Biology Notes- Evolution of Australia Biota

Distinguish between the processes if meiosis and mitosis in terms

of the daughter cells produced.

Definition

Type of Reproduction
Where does it occur?
When cells are separated
Crossing over
Function
Number of daughter cells
No. of Division
Chromosome Number
Creates

BY YUKI SUZUKI

Meiosis
Mitosis
A type of cellular
A type of asexual
reproduction in where the reproduction in where the
numbers of
cells are divided into 2
chromosomes are
producing replicas with
reduced by half by the
the same number of
separation of
chromosomes in each
homologous
diploid cells
chromosomes, producing
4 haploid cells.
Sexual
Asexual
Humans, animals, plants, fungi
All organisms
Different
Identical
Yes, mixing of chromosomesNo
Genetic diversity, sexual
Cellular reproduction for
reproduction.
growth and repair.
4 haploid cells
2 diploid cells
2
1
Reduced by half
Same
Sex cells for female egg
cells or male sperm cells

MS DAVO

Makes everything other than sex

cells

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

Mitosis
Interphase
- Initialising cell division
- Cells prepare to divide genetic materials double
Prophase
- Pairing of chromosomes
- Chromosomes thicken and shorten. Centrioles move to the opposite sides
of nucleus. Nucleus disappears and nuclear membrane disintegrates.
Metaphase
- Meeting of chromosomes in the middle
- Chromosomes arrange in the middle of cell, become attached to spindle
fibres by centromeres. Homologous chromosomes do not associate.
Anaphase
- Chromosomes are pulled apart
- Spindle fibres contract pulling chromatids to the opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase
- Two cells
- Chromosomes uncoil. Spindle fibres disintegrate. Centrioles replicate.
Nuclear membrane forms. Cells divide.

The division of the cytoplasm (Cytokinesis) after mitosis is necessary to

ensure the cells have the correct number of chromosomes. Mitosis doubles
the numbers of chromosomes in a single cell so the cell divides in two to
preserve the chromosome number (2n).

Meiosis

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

Prophase
- Chromosomes separate into homologous pairs
- Nuclear membrane breaks down
- Crossing over occurs
- Chromosomes split into chromatids
Metaphase 1
- Chromosomes align in pairs towards the middle of
cell
- Chromosomes attached by centromere
- Spindle forms at centre of cell making the
chromosomes pull away
Anaphase 1
- Chromosomes pairs separate, moves to opposite
end of cell
Telophase 1
- 2 Daughter cells form
- Chromosome number halved
Cytokinesis 1
- Daughter cells not identical, have half of the
original number of chromosomes
Metaphase 2
- Chromosomes align at the centre
- Spindle forms on the poles of the cell, pulling away
the chromatids
Anaphase 2
- Chromatids move apart, to opposite poles
Cytokinesis 2
- 4 daughter cells, not identical to each other, have
half the original chromosome number

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

Meiosis produces Gametes. Gametes are sex calls and

have half the normal number of chromosomes. Mitosis is
the process where the cell nucleus divides into 2.
In multicellular organisms mitosis occurs in the body cells
(somatic cells) for growth, repair and maintenance while
meiosis occurs in the Gonads (testes and ovaries) for
sexual reproduction.
Humans have 46 chromosomes known as the
diploid number (2n=46, 23 pairs of chromosomes).
Each haploid cell produced by meiosis has 23
chromosomes.

Variation in Meiosis
- Crossing over occurs where the arms of
homologous chromosomes exchange genetic
material.
- This occurs in the first stage of meiosis
- In this process the adjacent chromatids twist, split, and join up with different pieces.
- New combinations are made, by linked genes separated.
- Variation is produced in sexual reproduction
-

Meiosis produced into haploid cells which show variation produced random
segregation of the chromosomes pairs when crossing over.
Due to all the variations between individual gametes, there are many potential
combinations that can occur to form a zygote.
The variation of gametes is complex and cannot be determined.
The chromosomes carry genes which are heredity, where in meiosis this jumbles the
information to produce different combinations of physical features. Therefore
meiosis is the process of random segregation of chromosomes.
Compare and contrast internal and external fertilisation
External
Internal

