HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE
OF

HARPER'S

FINE

ARTS

Edited

GEORGE

JOHN

study

E.

of

the

of

civilization.

the

higher

in

These

for
of

archaeology

and
to

reference

M.

selected

illustrations.

Ph.D.

Arch.,

Architecture,

of

University

GEORGE

of

Fine

HISTORY

BY

Arts.

Michigan

University

SCULPTURE

OF
GEORGE

PROF.

Ph.D.

Harvard

Preparation

In

EDGELL,

HAROLD

Professor

CHASE

HENRY

and
CHANDLER

PROF.

Harvard

HISTORY

BY

OF

PROF.

Harvard

HARPER

"

POST

RATHFON

University

PAINTING

ARTHUR

POPE

University

BROTHERS,
[ESTABLISHED

NEW

1817]

YORK

in

use

reader.

general

carefully

critical
evolution

authoritative,

and

Assistant

class

to

provide

the

the

ARCHITECTURE

OF

of

UNIVERSITY

relation

also

they

KIMBALL,

Professor

their
with

and

number

FISKB

of

in

histories

unusual

HISTORY

BY

results

prepared

learning,

interesting
an

HARVARD

and

are

of

contain

Assistant

latest

themselves

books

and
will

ARCHAEOLOGY

the

Arts

institutions

comprehensive,
volume

OF

embodying

Fine

Ph.D.

CHASE,

PROFESSOR

series

new

by

HENRY

HUDSON

SERIES

Each

FINE

HARPER

ARTS

SERIES

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE
BY

KIMBALL,

FISKE

PROFESSOR

ASSISTANT

OF

PH.D.

M.ARCH.,

ARCHITECTURE

UNIVERSITY

OF

MICHIGAN

AND

GEORGE
ASSISTANT

HAROLD
PROFESSOR

OF

EDGELL,
FINE

ARTS

HARVARD

PH.D.

UNIVERSITY

ILLUSTRATED

HARPER

y
NEW

PUBLISHERS

BROTHERS
YORK

AND

LONDON

Classification,

Decimal

HISTORY

Copyright,
Printed

OF

1918.
in

the

Published

by
United

720.9

ARCHITECTURE

Harper
States
March.

"
of

1918

Brothers
America

AftftiMdvrt
Ufbin

"

Planning

Library

"00

CONTENTS
PAGE

CHAPTER

EDITOR'S

xvii

INTRODUCTION

AUTHORS'

PREFACE

ELEMENTS

xxi
ARCHITECTURE

I.

THE

II.

PREHISTORIC

III.

PRECLASSICAL

IV.

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

49

V.

ROMAN

ARCHITECTURE

103

VI.

EARLY

VII.

BYZANTINE

VIII.

ROMANESQUE

IX.

GOTHIC

X.

RENAISSANCE

XI.

POST-RENAISSANCE

XII.

MODERN

XIII.

AMERICAN

XIV.

EASTERN

OF

ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE

CHRISTIAN

ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE

159

183
217
275

ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE

344
401

460
524
572

GLOSSARY

589

INDEX

605

ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE

FIG.

1.

STONEHENGE.

2.

GIZEH.

3.

BENI

4.

DER-EL-BAHRI.

5.

KARNAK.

PLAN

6.

KARNAK.

CENTRAL

(RESTORED
THE

HARTMANN)

BY

PYRAMIDS

OF

KHAFRE

OF

(RESTORED

KHUFU

AND

HOLSCHER)

BY

14

HASAN.

PORTICO
MORTUARY

TOMB

17

TEMPLE

HATSHEPSUT.

OF

STORED
(RE-

BRUNET)

BY

18

PRINCIPAL

OF

TEMPLES.

(BAEDEKER)

GREAT

TEMPLE

OF

AMON.

OF

HYPOSTYLE

THE

MODEL

IN

HALL

19

AISLES

THE

OF

METROPOLITAN

THE

MUSEUM
7.

20

DUR-SHARRUKIN

(KHORSABAD).

(RESTORED
8.

DUR-SHARRUKIN.

9.

BABYLON.

THE

PALACE

SARGON

OF

PLACE)

BY

PLAN

27
PALACE

THE
OF

SARGON.

OF

TEMPLE

THE

(PLACE)

PLAN.
NINMAH.

OF

28

(AFTER

KOLDEWEY)

31

10.

PERSEPOLIS.

PLAN

it.

PERSEPOLIS.

TOMB

12.

KNOSSOS.

13.

TIRYNS.

14.

MYCEN/E.

GATE

15.

MYCENAE.

PORTAL

PLAN

OF

OF

PART

PLATFORM

OF

(JACKSON)
(EVANS)

PALACE.

THE

ACROPOLIS.

THE

34

NAKSH-I-RUSTAM.

DARIUS,

OF

OF

PLAN

PALACE

THE

35

38

(RODENWALDT)

40

...

(RESTORED

LIONS

OF

OF

41
"TREASURY

THE

ATREUS."

OF

SPIERS)

BY

16.

ATHENS.

THE

PARTHENON,

17.

ATHENS.

THE

PARTHENON.

1 8.

ATHENS.

19.

THE

20.

THE

43
FROM

NORTHWEST

THE

53

...

ROMAN

IN

(RESTORED
MODEL

TIMES.

TO

ITS

METROPOLITAN

IN

CONDITION

MUSEUM)
.

GREEK

DORIC

GREEK

(AFTER

PROFILES

OF

FROM

THE

WITH

WEST

59

ORDER,
DURM)

GREEK

RETRANSLATION

INTO

61

DORIC

ARRANGED

CAPITALS,

IN

LOGICAL
CHRONO-

ORDER
22.

IONIC

63

ENTABLATURE,

RETRANSLATED

INTO

WOOD.

(AFTER

DURM)
23.

MAGNESIA.

24.

EPIDAURUS.

25.

ATHENS.

26.

AKRAGAS.

27.

GREEK

53

54

ORDER

DORIC

WOOD.
21.

ERECHTHEUM,

THE

66

TEMPLE

ARTEMIS.

OF

CORINTHIAN

CAPITAL

MONUMENT
TEMPLE

TRYSELL,
AND

AFTER

ROMAN

OF
OF

DETAILS.
OF

THE

(HUMANN)

...

69

LYSICRATES

OLYMPIAN

ZEUS.

(RESTORED

KOLDEWEY)
MOLDINGS.

67
68

THOLOS

BY

E.

H.
70

(REYNAUD)

..,.,.

7?

viii

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG.

PAGE

THE

28.

P.ESTUM.

29.

VARIETIES

GREAT

NEPTUNE."

"TEMPLE

SO-CALLED

OF

(CHIPIEZ)
OF

30. ATHENS.
31. MAGNESIA.

TEMPLE,

THE

PLAN

TEMPLE

THE

ACROPOLIS.

OF

THE

75

GREEK
AGORA

PLAN

77

(KAUPERT)
SURROUNDING

AND

81

....

BUILDINGS.

(HUMANN)
32.

EPHESUS.

33.

PRIENE.

88

THEATER

(RESTORED
"

R.

90
93

THE

"ARCH

BY

THE

106
108

...

116

PANTHEON

THE

(RESTORED

CONDITION

THE

AFTER

ISA-

BY

RESTORATION

THE

SEVERUS

117

ROME.

THE

FORUM

ROMANUM

44.

ROME.

THE

FORUM

ROMANUM

119
AND

SCHEMATIC

REPRESENTATION

ROMAN

THE

ROME.

PERORS.
EM-

THE
.

CONSTANTINE.

OR

THEATER.

THERMAE

123

DEVELOPMENT

THE

THE

OF

125

(RESTORED

ANDRE)

BY

CARACALLA.

OF

126

....

(RESTORED

PLAN.

BY

BLOUET)
49.

ROME.
BY

129

THERMAE

TEPIDARIUM.

(RESTORED
130

"PONT

THE

ARCH
OF
51. THE
TRIER.
PORTA
52.
53.

DIOCLETIAN.

OF

PAULIN)

50. N!MES.

ROME.

GARD"

DU

132

TITUS

134

NIGRA

MAUSOLEUM

135
OF

HADRIAN.

(RESTORED

VAUD-

BY

REMER)
HOUSE

54. POMPEII.
55. TIVOLI.

59.

(RESTORED

BY

G.

S.

CAESARS.

THE

PLAN.

(RESTORED

BY

141
OF

CORINTHIAN
OF

PLAN.

140
OF

PALACE

TEMPLE

136
138

PLAN

HADRIAN.

OF

KOYL)
PALACES
56. ROME.
DEGLANE)

THE

PANSA.

OF

VILLA

57. SPALATO.
58. ROME.

121

STORED
(RE-

(FIECHTER)

THEATER.

47. OSTIA.

OF

OF

GROMORT)

BY
(RESTORED
OF
MAXENTIUS,
D'ESPOUY)

BASILICA
BY

FORA

THE

PLAN.
45. ROME.

no
m

CARREE"

OF

97

MAISON

INTERIOR

....

VESTA"

OF

COLOSSEUM

"THE

ZIPPELIUS)
HULSEN)
BY

AUGUSTUS"

OF

"TEMPLE

N!MES.

(RESTORED
BY
(RESTORED

43.

48.

(RESTORED

96

BELLE), SHOWING

46.

94

APOLLO.

OF

VIEW.

TEMPLE.

38. PERUGIA.

OF

PRECINCT

AND

BIRD'S-EYE

42. ROME.

(WIEGAND)
TRIDENT.
(P. PARIS)

SMYTHE)

H.

39. TIVOLI.
40. ROME.

PERIOD.

XXXIII."
OF

ETRUSCAN

37. AN

HELLENISTIC

THE

FIECHTER)

TEMPLE

36. PRIENE.

41.

BY

HOUSE

HOUSE

34. DELOS.
35. DELPHI.

DURING

DIOCLETIAN.
CAPITAL

CASTOR

METROPOLITAN

AND

(RESTORED

BY

ENTABLATURE

AND

POLLUX.

(RESTORED

HEBRARD)
FROM

CAST

IN

MUSEUM)

DEVELOPMENT

IN

ROMAN

ARCHITECTURE

THE

RELATIONS

142

THE

145
OF

ARCH

AND

COLUMN

IN

147

ILLUSTRATIONS

ix

FIG.

PAGE

60.

ROMAN

CELLULAR

VAULT.

61.

ROMAN

LAMINATED

62.

MOUSMIEH.

(Cnoisv)

PRiETORIUM.

151

(CHOISY)

151

(DE VOGUE)

153

VAULT.

EARLY
CHRISTIAN
CHURCHES
OF
63. PLANS
EARLY
CHRISTIAN
CHURCHES
OF
64. ELEVATIONS
SAN
CLEMENTE.
PLAN
SHOWING
ROME.
65.
66.

ROME.

WALLS.

OUTSIDE-THE-

LORENZO

67. ROME.

SAN

ROME.

SAN

INTERIOR

FUORI-LE-MURA.

LORENZO
SANT'

69. RAVENNA.
70. ROME.
71. ROME.

ATRIUM

THE

SAN

APOLLINARE

STEFANO

INTERIOR
INTERIOR

Nuovo.

ROTONDO.

COSTANZA.

SANTA

EXTERIOR

FUORI-LE-MURA.

....

INTERIOR

SECTION

164

SEEN

ENTRANCE

THE

FROM

68.

PAUL'S

SAINT

160
162

167
167
169
169
170

SHOWING

TION
CONSTRUC-

THE

171
72. TOURMANIN.
73. KALAT-SEMAN.

THE
THE

MUSEUM.

74. BERLIN

GOWSKI)

75. RAVENNA.
OF

BASILICA
BASILICA
THE

THE

RESTORED

FRIEZE
"

172

SAINT

OF

SIMEON
MSCHATTA.

FROM

175
GALLA

OF

PLACIDIA.

DRAWING

BYZANTINE

CAPITALS

EXTERIOR

THE

VITALE.

EXAMPLES

SAINTS

OF

SERGIUS

BYZANTINE

BACCHUS.

AND

189

CHURCHES

SECTIONS

81.

CONSTANTINOPLE.

HAGIA

SOPHIA.

EXTERIOR

82.

CONSTANTINOPLE.

HAGIA

SOPHIA.

INTERIOR

190
191
LOOKING

ARD
TOW-

APSE

THE

THE

192

VATICAN.

INTERIOR

OF

MANUSCRIPT
THE

CONSTANTINOPLE.

CHURCH

ILLUMINATION
OF

HOLY

THE

SHOWING

APOSTLES

AT

(DIEHL)

84. CONSTANTINOPLE.
85. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.
86.

THE

194

HOLY

APOSTLES.

CHARLEMAGNE'S

PLAN,

CHAPEL.

RESTORED

195

INTERIOR
.

CONSTANTINOPLE.

THE

VIEW

KILISSEDJAMI.

FROM

THE

199

-(PHOCIS).
EAST

THE

MONASTERY

SHOWING

Two

THE

SAINT

OF

LUKE.

CHURCHES.

VIEW

FROM

(SCHULTZ

AND

BARNSLEY)

200

VENICE.

SAINT

MARK.

PLAN

89. VENICE.
90. VENICE.

SAINT

MARK.

VIEW

88.

SAINT

MARK.

INTERIOR

201

FROM

PIAZZA

THE

TOWARD

LOOKING

92.

CHURCH
(LAKE
VAN). THE
SOUTHEAST.
(LYNCH)
MANASSIA
(SERBIA). (POKRYCHKIN)

93.

CONSTANTINOPLE.

91.

AKTHAMAR

PLAN

OF

THE

SACRED

SEEN

202

....

APSE

THE
FROM

203

THE

204
206

PALACE,

RESTORED.

(EBERSOLT)
94.

HAYDRA.

95.

PLAN

THE
OF

196

EAST.

(EBERSOLT)
87. STIRIS

178
185
187
188

80.

OF

PLAN

PLAN

SAINT IRENE.
78. CONSTANTINOPLE.
BYZANTINE
CHURCHES
OF
79. PLANS

THE

173

(STRYZ-

MAUSOLEUM

SAN
76. RAVENNA.
77. CONSTANTINOPLE.

83. ROME.

STYLITES

SAINT

MANUSCRIPT.

209

FORTIFICATIONS,
GALL.

REDRAWN

(PORTER)

RESTORED.
FROM

(DIEHL)
THE

NINTH

211

CENTURY
222

ILLUSTRATIONS

x
FIG.

PAGE

ONE

96.

LORSCH.

97.

EARL'S

98.

SANTA

MARIA

99.

PLANS

OF

BAY

BARTON.

OF

THE

ELEVATIONS

101.

MILAN.

102.

MILAN.

103.

MILAN.

SANT'

104.

VERONA.

SAN

105.

PISA.

SECTIONS

AND

SANT'

VAULT

224

PLAN

RIBS

DRAWING
INTERIOR

AMBROGIO.

ONE

OF

230

LOOKING

TOWARD

THE

APSE

THE

231

THE

EXTERIOR

AMBROGIO.

GENERAL

ZENO.

CATHEDRAL

232

VIEW

233

LEANING

AND

TOWER,

SEEN

FROM

SOUTHWEST

235

106.

PISA.

CATHEDRAL.

PLAN

107.

PISA.

CATHEDRAL.

VIEW

236
INTERIOR

THE

OF

LOOKING

ARD
TOW-

APSE

THE

108.

237

CATHEDRAL.

CEFALU.

VIEW

OF

WEST

THE

END

239

....

109.

MONREALE.
MONREALE.

112.

PAULINZELLE.

113.

SYSTEMS

114.

DRUBECK.

115.

SPEYER.

116.

SYSTEMS

AND

THE

241

OF

PLAN

CAPITOL.

THE

242

....

PLAN

242

GERMAN

CHURCHES
ROMANESQUE
ONE
OF
BAY, SHOWING

DRAWING

243
SYSTEM

THE

244

PLAN

245

RHENISH

OF

ri7. SPEYER.

VIEW

THE

FROM

THE

INTERIOR

LOOKING

247

CATHEDRAL.

VIEW

TROPHIME.

119.

ARLES.

120.

CLERMONT-FERRAND.

SAINT

SECTION,

246

....

OF

APSE

THE

8. MAINZ.

CATHEDRALS

ROMANESQUE

CATHEDRAL.

TOWARD

121.

122.

TOULOUSE.

THE

248
248

PORTAL
PORT.

DU

HALF-BARREL

NOTRE

NORTH

MAIN

DAME

NOTRE

SHOWING

CLERMONT-FERRAND.
THE

NAVE

THE

OF

CHOIR

MARY

SAINT

OF

LOOKING
240

THE

OF

COLOGNE.

INTERIOR

THE

SYSTEM

CATHEDRAL.

in.

OF

APSE

THE

EXTERIOR

1 1

VIEW

CATHEDRAL.

TOWARD
no.

VAULT
DAME

TRANSVERSE

OVER

DU

AISLE

THE

PORT.

VIEW

249

OF

END

EAST

250

SAINT

THE

SERNIN.

INTERIOR

SEEN

FROM

THE

WEST
123.

229

BAY, SHOWING

(MOORE)

SUPPORTS.

AND

227

CHURCHES

ROMANESQUE

OF

AMBROGIO.

SANT'

225

CHURCHES

ROMANESQUE

100.

223

TOWER

NARANCO.

DE

GATE

BASILICAN

THE

251

PERIGUEUX.

SAINT

FRONT.

GENERAL

VIEW

THE

FROM

SOUTHEAST
124.

POITIERS.

125.

VEZELAY.

252
NOTRE

DAME

LA

GRANDE.

VIEW

OF

WEST

THE

END
SEEN

253

CHURCH
FROM

MADELEINE.

THE

THE

INTERIOR

VESTIBULE

THE

254

ORNAMENT

126.

ROMANESQUE

127.

JUMIEGES.

128.

CAEN.

THE

129.

CAEN.

SAINT

130.

IFFLEY.

TOWARD

OF

ABBEY

THE

PARISH

255

CHURCH.

ABBEY

THE

CHURCHES.

ETIENNE.

VIEW

SYSTEM

SYSTEM
OF

THE

256
OF

INTERIORS

THE

INTERIOR

257

LOOKING

APSE
CHURCH.

258
VIEW

OF

THE

WEST

END
.

259

ILLUSTRATIONS

xi

FIO.

PAGE

131.

DURHAM.

CATHEDRAL.

132.

DURHAM.

133.

BEAUVAIS.

VAULTS

PARISH

136.

LEON.

GERMANY,
139.

PLANS

140.

SECTIONS

ABD

141.

AMIENS.

WEST

142. AMIENS.
INTO

143.

EXAMPLES

144.

REIMS.
CROWNS

BUILDINGS

280

CATHEDRAL

THE

OF

VIEW

OF

281
ING
LOOK-

INTERIOR,

THE

283
VAULTS

286

VIEW
IN

DEVELOPED

GOTHIC

CONOID,

VAULTS

THE

SHOWING

1914,

VIEW

AFTER
LEVEL

THE

VAULTS

287
DIRECTIONS

THE

OF

WINDOWS,

288
.

SHOWING

INTERIOR,

THE

THE

OF

(MOORE)

ABUTMENT.

THROUGH

AND,

OF

SHOWING

THEIR

AND

VAULTS

THE

GOTHIC

OF

D'ESSERENT.

LEU

FRANCE,

IN

276
278

CATHEDRAL.

THRUSTS

SAINT

....

CATHEDRALS

BOMBARDMENT

VAULTING

THE

146.

AND

MEDIEVAL

OF

145. GOTHIC

263
264
265
269

APSE

THE

THE

AISLE

ENGLAND

FRONT

FIRST

THE

THE

CATHEDRAL.

OF

262

NORTH

THE

FORTIFICATIONS

GOTHIC

SYSTEMS

THE

THE

....

BUILDINGS

GOTHIC

OF

OF

261

SYSTEM

AND

OF
OF

ITALY

OF

(MOORE)

VIEW

PLAN

VIEW
PLANS

138. COMPARATIVE

ONE

PLAN

ISIDORO.

GENERAL

137. AVILA.

CHURCH.

SOUTHEAST

THE
OF

SUPPORTS.

SANTIAGO.

SAN

FROM

DRAWING

ITS

AND

135. COMPOSTELA.

VIEW

ETIENNE.

SAINT

MORIENVAL.

260

GENERAL

CATHEDRAL.

AISLE
134.

PLAN

FLYING

THE

BUTTRESSES

289

OF
147. ARRANGEMENT
DEVELOPMENT
THE

OF

149.

PLANS

150.

PLANS

OF

OF

EAST

THE

152.

CHARTRES.

153.

SENLIS.

THE

LONDON.

161.

GLOUCESTER.

162.

ROUEN.

292

....

OF

GOTHIC

THE

PILR

293

EXAMPLES

OPENING.

294

SPIRE

296

SPIRE

297
VIEWED

CATHEDRAL
OF

NORTH

THE

BEFORE

300

1914

PLAN

CATHEDRAL,

INTERIOR

FROM

OF

THE

301

SEEN

THE

FROM

CATHEDRAL,

NORTHEAST

302

TOWARD

LOOKING

END

303

WESTMINSTER
THE
SAINT

ABBEY.

CATHEDRAL.

OUEN.

ANGEL

THE

CHOIR

304

....

CHOIR
HENRY
INTERIOR

305
VII. 's CHAPEL
OF

CLOISTERS

THE

306
307

308

SYSTEM

WEST
THE
SAINT VULFRAM.
163. ABBEVILLE.
VIEW
MACLOU.
THE
SAINT
OF
164. ROUEN.
SPIRE

CHURCHES,

TRACERY

THE
CATHEDRAL.
158. LINCOLN.
THE
SYSTEM
THE
OF
159. YORK.
160.

291
ILLUSTRATING

...

