow / Direct Water Supplying System
In this system the water comes into the water system tank and flows through
an upper basket and then down a riser tube in the middle of the tank. Once the water
reaches the bottom of the riser tube it is then distributed through a lower basket
attached to the riser tube. The water then flows from the bottom of the tank through
the filter media in a swirling motion. The swirling motion is created by the reaction of
the water coming out of the lower basket coming in contact with the bottom of the
filter tank, which is rounded or curved. An up-flow design eliminates the need for
backwashing on most filters because the filter media is continuously being fluffed
each time the water flows through the tank. Another advantage to an up-flow design is
the amount of contact time the untreated water has with the filter media. An up-flow
design also forces the filter media to swirl which in turn allows the media to have
longer contact time with the water yielding better results.
In the low buildings, cold water can be distributed by the up-flow method in
which at each story plumbing fixtures are served by branch pipes connected to risers
that carry water upward under pressure from the water source.
If the water source pressure is not sufficient to provide adequate water
pressure a pump up-flow distribution system is used. Figure 12.

Figure 12: Direct Water Supply System.

Advantages:
Saving in pipe works especially in multistory buildings. (This is due to
cold water distribution pipe from the cistern being omitted)
Cheaper as the storage tank is no need.
No chance of water growing harmful bacteria.
Can deal with large demand more easily.
Disadvantages:
If cold mains fail there wont be any emergency backup supply.
Cannot always supply cold water as the mains water pressure is low (in
peak hour).
More system noise as water is under high pressure.
b. Down Flow / Indirect Water Supplying System;
Down-flow systems direct the water in a down-flow direction. The water
comes into the tank through an upper
basket and flows down the tank
around the outside of the distributor
tube through the filter media. The
water then flows through the filter
media and into the lower basket at the
bottom of the riser tube. The water
then flows up the riser tube and out of
the tank. Down flow water systems
require back washing to raise or fluff
the filter media because the direction
of the incoming water presses down
on the filter media compacting it.
Down flow systems can sometimes
have issues with channeling caused

Figure 13: Indirect Water Supplying System

when the water makes channels or tunnels in the compacted filter media. When the
water does not reach the other filter media, the effectiveness of the filter can be
weakened. If you are looking to purchase a down-flow water system be sure that it
back washes to avoid channeling. This is not an issue in up-flow designed water
systems. Another benefit to up-flow filters is that most do not require back washing,
drain lines or electricity. Even though most water systems may look the same, it is
always a good idea to understand how the different systems work. In cases like iron
removal using oxidation media like greensand plus or salt system regeneration, down
flow systems may be required to flush out oxidized iron or water hardness. Figure 13.
In buildings that cannot be adequately serviced by an up-feed system, water is
pumped to elevated storage tanks and the water is fed down into the building by
gravity. This gravity system, fed from the upper stories to the lower is called a downfeed distribution system
Advantages:
There is no risk of back siphon age.
There is no tendency of pipe bursting due to the low pressure in pipe
work.
Adequate store in case of an interruption in the mains supply.
Disadvantages:
Longer Pipe runs are required
A larger storage cistern is necessary
Fresh drinking water is only available at the kitchen sink (or single
point)
Operation and Maintenance

Collecting bacteriological samples

Testing the chlorine residuals

Finding and repairing leaks

Testing system pressure at various locations on a systematic basis

Flushing the main lines at least once a year

Inspecting fire hydrants twice a year

Locating and exercising in-line valves at least once a year

Cleaning the storage reservoir once a year

Inspecting the storage reservoir,, valves, once a year

Replacing pilot valves and altitude valves once a year

2. Hot Water Distribution System

In hot-water heating systems, the water is heated at a central source and
circulated through pipes to radiators, convectors, or unit heaters. There are two
general types of low-temperature, hot-water heating systems. The first type is a
gravity system in which water circulation depends upon the weight difference
between the hot column of water leading to the radiators and the relatively cooler,
heavier column of water returning from the radiators. The second type is the forcedcirculation system in which water is circulated by a power-driven pump.
a. Gravity System
The distribution systems and piping for hot-water heating systems and for
domestic hot-water supply systems are simpler in design than those for steam because
there are no traps, drips, or reducing valves. Several items, such as supports,
insulation, and some valves and fittings, are the same for steam and hot-water
distribution.
Gravity hot-water distribution systems operate because of the gravitational
pull on the heavier cool water, which sinks as the heated water becomes lighter and

rises. At this point, some of the types of gravity systems that are currently used are
discussed.
One-Pipe, Open-Tank System
The one-pipe, open-tank gravity distribution system shown in figure 14
consists of a single distribution pipe that carries the hot water to all of the convectors
or radiators and returns it to the boiler. This system is easy to install and moderate in
cost.
The water that flows into the radiators at the end of the system has a lower
temperature than the water
entering the first radiators. A
system of this type should be
designed

so

the

water

reaching the last convector is

not too much cooler than the
water reaching the first drop
in the distribution system,
convector radiators should be
installed at the end of the
system