Differences
- Large numbers of Gametes produced

Large number of male gametes but limited fema

Occurs in open water environments

Occurs inside female (terrestrial organisms)

Simultaneous spawning (release)

Male must copulate

Low chance of fertilisation

High chance of fertilisation

Young is vulnerable to external conditions

Protected and Safe within female body

More frequent reproduction

Less frequent reproduction

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

Similarities
Both male and female gametes required for fertilisation
Gametes are provided with a watery environment where fertilisation will occur.
All possible fertilisations will grow to form zygotes
If male and female gametes are in close proximity, fertilisation will occur.
-

Fertilisation is the brining together of haploid gametes. (Meiosis)

Sexual maturity must be met, eg. 13 years old for human sexually maturity, mice
can breed after 6 weeks old.

External Fertilisation
- Takes place outside the body
- Gametes are shed into the water, where the fertilised eggs develop into adults.
- Water ensures that the eggs and sperm do not dry out.
- The gametes and developing young are exposed to environmental facts such as
water currents, light, temperature, predators, huge amounts of eggs are released to
increase the chance of survival.
- This can be seen in fish breeding where thousands of eggs are laid so that some are
able to survive as when they are hatched they are vulnerable to many predators,
and when in egg form they are be disturbed by environmental factors.
There is no control over the gametes to meet, by where are ways to increase the chances
of this by:
- Cyclical reproductive behaviours
- Synchronised timing of gamete production and release
- The development of dating and mating behaviours of animals.
This is successful in an aquatic environment, allowing the gametes and young produced
after fertilisation to spread and live in large bodies of water.
Internal Fertilisation
- Occurs inside the body of the female in animals/female part of the plants.
- Further development of the new organism still needs water.
-

Direct transfer greatly increases the chance of successful fertilisation.

This is done by sexual intercourse (copulation)

In flowering plants the male gamete is the pollen and once the pollen lands on
the stigma in the female part of the plant, the pollen goes down the ovary and
the male gamete is transferred and the ovum is fertilised.
Male reproduction organ is called the stamen, with 2 parts; the anther and the
filament.
Meiosis occurs inside the anther, resulting in the formation of haploid pollen grains.
Consists of 2 haploid nuclei.

Female reproductive organ is called a pistil. Consisting of 1 or more Carpels found

at the centre of the flower. It consists of the Stigma, style and ovary. Inside the

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

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MS DAVO

Number of
offspring
Advantage

No mate needed.
Many offspring
produced quickly.
Time efficient. Less
energy.
Stable
environments very
little change.

Genetic variation
in the offspring.
Organism is
protected. Unique.
Creates an
evolution.

Disadvantag
e

No variation in the
offspring. Genetic
disease, offspring will
have too.
If change happens, it
is hard for them to
survive.

Requires both
sexes to
participate. More
energy

Examples

Spider plants,
bacteria, yeast,
jellyfish

Mammal, fish,
reptiles, birds,
insects

Discuss the relative success of these forms of fertilisation in relation to

the colonisation of terrestrial and aquatic organisms

Organisms in aquatic environments are successful in reproduction and survival as

they have adaptions suited to reproducing in this type of environment.
This means they have to completely rely on their environment in providing its water
for fertilisation.
Water protects the gametes from drying or heat stressed- dead.

However, in order to survive on land, organisms needed to overcome the

dependence on aquatic environments for fertilisation by providing their
own enclosed moist environment within the female reproductive territory,
protected from the dry terrestrial environment.

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

External Fertilisation
In an aquatic environment
-

Organisms attempting to carry out external fertilisation in aquatic

environments are highly successful.
Gametes do not dry out or dehydrate and they are able to survive in
water.
But at the same time they must produce large amounts of gametes to
compensate from other factors such as predators, disease, and dispersal
to unsuitable environments (temperature, currents).