THE

157. SALISBURY.
EAST
THE

CUT

CHEVET

THE

WINDOW

THE

CATHEDRAL.

SALISBURY.

MENT
DEVELOP-

THE

GOTHIC

OF

SOUTHERN

BOMBARDMENT

155. CHARTRES.

156.

BAR

THE
THE

154. REIMS.

FIVE

OF

DEVELOPMENT

THE
OF

AND

THE

AND

TRANSVERSE

DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENT
PLATE

ILLUSTRATE

TO

290

ENDS

ILLUSTRATING

OF

AND

BUTTRESS

THE

CHAPELLE.

SAINTE

THE

151. THE

DETAILS

FACADE

THE

THE

148. PARIS.

MONUMENTS

PORTALS
WEST

FRONT

309

AND

31"

ILLUSTRATIONS

xii

PAGE

PIG.

165. BAMBERG.
1 66. MUNSTER.

CATHEDRAL.

PLAN

CATHEDRAL.

SYSTEM

167. FREIBURG.
1 68. FREIBURG.

THE

MINSTER,

THE

MINSTER.

169. MARBURG.

SAINT

TOWARD
170.

172.

SOUTHEAST

THE

313

SYSTEM

314

THE

LOOKING

INTERIOR,

315

316
VIEW

OF

THE

317

CATHEDRAL

GIRALDA

AND

TOWER,

SEEN

SOUTHWEST

THE

318

PLAN
SAN
FRANCESCO.
173. ASSISI.
THE
CATHEDRAL.
174. FLORENCE.
TOWARD

LOOKING
175. ORVIETO.

INTERIOR,

THE

LOOKING

APSE

THE

FROM

FROM

ELIZABETH.

CATHEDRAL.

SEVILLE.

312

SEEN

HALLENKIRCHEN

OF

171. TOLEDO.
TOWARD

311

APSE

THE

SYSTEMS

SYSTEM

AND

THE

319

VIEW

INTERIOR,

THE

OF

APSE

THE

CATHEDRAL

320
SEEN

FRONT,

FROM

WEST
SOUTH-

THE

321

176. MILAN.

EXTERIOR

OF

177. AlGUES-MORTES.

CATHEDRAL

THE

GENERAL

VlEW

OF

322
THE

ClTY

THE

FORTIFICATIONS

AND

CATIONS
FORTIFI324

178. CARCASSONNE.
179.
1

80.

GENERAL

COUCY.
A

MEDIEVAL

THE

182.

SAINT

OF

DWELLING

GROUNDS,

CASTLE

DESTRUCTION

HOUSE.

TOWN

OF

THE

ITS

BEFORE

COUNTRY

181.

VIEW

VIEW

DONJON

THE

CITE.

LA

IN

1917

(VIOLLET-LE-DUC)

OF

MEDARD-EN-JALLE.

MEDIEVAL

SKETCH

OF

326

327

....

PEASANT.

LET-LE-DUC)
(VIOL328
LET-LE-DUC)
(VIOL-

MANOR.

THE

325

SHOWING

329

183. YPRES.

CLOTH

THE

BOMBARDMENT

184. BOURGES.
185. FLORENCE.
1 86.

SIENA.

OF

MAISON
THE

CAHORS.

THE

189. FLORENCE.

PONT

333

DUCALE

334

CATHEDRAL

igi.

FLORENCE.

PAZZI

336

FROM

SAN

OF

SOUTHEAST

THE

347

LORENZO

348

CHAPEL

349

PALAZZO

MEDICI-RICCARDI

350

PALAZZO

RUCELLAI

351

SANT'

ANDREA.

INTERIOR

CERTOSA
NEAR
PAVIA.
195. THE
PALAZZO
VENDRAMINI
196. VENICE.
197. ROME.
198. ROME.

332

PUBBLICO
VALENTRE

190.

194.

331

VECCHIO

PALAZZO

INTERIOR

MANTUA.

THE

330

PALAZZO

FLORENCE.

192. FLORENCE.
193. FLORENCE.

BEFORE

APPEARED

CCEUR

JACQUES

PALAZZO

THE

IT

AS

1914
DE

THE

187. VENICE.
1 88.

HALL

LOGGIA

OF

AT

ROME.

SAINT

PETER'S.

200.

ROME.

PALACE

OF

RAPHAEL.

201.

ROME.

LOGGIA

OF

THE

202.

ROME.

PALAZZO

203.

ROME.

MASSIMI

353
354

SAN

199.

DELL'

FACADE

CHURCH

THE

"TEMPIETTO"

352

OF

SAN

PIETRO

IN

MARCO

355

....

MONTORIO

INTERIOR
MADAMA.

AQUILA.

PALACES.

357

(RESTORED

VILLA

PLAN

356

BY

HOFFMANN)

INTERIOR

(RESTORED

BY

GEYMULLER)

358
359

360
362

xiii

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

FIG,

MEDICI

CHAPEL

204.

FLORENCE.

205.

VENICE.

PALAZZO

GRIMANI

206.

VENICE.

LIBRARY

OF

207.

THE

DEVELOPMENT

SAN

AT

LORENZO

364
365

MARK

SAINT

RENAISSANCE

OF

TYPE

363

CHURCHES

OF

CENTRAL

367
369

"

FARNESE

208.

ROME.

PALAZZO

209.

ROME.

PALAZZO

210.

EARLY

RENAISSANCE

211.

"HIGH

RENAISSANCE"

212.

BLOIS.

213.

PARIS.

FARNESE.

(AFTER GROMORT)
DETAILS.
(AFTER GROMORT)
SHOWING
WINGS
THE
CHATEAU,

OF

(AT BACK)

XIII
COURT

214.

PARIS.

THE

215.

PARIS.

DETAIL

216.

SEVILLE.

TUILERIES.

217.

GRANADA.

218.

HEIDELBERG.

219.

NORNBERG.

220.

MONT

221.

HATFIELD

222.

ROME.

223.

ROME.

SAINT

224.

ROME.

THE

225.

VICENZA.

THE

226.

VICENZA.

VILLA

227.

MILAN.

PALAZZO

228.

VENICE.

SANTA

PALACE

CHARLES

OF

WING

OTTO

OF

PELLER
HOUSE.

V.

375

381

COURT
IN

CASTLE

THE

390

HOUSE

391

(GOTCH)

393
394

PETER'S

SAINT

OF

PETER'S

AND

DOME

VATICAN.

THE

FROM

(GROMORT)

404

EAST

THE

405

CAPITOL

SAN

383
385
387
388

389

HEINRICH

HOUSE
PLAN

373

OF

HALL

TOWN

ACUTE

TIONS
CONSTRUC-

(PLANAT)

TUILERIES.

THE

(AT LEFT)

I.

(ORIGINAL
GOUJON)
PLAN)
(DE L'ORME'S

AND

FROM

FRANCIS

AND

LOUVRE.

THE

OF

LESCOT

OF

371

DETAILS.

COURT

Louis

PLAN

406

BASILICA

407

ROTONDA

408

MARINO.
MARIA

229.

ROME.

230.

BAGNAIA.

231.

THE

ESCURIAL.

232.

THE

ESCURIAL

233.

SEVILLE.

234.

BLOIS.

WING

235.

PARIS.

COLONNADE

COURT
SALUTE

DELLA

A' CATINARI.

CARLO

410

413

CHAPEL

OF

CECILIA.

SANTA

(Ricci)

415
VILLA

LANTE.

(TRIGGS)

PLAN.

417

PLAN

420

421

ALTAR

OF

CHURCH

THE

OF

EL

SALVADOR.

BERT)
(SCHU422

236. VERSAILLES.
237. VERSAILLES.

GASTON

OF

OF

THE

D'ORLEANS

PALACE

PLAN

OF

425

LOUVRE

THE

FROM

THE

427
PLACE

PRINCIPAL

THE

D'ARMES
.

FLOOR

OF

(GROMORT)
239.

PARIS.

240.

VERSAILLES.

241.

PARIS.

242.

VERSAILLES.

243.

LONDON.

THE

244.

LONDON.

SAINT

245.

LONDON.

SAINT

246. BLENHEIM

428
429

GALERIE

THE

238. VERSAILLES.

PALACE.

THE

PLACE

DE

431
432

TRIANON

ST.

OF

PAUL'S
FROM

FRONT

437

....

THE

APARTMENTS

OF

HALL, WHITEHALL

BANQUETING
PAUL'S

433

PRINCIPAL

DENIS.

DETAIL

PALACE

GLACES

CONCORDE

LA

PETIT

PORTE

DES

CATHEDRAL.
CATHEDRAL
THE

FORE-COURT

PLAN

Louis

XV.

437
439
440
441
443

xiv

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG.

247.

PAGE

PARK

PRIOR

248. CLIFFORD

NEAR

BATH

445

CHAMBERS

249.

LONDON.

250.

DRESDEN.

251.

DRESDEN.

252.

PARIS.

253.

BERLIN.

254.

PARIS.

255.

KEDLESTON.

446
MARY-LE-BOW

SAINT

CENTRAL

449

PAVILION

OF

ZWINGER

THE

450

....

FRAUENKIRCHE
CHURCH

451

SAINTE

OF

BRANDENBURG
ARC

THE

(THE

PANTHEON)

465
466
467
468

GATE

TRIOMPHE

DE

THE

256. LONDON.

GENEVIEVE.

L'^TOILE

DE

DOMED

SALOON

BANK

ENGLAND,

OF

LOTHBURY

ANGLE.

(RICHARDSON)
257.

468

THE

EDINBURGH.

HIGH

ROYAL

258. BERLIN.
259.
260.

LIVERPOOL.

(RICHARDSON)

470

....

THEATER

OLD

LONDON.

SCHOOL.

470

NEWGATE

PRISON.

(RICHARDSON)
(RICHARDSON)

473

....

261.

EATON

262.

LONDON.

SAINT

GEORGE'S

BEFORE

HALL,

HOUSES

ALTERATION

267.

FLETE

268.

HOARCROSS.

COURT

269. PARIS.

CHAMBERS.

CATHEDRAL

(MUTHESIUS)

OF

PARIS.

OPERA

271.

PARIS.

CHURCH

272.

BRUSSELS.

273.

ROME.

274.

PARIS.

READING-ROOM

275.

PARIS.

OPERA

HOUSE.

276. PARIS.

GRAND

BAZAR

494

495

HOUSE

496
SACRED

THE

OF

PALAIS

MONTMARTRE

HEART,

JUSTICE

DE

MONUMENT

OF

II

499
NATIONALS

BIBLIOTHEQUE

THE

PLAN
DE

BERLIN.

WERTHEIM

PLATZ.

278. GARE

DU

DE

STRUCTION
(LA CON-

RENNES.

510

STORE.

FAC.ADE
BAUFORMEN)

279.
280.

VIENNA.

STATION

281.

BERLIN.

TURBINE

282.

PALENQUE.

283.

TRANSVERSE

ON

FACTORY

(AEG).

COMPANY

LEIPZIGER

RAILWAY.
GENERAL

THE

CIVIL)
.

(Lux)

OF

PALACE

288.

WESTOVER,

289.

NEW

YORK.

OF

TYPICAL

AND

TEMPLES.

MISSION
THE

WHIPPLE

AND

FOUNTAIN

CABILDO

BUILDING.

530
531

HOUSE

535

VIRGINIA
SAINT

MAYA

526
528

CATHEDRAL

ORLEANS.

287. IPSWICH.

514

525
SECTION

(HOLMES)
CITY.
284. MEXICO
BARBARA.
SANTA
285.
NEW

513

516
THE

(HOLMES)

286.

511

ELECTRIC

(HOEBER)
PLAN

SKETCH

OF

THE

510

METROPOLITAN

THE

OF

TO

(LE GENIE
(MUTHESIUS)

INTERIOR.

WINDERMERE.

LAKE

502

508
RUE

LA

(MODERNE
QUAI D'ORSAY.

BROADLEYS

497
497

EMMANUEL

VICTOR

TO

MODERNE)
277.

491
493

....

ANGELS

GENEVIEVE

SAINTE

BIBLIOTHEQUE

270.

HOLY

THE

479

492

HOBLETON.

CHURCH

475

481
485
489

(SEMPER)
(MUTHESIUS)

THEATER.

ZEALAND
NEAR

LODGE,

PARLIAMENT

OF

WESTMINSTER

LONDON.

(EASTLAKE)

1870.

IN

CLOTILDE

SAINTE
263. PARIS.
OLD
264. DRESDEN.
NEW
265. LONDON.
266.

HALL.

537

PAUL'S

CHAPEL

539

ILLUSTRATIONS

xv

FIG.

PAGE

REDWOOD

290.

NEWPORT.

291.

RICHMOND.

292.

BOSTON.

293.

NEW

294.

PHILADELPHIA.

LIBRARY

VIRGINIA

540
ORIGINAL

CAPITOL.

MODEL

541
.

STATE

HOUSE

YORK.

CITY

543

HALL

544

BANK

OF

UNITED

THE

(CUSTOM

STATES.

HOUSE)
295.

WASHINGTON.

296.

SALEM.

297.

WASHINGTON.

298.

NEW

299.

545
UNITED

STATES

WHITE

BOSTON.

547

HOUSE

FIERCE-NICHOLS

YORK.

CAPITOL

548

HOUSE.

TRINITY

ORIGINAL

(HOBAN'S

DESIGN)

549

CHURCH

TRINITY

551

CHURCH,

ORIGINALLY

AS

BUILT.

(VAN

RENSSELAER)

553

300.

BOSTON.

PUBLIC

LIBRARY

301.

ROCKVILLE.

302.

CHICAGO

303.

ASHMONT.

CHURCH

304.

BUFFALO.

GUARANTY

305.

NEW

306.

CHICAGO

307.

OAK

308.

CTESIPHON.

GARDEN

554

"MAXWELL

OF

EXPOSITION.

COURT"

COURT

OF

ALL

OF

555

HONOR

557

SAINTS

559
.........

(PRUDENTIAL)

BUILDING

561
....

309.
310.
311.

YORK.

WOOLWORTH

BUILDING

EXPOSITION.

TRANSPORTATION

CHURCH

PARK.

OF

ROYAL

CAIRO.
GRANADA.

OF

THE

DETAIL

563
564

(DIEULAFOY)

573

MOSQUE

OF

MOSQUE

BUILDING.

UNITY

THE

PALACE.

INTERIOR

CORDOVA.

562

AMRU.

575
PLAN

576

COURT

ALHAMBRA.

LIONS

OF

577
....

312.

AGRA.

THE

313.

KHAJURAHO.

MAHAL

TAJ

578
.

TEMPLE
THE

314.

JAVA.

315.

ANGKOR

WAT.

316.

PEKIN.

THE

317.

Uji.

CHANDI

OF

VISHNU

MENDOOT.

SOUTHWEST

581
(SCHELTEMA)

ANGLE

OF

THE

582
PORTICOES

583
.

THE

TEMPLE
PHENIX-HALL.

OF

HEAVEN

(CRAM)

584
585

EDITOR'S

Fine

Harper's
and

student

histories
the

last

has

been

or

of

of

have

has

excavator

those

to

evidence

"

therefore,

which

have,

been
the

endeavor

results

of

results
than

of

by

the

points.

Most

modern

research

in

of

and

The

for

need
be

to

treatises, which

authoritativeness

by

can

unless

consider

to

all

them
of

single

have

no

are

the

they

has

It

summaries

met

some

statements

summarize

to

such

better

and

incorrect.

series

new

books,
hand-

older

respects,

proved

of

ments
monu-

light

traditional

investigation

peared,
apand

spade

to

the

in many

this

seems

elaborate

more

writers

ments
monu-

have

The

brought

repeat

by

books

important

and

and

been

of

single

to

ago.

of

possible.

as

gain

the

volumes
sating
compen-

work

of

collaborators.

many
In

weighing
them

to

seems

bibliographies,
for

further

works
some

most

the

of

rather
and

all

to
cases,

to

show

conflicting theories
the

evidence,

to

and

probable,
titles of books

study.

large number
chosen

of

case

every

after

In

of

past

generalizations

decade

known,

cases,

many

the

clearly

as

in

Hundreds

the

new

recently published

more

the

special periods

to

of date"

out

are

During

of

artists,

many

already

authoritative

monuments

modified
even

added

disputed

on

of those

or

the

increasing thoroughness

or

greatly

for

painting.

scholars.

individual

to

generation

the

constantly

of monuments,

groups

theories

of

study

well-trained

devoted

which

the

with

pursued

articles

the

but

and

sculpture,

provide

to

concise

reader

general

years

number

is intended

Series

architecture,

twenty

great

and

Arts

the

of

INTRODUCTION

They

emphasize
their

also, they

not

of

monuments

any

to

view

give,

to

will

be

given
the

emphasized

in

which

selected

helpful

found

attempted

important

relation
have

then

tried,

have

the

present

which

have

writers

the

to

period,

discuss
but

have

and

characteristic

whole

development.

certain

aspects

of

EDITOR'S

xviii

INTRODUCTION

their subjectsat the expense of others.

The development of
American
art has been discussed
at rather greater length than
has

been

in similar

customary

that American

writers

usually received
the books

at

merits

art

hands

the

books, since it
fuller treatment

of critics and

to

seems

than

the

it has

historians.

As

for Occidental

intended

readers,Eastern art, in
spiteof its historical importance and intrinsic value, is treated
in a single chapter. Throughout, the endeavor
has been to
consider
to

are

of the past in the lightof the present, to try

modern
which
to that
has preart is related
ceded

the art

show

how

it.
of the books
In the arrangement of the material the use
by
classes has been constantlykept in mind, and headings for
sections

paragraphs have

or

been

freelyintroduced

throughout

the three volumes.

One

other

show

how

times

and

the

constantly kept before

is to trace

development,

to

of any
period grew out of that of earlier
conditioned
that of later days. Too many

art

in turn

older

of the

have

office of the historian

The

them.

writers

principlethe

histories

written

uphold a particular
system of aesthetics or to glorifya particularphase of artistic
development, frequently in a particularcountry.
Many of
these books
valuable
are
as
expressionsof the judgment of a
critic

or

as

and

records

of the

taste

of

to

an

age.

But

for the

ginner
be-

often
confusing.
they are
him
unfair
and
tend
at an
to warp
disadvantage
They place
Discussions
of aesthetic principlesand statehis judgment.
ments
of the consensus
of critical opinion may
properly find
place in an elementary book, but expressionsof purely personal
and
theories
which
have
been
not
judgments
generally
accepted should be eliminated so far as possible. The aim of
in
the writers of this series has been to point out the qualities
the works of any period which have appealed most
stronglyto
of those works
and
the creators
to endeavor
to emphasize
what
has enduring value.
It is hoped that the resulting
fulness.
"objectivity"of the books will add materiallyto their useThe
years,

the

were

general reader

problem of illustration is always difficult.

histories of art

opposite tendencies,

and

the

one

similar

toward

books
a

have

In

recent

exhibited

large number

two

of illus-

XIX

trations

on

but

advantage
or

statues

of

showing

small

very

those
of

of

this

matter

the

publishers,

the

writers

number

for

others.

of

They

in

middle

full-page

hope

that

the

with

of

they

have

has

the
the

text,

the

that

works.

In

co-operation
providing
for

of

especially
of

number
hit

small

upon

HARVARD

UNIVERSITY,
1917.

H.

siderable
con-

portant
imcuts

"golden

mean."
GEORGE

the

buildings
latter

individual

course,

larger

tions,
illustra-

system

illustrations

much

few

most

of

tried,

toward

former

reader

details

have

and

monuments

the

steer

to

The

mentioned

clearly

more

other

the

before

paintings

or

size.

large

bringing

the

scale,

CHASE.

AUTHORS'

have

last

the

During

has
research

twenty
back

pushed

been

another

multitude

generalizations
still

instance,
Etruria
of

made

the

that

uniformly
of

architecture

have

agreements

questions
and

is

of

history

life

that
any

expressiveness,

styles
is

and

other

recognized
of

criterion

Roman

and,

the

misleading
that

in

of

which

Freed

Renaissance

of

of

of
of

and

art,

of
is
in

and
into

with

all, it ?"

of

branches

of

impartial

influence

is

dogmatic
baroque
can

ganic
or-

the

to

historical

of

conformity
other

way

the

it is understood

important
in

in

supposed

decay

and

by

sought

inevitable

from

styles

material

analogy

give

architecture,

of

between

as

on

fluences
in-

affirmation,

than

an

new

spiritual

forms

rather

from

attitude

formation

many

the

fact.

influence

Most

in

modern

the

of

cited, where

one-sided

forced

be

must

architecture,

the

use

feature

instances

part

abandoned,

criticism

importance.

especially,

growth

history

"

in

of

analogy.

the

development
of

idea

not

must

history, subjective
study

The

generally

now

material

the

of

d'etre

raison

necessity.

structural

The

and

evolved

application
be

for

the

orders

changes

the

writers,

The
formal

purely

balance

to

nineteenth-century
environment.

characteristic

the

creation

in

the

questions

on

interpretation.

emphasized,

now

Greece

Greek

could

been

spontaneous

and

are

Assyria

that

Similar

reached
have

of

forced,

inconsistent

an

architecture

been

been

the

constructions.

important

Equally
many

was

modern

and

mediaeval

that

given direction,

of

thrown
over-

which

have

Egypt

over

or

century

suppositions

proportions

arched

to

Scholars

velopment
de-

Minute

modified

has

nineteenth

the

the

in

orders

the

advance

any

arch,

Roman

of

its later

chapters.

new

special points

architecture

and

millennium,

of

abandon

to

origins of

by wholly

repeated.

often

too

the

years

enriched

been

on

PREFACE

receive

the

appraisal,
architecture,
the

exposi-

PREFACE

AUTHORS'

xxii
tion

to

which

The

modern

their diffusion entitle therri.

their influence and

historian,like Chesterton's modern

his subjectsnot halters and halos, but voices.
In the

apportionment of
from the tendency

stylesat great length

few

words.

and

it has

Here

No
death

date

of traditional

is followed

is

in this book

space

of older

discuss

the

modern

as

space

on

to

is

parture
de-

ancient

developments with
thought better to give progressively

suggested

art;

works

there

recent

over

pass
been

greater emphasis and

poet, gives

times

marking

as

contrary, the

are

proached
ap-

supposed
development
a

the present day, in a belief in unending creative

architect and
vitality. Thus it is hoped that the professional
to

others

already

familiar

matter

of interest to them.

accordance

In

with

with

the

the

usage of most
is confined
architecture

Renaissance

still find

subject may
recent

new

writers,the

buildingsof the
Renaissance
in its more
restricted sense
(to about 1550 or
the later developments
to cover
1600), and is not extended
of classical forms.
The
need of a generaldesignationfor all
of the works
of the followingperiod, whether
academic
or
term

in

free

character, is

scholars

strong

to

and

German

one.