to

equalize

the

amount of heat radiation per

Figure 14: One pipe, Open Tank System

radiator. It is difficult to get

enough circulation by gravity to give the system small convector temperature drops;
consequently, we do not recommend the one-pipe, open-tank gravity system.
Two-Pipe, Open-Tank System
Many hot-water gravity distribution systems are two-pipe, open-tank systems,
as shown in figure 15. This heating system is constructed with separate water mains
for supplying hot water and returning cold water. The radiators are connected in
parallel between the two mains. In the two-pipe, open-tank gravity system, the
distributing supply mains are either in the basement with upfeed to the radiators or in
the attic. When the system is in the attic, it has overhead downfeed supply risers. The
return mains are in the basement. Return connections for the two-pipe system are

usually made into a gravity return, which pitches downward to the return opening in
the heating boiler. The water temperature is practically the same in all radiators,
except for the allowance to be made for the temperature drop in the distribution
supply mains occurring between the boiler and the end of the circuit. Water
temperatures are the lowest at the end of the circuit. The amount of temperature drop
between the beginning and the end of the line depends upon the length of the main
and upon the heating load.
A tank with its vent open to the atmosphere is installed in the system above
the

highest

radiator

for

water

expansion. The water level in the

expansion tank rises and falls, as the
system is heated and cooled, and the
system is full of water and free from
air at all times. In the open-tank
gravity hot-water heating system,
the expansion tank is installed on a
riser directly above the boiler, so the
air liberated from the boiler water
enters the tank and is not retained in

Figure 15: Two Pipe, Open Tank System

the system.
One-Pipe, Closed-Tank System
A one-pipe, closed-tank gravity hot-water distribution system, as shown in
Figure 16, is similar to the one-pipe,
open-tank

gravity

hot-water

heating

system, except the expansion tank is a

pneumatic compression tank not open to
the atmosphere. When the water in a
closed-tank system is heated, it. expands
into the pneumatic compression tank.
This action permits system operation at a
much higher water temperature, without

Figure 16: One Pipe, Closed Tank System

boiling, than the temperature in the one-pipe, open-tank gravity system. This also
results in higher heat emission from the radiators.
b. Forced Circulation System

Forced-circulation hot-water distribution systems have several advantages.

They permit the use of smaller pipe sizes and allow the installation of radiators at the
same level as the boiler, or below, without impairing water circulation. By using a
circulation pump, a positive flow of water is assured throughout the system. In larger
installations, especially where more than one building is served, forced circulation is
almost invariably used. With the development of a circulation pump of moderate cost,
the forced-circulation system is being used more in small heating installations.
Even as in gravity systems, forced-circulation systems can consist of a onepipe or a two-pipe, upfeed or downfeed, and can be equipped with a direct or a
reversed return. Although these systems usually have closed expansion tanks, they
may have open tanks.
One-Pipe, Closed-Tank System
The general arrangement of a one-pipe, closed-tank, forced-circulation system
shown in figure 17, is similar to the one-pipe gravity system, but with the addition of
a circulating pump.
The circulation to individual radiators is improved by special supply and
return connecting tees. These tees, by an ejecting action on the distribution supply
main and an ejecting action on the return, combine to use a portion of the velocity
head in the main to increase circulation
through the radiators. Tees of this type also
aid stratification of hot and cold water
within the distributing main. They are
designed to take off the hot-test water from
the top of the main and to deposit the colder
water on the bottom of the main.
Figure 17: One Pipe, Closed Tank System

Two-Pipe, Closed-Tank System

The general arrangement of the piping and radiators for the two-pipe, forcedcirculation distribution system is the same as that for the two-pipe gravity system. The
relative locations of the compression tank relief valve and the circulating pump are
shown in figure 18.

Figure 18: Two-Pipe, Closed Tank System

Operation and maintenance

Hot-water heating systems require little maintenance other than periodic
checks to make certain that all air is out of the system and all radiators are full of
water. The circulating pumps should be oiled regularly according to the
manufacturer's instructions, and the pressure-relief valves should be checked
periodically.
Operator maintenance on the electrically driven feed pump consists mostly of
cleaning the pump and motor. However, the pump motor is lubricated according to
the manufacturer's specifications. Remember that not using enough lubricant can
result in the bearings running dry or seizing on the motor shaft. But, too much
lubricant causes the motor to become dirty, and it can result in the motor windings
becoming saturated with oil and burning out.
When a water leak develops around the pump shaft, tighten the packing-gland
nuts or repack the stuffing box as necessary. The strainer, installed between the pump

and the condensate receiver, should be kept clean to avoid any restriction of the flow
of water to the pump.
The maintenance of feed-water heaters and economizers normally includes
removing solid matter that accumulates in the unit; stopping steam and water leaks;
and repairing inoperative traps, floats, valves, pumps, and other such associated
equipment.

Conclusion
All water supply systems use a combination of pipes (of different dimensions
and materials), valves and outlets to deliver water to building users. Some water
supply systems also use storage tanks and pumps. Designing a water supply system
involves getting all of these elements right so that clean water is delivered to the user
at the appropriate rate and temperature
The purpose of water distribution system is deliver water to consumers with
appropriate quality, quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to describe
collectively the facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of usage. A
good water distribution should have the following characteristics:
1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with
sufficient pressure head
3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during fire
fighting.
4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water
supply, during the maintenance or repairing session of the system.
5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter away or
above sewer pipelines.
6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the
minimum.