In a terrestrial environment (land)

-

Organisms attempting to carry out external fertilisation on land are not

successful at all due to the reliance upon a water environment for
fertilisation and to transfer the gametes before they dry out.

Internal Fertilisation
In an aquatic environment
-

Internal fertilisation is not necessary adaptation for most aquatic species

as there is already water for fertilisation.
However it is successful in this environment.
Fewer gametes are required because of the higher chance of the gametes
uniting.

In a terrestrial environment
-

Internal fertilisation has only been possible on land because it does not
need water environment for fertilisation as they already is a moist
environment for the transfer of gametes.
Very successful as it is the mechanism for direct transfer of gametes which
avoids factors such as dehydration of gametes and loss by dispersal,
therefore fewer gametes are required.
Environment is enclosed in a confined space, protecting from predation
and disease.

Describe some mechanisms found in Australian flora for:

pollination
seed dispersal
asexual reproduction
(with reference to local examples)

Pollination

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther (male part) to the
stigma (female part) in flowering plants (angiosperms) where fertilisation
and reproduction can take place.
There are 2 types of pollination:
o Self-pollination
- Self-pollination is when the pollen matures and the anthers split
open releasing the pollen which usually deposits in its own
stigma.
- In many species the stigma and anthers of the flower mature at
different stages to prevent the self-pollination.
- E.g. Daisy and sun orchids self-pollinate.
- Fertilisation occurs after self-pollination, the gametes will have
come from a single parent.
o Cross-pollination
- Cross-pollination is when pollen from a flowers anther pollinates
a flowers stigma from a different plant.
- Gymnosperms (conifers) have only one method of cross
pollination, by wind.
- Wind pollination occurs when the anther release very light
pollen. And then large stigmas are well exposed in order to catch
the airborne pollen.
- E.g. Native pines and grasses use wind pollination.
- Fertilisation occurs after cross-pollination, the gametes will have
come from different parents. There will be a greater variation
shown by the offspring of plants because their parents are
different.

Seed dispersal
- After successful pollination and fertilisation of the flower, the seed
develops
- It is an advantage for a plant to spread or disperse its seeds over a wide
distance.
- This prevents overcrowding from occurring within the same plant species
and increases the chances of survival in situations of environmental
change such as fire.
- Seed dispersed by wind, animal, fire, water, or explosion.
- Wind- some seeds are designed to blow long distances like parachutes
(e.g. Dandelions have feathery parachutes to catch the wind and float
away.)
- Animal- seeds in fruits/berries after being eaten, the seed passes out in
faeces which also provide nutrients to the plant. (Mistletoe berries are
eaten by mistletoe birds and they deposit by faeces in a new area.
- Fire- Eucalyptus only release their seeds after occurrence of a fire,
exposing the capsules which release seeds for dispersal- advantages as
the seeds grow in uncompetitive environment.
- Water-seeds dropped by mangroves or water gums float in a protective
shell along rivers to other areas where it will grow.

Asexual Reproduction

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

Making a new individual without the use of sex cells or gametes. Only one
parent is required for the mitotic cell divisions to occur.
Some types of asexual reproduction are:
o Binary Fission - Bacteria
o Budding Coral and Yeast
o Spore formation Fungi and moss
o Vegetative propagation roses (plant cuttings regenerate)
o Fragmentation and Regeneration Starfish
o Parthenogenesis Honeybees and Gecko

Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual reproduction of a plant. Only one

plant is involved and the offspring is the result of one parent. The new plant is
genetically identical to the parent. New plants grow from parts of the parent
plant.
Parthenogenesis is the development of unfertilised eggs into adults (esp honey
bees). In honey bees every egg laid by the queen will develop whether or not
they are fertilised.
- Reproduction without fertilisation
- e.g reptiles, lizards.