Italian

attempted to include them all by an extension

of the term
baroque architecture,but such an extension is
tion
violathe originalsense
of baroque and
a
a departure from
both
and of English usage.
of French
In consequence
the

have

authors

have ventured

:
self-explanatory

attempt has been made

The

to

present each styleas

growth and change, rather than as

of some
monuments
supposed apogee,
of

the
The

later

forms

which

term
new
a
propose
post-Renaissancearchitecture.

to

have

too

general development

often
of

been
the

based

formula
with

respect

treated

style

is

as

thing

on

to

is

the

which

corrupt.

first sketched

and these are

with little descriptionof individual monuments,
discussed
then
at length in sections
illustrated and
more

development of singleforms and types.

to each
A chronologicaloutline is added
chapter, with a
extended
note, including references to more
bibliographical
guides to the literature of the subject.
illustrations have
been
The
selected,in conformity with
devoted

recent

to

the

tendencies

both

in architecture

and

in

archaeology,to

AUTHORS'

show

far

so

in

noted

B.

the

who

have

the

authors

and

Co.,

other

the

Frank

and

Academy

at

Lloyd

Rome

furnished

kindly
been

A.

(Chapters

VI
which

portion
the

the

have

well

been

by

book

which

deals

Page

the

otherwise
could

Mr.

have
not

be

not

M.

A.

American

Museum,

which

drawn

Messrs.

Charles

as

would

terial
ma-

reproduce

to

Metropolitan

plates

rights
copy-

their
to

Ferguson,

as

which

Certain

Evans,

P.

portion

The

with

and

obtainable.

and

as

Doubleday,

permission

Wright,

photographs

directly
Mr.

Cram

Messrs.

of

also

Sons,

for

Co.,

of

use

thanks;

Putnam's

P.

Macmillan

material.

Platt,

cordial

produced,
re-

sources,

owners

the

permitted

extend
G.

the

the

are

original

To

courteously

Ltd.,

photographs
the

from

but

monuments,

from

illustrations.

of

xxiii

and

not

are

possible,

as

list

Batsford,

T.

"

which

Those

ensemble.

details

isolated

merely

not

PREFACE

have

duced
repro-

Gulick

B.

and

Jr.
of

to

the

IX)

deals

chapters

has
with

on

been

written

ancient

and

Eastern

with

by

the
Mr.

modern

architecture,

the

Edgell;
times,

by

Ages

Middle

Mr.

together
Kimball.

F.

K.

G.

H.

E.

OF

ARCHITECTURE

HISTORY

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

CHAPTER

ELEMENTS

THE

the

From
threefold

problem

traits, and
to

the

problem

of

brief

the

had

once

modious,
com-

sense.

universal

historical

duction
intro-

an

solutions

factors

constant

and

human

As

constant.

Each

possibilities

own

and

varied

these

of

area,

surrounded

inclosed

practical

separating
these

rooms

light

and

of

deserve

secure

building
grouped

good
must

about

sheltered

from

intended
in

there

buildings
their
or

for various

sizes
occupy

and

kept

several

the

there

courts

of

may

be

no

roofed

elements

chimneys.
interior
and

In

the
or

strict

all

partitions,

accommodated
When

these

provision

complicated.

interior,

greater

other

stories, the

or

the

course

weather.

relationships.

relatively thin

interior

primitive buildings

uses,

becomes

light throughout

is of

certain

be

must

intercommunication

be

also

windows,

doors,

"

the

still

and

brought

existence,

into

buildings

usefulness

numerous,

of

which

by walls, requires

rooms

uses

are

of

space

simplest

the

need,

compelling

majority

need

to

the

at

artistic

its

degree

architecture

primary,

brings

but

of

study

the

to

conditions

certain

structures

offers

natural

has

discussion.

The

for

to

build

to

problem

in

architecture

history

satisfying

the

thus

its

aim:

and

difficulties, rooted

the

of

or

of

phases

the

ARCHITECTURE

OF

beginning

strong,
of

the

less

To
of

masses

must

rooms

be
In

area.

division

of

of

the

OF

of different

functions
to

HISTORY

intended

the

functions
of

number

for other

one

and

rooms

through

pass

ARCHITECTURE

In

uses.

become

be necessary
courts, and it may
intended for one
to reach
use
advanced

more

and
specialized,

communication

construction

distinct class of elements

is created.

Corridors

and

stair-

of circulation which
do not
halls provide means
disturb
The
the privacy of individual apartments.
provisions for
the

reception of strangers

and

for

are

then

service of the establishment

the
also

carrying on of
separated from

the
the

privateportionsof the building.

Like these gradations in complexity of function, there are
also gradations in geometrical organization,which
affect
convenience

well

as

as

The

appearance.

elements

of

the

be of quite irregularshape,
and courts
plan rooms
may
juxtaposed without attention to their mutual
relationships
outline.
Elsewhere
the
be
to
or
resultinggeneral
they may
made
predominantly rectangular,the outline may be brought
tween
beto some
regular geometrical form, and communications
the elements
be provided at points on
their
may
A further degree of organizationmay
several axes.
result
from
the carrying through of a general axis of symmetry
of the building,or possibly
to the principalelements
common
from the establishingof two
or
more
important axes, usually
at rightangles. In the most
highly developed buildings there
"

"

be

may

multitude

and

forming with
schemes
permit a
whole, and

of minor
them

as

is

to
a

forms

resistance
sufficient

above

force it out
over

at

which

mere

compress

axes

Such

the

labyrinth.
provisionof inclosed

measure

the

these main

of the
components
of the arrangement, without which

against the various

to

to

confused

of construction,

weight

oversight of

grasp

it might prove only

Essential even
to

related

complex but orderlysystem.

clear

mental

axes,

forces

well

of

disintegration,
of strength. In the simplest of all
solid wall, the only tendency is for
or

crush

the

material

below

remedy is to increase
given pressure acts by thickening
sides.

as

space,

The

the

or

to
face
sur-

the wall

With
foundations, where the
safetyis amply attained.
soil is compressible,it is equally essential that the pressure
shall everywhere have the same
relation to the bearing power
and
cracks
will
of the soil,otherwise
unequal settlements
until

ELEMENTS

THE

As in any

result.

OF

wall

ARCHITECTURE

pierthe

or

the bottom

at

stones

have

weight to sustain than those above, there is

manifestlymore
a
logicalsatisfaction and often a real necessityfor making a
than at the top, either by occasional
wall thicker at the bottom
increases or by a constant
slope. Ordinarily the margin of
weight of the material
safetyallowed is so great that the mere
itself,
except in very high walls, does not actually necessitate
a
slope,and other considerations,practicalor artistic,
may
render

Thus

it undesirable.
with

surfaces

of

those

as

of
as

when

only

for

story of

foundation

wall

cut

rests

stone

find vertical

concentrated

upheld. Another

occurs

when

material

a weaker
material,
upon
of rubble or
a basement

on

ordinary soil.

upon

to

where

be

floors,must

increasingthe thickness
greater compressive strength rests

occasion

usual

more

of thickness

increases

weights, such

it is

These

conditions

are

frequently responsiblefor the existence and the forms of

belt courses
horizontal
or
as
moldings
string courses
they
called
at the level of floors or at the junctionof different
are
"

"

materials
Instead

supports
columns

be a series of isolated
wall there may
With
circular columns
or
piers of other forms.

of

"

continuous

even

increase

the
the

with

than

more

of diameter

the top.

the base

toward

Here, also, it is

walls

common

or

to

it is usual

to

find

an

"diminution"

toward

find transitional

bers,
mem-

capitalsupporting the load above, the base spreading

weight

on

the substructure.

tween
spanned, either in a wall or beisolated supports, new
or
problems arise. In a beam
supported only at its ends the action of gravity produces
the
usual
those
not
crushing tendency upon
only
tions
por-

Where
lintel

at the base.

and

openings are

which

large enough
shear the beam

bear
to

to

be

be made
its supports, and which
must
resist this,but also produces a tendency to
on

pointwhere the support ceases

and a tendency to bend and finally
to break it in mid-span.
or
Against both these tendencies, stone, with its crystalline
granular structure, offers a resistance very feeble relatively
to its weight. The
more
tendency to break increases much
and cost
rapidlythan the distance spanned, and the difficulty
of getting larger blocks likewise increases beyond all proportion.
Thus
be
for
stone
but
lintels can
used
rarely
spanacross

justat

the

HISTORY

OF

ning intervals of more

twenty-four feet is the

extreme

fibrous nature

on

long

span

beams

of

small

cost.

When
any

form

case

of wood,

and

steel have

feet, and

instance.

in modern

is to be used
masonry
when
only small stones

of arch

of

ten

clear span

The

of

lightnessand

times

immensely greater strength and

must

be

horizontal
form

than

it well fitted to
the contrary, make
distances,provided the weight above be not too

Iron

great.

ARCHITECTURE

arch

is the

to
or

span

bridge wide
brick

are

employed, and a new

thrust, appears.
corbeled

made

at

at

possible
relatively

openings,or in
command,
element
A

arch, built up

some

of disintegratio

rudimentary
in horizontal

in front of the course

projecting somewhat
the center
of the opening. The
below, finallymeeting over
true
arch differs from
this in having radiatingjoints,being
composed, in principle,of wedge-shaped blocks called voussoirs.
It may
be semicircular,elliptical,
or
pointed of tall
of the arch
or
squat proportions. The weight of the crown
tends to push the two
is relasides apart with a force which
tively
ones.
greater in broad, low arches than in tall,narrow
The sides requireto be abutted by masses
of earth or masonry,
to be brought into equilibriumby the counter
thrust of other
arches, or, failingthese methods, to be connected
by a tieIn a continuous
rod.
arcade, or series of arches restingon
piers or columns, the thrusts neutralize each other and produce
merely vertical pressure on all the intermediate
supports.
the
A massive
abutment
is thus needed
at
and the
ends,
only
slender.
interveningpiersmay be more
Covering the spaces inclosed by the walls are the roofs,
of forms influenced by the climate,
which take on a multitude
the shapes below.
the materials, and
Only in a rainless
climate can
roofs be perfectlyflat and jointspenetrate them
all other conwithout
ditions
overlapping protection. Under
any
there must
be a slope of greater or less degree to
from rain or melting snow.
If there is a
carry off the water
continuous
impervious covering like clay, tar, or soldered
be almost
metal, the slope may
imperceptible,and the roof
still form
a
terrace, reasonably flat. If the covering
may
material
is of small, overlapping pieces like shingles,slate,
have a
tiles,the roof,to insure the shedding of water, must
or
courses,

each

"

'

either to make

it is necessary

great weight

before

climates

southern

the roofs

off the

steep enough to throw

or

it accumulates

deep fall of
strong enough to

is

there

Where

pronounced inclination.

5'

ARCHITECTURE

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

dangerously.
demand

To

and

port
supsnow

merely

assume

flatter roofs

snow

northern

that
ones

a
generalization.
steeper roofs is obviously too inaccurate
than the
less
factor
The climate, in most
is
a
important
cases,

The
covering material.
by the shape

of the

form
of the

to

be

also

may

covered

be

or,

fluenced
inversely,
con-

the arrangement
adopted may
govern
of the plan. A pitched or sloping roof requires
and uniform
narrow
relatively
buildingsif the ridge is not to
is not to become
rise wastefullyhigh and the form
overof building to
complex. A terraced roof permits the masses
be of any shape and size. In either case
there are
practical
well
for
where
artistic
roof
treatment
as
as
reasons
a special
the

and

wall

of roof

areas

roof

form

With

meet

once

terraced

roof

there

is need

of

parapet, breast-high; with a sloping roof there is need of a

projectingcornice, to support a gutter or to keep the drip
from

the

The

clear of the walls.

eaves

support of the roof and

its form

on

the interior raise

further

questions. If the width is small, beams

span
may
directlyfrom wall to wall, or two sets of inclined rafters,
at the ridge. With
meet
restingon the walls, may
greater

widths

there

of wood

or

of

members

metal

supporting over
must

either be intermediate

must

wide

so

span;

be vaults of arched

resistingfire,but

form
semi-cylindrical

continuous

or

masonry.

they have

suitable abutment.
or

framed

domes

or

braced

to be

as

self-

else,instead of either,there
Vaults have the advantage
horizontal

Vaults
"

and

trusses

supports,

thrusts

of continuous
or

barrel vaults

which

quire
re-

hemispherical
"

necessitate

by thick walls. Vaults composed of

intersectingsurfaces or resting on arches, however, may
have their thrusts concentrated
at a few points,where
they
be met
by walls or projectingbuttresses which are more
may
there is but a singlecovering
efficiently
disposed. Sometimes
of beams
and trusses
to the building: a roof construction
their forms
the interior,or vaults show
on
directly
appears
a

on

the

abutment

exterior.

desired to

adapt

More

often, however,

exterior and

greater freedom

interior coverings to

is

their dif-

HISTORY

6
ferent
roof

functions.

beams,

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Thus

ceilings
may
roofs
independent

or

be introduced

constructed

below

the

above

the

vaults.
with

goes
most

desire for

strength and practicalusefulness

often a conscious strivingfor artistic effect. Even
in the
utilitarian buildings,indeed, there must
always be a

Along

certain

measure

forms.

Thus

the

in the

of choice
there

selection

of materials

of

or

is

inevitablysome
expression of preferences
which
consciously or unconsciously,artistic. It
are,
is the sum
of such expressions,
partly of conscious preference,
partly of traditional usage, partly of natural conditions and
which constitutes the artisticcharacter of a
practicalnecessity,
structure.

The

artistic ideas which

expressed are of many

different sorts.
The adaptation of the buildingto its practical
and relationships
of its various parts,
functions, the purpose
be made
The
clear.
civic,
specificcharacter
religious,
may
be emphasized. The
nature
military,commemorative
may
of the environment
be mirrored
in picturesquenessor
may
formalityof design. The size or "scale" of the building may
be unmistakably declared through features the size of which
may

be thus

"

"

bears

human
may

of

relation to
necessary
figure. The treatment

the

used

materials

of the

materials

or

to

the

themselves

bring out all their characteristic possibilities

color,texture, or veining. The principlesof the structural
be such

system
made

to

as

be

may

evident.

expressed
shade.

in

Finally

the

the

there

raison
the

are

d'etre of every
ideas of pure

sizes, shapes, colors, and

mere

domain

This

and

revealed

of pure

form

is the

one

detail

form,

light and

which

tecture
archi-

painting and sculpture. In architecture,

but abstract
and
however, the forms are not representative,
which
none
geometrical,and there is,besides, one possibility
of
of the other arts possesses.
It is that of creating forms
shares

interior space,

within which

architectural

there may

with

expressions and
be

greater

and

interest.

with

others, and

buildinginvolves
creation.

the observer

or

Certain
each

the sacrifice

in
less

their

stands.
mutual

In all these

relationships

mony,
degree of consistency,har-

incompatible
expressions are even
fusion of expressionsin a single
of many
others, and is a unique

ELEMENTvS

THE

At

given

the

period

constructive

or

formation,

Even

will

be

be

the

also

in

that,

and

and

tend

same

speak

of

work

popular
Others

1907.

with

dealing
in

in

every

to

Architectural

Essentials

of Composition,

discussions
4

vols., 3d

1898-1901.
pt.

I, vol.

and

pt.

others,
2

IV,

in

styles

occur

ed.,

1909,

The
2,

3d ed.,

Handbuch

Die

vol.

J.
and

i,

1904.

and

is

J. Belcher's

more

ed.,

Guadet's
L.

about

comes

the

of

men

of

forms
in

language,

the

guage.
lan-

spoken

common

of

will

in

varying
which

every

we

mean

architecture.

NOTE

of

Essentials

architecture

in

audience

and

J. V.

1908,

191,3.
Elements

Cloquet's

der

theory

professional

Composition,
26.

thousand

vocabulary

sort,

there

instincts,

generation,

elements

English

Robinson's

it

languages,

historic

the

addressed

Thus

employ

to

the

civilizations,

neighboring

common

of

this

Often

origin.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

Works

architectural

and
the

perpetuating

artistic

architectural

province

speak

we

have

tend

is these

and

their

of

common

they

of

directions.

geologic

isolation

restrictions

of

and

definite

few

materials

the

by

of

many

certain

the

by

or

varied

older

place

that
It

country

in

one

to

way

when

of

expression

the

time

one

influence

of

however,
of

use

custom,

methods

exercised

steadily

of

force

and

peculiarities

conditions,
are

imposed

be

may

if there

the

region,

The

constant.

climatic

by

given

systems

inhabitants.
there

in

or

remain

elements

ARCHITECTURE

OP

Architektur

Systematic
et theorie

Traite

d'

by

Architektonische

Komposition

Van

and
de

by

2d
H.

Pelt's

tal
fundamenV

similar

J. Buhlman,

J. B.

are

architecture,

architecture,

contains

Bauformenlehre

Architecture,

vols.,

material:

ed.,

Wagner

1901;

and

CHAPTER

II

PREHISTORIC

Prom

the

period
a

The

the

to

gradual

in the

time
in

in

other

of

in

of
had

and
in

It is thus

earlier

The

time,

and

stone

age.

period,
lived

men

dugouts,
age,

by
or

floors

of

these

and
over

whole

the

and
of

to

less

favored

raise

Huts

built

raised

were

hostile

Sometimes
In

above

attack,
the

the

these

Swiss

huts
and

the
as

as
even

Italian

pile dwellings,

caves

later

the

or

stone

polish

to

methods
reeds

and

the

Sometimes

ground

well
were

chipped,

in

poles

roofs.

piles,

on

against
built

lakes
remains

complete.
in-

lithic
paleo-

the

soil, new
of

much

still

learned

till the

the

are

the

iron.

trace
at

age,

had

cattle, and

thatched

and

place

In

stone

American

to

dwelt

They

they

were

peoples

still crudely

hides.

when

clay, with

able

stone

were

and

the

bronze

regions

earlier

made

the

best

are

fishing.

poles

added.

of

we

were

development

found
of

and

tools

still in the

regions, took

the

period,

water.

villages

in

this

ignorant

instruments

tents

against

vermin.

favored

hunting

in

with

protection

that

when

were

plastered

Europe

During

implements,

housing

still

more

and

were

have

ferent
difat

for

used

Egyptians

turn

peoples

which

neolithic

or

stone

in

their

time.

successive

advances

Europe

of

among

through

completed

central

in

central

which,

changes

The

same

was

advancement

were

corresponding

of

other

of

iron

there

periods

the

passed

already

Europeans

Indians

much

and

preglacial

the

history

great

over

degrees

culture.

inhabitants

and

age,

of

which

of

recorded

Men

bronze,

stone,

branches

the

their

mists

the

were

greatly.

Mesopotamia

while

lasting

although

and

weapons,

of

beginnings

varied

which

in

development

peoples,

ages

mankind

development

steps

given

of

origins

down

ARCHITECTURE

for

animals
on

there
of

piles
were

which

ARCHITECTURE

PREHISTORIC

ings
rudimentary beginnings of carpentry. The dwellever,
were
already surpassed in importance at this time, howby sepulchers of the dead and religiousmonuments.
of -stone, usually not composed of many
These
small
were
blocks which
singly
pieces,but "megalithic" of enormous

show

the

"

sufficed for

pair of

wall

such

blocks

roof.

or

with

Tomb

chambers

covering slab

made

were

of

constitutingwhat

"

'ESfjgfvaj

"^fffm

FIG.

called

are
a

mound

Other

"

dolmens.
of

(RESTORED

STONEHENGE.

Sometimes

earth, or

monuments,

were

which

BY

these

were

preceded by
may

well

HARTMANN)

have

buried
covered
had

beneath
corridor.

religious
and
singlestanding pillars,
A menhir
in Brittany had
a

the menhirs, or
are
significance,
the cromlechs, or circles of stones.
the extreme
height of seventy feet. The most famous of the
cromlechs
is at Stonehenge near
Salisburyin England (Fig.i).
It had two
concentric circles of tall standing stones, with
lintels resting on them, minor
circles of smaller stones
just
inside of each, and a great "altar stone" within.
The ages of bronze and iron.
With
the discovery of the art
of working metals began the bronze age, which
made
possible
more

advanced

works

of carpentry

and

masonry.

This

oc-

io

curred

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

in central

Europe about
pile dwellings on

of

improved

of

Italy with

their

resting on
but
they

the

conical

or

domical

in

northern

walls

roofs

of

such

moats,

introduction

of

terramare
once

first circular

earliest

climates, by

huts

rectangular

the

the

as

came

at

were

assumed

gradually

ridge.

land,

These

ground.

The

and

Following villages

B.C.