Describe some mechanisms found in Australian fauna to ensure:

fertilisation
survival of the embryo and of the young after birth
Fertilisation
- To ensure fertilisation, sexually mature individuals need to be brought together
called mating.
- Many factors influence this by temperature, food, phases of moon, etc.
- Some adaptations of Australian species to ensure fertilisation include:
Eg. Sharks- the male gametes are transferred directly into the female through
claspers, going into the females opening.
Eg. Trout- They come together during the full moon of their mating season, and
release huge amounts of gametes together into the water.
Eg. Australian Brolgas- performs an elaborate dance before mating.
Survival of the Embryo and of the young after birth
- The shelled egg- Reptiles, birds, monotreme mammals laid shelled eggs to
prevent Desiccation.
- The shell of the egg allows gas exchange to occur but prevent water loss.
- Parental care (after birth)- laid eggs positioned so when hatched there is food.
Such as nests or burrows which provide protection and suitable environment- cool
temperature, etc.
- After birt, mammals suckle their young for milk, protection and care until
young is established assisting in survival.
o PROTECTION- eg. The shelled egg, pouch
o SUPPLY OF NUTRIENTS- eg. Mammals, young develop in uterus receiving
nutrients via the placenta.
o CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
o CONSTANT CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

Explain how the evolution of these reproductive adaptations has increased

the chanced of continuity of the species in the Australian Environment

Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
External fertilisation
Internal fertilisation
Parental care
Plants (self-pollination, etc.)

Example for External fertilisation

The chances of successful external fertilisation are increased by the synchronisation of the release
of gametes, reproductive cycles and the mating behaviours of each species. External fertilisation
and development means that parents spend less time looking after the young, but more gametes
have to be produced to ensure that some eggs get fertilised. The advantage of this method is the
high dispersal of young. The gametes are thrown into the sea and fertilised eggs are carried away
to settle in an area different to their parents. This reduces competition for food and living space for
the parent generation, and allows quick recovery of populations away from damaged areas.
Plants
Self pollination- less energy in production, grow in areas where the kinds of insects/animals that
might visit are little or absent. These plants species contain high proportions of individuals,
adapted to their environment.
Cross pollinators, such as insects, birds, mammals have become more effective and useful in
transferring pollen to the stigma for increasing population of that plant. As plants become more
specialized, so do the relationships of insects and animals.
Cross pollination ensure transfer of pollen between flowers/plants. Various fruit dispersal that has
evolved has increased the success of angiosperms. As they adapt and evolve, there are great
advantages, in the environment and animals which assist in pollination and seed dispersal

Describe the conditions under which asexual reproduction is

advantageous, with reference to specific Australian examples.
Advantages
- Dry conditions, where environment conditions are not favourable, plants
like spinifex grass survives and reproduces successfully by sending out
runners in harsh sand dune conditions such as high temperatures, salinity
and wind erosion.
- Low food supply- less energy to reproduce.
- Small mating population/ time constraints on finding a mate
- When stable conditions- offspring produced in asexual
reproduction are identical, therefore little chance of new types
evolving.
o E.g. the growth of coral to form the Great Barrier Reef by budding.
Which is good for breeding plants with characteristics
wanted.

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO

Through natural selection many Australian species have developed

specific adaptations to the environment, increasing the chance of
continuity and the successful survival of the species.

Bibliography
TutorVista.com- NCS Pearson (2015). Biology-Cells-Asexual
Reproduction[Internet] World Wide. Available from:
http://biology.tutorvista.com/cell/asexual-reproduction.html (Assessed
22/07/2015)
Spark Notes- B&N (2015). Introduction to cell reproduction [Internet]. Australia.
Available from : http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/cellreproduction (Accessed
19/07/2015)
Hartnell College- Nancy Wheat (2014). Biology [Internet]. America. Available
from: http://www.hartnell.edu/biology-tutorials (Accessed 19/07/2015)
Book: Kate,M and Judith,B (2000). Biology [Textbook]. Melbourne Australia:
Heinemann
Book: Diane Alford and Jennifer Hill (2004) Biology [Textbook] Australia: EXCEL
Mitosis/Meiosis images from:
http://bioap.wikispaces.com/Ch+13+collaboration+2010-2011
Flower image from http://image.tutorvista.com/content/feed/u1406/flower.jpg

BY YUKI SUZUKI

MS DAVO