2000

huts

pitch

more
or

oval,
The

shape.
later

were

roof

iron, which

with

took

placed,
re-

tudinal
longiplace

in central

but
Europe about the seventh
century B.C., made
little change in the manner
of building. Architecture
there
remained
influenced
shoots
essentiallyprimitive until it was
by offof the highly developed styleswhich
the
grew
up about
Mediterranean.
eastern
To
study their rise will be the
object of the following chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

NOTE

work
ure
comprehensive and authoritative
prehistoricarchitecton
is lacking. Monographs
individual
sites and
monuments
on
Reference
to be listed here.
be made
must
abound, too numerous

certain

general works

covering

the

prehistoric period, such

as
Sir John Lubbock's
Prehistoric
M.
Hoernes's
Times, yth ed., 1913;
Primitive
English
Man,
translation, 1900
(Temple Primers); and
Urgeschichte der Kultur, 3 vols., 1912
(Sammlung
Goschen); or to
works
which
limited
cover
regions. Hoernes's
Urgeschichte der
bildenden
E. A. Parkyn's Prehistoric
Kunst, 2d ed., 1915, and
Art,
For the developunfortunately do not include architecture.
ment
1915,
in prehistoric Europe, principally dealt with
in this chapter,
Manuel
all, J. Dechelette's
d'archeologieprehistorique,
see, above
to
celtiqueet romaine, 2 vols., 1908 ff.(primarily devoted
France,
but with some
references
countries
to other
and full bibliographical
notes), and S. Miiller's Urgeschichte Europas: Grundzuge einer prahistorischen Archaologie,translated
from
the Danish, 1905;
French
L 'Europe prehistorique, 1907.
translation:
consult
For
England
R. Munro's
Prehistoric
(Home
Britain, 1914
University Library),
T. R. Holmes
Remains
's Ancient
B.
C.
A. Windle's
Britain, 1907, or
On
the pile dwellings see
of the Prehistoric Age in England, 1904.
R. Munro's
The Lake
Dwellings of Europe, 1890.
to

III

CHAPTER

ARCHITECTURE

PRECLASSICAL

EGYPT

in

the

third

fertile

the

not

in

them
built

workmanship
Khufu

by

2800

B.C.,

works

in

Although
laid

is not

only

bulk,

but

over

level,

it with

the

of
at

was

variety

first

the

utmost

the

residences

light and

greatest

the

almost
of

conditioned

grandeur

and

of the

dead

the

exclusive

the

adoption,

of

as

the

dominant

feet

on

from

side, it
its

excavations
its

the

its

was

gencies
diver-

uniformity

constructive

fine

and

temples,
with

sufficed
was

stone,

for

sought
which
and

abundance,
types,

This

demanded

which

permanence

in

which

summarize

to

in contrast

which

vealed
re-

thousand

three

tombs

gods,

of

has

architecture.

for

houses

furnished

execution.

reports

during

of the

employment

Valley

in

of

permanence

living.

Nile

perfect

instruments.

of

Such

following

of all architectural

religious beliefs,

and

to

Pyramid,

years

exist, yet it is possible

by

seems

and
sides, in squareness,
in measuring
probable error

art,

characteristics

ized
central-

of

course

relatively temporary

the

cliffs

The

to

the

Petrie

surveying

Egyptian

supposed

enduring

largely

was

in

own

life, quite different

active

certain

his

modern

most

fifty

that

equality

characteristics.

years

than

greater

no

General

in

in

most

and

accuracy

exactness

Great

considerable
the

great

Euphrates

The

burial-place
most

the

the

comparable

magnitude,

hundred

such

the

of

of

strong

monuments

any

of

one

earliest

under

and

Tigris

own

the

seven

with

out

the

or

his

as

from
in

of

reached

was

beginning

the

the

building

were

possessed

have

to

yet

At

Christ, when

tombs

valley

architecture

Nile.

the

before

royal

rule,

of

valley

millennium

Egyptian

of

development

first notable

The

of

the

the
even

by
the

by

the

simple

12

and

mass,

used

of the

ARCHITECTURE

column

and

the lintel. The

the earliest

from

it had

where

OF

HISTORY

ample

times, was

abutment

confined

and

members, moreover,
were
size and massiveness, although sometimes
in certain

cases

of

composition
buildings. These were
continuous

in

the open

on

its broader

With
by columns.
permitted, rooms

the
could

generally
of

The

of

great
ment
refine-

extreme

delicacy. Traditional

recurred

plan

interior colonnade

opening

room

of

even

to substructures

little in view.

was

architectural
and

ally
arch, occasion-

in

court, often

ments
ele-

types of
many
surrounded
by a

and the rectangular

peristyle,
front, with its ceilingsupported
or

flat roofs which

the

rainless climate

be

other
juxtaposed without
any
restraint than the necessityof light. Partly as a consequence
of religious
beliefs,partly doubtless from natural preference,
the architectural members
were
usuallycovered with sculpture
in relief,
color.
tecture
Archieverywhere blazing with harmonious
formed
an
equal union with sculpture and painting.
the lotus and the papyrus,
The rich flora of the Nile, especially
furnished
the principalmotives
of ornament,
and even
gested
sugof structural

the form

members.

architecture

Egypt, from its earliest

to the Christian era, shows
traces
a
continuityof character
fluence.
never
destroyed and scarcelyinterruptedby any foreign inThe
early Semitic invasion from Asia by which the
of the Egyptian language is explained must
have
structure
taken place long before our
remotest
knowledge. The varied
essentiallya native one,
development of Egyptian art was
of a
resultingfrom the interaction and successive supremacy
number
of local schools, raised to prominence by the political
importance of their centers.
Thinite period. The
earliest of these schools to attain a
that
of This, a city about
twogeneral predominence was
Development.

The

thirds of the way

from
became
the capitalof

under

one

south

about

rule

the

3400

the Delta

to the

Menes, who

earlier
B.C.

of

First Cataract.

first succeeded

kingdoms of

His

successors

the
of

in

north
the

This

bringing
and

the

First

and

Dynasties, so-called, lived here for perhaps four

The
hundred
slightremains of architecture preserved
years.
Sun-dried
from
this period indicate a primitive condition.
and
brick wa.s the principal
material, although stone masonry
Second

PRECLASSICAL
the arch

ARCHITECTURE
introduced.

13

The

rudimentary forms
of the tomb
and of the temple displaya similarity
to the form
in later times
of the house which persists
fundamentally even
and indicates a common
derivation from the simple dwellings
of the people.
With the transference
Memphite period,or "Old Kingdom"
of the seat of government
to Memphis, a littlesouth of modern
Cairo, began the first of the great floweringsof Egyptian art.
Under
the kings of the Third
ually
Dynasty the royal tombs gradtook the form of pyramids, and with the first king of the
Fourth
the culmination
of Memphite
Dynasty, Khufu, came
architecture
in the Great
Pyramid at Gizeh (Fig.2). The
of the
successors
buildings of this king and his immediate
"Old
of size and workmanship
set a standard
Kingdom"
afterward
never
equaled. The architectural forms, though
of the greatest refinement.
The
colonnade
was
simple,were
and the halls of temples, and the
employed in the courts
characteristic and beautiful "papyrus" or "lotus bud"
column
its appearance.
After a gradual decline Memphis
first made
A
lost its importance with the close of the Sixth Dynasty.
ensued, from which
period of relative barrenness
emerged
about
the
monarchs
of
the
eleventh
and
2160
B.C.
powerful
later dynasties whose
dom."
Kingreigns constitute the "Middle
Their seat was
Thebes, again in Upper Egypt, a little
even

south

were

soon

of This.

Theban

period: "Middle Kingdom" and "Empire." With

them
of Theban
nated
began the long supremacy
art, which domithe development of Egyptian architecture,directlyor
the Romans.
The
to the end of its historyunder
indirectly,
invasion
who
the country
of the Asiatic "Hyksos"
overran
caused
interim from about
an
1675 to 1575, but the empire
which
followed
picked up the thread almost at the point
where
the Middle
had dropped it. Though the
Kingdom
buildingsprevious to the invasion have been mostly swept
by subsequent rulers, they apparently furnished the
away
prototypes of the temple and other buildingsin their later
form.
On the expulsion of the invaders followed the age of
of the Eighteenth and
greatest splendor,under the monarchs
Nineteenth
Dynasties,whose monuments,
reaching from the
Fourth

Cataract

to

the

Euphrates,furnish

the usual

idea of

PRECLASSICAL
architecture.

Egyptian

following 1500
Bahri, of Abu
shrines of
and

ARCHITECTURE

B.C.

In the three
built the

were

Simbel, and

Luxor, the tombs

hundred

of the

and

fiftyyears

great temples of Der-el-

of Medinet

Elephantine,the superb

15

the

Habu,

halls and

of Karnak

courts

valleys behind

delicate

Thebes

half,

"

of

Egyptian architecture.
Columnar
architecture was
magnifiedto a scale seldom equaled.
Columns
sixty to seventy feet high in a few instances, with
lintels of a clear span
of twenty-four feet, were
the
among
structural triumphs of this relativelybrief period of world
empire and artistic magnificence. At its close the artistic
III.,
impulse had spent itself. The buildings of Ramses
heaviness
of
last of the great imperialPharaohs, already show
Under
the kaleidoscopic
design and carelessness of execution.
Tanite, Libyan, and
usurping dynastiesthat shortlyfollowed
perhaps,of

all that

has

saved

been

"

Nubian
to

only

"

attempt
Saite

revival

period.
of

as

Delta,

it had

art

policyof

these astute

the

Theban

culture,
the

Kingdom,

almost

innovations

by

Ptolemaic
upon

the

was

to

and
it

Roman

by

After

the

pulsion
ex-

and
and

Although

everywhere to restore
the style of the Old
not

of the

but

diverse

be

to

resulted.

architecture

complete destruction;
the Ptolemies

chitecture
imperial ar-

years.

modifications

in the elaborate

power

660 B.C., under the rulers

again into vigorous activity

revert

to

beautiful

had

about

monarchs

followed, and

domination

beginning.

for five hundred

even

then

decadence, however,
political

of their artists was

originality

and

new

built

was

sprang

known

not

the

and

of

Assyrian conquerors,

of Sais in the
such

In the midst

and

now

splendors of the

the

of

artistic fermentation

new

isolated monarch

an

columns

Persian

fered
period suftrace

can

we

denied,

its

of the temples

the Romans.

periods. It

the Saite builders

was

that

the

character

pressed
im-

ure
Egyptian architect-

retained

before
the advent
of
tillit finallysuccumbed
alike brought their own
Christianity. Greeks and Romans
national

forms, but

change
architecture

these

outside

were

unable

to

effect

of the cities of the Delta.

stantial
subany
The native

themselves, at
adopted by the conquerors
the
least for the temples of the traditional religion. Under
prestige of Alexandria, Egyptian dispositions,clothed in
was

16
Greek

HISTORY

OP

detail,spread beyond the boundaries

and

peristylarcourt

hall, the

elements, became
The

tombs.

well

as

it.

The

forms

teristic
charac-

international.

shelter

and

for

sustenance

the

living. Hence, in the tomb, elaborate

for the preservationof the body, and

taken
precautionswere
for the nourishingof the "ka,"
from

other

The

this

demanded

for the

as

Egypt.

portant
imlong history the most
the tombs
and the temples. Egyptian

were

religiousbeliefs

of

and
clerestory,

henceforth

Throughout

monuments

dead

ARCHITECTURE

or

of the tomb

vital
varied

force,now

dissociated

in different

districts,

ary
though they tended in every period to take the form customin the region which was
dominant
politically.In Lower
for masonry
erected on
structures
Egypt the preferencewas
the plain; in Upper
and
Egypt, for chambers
passages
excavated
in the rock
of the valley walls.
The
masonry

tombs

alike in presenting

were

rectangularin
differed in

and

The

form

Old

Kingdom

was

the

so-called

"mastaba."

varying

almost

plan
geometricalform

Mastabas.

the

one

on

the exterior

unbroken

and

of most

was

simplemass

by openings; they

in interior arrangement.
in the
frequent occurrence

employed
It

for the
a

Memphite nobles,
low, flat-topped mass,

in size with

its faces

the importance of the occupant, and having

sloped back at an angle of about seventy-five

contained
at first
degrees. The solid bulk of the mastaba
shaft to the tomb
chamber
below, and a
merely the filled-up
small chapel for offerings. Later the upper
chambers
were
ceremonial
and
for
of
the storage
multiplied for
provisions
and

household

utensils.

Pyramids. From the beginning of the Memphite dynasties

the kings adopted distinctive forms
which
approached the
pyramid. The first king of the Third Dynasty, Zoser, built
his tomb
in seven
at Sakkara
great receding steps; its last
in three steps, another
king, Snefru, erected one at Medum
in true pyramidal shape, fixingthe type for the
at Dahshur
rest of the period. The
most
strikinggroup of the pyramids
is that of the Fourth-Dynasty necropolisat Gizeh.
Here
stands
the familiar group
of three built by Khufu, Khafre,
and
Menkure
the Cheops, Chephren, and
Mycerinus of
the smaller pyramids of
classical writers. Around
them
are
In
built by the nobles.
royalty and serried lines of mastabas
"

ARCHITECTURE

PRECLASSICAL

17

pyramids, as in the mastabas, the interior arrangements

rately
elabodiffer.
They are alike in having the tomb chamber
and misleadingpassafeguardedby graniteportcullises
sages.
the
bodies
failed
to protect
These, however, uniformly
The
often only a few generations later.
against despoilers,
preceded by massive chapels for services and
pyramids were
of stone
leading up
offeringsand approached by causeways
the

FIG.

from
form

"

BENI

HASAN.

PORTICO

OF

TOMB

By size and by the very simplicityof

these greatest of Egyptian monuments
make
an
impression of grandeur and power.
the

Rock-cut
Middle

river.

tombs.

Kingdom
Upper Egypt were

Under

the

the

Theban

monarchs

existing local types

of

Middle

of

their
rivaled
un-

the
and

developed the pyramid-mastaba, a mastaba with a small pyramid on top; and the tomb
cut in the
the Empire
cliffs (Fig. 3). Under
western
this last type,
adopted by the kings, became
by far the most
employed.
Theban
had
its concealed
family
vault, preEvery wealthy
ceded
by a small rock-cut chapel. To protect their bodies,
the Pharaohs
carried passages,
gradually descending and
interruptedby small chambers, for hundreds of feet into the
cliffs. Their
funerary chapels, however, became
separated
from the tombs
themselves.
erected on the plain
They were
before the cliffs frontingthe river,and in time became
parable
comto the temples of the gods on
the oppositebank.
"

HISTORY

i8
The

ARCHITECTURE

OF

chapels,built by Queen Hatshepsut in the

of the most
originaland most
1500 to 1480, is one
all Egyptian monuments
(Fig. 4). It lies in the

first of such

years from
refined of

valley known

to

the

forms

are

terraces

architectural

FIG.

"

DER-EL-BAHRI.

sanctuaries
of

the

the effect
The

sid
the

so

in

long
as

pure,

temples.

Pharaohs

mortuary

gods, likewise

ranks

to

temples
the

"

TEMPLE
BY

but

square

OF

the

rock.
or

The

sixteen-

HATSHEPSUT.

proportionsare
in the days of

reached
finally

Nineteenth

the

naded
great colon-

BRUNET)

suggest Greece

In the form

of the

"

in

cut

simplest

MORTUARY

(RESTORED

sided columns

rises in three

Der-el-Bahri, and

as

and

under

so

just,

Pericles.

the Rames-

Twentieth

Dynasties,
temples of the
The
gods,
long evolution.

closely resembled

the

product of a
housed
like the dead, required shelter and food.
They were
with solidityand
splendor,and served by the provision of
and drink and diversion, all presented with increasing
meat
who provided the revenue
the Pharaoh
ceremonial.
As it was
for all this,so it was
the presentation.
he who in theory made
the
It was
his representatives,
made, in fact, by the priests,
people participatingonly when, on feast-days,the offering

GREAT

TEMTUE

OF

AMMON

20

HISTORY

distributed

was

the

god.
have

to

already

in the

Though

been

in

in the

OF

temple

from

after

court

of the

many

use

ARCHITECTURE

elements

the time

being presented to
of the

of the Old

temple

seem

Kingdom, and,

Middle

somewhat
Kingdom to have assumed
final relations,it is only the temples of the Empire and
times that are sufficiently
preserved to give a visual idea

their
later

of the whole.

Imperial temples. At the great national center of Amonin Thebes

worship at Karnak
(Fig.5) there are many
temples,
the product of long growth. Several of the relatively
smaller

FIG.

KARNAK.

"

GREAT

CENTRAL

TEMPLE

well

OF

AISLES

AMON.

display

OF

MODEL

THE

IN

THE

HYPOSTYLE

HALL

OF

METROPOLITAN

THE

MUSEUM

the

sities,
diveralso the minor
as
similarities,
found in the temples of the Theban
sists
period. Each conof a small sanctuary at the back, flanked by
essentially
cells for the minor divinities of the religious
triad,by chapels
and store chambers, and preceded by a colonnaded
hall,the

ones

so-called
side to
was

hall"

"hypostyle
a

square

composed

court

of

(Fig. 6)

surrounded

great doorway

which

by columns.
between

towers, their faces slopingback

together constitutinga

turned

"pylon."

from

its broad
The

two

the

Before

tall

facade

rangular
quad-

ular,
perpendicthe

pylon

PRECLASSICAL

ARCHITECTURE

obelisks,colossal

stood

of the

statues

21

king

the

or

divinity,

carrying long streamers; before these,

of approach, lined with sculpoften long avenues
again,were
tured
As
inward
from the sunone
rams
or
sphinxes.
passed
lit
court, through halls successivelysmaller and lower, the
till the sanctuary was
in almost
total darkness,
lightdiminished
admirably calculated to heighten the effect of religious
and

wooden

mystery

masts

and

awe.

Specialtypes. At
of Amon

Karnak

at

multiplyingthe
halls and

pylon

their favorite

by
island

They

built

under

Karnak,

at

construction.

shrine,the Ptolemies

earlier
the
In

and

the

associated

those
in

largerhypostyle

Ptolemies,
similar

way

the Roman

in the
seventh

at

Philae,

monarchs

the accessory
late religious
cults.
Here
the

site forced

removed
with

as

vied

pylons, until

manded
buildingsdeof
irregularity
the usual formality,
ingeniousadaptation

departures from
but, as elsewhere in Egypt in such cases,
produced a composition of the greatest
stillfurther

monarchs

and

new

and
courts, pavilions,

built many
the

Luxor, successive

in front of the

under

was

and

elements.

courts

great temple

important temples, such

the most

from

Egyptian

the heaviness
architecture

and

charm.

An

effect

solemnityusually

is found

in the smallest

temples. One of these, built by Amenhotep III. at Elephantine,

is
famous
for
now
beauty of prodestroyed, especially
portion
and dignified
grace.
for
Dwellings. The Theban
palace is still too little known
cafe generalization.The
Pharaohs
to have
seem
preferred
the practice
not
to live in dwellingspreviouslyoccupied,and
of abandoning old palaces for new
hastilyimprovised,
ones,
which
led to the employment of a construction
has left but
The
few remains.
villa of Amenhotep
III. at Thebes
has a
rectangularouter wall inclosinga labyrinth of small courts,
columned

rooms,

and

dark

cells,all built of sun-dried

brick,

plasteredand richlypainted. Wall paintingselsewhere show

of the wealthy, surrounded
the houses
by shaded
gardens.
The quarters of the poorer
classes were
closelybuilt in blocks,
often on
a
regular plan. Their houses, reduced to lowest
of
terms, comprised a small, square
court, along the back
which
its broad
with the entrance
on
lay a rectangularroom
side.

22

The

HISTORY

column:

architecture

origins.

with

treated

the

were

Dynasty

development of the column,

first to employ, and
which

division

or

ornament

its lowest

skill and

find

square

of any

kind

we

in the details of Egyptian

Interest

great mechanical

Fourth

lintel

in the

centers

Egyptians

the

ARCHITECTURE

OF

"

The

artistic taste.

which

they
In the

monolithic

piers,without

the system
so-called

of support and

Temple of the
Sphinx, a waiting-hallat the foot of the causeway
leading to
the pyramid of Khafre, thus constructed, is effective by its
proportions and by the perfectionof its workmanship. By
find the first circular columns, of
the Fifth
Dynasty we
throughout later Egyptian architecture.
types common
The
taken from the palm and
motives of their designs were
from
the lotus,palm leaves being carved upthe papyrus
or
right
about the top of the shaft,bending gracefully
under the
in the
weight of the abacus, or the shaft itself being made
form
bound
of several lotus or papyrus
stems
together,the
buds swelling at the top to form the capital.
Later forms. Under
the Middle
the most
Kingdom
lar
popuform was
a column
abstractlygeometrical polygonal in
vertical flutings. In either case
it was
plan, or with concave
crowned
Such
by a simple square abacus.
columns, as at
Beni Hasan
and later Der-el-Bahri,have a rough resemblance
at

terms.

"

to

the

Doric

have

been

these

types

form

of

columns

Greece, which, however,

derived
were

leading in

independently. Under
still employed, the papyrus
popularity,but a new
type

place of honor

in the tall central

(Fig.6). This

was

the column

used
cow-goddess, Hathor, was
piers fronted by standing colossi were
the

great Ramessids.

elaborated

applying
flora

"

to

the

the

The

surfaces

lotus-bud

given the
hypostyle halls
was

in her

Saite and

motives

shrines, and

frequent, especially

capitals,especiallythe

smooth

or

all

the

under

Empire

to

capitallike an inverted
A capitalwith heads
lotus.

with

bell,imitative of the flower of the

of

aisles of the

the

seem

Ptolemaic
bell

drawn

leaves, flowers,buds, in gracefullyordered

tects
archi-

capital,by
from

native

profusion.

colonnade,
They even employed different varieties in the same
though always in pairs,placed at equal distances on either
side of the axis. No attempt was
made to develop a separate
each type of column.
The
system of forms to accompany

PRECLASSICAL

ARCHITECTURE

type of cornice is found

same

with

23

all, a quarter-hollow,or

cavetto, making transition from the vertical members

horizontal
projectingline of the roof.

to

the

divided
subEgyptian halls were
peristyle.Although many
of columns
extending the full depth of
by ranges
the room,
that
an
equally characteristic arrangement was
of an
interior peristyle,
continuous
surrounding file of
or
The

columns.

This

which

arrangement,

preferredin

was

the

position
typicallyoriental disand
also in Mesopotamia
out
throughbeing found
of
the East.
Owing perhaps to the guarded nature
Egyptian life and Egyptian cults, a similar surrounding
A single instance was
the exterior.
rare
on
peristylewas
the littletemple of Elephantine.
of open

case

The

arch.

and

notably
Abydos, but

The

courses.

True

any
the

in

cut

extensive

temple of

in subterranean

was

in

tomb

in
Seti

tombs
I. at

merely
chambers

Dynasty, apparently as early as

of the

chambers

temple of Rameses

II. at

Ramesseum,
Thebes, present an

vaults

restingon

seems

The

parallelbarrel
For

use

to have

horizontal

store

walls.

The

abound

of the Third

series of

the true arch

of the

sometimes

important works it
of projecting stones

out

arches

used

was

sanctuaries

Mesopotamia.

mortuary

form

in all such

arch,

the time

arch

in the

corbeled

from

courts, is

colonnaded

in
been

the

termedi
lightin-

superstructure, however,

thought

too

insecure.

clerestory.A device first invented by the Egyptians,

destined to play an important r61e in later architecture,is the
introduced under the Empire. To lightthe wide
clerestory,
at the outside,
hypostyle halls,unprovided with windows
the roof was
the three central aisles,admitting
raised over
the lower roofs at the
lightthrough grated openings over
sides (Fig.6).
Methods
The
flat,as
of construction.
Egyptian roofs were
the rainless climate permitted. Those
of the temples were
constructed of slabs of stone
resting directlyon the lintels,
soil rendered
The compact
dispensingwith all wood.
deep
foundations
Piers and
columns,
originally
unnecessary.
monolithic, were
perforce,in the largest examples, built up
like towers
with rough filling,
solid. The
often none
too
graduallylost the precisionof the earliest monumasonry

24

in the vast

ments

the

HISTORY

constructive

OF

ARCHITECTURE

and hasty erections

methods

of the later

Empire, but

remained

nearly constant.
The elements
of decorative expressionlikewise
Decoration.
in different periods. They
remained
substantiallythe same
based
natural forms, like the lotus and palm, or on
on
were
conventional
geometric lines,such as the spiral. The god's
house, conceived as the world, had its walls painted with conventional
its
with
The
stars.
landscapes,
ceilingspangled
legends of the gods and the exploitsof the kings filled every
the glories
available space,
proclaiming in no modest
way
of the builders,of the restorers, and of usurping monarchs
who
wished
to shine by reflected light.
The architect.
During the whole of Egyptian history the
of importance, as might be expected when
architect was
a man
building formed so large a part of the monarch's
activity.
Inscriptionsin tombs of the Fifth Dynasty show that in two
at least,the functions of prime minister, chief judge,
cases,
and royal architect were
combined.
The
tion
inscripmortuary
of the prime minister of Thothmes
III.,in recountinghis
under conduties, includes personal inspectionof monuments
struction.
Whoever
the real designerswere,
far
they were
from
of them, like
slaves of tradition,and some
being mere
the

Sen-Mut,

architect

of

Der-el-Bahri, showed

themselves

of the

men

It is to

highest genius.
its strength and dignity,above

architecture
in many

owes

of its

its effect.

forms,

Less

it nevertheless

all,that Egyptian

structural
has

than

breadth

sculptural
and

mental
monu-

ing
quality. At its best pure and subtle,it is seldom lackin some
touch of sublimity,which
in magnificence or even
is universallyrecognizedin its major creations.

MESOPOTAMIA

Tigrisand the Euphrates supported a civilization perhaps

It is impossible
ancient than that of Egypt.
even
more
of either country acto date the most
curately
primitivemonuments
tion
enough to decide priorityof origins. In the formaof
of monuments
of a developed style and the execution
the first magnitude, however, the peoples of the Mesopocenturies behind the Egyptians.
tamian
valley lagged many
The

PRECLASSICAL
Natural

in

were

of wood

abundance

modes

25

of construction.

The

natural

respects less favorable

many

absence

The

Egypt.

and

conditions

conditions

ARCHITECTURE

in

than

of any
good native building-stoneor
left sun-dried
mud
brick the best material

in

available

rains and
large quantities. Torrential
constructions
relativelyimpermanent,
frequent floods rendered
faced with burnt brick and
even
though the walls were
raised on huge platforms. In Babylonia
the buildingswere
in early times stone
almost
Even
was
impossible to secure.
in Assyria the difficulty
of bringingit from the mountains
was
for lintels.
so
even
great as to prevent its being used ordinarily
itself hard

Wood,

to

obtain, had

for ceilingbeams, to
materials

the

furnished
above

was

from

beams

support the thick

vaults, in gateways
of

abutment.

Egypt,

by barrel vaults, the

long, rectangular form.

that

the

entrance

the

of

and
With

clay.

than

be

to

rooms

without

Thus,

and

narrow

as

in

doors, where

Tradition

dictated,
should

rooms

rooms

broad

were

deep.

massed

there

spanned by wooden
were
given by preference

rooms

such

to

longer side; in other words, the

rather

roofs

and

Whether

or
a

for columns

could
have
only device which
covering of voids with great weight
permanent
the arch.
Its principlewas
known
in Mesopotamia
the earliest times, and was
employed frequently

lack

no

used

available, the

in subterranean
was

to be

in

Terraced
any

be

in

as

on

and

the
low,
shal-

roofs

mitted
per-

convenient

complicating the disposal of

Egypt, great aggregations of

rangement,
ar-

water.
rainrooms

and

the rule.
The
courts, rather than isolated blocks, were
like the construction,had to be
ornamentation
of buildings,

largelyof clay.
Prevailingtypes. As with most early peoples,the temples
of great importance. A rather gloomy view of a future
were
life,on

the other

of elaborate
were

more

hand,
tombs.

massive

gave

The

no

to

encouragement

palaces of

in construction

than

the

ing
the build-

Assyrian kings
of Egypt, as

those

befitted the greater relative importance of the life on earth.

Constant
to invasion gave
military architecture a
exposure

development for which there was no occasion in Egypt.

Development. In the historyof Mesopotamian architecture
four principalperiodsof activitymay
be distinguished,
sue-

26

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

cessivelyin Chaldea, in the "Old Babylonian" kingdom, in

Assyria,and in reincarnated
Babylon.
earliest
The
to have
Origins.
Mesopotamian culture seems
the
mouths
of
in
the rivers, Chaldea, spreading
developed near
the lower half of the valley to embrace
what
later became
over
the primitive city
Babylonia. The struggle between
states
lasted much
longer in this region than in Egypt, and
unification was
after Menes
postponed till a full millennium
had brought about the union of the Two
Lands of the Nile.
A difference of language in the cuneiform
scripthas lent color
tradition of a native Sumerian
to ancient
population,gradually
before
Semitic
which
an
giving way
invading
people
borrowed

its civilization and

side in the formative

by

branches

of

Chaldea.

The

two

existed

side

period and possiblymay

be but

two

singlestem.

Remains

at

Tello, include

modern

its arts.

oldest structure

yet found

the Sumerian

of

center

building of the king

in Mesopotamia which

Lagash,

Ur-Nina
can

the
the

"

be dated

before Christ.
There
is also a
perhaps 3000
years
fragment of the staged tower built by Gudea about 2450 B.C.
incorporated in a later palace. The early Semitic religious
the ruins of the temple precinct
at Nippur, where
center
was
of several staged towers, dating
include superposed remains
from the very earliest times.
The general similarity
of these
tablishes
buildingsto the later buildingsof Assyria and Babylon esthe essential continuity of Mesopotamian
tecture.
archi"

built

Old
the

Babylonian Kingdom.
Semitic
kings of Agade

Although
had

as

extended

Mediterranean, the internal consolidation

early as
their
of

2650

rule to

B.C.

the
itself

Babylonia

accomplished till about 2100, under the great king

of Babylon.
His city,hitherto relativelyunKhammurabi
important,
of a powerful state, the sothe center
became
now
Plans
called Old Babylonian Kingdom.
of dwelling-houses
from this period show
already the characteristic Babylonian
scheme
of a square
with the principalroom
court
along its
was

not

southern

side.

The

streets

and

unchanged throughout
kingdom

by

flourished

till about

Kassite invaders.

blocks
the

1750

then

history of
B.C.,

when

established
the
it

mained
re-

city.
was

The

run
over-

PRECLASSICAL

Assyriansupremacy.
the northern
the
an

Semites

independent

to

which

strong enough

FIG.

The

to

successors

Asiatic conquests of Thothmes

in the fifteenth and fourteenth

with
Assyria and Babylon in contact
their kings sent gifts. By noo
Assyria was
ejectthe Kassites from the south and for a
both

(KHORSABAD)

DUR-SHARRUKIN

"

leadershipnext fell to Assyria,

valley,which had been colonized by
about
and which
now
began
2000,

career.

centuries brought

Egypt,

south

his great

III. and

The

half of the
of the

ARCHITECTURE

(RESTORED

brief

rule

period to

over

centuries

BY

united

THE

SARGON.

OF

PALACE

PLACE)

After

interruption
her aggressivepolicy,
conquered all western

country.

again assumed
series of strong kings had
and under
a
Asia by 700.
The capital,
later more
firstat Ashur, was
ally
usuoften maintained
at Calah, though royal residences
were
in both places and
in Nineveh
well. Sargon II., who
as
ruled from
for his capitala new
city,
722 to 705, founded
of two

the modern

Dur-Sharrukin,
raised
the

downfall

she

an

Nineveh

Khorsabad.

successor,

nacherib,
Sen-

the primacy, which it retained to

He was
of the Empire.
driven to destroy rebellious
to

Babylon, which, however,

Esarhaddon.

His

Under

Esarhaddon

was

restored

even

Egypt

by
was

his son,

brought

Assyrian yoke for a brief period. The culmination

followed
in the peacefuldays of Ashurbanipal (668-626). His
palace at Nineveh, inferior only to that of Sennacherib, was
beneath

FIG.

adorned

the

"

DUR-SHARRUKIN.

with

OF

bas-reliefs of remarkable

Dur-Sharrukin.
monuments,

PALACE

THE

the

The
one

best

which

SARGON.

animation

preserved of
gives the most

(PLACE)

PLAN.

and

alness.
natur-

Mesopotamian
vivid idea of Assyall

PRECLASSICAL

ARCHITECTURE

maturity, is

in its

rian architecture

palace of Sargon

at

The

(Figs.7 and 8).

Khorsabad

the modern

Dur-Sharrukin,

the

13

integralpart, formed a rectanglea little

and
hundred
each side,inclosed by a wall one
a mile
on
over
fiftyfeet wide and sixtyfeet high, with battlements, towers,
Like most
and outworks.
Mesopotamian structures, it had
its corners
toward the points of the compass,
contrary to the
practicein Egypt, where the sides faced the cardinal points.
The palace of Sargon. The
form
palace itself,on a huge platcity,of

in the
of

it was

which

an

middle

of the
The

twenty-fiveacres.

of limestone, here

blocks
used

as

plinth for

towered

and

to

gateways,

divisions

main

of the

accessible,and

led up

staircase

monumental

faced

platform was
crude

the

wall, covered

northwest

from

two

palace

brick
the

and

city,through arched

grouped.

in the center, and the khan, or

be identified with
can
corner,

also

was

ramp

The

the

which

great courts, about

were

massive

with

limestone

walls.

area

an

state

service,division

ments
apartat

the

certainty. The walls

thick, one
were
story high, and at right angles. The
very
rooms
were
relativelysmall and dark, opening through one
another
to minor
courts, irregularlyplaced. Although the
kept
complex, and its chief quarters were
plan was
very
of
munications
comseparated, it lacked any highly organized system
and any extended symmetry
or
expressionof the
eastern

internal arrangements.
The temples. On the

platform with the palace stood

of temples, in close assoblock of buildings,
ciation
a group
a second
with the ziggurat,
or
lofty staged tower, "the link of
heaven
the most
and earth," which
was
strikingfeature of
In the temple block are three
Mesopotamian religious
groups.
distinct suites, dedicated
evidently to different divinities,
of a square
each suite consistingessentially
court, a broad
vestibule, and a long hall with a cell at the end, apparently
the sanctuary proper.
In these suites trie household of the god
established, here

was

most

The

valuable

"the

which

house

was

sacrifices

offered, and

were

of the kings were

votive offerings

ziggurat. The

his consort

same

the

specialresidence
chamber

of the mountain."

supportedthis

was

formed

which
At
of

the

deposited.

god himself and

crowned
the ziggurat,
of the

Dur-Sharrukin
a

here

the

singlecontinuous

tower

ramp,

30
square
walls

OP

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

with seven
in plan, risinglike a screw
The
turns.
enameled
were
successivelywhite, black, purple, blue,

vermilion, silver,and
The

mass

and

rose

gold,symbolizing the heavenly bodies.

hundred
and forty feet square at the base
was
one
Some
Assyrian ziggurats
twenty feet at each turn.

seem

to

have

these

was

The

plans

New
death

had

three

connected

level terrace

were

now

five stages; sometimes

or

the others

stairs.

by

Babylonian Kingdom. Within twenty years

of Ashurbanipal his empire had
succumbed

Medes.

which

Babylon,
and

entered

had

of

rectangular.

now

square,

with

each

assisted

them,

of

the

to

the

depende
left in-

was

In the
splendid renaissance.
reign of her great king, Nebuchadnezzar, especially,from
built the magnificentwalls, the temples, the
604 to 561, were
which
excited the
palaces, the so-called "Hanging Gardens"
admiration

burn

The

and

brick

fundamental

wealth
to

the

Babylonian kings enabled

bring

stone

from

them

distance, yet the

unchanged. The
than
regular disposition

more

recurring suites of similar form

living-apartmentsand

great

system remained

somewhat

those of Assyria,with

travelers,and

other

of the

constructive

palace plans show

and

of Herodotus

ziggurat.
to

on

for the

by corridors. The
temples, which are square or nearly square in plan, have a
central court, with
the sanctuary
and
its vestibule
lying
in
southern
side
much
the
the
as
plan
usuallyalong
(Fig.9),
of the Babylonian dwelling. The
zigguratof Babylon, like
the one
in a vast walled inclosure,preat Nippur, stands
ceded
In the palace of the citadel is a
by minor courts.
with two
massive substructure
series of parallel
which
rooms,
retain unmistakable
of having been vaulted in brick.
traces
The
have
excavators
sought to recognize in this unfamiliar
the foundation
of the Hanging Gardens, which
arrangement
would
their sobriquet through
accordingly have obtained
astonishment
The

at

access

method

facilitated

of support

revival of Babylonian glory was

fell before

the

so

novel

brief.

to its observers.

In

538 the city

all-conqueringPersian, Cyrus, and

of its native

art

came

to

the

premacy
su-

close.

Roofs and vaulting. Throughout ancient times, as now, the

normal
method
of roofing in Mesopotamia was
by wooden
beams
supporting a mat of reeds, and then a thick bed of

PRECLASSICAL

ARCHITECTURE

slightinclination to permit water to run

of cedar, pine,
off. Inscriptions
tell of the bringingof beams
the ceilingsof
and Lebanon
to form
and oak from Amanus
the
temples and palaces. The earliest investigatorsmade
clay graded with

unwarranted

sumption
as-

that
vaults

barrel

in most

employed
of the

were

of the

rooms

Assyrian

palaces,

inference

an

from

their

generally
elongated shape
and thick walls,and
from

the absence

any

vestigeof

ing

beams.

at

ceilA

bas

famous

of

relief

more,
Nineveh, furthershows

houses

covered

externally
egg-shaped

with

similar

domes,

to

those

of the

nian

buildings

Persia

many
later.
of

one

been

Sassa-

at

such dome

turies
cen-

mains
Releast

have

found which

thought
from

times.

to

of

is

date

Sumerian
It

is

FIG.

"

BABYLON.
NINMAH.

PLAN

OF

THE

TEMPLE

OF

(AFTER KOLDEWEY)

now

generallyadmitted,
however, that

in Mesopotamian
singlevaulted rooms
and that the group of free-standing
buildingswere exceptional,
vaults in the palace at Babylon is,as far as we
know, unique
in the

even

country.

On

ground abound
These, which are

in

the other
both

hand, vaulted

drains

below-

Assyrian and Babylonian times.

sometimes
sometimes
semicircular,
pointed

32
in

HISTORY

section, are

which

over

being built in successive rings,

of this inclinati
inclined. By means

vertical,but

the builders
the

ARCHITECTURE

in

remarkable

not

are

OF

enabled

were

void, without

to

necessityfor wooden

any

adhered

course
centering. Each
was
supported by it. It was
arch to start against.
or

Columns.
for
a

They

used

were

painted

columns

stone

with

covered

or

have

been

shows

scrolls

similar

exercised

Ornament.
used

were

decorate

to

the

of

another.

These

capitalof

the

carved

stone

of arched

jambs

capitals
Nineveh

relief from

pairs

two
are

very

Greeks, and

it.

on

Friezes in low

of towers.

bases

bulls

Winged

carved

having capitalswith

influence

an

form.

above

one

wall

fragments of

Assyria with

of the later Ionic

those

to

doubtless

volutes,

or

sparingly,as supports
porticos along the sides of

plates. Some

shrine

columned

small

and

one

to have

or

part, apparently, of wood,

in

bases, usually of cushion

and

in

metal
found

preceding

necessary

along

false-work

but

for the most

were,

the

to

merely

light,isolated structures, and

court.

of

Columns

their vault

carry

relief

in

relief

high

and .the

gateways

representinghistorical

the state apartments

ornamented
subjects or hunting scenes
in colors was
of the palaces. Brick enameled
also a favorite
mode

of surface

At

decoration.

placed around

broad

bands

ing
Babylon a frieze of stalkthe processionalstreet and representations
lions followed
lined the walls of the palace.
of columns
The
assumption of all credit for Mesopotamian buildings
has kept in obscurity the men
who
built
by the monarch

were

Their

them.

character.
with

masses

work
the

By

the

Dur-Sharrukin

arches;

is indeed
very

less individual

repetitionof

their endless

powerful expressionof

at

the

towers

and

size and

the

official in

than

great rectangular

battlements

grandeur

it

of the

gives a

Oriental

monarchies.
PERSIA

The
the

architecture

domination

of

Achaemenian

of the
western

Persians, who
Asia

under

next

succeeded

Cyrus

and

to

other

certain forms
the confrom
quered
kings, borrowed
theless,
regions Mesopotamia, Ionia, and Egypt. Neverof a.
it retained a largenative element, suggestive
"

PRECLASSICAL

primitive columnar

forms

Lycia, but it seems

merely imitative

were

descended
similar
on

from

more

conditions.

less

or

Wood

be traced in Ionia

less

probable that the Persian

of

these

and

and

framing remained of
making possiblethe

stone

thick

The
and

other

of
the

bulls and

all

both

were

of Asia

Minor;

after the

and

drew
source

bas-reliefs

are

were

some

growth of

the wide

roof

period,
spacing

the roof itself

clinati
very slightindecorative
forms
a

for them
but

wood

and

early Greece,

clay,terraced, with
Persians

pecially
es-

obtainable

entablatures

slenderness

countries,their chief

winged

that

throughout the Achaemenian

unusual

mass

Though
from

wood

the

Persia

As in Assyria and

of the columns.
was

In

power.

than

and

type, the product of

common

plateau of Iran, as on the coast

naturallyused in early days, stone

wealth

cences
Similar reminis-

can

the

was

33

of wood.

architecture
construction

of wooden
in

ARCHITECTURE

Assyria.
clumsily imitated;
was

the

brick from Susa,

polychrome friezes of enameled
the masterpieces of Persian
art, are relativelycrude beside
their prototypes at Babylon.
art follows
Development. The development of Achaemenian
the dramatic
historyof the dynasty. It appeared suddenly
with
and
Cyrus about
550 B.C., absorbing Mesopotamaan
Ionian elements
as he conquered those countries,and
Egyptian
It disappeared as
motives after the conquests of Cambyses.
suddenly before Greek civilization on the collapseof the vast
empire in its struggle with Alexander.
Types of buildings. Zoroastrianism, the ancient religionof
Persia, had no images and required neither true temples nor
serve
sepulchers. The Achaemenian
kings, however, did not obthe custom
of exposing their bodies after death, as prescribed
the
their
and
monumental
tombs
Avesta,
are
by
even

among

the chief remains

of Persian

architecture.

Still

more

palaces,which reflect the proud absolutism

of the Great King.
Palaces.
The
Persian palacesat Pasargadae and Persepolis
stood on
great platforms like those of Assyria. Here these
built of stone and served at once
to givemilitarysecurity
were
and monumental
double
a vast
setting(Fig.10). At Persepolis
staircase leads up from the plain,
to the platform
givingaccess
through a tall columnar
porch flanked with winged bulls.
important

are

the

f"

/
-"

-nr-

35
On

the

platformsrestingon

low

largerone

stand

three

palaces,

Xerxes, and Artaxerxes III. They are similar

in general arrangement, with a large,square, columned
hall,
by minor rooms.
preceded by a deep portico and surrounded
those of Darius,

Audience-halls.

Independent
of Darius

audience-halls

of the

and

of

Xerxes, each

Copyright, by Macmillan
FIG.

II

ing

more

central

"

PERSEPOLIS.

than
feature

hall of Darius

TOMB

an

acre.

of the
has ten

OF

DARIUS,

the

palaces are

NAKSH-I-RUSTAM.

"

nificent
magcover-

Co.

(JACKSON)

In

dispositionthey reproduce the

palaces,but on a greater scale. The

columns

each way,

inclosed by massive

36
A

walls.

wide

porticoeight columns
by colossal winged bulls. The

deep

two

of Xerxes

is flanked

has

but

in the central portion, but has

way
of this on three sides.
With
its columns

each

columns

hall

and

the full width

feet apart and
with the
rank

six

porticos

thirty
building takes
Egypt and of

seventy feet high, this

buildingsof
greatest columnar
almost

Greece.
Tombs.

The

earliest

royal tomb, supposed to be that of

on
seven
Cyrus a small gable-roofedcella mounted
great
Those
steps is obviously imitative of Ionian architecture.
been inspiredby the rock-cut
of later monarchs
to have
seem
of Egypt.
tombs
They are found in the cliff at the back of
and near
the palace platform at Persepolis,
by in the rock now
Naksh-i-Rustam
known
as
(Fig. n). All are substantially
carved about
similar,with a porticoof four engaged columns
the door, a great bas-relief above, and a blank space of equal
"

"

size below.
the Persian

Their

chief interest lies in their

of wood.

entablature

With

representation of

its architrave of three

superposed bands, its projecting beam-ends

clearlyrelated in its originto the forms of the

above, this is
Ionic entablature

in Greece.

Religiousbuildings. Though the ancient Persians had no

true
temples, their sacred fire needed a small inclosed shrine
where
it could be kept continuallyburning, and altars in the
air where
it could be occasionallykindled
for sacrifice.
open
These may
be recognized,perhaps, in the small square towers
with
blank
windows, still preserved near
Pasargadae and
and in the altars of uncertain date at the rock of
Persepolis,
Naksh-i-Rustam
Columns.
with

of two

and

elsewhere.

Persian

The

columns

peculiarcapitalin which
bulls

architrave.

are

united

Beneath

back

to

these

multiplied pairs of

volutes

in
on

slender,and

were

the
back

heads
in the

and

end, and

forequarters

direction

examples

some

crowned

then

and

of the

placed
bells,upright
the
capital
were

Thus
inverted, in incoherent
sequence.
became
long out of all usual proportionto the shaft below.
In its problems of the column
was

related

to

the

lintel Persian

classic architecture

roughly contemporary
much

and

with

further in technical

it,and

of

which

and
facility

architecture

Greece, which

was

carried its solutions

refinement.

37
THE

The

direct

forerunners

civilization and
the

islands

with

coasts

classic
the

belief,it

remains

now

have

been

found

with

less advanced

in artistic character.

which

in Crete

of

civilization

and

of

principalperiods

Two

that

the eastern

the earliest monuments

considerable

show

earlyinhabitants

clear

seems

contemporary

Development.

Greece, in

the later tribes

^Egean, whom
trary
deprived of their birthright. Con-

developed almost simultaneouslyall about

and

of

races

of the

iron swords

earlier

to

of the

in architecture, were

and

their

AEGEAN

Asia

Minor

Egypt, though
be

may

ranean,
Mediter-

recognized

tecture.
differences in their types of archi-

earlier,during which
Crete, in close touch
the leader, has been
called the
Egypt and Syria, was
The

with
Minoan

The
period, from the legendary sea king, Minos.
later period,the so-called Mycenaean, was
that in which the
inhabitants of the mainland
cities,Mycenae, Tiryns, Argos,
and others
probably the Achaeans of the Homeric
poems
continued the culture of Crete after overthrowing its political
The long development of Minoan
art, following
supremacy.
"

"

the introduction
the destruction

of bronze
of Knossos

about
about

B.C.,

3000

cut

was

Costumes

1400.

off with

sewed

and

fitted,plumbing scarcelyrivaled again tillthe last half of the

nineteenth

century,

civilization.

Its

are

continuation

less refined in life and

the Dorian

evidences
on

of

the

surprisinglyluxurious
mainland,

art, lasted tillthe dark

invasion, about

ages

somewhat

following

noo.

the
of the time
patriarchalmonarchies
palaces were
naturallythe chief buildings. In Crete, where
dominion
rested on
these were
sea
quite unfortified;
power,
at Mycenae, Tiryns, and
walled* stronglyand
Troy they were
ingeniously against land attacks. Religious ceremonies do
to have
not seem
tions.
required any highly specializedconstructhe
but
Interment
was
ordinary funeral custom,
certain tombs
in the hillsides were
excavated
mental
given a monucharacter.
and
climate placed
Building materials

Types.

In

the

little restriction
and

the corbeled

Oriental and

on

the choice of forms

arch

; the column

and

lintel

employed exclusively.
Besides many
European elements.
peculiarnawere

38

HISTORY

tive elements, among

which

adjacent sides is

two

architecture shows

FIG.

12

"

KNOSSOS.

ARCHITECTURE

OP

of

one

number

PLAN

the

OF

of features of Oriental

include the flat roof,with

rooms

which

permits,and

OF

PART

These

it

entrance-porticoopening on
the
most
striking,Cretan

the

THE

PALACE.

character.

(EVANS)

of
complex juxtaposition
court surrounded
by a con-

the

39

tinuous peristyle.The

of the mainland,
dispositions
the other hand, show
signs of a European origin;
be traced without a break from the primitivehut common
northern
The
isolated positionof the prinraces.
cipal

on

they can
to

rooms,

with

architectural

only

entrances

on

one

end, suggests that

with gable roofs.

covered
The
court, instead of
they were
of the
resultant
a
forming a homogeneous ensemble, was
surrounding units,with walls or porticosindependent of one
in the two
another.
Although the dispositions
regions thus
differ markedly, the decorative
forms
are
largelythe same,
borrowed
by the mainland, with the minor arts, from Crete.
Crete. The palace at Knossos, the greatest of the Cretan
centers
(a portion of which is shown in Fig. 12), is in very
truth a "labyrinth" which
might well have given rise to the
classic legend. About
a
are
long rectangular paved court
in the greatest conand
tortuous
fusion.
grouped rooms
passages
On
the eastern
side they were
superposed in two
stories,at least,the lower ones
taking what lightthey have
of the parts
from narrow
-wells. The functions of many
light
stilluncertain, but they seem
to have been logically
never
are
were
preceded by the
grouped. The more
important rooms
The
characteristic corner-wise porticosalready mentioned.
with its ramping
great staircase running through three stories,
Another
is the "theatral
colonnade, is a notable feature.
area," a paved space with banks of steps on two adjoining
sides,evidentlyintended for spectators. One of these is also
found at the similar palace of Phaistos, which has its own
them
features of special interest,among
the monumental
At
flightof sixteen broad steps before the main entrance.
Gournia a whole
unearthed, with simple houses of
city was
and baked brick, narrow,
stone
winding streets, and a small
central

The

palace and

altar.

mainland.

The

citadel-palacesat Mycenae, Tiryns

(Fig.13),and other cities of later importance are irregularin
which
plan, like the fortified summits
they crown, but they
show
of similar form.
certain recurring elements
Chief of
these

hearth

was

the megaron,

in the center

men's

or

and

hall,a square

vestibule and

room

colonnaded

with

portico

in front,opening on the main court.

Access to this court, as
obtained through
to the forecourt which might precede it,was
3

40
monumental
which

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

propylaea. Each of these had a door

protected,inside and out, by small porticosbetween
gateways

was

or

flankingwalls, or antae.
Walls, openings,and vaults.
the finest cut

FIG.

used

13

"

stone, sometimes

TIRYNS.

PLAN

OF

walls

sometimes

were

of sun-dried brick.

THE

Stone

of
was

(RODENWALDf)

ACROPOLIS.

for fortress and

of the walls
brick

The

bonded

for the
built of

of

and for the base, at least,

retaining-walls,
dwellings. In the palace at Tiryns sun-dried

with

wooden

superstructure.

beams
The

seems

fortress

to

walls

have
were

been

used

sometimes

blocks,the huge size of which gained them the

irregular
of Cyclopean. Sometimes
of dressed stone, with
name
they were
either polygonal or rectangularblocks, as the natural cleavage
of the stone
suggested. Though they often used them, the
evidently doubtful of the strength
Mycenaean builders were
of large stone
lintels,
and, not knowing the true arch, they
led to give an unparalleleddevelopment to the corbeled
were
another
arch and vault, built of flat stones projectingover
one
at
lintel of the "Gate
of Lions"
The
till they finallymet.
Mycenae, for instance,is relieved of any considerable weight by

PRECLASSICAL

ARCHITECTURE

41

the
used over
(Fig.14). Corbeled vaults were
the
narrow
galleriesin the walls of Tiryns and they were
favorite means
of covering the chambers
of important tombs.
At Isopata in Crete the chambers
are
rectangular, and the
a

corbeled arch

FIG.

14

long sides curve

superiorstrengthof
later

"beehive"
Column
Crete

and

tombs

vaults

and

GATE

OF

together above

two

of the

MYCENAE.

"

circular form

of

Mycenae
nearly fiftyfeet

lintel.

The

elsewhere, were

part disappeared. The

columns
of

form

to

the vault.

realized,and in

was

and

LIONS

Orchomenos

The
some

there

are

in diameter.
and

wood, and
of the

architraves,both
have

for the

in

most

"Treasury of Atreus"
show
that stone
sometimes
was
employed as well as wood;
and that, in addition
and columns
columns
of
to cylindrical
the usual type, largerat the base than at the top, there were
columns

42
also

HISTORY

columns

contradict

ARCHITECTURE

OF

larger at

the structural

the

than

top

the

at

tendency, yet

base.

These

the

enlargement is so
slightthat they do not lack grace and piquancy. The stone
capitalspreserved have a square abacus
supported by a
circular cushion or torus, sometimes
with
a
quarter-hollow
beneath.
The
stone
entablatures
are
evidently imitative of
wooden

above

the

architrave.

apparently used

was

ends

of walls, or

Decoration.
the

for

With

mud-brick

are

sented
repre-

walls, wood

facing the openings, as

The

fundamental
and

well

as

the

of decoration

were

rosette, employed in bands

characteristic type of frieze was
one

Another

rectangular space

elements

the

consistingof pairs of palmetto

a

beams

antae.

spiral,the chevron,
friezes.

or

of round

construction,for the ends

between.

the lintel of the "Gate

back

ornaments

In the

of Lions"

to

back

triangular space

with
above

sculpturedrelief representing
flanked
two
lions
a
column, or altar,
by
(Fig. 14).
Similar reliefs are thought to have occupied the corresponding
in other gateways and doorways, such as that of the
spaces
Treasury of Atreus
(Fig.15).
Relation to Doric
architecture.
of the Mycenasan
Many
forms recur
in the architecture
of historic Greece, especially
in the buildingsof the Doric style,
which was
developed by the
of the Peloponnesus. The
plan of the propylaea
conquerors
"

was

"

is the same;

the

Mycenaean

megaron,

The

capital,the antae, the high wall base

Doric

stones, all show

plan of the temple preserves

with

its arrangement

reminiscences

of the

the form

of columns

earlier forms

of the

in antis.
of

upright

which

dicate
in-

imitation, if not actual continuity. As in so

instances,the arts of the conquered took captive the
many
ing
existneeds modified
though new
vigor and new
conquerors,
close

types and

The prehistoric
ure
architectones.
produced new
of the ^Egean is not, however, to be considered merely as
barbarous
tecture.
stage in the development of Greek classic archiIt was
itself complete, adapted to the needs of

with its structural and decorative

civilization,
contemporary
If it was
pressivenes
surpassed in exsystems thoroughly established.
and

period,it was

not

organizationby architecture of the classic

the less superiorto the clumsy experiments

of the dark ages which

intervened.

'

"

"

"

"
"

:
.

'
"

:it

"

:'y
:"

FIG.

.,"

15

"

MYCEN^;.

PORTAL

OF

(RESTORED

THE
uv

"TREASURY

SPIERS)

OF

ATREUS."

44

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

preclassical
styleswhich had their seats in the Levant
and western
Asia developed in three main
currents
largely
native and independent of one
another.
In their continuous
The

life of two

thousand

three

or

periods to which

we

owe

it is a few brief
years and more,
the vast
proportion of enduring
and

Fourth

The

Eighteenth Dynasties in
sance,
Egypt, the Assyrian culmination and the Babylonian renaisthe palace-buildingperiods of Knossos
and Mycenas,
of the moments
for which
are
some
long centuries of political
upheaval and artistic groping had prepared. In the first

monuments.

millennium
where

evolved

was

their influence

Christ

before

style destined

to

focussed

stamp

on

Greece,

indeliblythe

later architecture of Europe.

PERIODS

EGYPTIAN

OF

ARCHITECTURE
Centers

I.

Prehistoric

II.

Thinite

III.

Old

period,to

B.C.1

3400

period,3400-2980.

Kingdom, about

Dynasties I.-I I.

This

Dynasties

2980-2475.

III.-VI.
The

pyramids

Khufu, Khafre,

"

Memphis

Men-

kure.
First transitional

decline of the

period
"

dom.
king-

DynastiesVII. -X.
IV.

Middle

Kingdom, about

ties
2160-1788. DynasThebes

XI.-XII.

Early halls

at

Hasan.

Second
V.

transitional

Empire,about

Karnak.

Tombs

Pyramids

at

at

period Hyksos
"

Fayum

Beni

Lisht.
invasion.

580-1090. DynastiesXVIII.-

XX.
III. and
period,to Thothmes
Hatshepsut (1501-1447).
Mortuary temple at Der-el-Bahri.

Formative

' '

Processional

Court

and

Temple
1 In the
earlier
Berlin
system,
"

at

periods,where
the

"

at Karnak

Thebes
.

period, culminating under

Amenhotep III. (1411-1375).

Central

"

Hall

one

most

Hypostyle Hall
Elephantine.
there

is still

some

widely accepted.

at Luxor.

uncertainty, the dating follows the

PRECLASSICAL
PERIODS

OF

ARCHITECTURE

45

ARCHITECTURE"

EGYPTIAN

Continued
Centers

Revolution

(Amenhotep

Ikhnaton

under

\ El

iv.) (1375-1358).

Amarna

Seti
Dynasty XIX.
II. (1313-1225).
I.,Ramses
Great Hall at Karnak.
Temple at

Restoration

under

Abu-Simbel.

Thebes

Ramessid

period. Dynasty XX. Ramses

III. (about 1198-1167).
Mortuary temple at Medinet-Habu.

Third

transitional

period. Decadence
perors.
emLibyan and Nubian
Assyrian conquest and

under

about

supremcy,

VI.

Renaissance,about 663-525. Dynasty XXVI.

transitional period.
Psamthik.
Fourth
Persian

VII.

670-660.

Sais

conquest.

period,after 332 B.C.

Ptolemaic
period,to 30 B.C.
Temples at Denderah, Edfou, and

Graeco-Roman

Alexandria

Phite.

imperialdomination, to

Roman

Later

MESOPOTAMIAN

OF

PERIODS

395

A.D.

buildingsat Philae.

AND

PERSIAN

ARCHITECTURE
I.

Prehistoric

II.

Primitive

period,to

about

period development
"

struggleof city states

about
Palace

of

in

and

lonia,
BabySumerian:

3000-1900.

Gudea

about

at

Lagash (Tello)

B.C.

3000

Lagash,

Lagash
Semitic: Agade, Nippur

2450.

Ziggurats at Nippur.
HI.

Old

Babylonian Kingdom,

about

2100-1750.

Khammurabi.
Main

lines of

Mesopotamian

ure
architect-

Babylon

established.

Kassite

domination
1750-1100,

in

Babylonia,

about

HISTORY

PERIODS

OF

OF

ARCHITECTURE

MESOPOTAMIAN

AND

ARCHITECTURE"

PERSIAN

Continued
Centers

IV.

Rise of

Assyria,about

Assyria overrun

ing
1650-1100, culminat-

in first conquest of Babylonia.

by Aramean
nomads, about

Ashur

1050-900.

V.

Assyrian Empire, about 885-607.

Asia completed by
Conquest of western
700.

Palace

of

Sargon

Dur-Sharrukin,

at

722-705.

rebuildingof Babylon.
Conquest of Lower Egypt. Sennacherib,
Destruction

and

Nineveh

Esarhaddon.
Palaces

at

Culmination

Nineveh.

Ashurbanipal,668-

under
626.

Palaces

at Nineveh.

Destruction

by Medes
Babylonians, about 607.

VI.

New

of Nineveh

Babylonian Kingdom,
Nebuchadnezzar

about

607-538.

II.

Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, King of

538.
VII.

Persian

of Ionian

and

sia,
Per-

Babylon

Achaeme-

Empire, about 550-330.

nian Dynasty.

Period

and

Mesopotamian

fluence.
in-

Cyrus.
Tomb
of Cyrus at Pasargadae.
Period of Mesopotamian
and Egyptian

Persepolis

Darius,Xerxes.
tombs
at Persepolis.

influence.
Palaces

I.

Conquest of

Persia

PERIODS

OF

Prehistoric

by Alexander.

Early Minoan,

ARCHITECTURE

AEGEAN

period, Stone

3000

II.

and

Age,

to

about

B.C.

about

3000-2200.

Beginnings
Crete

of Bronze.
.

Second

or

burnt

cityon site of Troy.

PRECLASSICAL
PERIODS

ARCHITECTURE

^GEAN

OF

47

ARCHITECTURE"

Continued
Centers

Middle

Minoan

I.,about 2200-2000.
and Phaistos.
Earlier palacesat Knossos
Middle
Minoan
II.,about 2000-1850.
First culmination, ending with first destruction
of Knossos.

Middle

Minoan

III.,about

1850-1600.
palace at Knossos built.
Late Minoan
I. and II.,about 1600-1400.
Later palace at Phaistos built,palace at
Later

Knossos

remodeled.

Mycenae,
mainland

Tiryns, and

of

other

cities. Fall of Knossos,

about

III.

Rise

Crete

1400.

Mycenaean period,about 1400-1100.

Megaron-palaces at Mycenae, Tiryns,
Troy (sixth,or Homeric, city),
Greek
etc.

Dorian

invasion

of

settlement

of Asia
to

Minor.

and

C.

mainland

tion
Transi-

iron.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

Of G. Perrot

Ionian

Peloponnesus.

NOTE

Chipiez'smonumental

Histoire de I'art dans

the first six volumes, 1882-1894, deal with preclassical

I'antiquite,
architecture
(English translation by W. Armstrong, 1883-1894).
these
volumes
still
are
Though superseded in many
particulars,
for
in
their*
restorations
valuable, especially
graphic
perspective.
of
is
The
excavations
summarized
in
H.
V.
history
Hilprecht's
Excavations
in Bible Lands, 1903, which
covers
Egypt as well as
and
A
Palestine.
Mesopotamia
specialstudy of the columnar
building,based on the latest researches,is G. Leroux's Les origines
del'ediftcehypostyleen Grece, en Orient et chez les Romains, 1913.
in English wholly devoted
to
Egypt. The only general work
Egyptian architecture is E. Bell's The Architecture of Ancient Egypt:
a

historical

outline"

1915.
Art in

Another

authoritative

account

pears
ap-

Maspero's
Egypt, 1912, arranged chronologically,
and including concise bibliographies
of the individual periods and
The
author's Manual
monuments.
same
of Egyptian Archccology,
architecture
translated
A.
B. Edwards, 6th ed., 1913,
treats
by
systematically,by types of monuments.
J.Capart'sL'art egyptien,
in G.

48

vols.,

HISTORY

is

1909-1911,

historical

setting
for

1909;

Upper

is A.

methods

Handcock's

the

neighboring

B.

work
the

Excavations

in

translated

see

A.

by

S.

The

Persia.-

and

H.

to

with
its

2nd
of

Tolman

is

the

excavations

the

Excavations,
G.

C.

also

Antiquities,

section

of

Hil-

and

the

The

as

complementary
at

Babylon,

1914,

background

Assyria,
A.

by

cially
espe-

reprinted

cultural

supplanted

sEgean
the

M.

C.

1916,

and

is

V.

Archeology,

1915,

special

studies

many

Burrows'

1908),

J. Baikie's

ed.,

Schliemann's

of Babylonia

Hall's

addenda,

date;

the

see

1915.

W.

Jackson's

1906.

R.

exposition.

popular

1915.

Manual

R.

For

P.

brief

Mesopotamia,

Excavations

For

S.

including

been

1904.

Koldewey's

Among

monuments,

(reprinted

with

P.

gives

also

The

has

The

in

Oriental

1906.

deals

Babylonia,

Johns,

Present,

Mgean.

ed.,

which

Civilization

view.

Age,

R.

of

Manual

constructive

is

which

the

to

1904.

handbook,

of1 Nippur,
and

Babelon's

Past

Cretan

cited

egyptiens,

ed.,

Baedeker,

Guide

of

study

1912,

new

treatment

earlier

Babelon's

Evetts,

Assyria

Jastrow's

An

monuments

Babylon

at

les

general

recent

is E.
A.

T.

chez

of

their

26.

Egypt,

Weigail's

special

Archeology,

already

with

bdtir

excavations.

by

precht's

The

most

countries,

translated

Persia

de

Mesopotamian
of

history

M.

L'art

The

1910.

of

guides

the

P.

panied
accom-

in

monuments

History

see

E.

illustrations,

the

A.

as

Egypt,

Choisy's

Mesopotamia.

work

Breasted's

well

of

For

treatment

as

1911,

of

Antiquities

H.

topographical

Cook,

or

collection

references.

J.

see

ARCHITECTURE

excellent

an

bibliographical

by

1914,

OP

The

The
be

may

Sea

standard

aside

Scoggin's

J. I.

work

from

translated

Mycencean

named

its

Crete

by

Manatt's

on

E.

as

Sellers,

Troy,

1903.

Crete,

1907
mary,
sum-

as

1910,

The

C.

to

scholarly

period.

see

prehensive
com-

devoted
in

of Crete,

Kings

and

Tsountas

Discoveries

gives

good

Mycencean
For

mary
sum-

Schuchhardt's

1891,

and

H.

C.

CHAPTER

ARCHITECTURE

GREEK

The

of

problems
life

air

the

Western

later

the

of

branches
be

to

distinct,

Corinthian,

conditions

and

wood

The

the

West,

and

on

the
of

in

the

materials
forms.

Greek

limestone.

porous

use

the

and
fifth

choice

of

century.

everywhere

of

the
in

it

Athens
Even

left

materials

customary;
conditions

wide

fluenced
in-

were

stone

available.

early days, it

freedom

into

came

early days,

was

tively
rela-

marble,

was

marble
in

subtle

more

members

Ionia

At

climatic

where

in

was

architectural

were

but

mainland

strong.

the

there

building

structural

In

but

order,

Natural

fineness

came

mingled,

the

floods

course,

the

and

strength

fine-grained

choice

felt, of
of

of

nor

cipal
prin-

forms

Greece

available.

both

were

the

the

the

two

third

Babylonia,

or

drought

proportions

coarse,

general

Egypt

Neither

In

formation

the

and

creation.

artistic

late

and

themselves

by
In

in

tunity
oppor-

expression.

the

not

were

materials.
in

extreme

stone

still made
way.

and

was

were

details

fined
con-

essential

Doric

these

"orders."

relatively

compulsion

restricted.

was

their

Greek
spaces

gave

by

When

race.

recognized
a

there

than

development

long

the

of

the

forms,

open-

of

large

problems

columnar

Greek

conditions

external

style

and

in

the

as

was

Natural
less

constant,

property,

common

kept

relatively

delicate

no

remained

arch

kept

of

perfected

were

the

tradition

more

The

of

the

to

which

simplicity

for

the

systems

separate

Ionic,

of

forms

covering

and

meet,

Respect

types

study

for

the

for

all

forgotten.
the

invited,

not

uses.

certain

of

Two

could

lintel

minor

to

form

no

wholly

ever

demands

above

lintel, creating

climate

the

made

which

has

people

themselves

and

column

which

ideals,

devoted

architects

Greek

IV

ever,
how-

in

the

50

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Personalityand ideals of Greek architects. It is in Greece

that the personality
of individual architects firstbecomes
clear,
in spiteof the limitations laid on
them
by tradition. They
knew
and discussed what they were
about, as the titles of a
Their underlying
long series of technical writings attest.
theory was a formal one, which hoped to have exhausted the
of beauty in the phrase "unity in variety." The
significance
of beauty was
favorite instance
musical harmony with its
This found its closest analogy, among
all the
physicallaws.
It is not surprising,
therefore,that the
arts, in architecture.
all others was
in a broad
quality sought among
symmetry,
The

sense.

Greek

from

of the

Roman

writer,Vitruvius, who

sources,

defines
members

same

symmetry
of

drew

"the

as

work, and

his material
proper

the

ment
agree-

proportional

correspondence of the several parts to the form of the whole

tinct,
disobject." The Greeks kept units for different purposes
and could impress on each a homogeneous
form, symmetrical
also in the modern
of having correrestricted sense
sponding
halves.
not
They studied proportions to secure
slenor
only a general harmony in the relative massiveness
derness

of all the parts, but

their dimensions
an

however,

The
was

mechanical.

not

introduced

of
for the purpose
of organization,and sometimes

were

of too

mathematical

Subtle

tween
be-

for the

modifications
still higher degree

securinga

uniformity.
Development. The
development of
Greece was
from uncertaintyto extreme
to

relation

equality of ratios,or a common

applicationof these unifying principles

"

dividing module.

also

sheer

avoidance

monotonous

less restrained

monuments

until

the

magnificence.

The

the

refinement, and
elements

gradually co-ordinated

were

central

moment

was

architecture

reached

and

in

of
then

of the

early
harmonized,

Periclean

Athens

fifth century B.C.

ensued
Then
a diffusion of energy
in elaboration and variation of the accepted themes, a search
in the

for novel

motives, accompanied by the solution of the

problems created by wealth

Periods.
about
The

noo

archaic

chief

The
B.C.,
or

began roughly

on

races

the ruins of the older

formative
with

and luxury.
of historic Greece

the

^gean

new

first appear

civilization.

period of their characteristic styles

beginning of the Olympic games, in

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

51

776, the first expressionof national unity. It closed with the

final

repulseof

479,

which

left the

stimulated

the

period of

The

the Persian

conscious

of

inheritance
until the

known

and
powers
works
of art.

direction to Greek

and

were

at

and

different fortunes.

At

century

B.C.,

energies.

Ionic architecture.

Doric

styles,and

obscure

not

The

the
art, in which
tinued
by Asiatic influences,con-

first distinct

interminglingshould

till the

Asia, 338-323.

conquest, in the second

Roman

of Doric

roughly

Hellenistic

as

modified

was

gave a new
Relation

and

in 480-

their

production of their maturer

native development extended

splendid expansion

Ionic

Greeks

Carthaginian attacks

conquest of Greece

Macedonian
Greek

and

their

architecture

their subsequent

separate origin and

the opening of the historic period the

Dorians

ing
occupied the Peloponnesus and central Greece, havrepressedcertain of the earlier tribes and forced others to
eastward
an
migration. The lonians occupied Attica, the
central islands of the ^Egean, and the coast of Asia Minor
the Asiatic
Ionia; the ^olians
opposite, called specifically
coast

the north.

to

under

the

Ionic had
islands

It

in Ionia

was

and

influence of Asiatic models,

its

rise,and

it remained

this

to

^olian

that

the

territoryand

the

confined

almost

the

until

late

towns,

style called
neighboring
in

the

fifth

was

All the rest of Hellas, includingAttica,meanwhile,

engaged in developing another style,called by contrast

the

Doric, which

century.

native

from

but

was

not

the

art.

Ionia then
She

held

singleDoric temple

Ionic
stood

is to

be

shores
to

into

more

penetrate continental
be influenced

might
her

found
naval

intimate

national
have

in the lead in

firmly to

until after the Athenian

two

began

not

in the

its roots

civilization. The

provincialhad
wealth, and

had

own
on

been

called

civilization,

style,so

that

Asiatic soil.

It

confederacy brought

relations

Greece

inheritance

to

that

Ionic forms

considerable
any
architecture.

by those of Doric
Archaic period,776-479. The leaders in artistic productiveness
the Ionian
during the formative period in Greece were
and the newly founded
cities of Asia Minor
colonies,mostly
Dorian, of southern Italyand Sicily. Their lands were more
than
those of
fertile,their inhabitants more
enterprising,
Greece itself,
that they early attained a wealth and culture
so

extent

or

to

52

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

cities.
quite beyond the general simplicityof the mainland
Among the more
important centers in Ionia may be mentioned
Ephesus and Samos, with their gigantic early temples; in
the west, Selinus,Akragas, Syracuse,Tarentum, and Paestum.
On

the mainland
brief

tratus, gave
from

Athens

buildingsof

fountain

alone, under

the wise

promise of taking rank with these. Aside

practicalutilitysuch as fortifications and
the

houses, almost

only public monuments

in

impressivelygrouped on
sacred inclosure,they dominated
the
city. In harmony with the materials

of the
Ionic

forms

delicate,slender, and

were

generally heavy

"

both

with

full and

the

were

the

acropolis

modest

houses

temples. Singly,or
or

rule of Pisis-

available,the
graceful, the Doric

sweeping

in the

curves

still subject
adjustment of various details was
in the Doric
to great uncertainty,especially
order, with its
unconquered difficulties and its local varieties in colonies
under
Achaean
^Eolian influence.
or
Only in the last years
of the sixth century was
a final solution
approached.
The
Central period: fifthcentury.
awakening of national
consciousness
after the Persian
and the fiftyyears
of
wars,
that
has
followed, inaugurated what
comparative peace
The
usually been considered the great period of Greek art.
of northern
and central
rebuildingof the ruined monuments
stimulated
Greece
a
rapid development to maturity during
slow in recovering,
the fifth century.
Ionia, to be sure, was

capital.

and
the

built

elsewhere

little;but

greatest activity. Though

their
art

The

prosperity,the

and

culture.

development
Olympia, and

mainland

throughout Hellas
the
now

spoilsof

The

there

colonies

western

was

retained

rapidly took the

victory contributed

lead
to

in
the

of the great national sanctuaries,such as Delphi,

Delos, with their temples, their propylaea,and

their treasuries

(Fig. 35). The

first added

theater

the

forms

of

the

which

imposed

Doric

to

order

themselves

the

evolution

of the

architectural

assumed
wherever

problems.

their normal
the

drama

now

The

relations,

used.
style was
Athens, where

the
Pericles,461-430. At
had
been
most
destruction
complete and the subsequent
of circumstances
fruitful,a happy combination
victory most
At preciselythe
produced buildings of unique refinement.
Athens

moment

under

when

naval

supremacy

and

Asiatic

conquests

were

FIG.

FIG.

17

"

"

ATHENS.
ROMAN

THE

ATHENS.

THE
TIMES.

PARTHENON,

(RESTORED

PARTHENON.
MODEL

FROM

IN

METROPOLITAN

THE

TO

NORTHWEST

ITS

CONDITION

MUSEUM)

IN

54

HISTORY

placingAthens

all of

kinsmen,
marble
a

in

ARCHITECTURE

OP
close touch

her

with the rich art of her Ionian

sanctuaries

rebuilt.

be

to

were

The

of Mount

first appreciated,furnished
Pentelicus,now
slender forms.
Ionic
medium,
permitting more

worthy

fervor infused the statelyforms of Doric architecture with

The
Ionic forms themselves were
new
spiritof grace.
even

employed, although radicallymodified

The full advantage of the moment
would

FIG.

had

not

18

the

ATHENS.

"

Athenian

the adornment

His diversion

of Athens

THE

been

seized

WEST

dominated

by

of the Delian

for him

won

traditions.

have

not

FROM

been

democracy

of the insightof Pericles.

to

ERECHTHEUM,

THE

by Doric

man

treasure

the denunciation

of

contemporaries,but made his citythe admiration of the world.

The Parthenon
(Figs.16 and 17),the Propylaeaof the Acropolis,
and
the
Erechtheum
the temple of Athena
Nike",
(Fig 18),
show
a

The

the extreme

few

years

refinement

before

which

seeking

collaboration of Phidias

other

and

had

almost

free

less

art

At

maintained

subtle

his school

appropriate sculptured decoration.

Pericles

Greek

gave

the

for

expressions.
a

noble

and

Piraeus, where

hand, he brought the whole

city

ARCHITECTURE

GREEK

55

composition, according to a rectangular

street plan made
by Hippodamus of Miletus.
Central period:fourth century. The fourth century found
exhausted
the mainland
by civil war, which continued with
into

architectural

till the

brief intervals

encouragement

conquest, and

Macedonian

building. At defeated
lacking for anything but
to

gave

little

Athens, especially,
immediate

practical
vations,
It was
from Athens, however, with her daring innoneeds.
of the preceding period,
her wonderful
monuments
cities took
their inspiration.Sparta and
that the other
of events
the turn
successivelybrought to
Thebes, which
power,
gave signs of entering on the patronage of art, although
The
did not
to accomplish much.
time
new
permit them
cities of the
Peloponnesus, Mantinea, Megalopolis, and
ginian
Messene, are typicalof the period. In the west, the Carthalowed
foldestruction of Greek
cities in Sicilyin 409-406 was
by a long paralysis,during which the palace of the
almost the only important
tyrant Dionysius at Syracuse was
production. With the civic revival there toward the end of
the fourth century some
more
began.
temple-buildingonce
in the cities of Asia Minor, though they were
It was
again
were

means

Persian

partly under

monuments

of the
more

than

at

of

the

temples,many

time

and

Priene

were

invasion, 334; the

Miletus, the greatest of all,was

most

erected.

had

acteristic
char-

The

building
re-

lain in ruins

commenced
on
years, was
everything in the mother country.

Ephesus

of Alexander's

were

of which

hundred

overshadowed

temples

rule, that the greatest and

for

scale that
The

Ionic

completed by the time

temple at Didyma, near
begun immediately after.

half-independentrulers of Caria, Greek artists laid

built there the colossal
the city of Halicarnassus, and
out
of Mausolus
which
has given its name
tomb
permanently
to funerary architecture.
Types of buildingsin the central period. The temple still
retained first place in importance, though not in the same
degree as formerly. In Greece as well as in Asia, at the
portant
national
religiouscenters, notably Olympia and Delos, immonuments
added, and Epidaurus took rank
were
with these through a group
of new
buildingsdesigned by the
In Asia the early native
sculptor Polyclitus the younger.
For

the

56

of the

forms

Ionic

were

order

the exterior.

on

matured

were

The

in

and

atticized Ionic and

In

most

the Corinthian

all,in the beautiful

the
popular. In the west
with
traditional Doric
still used exclusively,
but
little
was
modification.
Greater
in the
new
independence appears
requirements. Every cityand every
types, responding to new
aspired to have its theater in stone, a
great sanctuary now
of
monumental
new
problem typical of rising standards
the
By the time of Alexander
luxury and convenience.
stadion
lined with stone.
At Megalopolis a great
also was
built
covered
assembly-hall was
by the Arcadians, with
circular

temples

terraced

for

seats

architecture
citizens

which

developed.

proportion,remained

also,in interiors,
and, above

used

now

ARCHITECTURE

Doric, Athenian

Greece, the
usual

OP

HISTORY

became

six thousand

entered

vying

with

service

of

princes of

the

the

the

the erection of elaborate

Hellenistic

art

than

and

years

without

circumstances

in the

new

to

opened

were

empires

hand,

individuals, wealthy
monarchical

certain reaction

other

states

in

tombs.

334

conquests, which

Outer

itself.

The

period.

brilliant
not

houses

the

On

men.

323

witnessed

the east
on

the

of his successors,

Greek

to

fluence
in-

of Greece

art

favorable

more

never

der's
Alexan-

where

all

to
was

The new
at hand.
created, yet where every means
was
capitals,Alexandria, Antioch, and, later, Pergamon, became
and the Ionian
the centers
of artistic activity,
though Rhodes
cities pressedthem closely. In Greece itself the great heritage
to be

of earlier monuments
unfavorable

were

and
to

the

building.

prevailingfinancial

exhaustion

aspect of Athens, Delphi,

The

practicallyunchanged.
Olympia, for instance, remained
first raised to importance, such as ^Etolia
Only in regionsnow
erected.
and
considerable monuments
Epirus, were
many
the later
In Sicilyofficial art had its last after-glowunder
and

tyrants of Syracuse.

Changes

in

problems. Everywhere

itself with

architecture

problems in the design of whole

cities.

precedents earlier set by Hippodamus

adoption of a rectangular plan. Traffic

the

were

two
sswers

considered, as
chief streets
and

well

had

water-mains

as

At

appearance.

'breadth
beneath.

of

over

The

had

to

It followed

spread
in the wideand

hygiene

Alexandria

the

feet, with

hundred

city took

cern
con-

on

some

of

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

57

metropolis,with its museum

aspects of a modern
its great park, its vast harbor with the mole, and
library,

the

many

and

of
The embellishment
the great lighthousecalled the Pharos.
the architects employed
these cities gave opportunitieswhich
in

strivingto

splendor and magnificence.

execution of the great temples at Miletus and
giganticaltars of Pergamon and of Syracuse,

outdo

The

Magnesia, the
the Serapeion at
all fell in

this

all

in

previous works

within its vast

Alexandria

period.

Still

colonnaded

characteristic

more

court,
the

were

of private citizens,
palaces of the rulers and even
the public buildingsof every
kind, council-houses,and gymnasia.
sometimes
tion,
direcarchitecture
new
a
Philanthropy
gave
and
established
to keep
when
as
gymnasia were
parks
of the city in grateful remembrance,
the
benefactor
some
commemorative
monument
tomb
or
a
being a central but
The market-placeswere
surrounded
subordinate feature.
by
nades.
colonlined with
were
porticosand the chief streets even

sumptuous

Changes in detail.
inevitablylost. The

refinements

extreme

succeeded

were

curves,

all this lavishness

Amid

by

richer

something

was

form, the subtle

of

and

ornament

bolder

facile,more
technicallymore
membering. The result was
fitted
easilyappreciated,and by these very qualitiesit was
and complex civilization. The
to the needs of a sophisticated
influences from
Athens
into
Ionic order, changed by return
its final shape, was
now
the.favorite;the Corinthian order
As
the interchange of
and more
became
common.
more
increased, the form

ideas

on

racial tradition.

by which
objects of

were

character.

and

with

abutment

arch

and

the

barrel

greater boldness, but

by solid

masses

of

all, that

time, above

and

mathematical

her most

Gr"co-Roman

there

barbarian

vault

pendent
longer de-

no

grew

ciple
prin-

up

theoretical

It

at

was

writings multiplied,

made

the

Beyond

imitated

oftener

irreproachable

earth.

or

masonry

world.

used

were

without

never

formulation

of Hellenistic Greece, Parthia

became

Instead

was

traditional forms, though kept distinct,

free choice according to appropriatenessof

The

in the

column

the

this

imitable

of the

her

Greek

the

system

borders

clumsilyand

even

Rome

faithful pupil.

period.

Under

the

domination

of

the

Ro-

58

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

lost

Empire, the architecture of old Greek lands never

wholly
its individuality,although Roman
and connoisseurs
emperors
with new
monuments.
delighted to adorn Athens

The

transformations

and

Asia Minor

man

domesticated
A

continued

after the

years

place in Greece

developments, copied and

importations from the capital.

than

Rome,

take

to

native

rather

were

at

thousand

which

age

of Pericles

shall

we

that

see

the
genius, rejuvenated by fresh influences from
to produce a new
architecture on the
Orient, had still vitality
shores
of the Bosphorus, after Rome
itself had fallen in
decay.
architecture great attention
Forms
of detail. In Greek
Greek

directed

was

to

the columnar
their

the

form

of

individual

all,and

systems, above

relations

details,to

knowledge

those

of

of these and

is

correspondingly necessary for intelligent

study of buildings.
Doric forms. The Doric forms show a fixityin their main
lines that is not
less surprisingthan the incrediblypainful
experimentation by which the precise canonical relations were
elements
which
tinguish
disfinallyevolved (Fig.19). The constant
with its cushion or echinus,
the style are the capital,
its heavy, square
projecting abacus; the frieze,interposed
between

cornice

metopes

and
and

architrave, with
fluted

its alternation

triglyphs;and

the

muiules

cornice.

hanging plates on the under

of the column
tapered from

side of the

fifth to

diameter, usually with

third

of its lower

bottom

to

of

The

cessed
reor

shaft

top, diminishing a
a

slight

swelling,called the entasis. The line of the shaft

was
emphasized by vertical flutings,normally twenty in
number
during the central period,meeting on a sharp edge
curve

or

or

arris.

Until after the Periclean

comparatively stout, ranging

times its lower

directlyon
and

diameter.

in

Such

platform without

separate molded

base

was,

age

the

column

height between
a

massive

remained

four

and

support could

six
rest

seeming to need a transition,

in fact,added
only in a very
base, or stylobate,was

A common
exceptionalcases.
always furnished, however, by raisingany Doric portico at
least one
step above its surroundings.
Formal
in the Doric order.
Critics have been
relationships
in recognizing in the mature
unanimous
Doric system an
few

FIG.

IQ

"

THE

GREEK

DORIC

ORDER

HISTORY

60

organic

whole

of the

tendencies

horizontal

the

expressivecharacter.

most

all,in the masterly balance

consists,above
and

ARCHITECTURE

OF

established

arrested, and the horizontal

is foreshadowed, by the

is

column

entablature

is itself

This

The

them.

between

prepared

encirclingbands
neck

once

numerous;

in the

thought
They

the

more

of

movement

horizontal

the transition
beneath

again taken

are

is

completed.

as

finally
a

tinuous
con-

Even

the

triglyphs and mutules

ing
frampins in primitivewooden

function

"

in

the

mediating elements

ultimate

are

twice

the

of

equally their

the

abacus.

by their little cap, and

doubled
to form
almost

mutules,

low

fluted

spreading echinus with its

by the incision creatinga

base, and

be descendants

to

have

"

of

arrested

"drops"

or

columns

of the transition

vertical lines of the columns

line,in which
guttcB

the

by

the

triglyphs,less stronglyemphasized, but

the

echoed

for

the

at

The

below.

by

up

in the management
vertical
"movement"

ciple
prin-

of the vertical

by

the entablature, and

and

Its

entablature.

stone

between

horizontal

vertical.

and

expressionsin the Doric order. Coupled

are
equally subtle
purely spatialrelationships

Structural
these

functions.

structural

of

The

echinus

seems

with

all

sions
expresto

give

to act as a series of posts bearing

elastic support ; the triglyphs
between.
In
the cornice, with the metopes
as
filling-plates

many

only

often

The
mature

which

problem of

which

was

the column

members

fulfilled these functions

The

was

the

valued.

angle.

The

inherent

of
difficulty

the

appeared when it was used in a

turning at rightangles,such as the temple peristyle
its principalapplication. Since the thickness of

Greek

colonnade

such

lieved
reprojectionof the capitalwas
load by a slightlyraised surface over
Triglyphs and metopes, instead of being articulate,
It was
the visual emphasis
cut on
a singleblock.

structure

on

be sure,

in appearance.
actual
of any

the shaft.
were

to

cases,

and

Doric

system

the architrave

was

greater than

the width

of

to bring the
adjustment was
triglyph,some
necessary
felt to be
of the frieze,where
it was
triglyphat the corner
structural
both
needed
a
as
expression and as a musical
The
cadence.
problem was
variously solved: by widening
the corner;
the metopes near
by spacingthe triglyphsequally

the

Doric

Entablature
the

from

Doric

Parthenon

Entablature

Retranslated

FIG.

2O

"

THE

GREEi:

into

DORIC

WOOD.

wood

construction

ORDER,

(AFTER

WITH

DURM)

RETRANSLATION

INTO

62
from

HISTORY

OP

of the

ARCHITECTURE

frieze to

the

other

and

abandoning
and triglyphs
exactitude of axial relation of columns
tracting
; by conthe spacing of the corner
columns; and by various
one

corner

combinations

of

these

methods.

The

adjustments

sary
neces-

cause

it may
been from this
well have
were
so
complex
that noted
architects of the fourth
century, familiar

with

the Athenian

that

solutions,but preferring
a simplerarrangement,

stigmatizedthe Doric styleas

temples.
Doric origins. The originof many
in

wooden

construction

Elements

stone.

beams
absence

of any

the

leads

wood, sometimes

the

incased

in

writers

mention

also

wooden

been

of the ends

terra-cotta,

were

in

complete
ruins

of

entablatures
indeed

casionally
oc-

period. Classic

the classical
columns

of

one

of wooden

the

that

sought

the

The

among

conclusion

preserved throughout

buildingof

superseded by

of entablature

to

has

(Fig. 20).

entablature

fragments

certain monuments
of

was

forms

apparently imitative

in

occur

which

unfit for the

buildings,
testimony

some

notably the temple of Hera at Olympia. Here the

is 'confirmed
of every
by the remains, which show columns
period in the same
building,presumably inserted one by one
the wooden
of wood, however,
columns
as
decayed. Columns
Doric
can
scarcelyhave suggested the form of the massive
column.
have
The wooden
supports which it replaced must
been of some
uncertain.
different proportionsand detail,now
For the capital,at least,Mycenaean forms furnished the prototype
(cf.Figs. 15 and 21), as they did for the plan of the
of construction.
temple and its early mode
Only certain
minor

motives

outside

of

meander,
may

ornament

Greece, and

these

invented

arrangement

did

not

which

preceded
this moment

was

were

have

at

has

produce
already been

past.

This

which

of stone
the

once

the central

like the

forms

substitution

derived

been

primitive art,
independently.

development. The

terra-cotta

can

in most

current

well have

Doric

of

and

fret, or
Greeks

for wood

consistent

described.

moment,

the

from

and

normal

velopmen
long de-

continued

after

development proceeded steadily

the
as
higher organizationin such technical matters
jointingof the stones, such problems as those presented by
the membering
the corner
of the capital,
triglyph,the profiling
toward

63
of the

entablature, and
divisor

common

in the

freedom

the

dimensions;

of the

of

carryingthrough

module

it left great local

but

choice

Such
of proportions.
matters
to height in the column, of diameter

ratio of diameter

diameter

columination, of lower

to

or

the

as

to inter-

diameter, which

upper

formerly thought to have evolved uniformly in the

direction of increasingslenderness,openness,
and vertically,
to vary
far more
are
now
seen
according to local traditions
which
remained
relativelystable, influenced in part by the
The
idea of a universal
trend
building material available.
in matters
of proportion was.
one
arisingfrom the greater
of earlymonuments
number
preserved from regionsand cities
where heavy proportionsprevailed,
and from the number
and
from regionslike Attica, with
prominence of later monuments
their slender columns
of marble.
The
later temples of the
of their columns
west, however, kept the massiveness
along
were

with

their

material; those

coarser

of the east

likewise

show

positivetendency.
Archaic
period. During the archaic period the capital
retained
the wide
and
bulging echinus of its Mycenaean
beneath
ancestor, as well as the hollow
(Fig. 21). The

no

architrave

was

T of Demeter

at Paeatum

FIG.

21

"

flush with

narrow,

T
Drawn

PROFILES

with

GREEK

OF

upper

Parthenon

^Egina

at

the

upper

DORIC

diameters

CAPITALS,

face

at

of

the

Nemea

equal

ARRANGED

IN

LOGICAL
CHRONO-

ORDER

column
with

the
were

the result that

axes

of the

scanty,

less broad
was

set

even

or

paid

to be sure,

so

from

corner

columns.

it; the triglyphswere

covered

over

the

over

them

had

often

to

be

triglyphs. Little attention

ordering of the stone joints,which
were,
of
the
used
with
coating stucco always
by

those

the

broad,

triglyphscould still be nearly on

The
resultingmetopes, however,

that the mutules

than
to

back

64

OF

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

then
search
for a
limestone
employed. The
porous
module
began certainlyby the middle of the period,although
the

it

Architects

still tentative.

was

diameter

lower

and

the

diameter

mean

between

hesitated

the
for its

of the columns

employed an independent system for the frieze.

Central period. With the central period the hollow of the
capitaldisappeared and the echinus took on a steeper, hyperbolic
profileof the utmost
subtlety. The architrave lost the
reminiscent
of wooden
narrowness
origins,but, in widening,
made
the problem of a corner
In the
triglypha serious one.
solution adopted, a contraction
in the spacing of the columns
unit, and

at

universal.

became

corners

The

took

entablature

marble

form, and the stone-jointing,

exposed when

normal

was

the
regular,bearing an organic
A
the mean
architectural
forms.
based on
single module
diameter
of the column
to have been appliedthroughout
seems
the columnar
system, includingthe entablature.
Late period. The
forms thus fullyestablished in the fifth
century suffered but little subsequent change. Except in the
almost abandoned
by the
west, to be sure, the Doric stylewas
middle
of the fourth century.
It is perhaps due to influence
became

used,

from

relation

its

on

Ionic forms

that

late Doric

example

on

the

to

mainland,

in the

temple at Nemea, shows such slender proportions

one-half
times its lower
the height of the column
six and
diameter.
Late capitalsgenerally lack the subtlety of line
of the mature
form; their echinus is either almost straight
rounded
into a quadrant.
or
"

Ionic

The

forms.

columnar

characteristic

features

system, the enduring elements

of

the

of contrast

Ionic

with

the

the volute capital,the molded

base, and
Doric, are especially
the Doric
the cornice, with
its blocks
dentils. Unlike
or
the Ionic projectson two
sides only, in the direction
capital,
A pair of spiralscrolls or volutes forms a
of the architrave.
In
shaft and load.
between
seemingly resilient intermediate
the

customary

more

volutes

united

were

circle of leaves which

with
narrow

"egg

molded

always received

and

band.
an

form
across

which
the

later took

top by

The

The

slender

individual

the form

dart."

universal, these

became

band, resting on
of

abacus

an

rated
deco-

consisted only of

shaft of the

base.

echinus

Among

Ionic column

many

forms,

ARCHITECTURE

GREEK

65

widely adopted in later times was the Attic base

tween.
two
convex
moldings or toruses, with a hollow or scotia beThe
shaft itself ranged from
and one-half to
seven
in height,with a slightentasis,and with
ten lower diameters
twenty-four flutes,normally separated by small, flat fillets.
divided into three faces, each projecting
The
architrave was
the one
below.
The
tinguish
distypical cornice was
slightlyover
by a row of small projectingblocks,which took the
of dentils from
When
their suggestion of teeth.
name
a
the most

frieze
no

"

introduced

was

subdivision

between

architrave

and

cornice

into isolated panels like the metopes,

band

of

usuallydecorated with a continuous

Formal
in the Ionic
relationships
especiallyin the examples without

order.

the artisticfunctions

capitalis in

it had

and

was

sculpture.

The

Ionic

system,

monizatio
frieze,presents a harof horizontals and verticals analogous to that of the
Doric order, though not carried into such fine detail.
The
dentils correspond both to triglyphsand mutules, and serve
better

even

of both.

fitted than

the

The

for the

Doric

task

respects

some

of

carrying a

lintel,for its projectionsare limited to the sides

where support appears
The difference between
to be needed.
is to be
its faces creates
a
however, when a corner
difficulty,
transverse

less real than that created in the Doric

no
difficulty
order by the triglyphs. The
usual solution adopted was
to
ing
placepairsof scrolls on the two adjacent exterior faces,makthe corner
which
on
they met
project diagonally,and
lettingthe rear faces intersect in the interior angle.
Ionic structural
forms
to have
Ionic origins. The
seem
followed wooden
closelythan the Doric,
prototypes stillmore
in the column
and the capital(Fig.22). The
columns
even
are
relatively
very slender; their capitalssuggest the saddlepiecestillfound in heavy wooden
framing. Indeed the oldest
at the lower
capitalsshow a simple block, rounded
corners,
in
with scrolls merely painted on the faces.
The
beam-ends
turned

the
among

"

entablature
which

are

the

unmistakable.

scrolls of the

The

capitalare

decorative

the most

forms,
worthy,
note-

originsin the interior of Asia.

Ionic development, like the Doric,
Ionic development. The
less a change of proportionsin a definite direction than a
was
change of character. The exuberance of the early examples
can

be traced to

66

HISTORY
into

transformed

was

OF

ARCHITECTURE

sleekness,coherence,

and

elegance,

The
simultaneouslywith the taking up of Doric elements.
volutes of the early capitalwere
widely projecting,leaving
the echinus below
exposed for its full circumference; later
drawn
in and
reduced
in relative importance.
they were
The frieze was
first introduced
into the entablature
by the
Athenian architects of the time of Pericles,as a result partly
of their desire for richer sculptureddecoration,partly of their

Ionic entablature

FIG.

22

"

translated

conslruction

INTO

RETRANSLATED

ENTABLATURE,

IONIC

tnio wood

WOOD.

(AFTER

DURM)

Doric

as

when
come

crush

appreciationof structural expressions

artistic suitability
they suppressedthe dentils

training. With
well

as

of

The

fine

they used the frieze,since these would have no longer

opposite the ceilingbeams, and would have seemed to
Later
tects
archithe delicate figure sculpture employed.
planted
not
were
so
scrupulous,and Hermogenes, who transheavy

dentils

over

final harmonization

Didyma,

where

in the third century,

frieze of small figures (Fig. 23).

innovations

the Athenian
used

reached

was

the frieze

to Asia

was

in the

great temple

brought into scale with

at

the

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

67

dentils

of large Medusa-heads
by a repeating decoration
between.
with garlands festooned
Corinthian
forms did not compose
Corinthian forms. The
in Greece a system completelydistinct. They were
essentially
which
another
of the
one
or
independent inventions,by

traditional

Doric

Ionic

or

forms

could be
and

replaced,

which

their

tendency

common

richness

to

for

in

use

fitted
bination.
com-

Earliest
and

acteristic
char-

most
was

the

capital,consisting
essentiallyof an
inverted

bell,surrounded

by rows
acanthus
with
or

of

leaves,

pairsof scrolls

volutes ing
supportthe corners
of

the

abacus.

The

from
example
Epidaurus
(Fig.
24)shows the type
which

later

came
be-

normal, with
of

eight
ARTEMIS.
TEMPLE
OF
leaves each,placed
FIG.
MAGNESIA.
23
(HUMANN)
DETAILS.
cuted
alternately, exewith a sharpness
and delicacyin which Greek
carving is seen at its best.
Further elements
contributed to
which, through association,
the development of a new
the curved frieze,and
order, were
the cornice with supporting brackets
consoles,or modillions,
called.
The ripenedproduct of this development
as they are
had a harmonious
luxuriance and an adaptabilityto varied
which gave
the Doric and Ionic
it the advantage over
uses
two

rows

"

"

68

HISTORY

forms.

Here

OP

there

ARCHITECTURE

neither

the

of

problem
angle capital.

was

corner

triglyph nor that of an

Formal
in the Corinthian
order.
As in the
relationships
Ionic examples in which a plainfrieze reinforced the tendency
of the architrave, vertical and horizontal
lines were
strongly
opposed rather than blended, but the capital,by its bell and

FIG.

24

EPIDAURUS.

"

silhouette, carried
in

Corinthian

way

beneath

capitalof

in close touch
the

Corinthian

side with

the

the

shaft

name

famous

THE

over

the less

none

The

OF

into

the

tablature
en-

adequate.

Corinthian

myth

THOLOS

of the

comes

from

invention

of

Corinth, on a suggestionfrom
leaves growing about a basket, with tendrils curling
it. As a matter
tile laid over
of fact,the earliest
a

Bassae,about

form

was

Callimachus

example preserved is
at

CAPITAL

line of

which

relates

capitalby

acanthus

the

development.

Vitruvius, who
the

CORINTHIAN

the

at

singlecapitalemployed by Iktinos
possiblyby the later loti420, inspiredvery
the Egyptians, with whom
the Athenians
were

in the
column

the

At Bassae
of the fifth century.
is simply a variant employed side by

middle

Ionic,under

the

same

entablature

of Attic-Ionic

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

69

At

form.

Epidaurus and elsewhere, in the fourth century,

often employed independentlyfor an interior colonnade,

it was

in 334 it was
used on
exterior
an
of
know, in the delicate Monument
and

for the

first time

we

Lysicrates' in Athens
(Fig. 25). The earliest building still preserved in which
Corinthian
ordonnance
was
employed throughout on large
scale is again at
Athens, the gigantic
temple of
Zeus, carried
in the second
B.C.

up
tury
cen-

the

on

foundations

laid

before

by

Pisistratus.

As

long
the

work

done

was

the

at

charge

of

the

Seleucid

peror,
em-

Antiochus

IV., it
be

well

may

questioned

whether

the

of

monuments

Antioch
have

not

may

afforded still

earlier
of

lost

examples

monumental
of Corinthian

use

forms.

FIG.

25

"

ATHENS.

MONUMENT

OF

LYSICRATES

These

reached
such

their greatest vogue

and highest development under
the Romans.
Hellenistic sovereignsand their successors

Figure supports.
women

were

called

are

"

in the

so

of
or
figuresof men
used as supports
Atlantes or caryatids,as they
with rich and gracefulresults. This was
notably
In

exceptionalcases
"

"Porch

of the

Maidens"

of the

Erechtheum

at

Athens

(Fig. 18).
Size and
proportionof members

The
much

size of members

of

the columnar

in all the orders varied

affectingtheir form.

Examples

orders.

greatly without

of all three

occur

in

HISTORY

70
which

the

others

in which

columns

they

fiftyfeet

over

are

axis of the

axis to

ARCHITECTURE

OF

less than

are

columns

in

height, as

fifteen.
from

ranged

The

well

distance

five feet two

as

from
inches

Nike
feet nine inches
to twenty-one
temple of Athena
The
relation between
in the temple of Apollo at Selinus.
for the most
height and spacing was
part an arbitraryand

in the

FIG.

26

"

TEMPLE

AKRAGAS.

OF

formal

rather

one,

ultimate

bearing

spacing of Doric
height, that of
If structural

Ionic

have

strictlydependent

have

columns

on

any

the

early

of the mature

height of

about

In

E.

H.

about

vary

one-half

one-third

been

height.

the

length

fixed,and

nearly

inverselyas
architraves

their

their

dominant

more

by the

temples, the

general about

proportionsof

late architraves

than

in

had

to

determined

one

materials.

remained

have
tended

The

the columns.

architraves

was

considerations

ratios would

thinner

of the

power

BY

KOLDEWEY)

variable

columns

of the lintels would

and

than

(RESTORED

ZEUS.

OLYMPIAN
AFTER

TRYSELL,

the

are

the

height

of

likewise not

statical law,

traves,
though marble archisomewhat
generally,are relatively

ones

of

coarse

period,whether

limestone.
of stone

or

Doric

marble,

one-third of their length; Ionic

archi-

traves

of

the

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

Hellenistic

period,about

the other factors involved

there would

of constructive
of

proportionsin

forms

the

same

however, of

one-quarter.
seem

The

increasingstructural boldness.

an

71

thus to have

wide

at

been

varietyin

the tions
proporthe identity

of different
order

Among

orders,
different scales,are

margin

of

dication
in-

safety,a habitual

generosityof strength.
employment of the column with its
rich apparatus, Greek buildings
were
simplealmost to bareness.
relief ornament
to walls,
The Greeks ordinarilyapplied no
but gained their effect by the regular jointingof finelycoursed
Walls.

Aside from

the

Smooth-faced
blocks were
used for the best
rnasonry.
but in heavy walls blocks dressed only at the edges, or

work;
with

were
employed,
jointsemphasized by marginal draftings,
In cases
where
a wall
practiceincreasingas time went on.

the
a

and

colonnade

were

fused, with

the

columns

attached

or

engaged to the wall, as in the west fagade of the Erechtheum

(Fig.1 8) or the "Temple of the Giants" at Akragas (Fig.26),
which
this was
balanced
overusually due to exceptional causes,
the Greek
tendency toward simplicityof structural
the end of a wall had to support an
expression. Where
architrave it was
treated as a specialmember, the anta, with
its own
from those of the column.
capitaland base, differing
of the wall,the transition
Moldings. The base and the crown
between
horizontal
and vertical,were
emphasized and
rendered
less abrupt by specialmembers,
ranging from a
simple vertical plinthor fascia to an elaborate suite of carved
have
moldings. These moldings (Fig. 27), of which we
already seen examples in the Doric echinus and the Ionic base,
the most
are
enduring of Greek creations. Based
among
the simple and universal forms
of the convex,
on
concave,
attained
distinction
subtle
and reverse
they
by
variety
curves,
obvious
circular
of contour, never
and
followingan
by
arc,
selection
different
functions
for the
of crowning,
judicious
ployment
support, and footing. A characteristic instance is the emof the
in which

the

reverse

thin

curve,

or

cyma.

The

cyma

recta,

portion projects,was
ordinarily
in
the
whereas
curve
crowning feature;
only as a
its other position,
the cyma
used when
was
strength
reversa,
was
a
required. For the base of the wall in Doric buildings,

used

free

concave

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

of stones
with a projecting
high course
standing vertically,
bases
used; in Ionic buildings,molded
plinth below, was
analogous to those of the antae, having as their most frequent
constituents
and a plinth. For
a torus
or
a reversed
cyma,
the support of projectingbeams
cornices the Doric builders
or
used

characteristic

hooked

beak-molding,

the Ionic builders the

ovolo

like

"

echinus
the

in

profile
"

cyma

Richer
show

combinations
studied

punctuated by
flat fillets

line,

narrow

or

half-

beads.

Ornament.

sis
Empha-

the

structural

on

CYMA

flow

of

contrast

round

or

reversa.

and

the

REC"

anatomy

jgyggj_,;

gainedby carvingand
painting. These were
confined

usually
TORU5

also

was

restricted
the

to

in
as
fields,

Doric

and

Ionic

friezes,contrasting
FASCIA

with

the

of
simplicity

the

wall

surfaces.

Moldings
FIG.

27

GREEK

"

AND

ROMAN

MOLDINGS.

were

(REYNAUD)

by color,in
was

exercised
to

enriched by

painting in the Doric

order, by carving,reinforced
Ionic marble.

the
in

thus

themselves

the

selection

rather

accentuate

than

The
of

ment
greatest judg-

motives

disguisethe

of

mentation
orna-

form

of

applied. Thus the fret,with its

they were
Curved
reserved for flat bands.
was
severe
rectangularity,
decorated
with motives
having lines which
moldings were
were
parallelor perpendicularto elements of the surface, or
which repeated its profile the egg and dart for the ovolo, a
surface

to

which

"

ARCHITECTURE

GREEK

heart-shapedleaf

the

for

reversa

cyma

every point of view.

Doors.
and
Doors
windows

73

harmonizing

thus

"

from

always square-headed
times.
when
Greek
used monumentally in mature
They had
their jambs sometimes
what
vertical,but frequentlyinclined someinward, a device recognizedby Hellenistic architects as
phasized
emincreasingthe apparent height. Important openings were
by a casing of bronze, or by projectingmoldings
similar
not

merely

in the

of

those

to

Ionic

an

top, but down the sides

of windows, completely around.
the lintel

by making

of

characteristic instance
such

and
town

as

later,true

In

vaults.
walls

arches

and

projectbeyond

In the fourth

certain

subterranean

among

arched
the

bridge of

arch, which

the

was

The

tomb

used.
do

The
not

chambers.

of vaults
bold

even,

ear,

the

oldest

date

duced
pro-

was

span

scarcelyan

at

In

arched

before

century the barrel vault

number

well,or

as

substructures,corbelled arches
often

were

carried

were

a
jambs,
Greek
structural emphasis.
less highly finished constructions,

preserved,in Acarnania,
century.

These

architrave.

the

across

case

Arches

were

the

was

ways
gatefifth

used for

second

Pergamon,

of twenty-seven
of Greek
element

the

and,

occurs

feet.

tury,
cenan

Thus

architecture

in Hellenistic times
with
handled
prime, was
steadilyincreasingtechnical mastery.
ings
buildacroteria.
The roofs of Greek
Ceilings,
roofs,
gables,
of tile,supported by wooden
were
beams, which usually
rested on
intermediate
walls or columns.
A knowledge of
the truss is not proved. In most
have
the beams
must
cases
remained
visible from below, though in some
examples wooden
with panels or coffers are possible. Where
marble was
ceilings
its strengthmade
the temple
at command
stone ceilings
over
porticostechnicallypossible. In the north porch of the
there are marble
beams
Erechtheum
twenty feet in length.
The gable roof, traditional from
Mycenaean days, was usual;
with
angular
trifour
The gables formed
were
rare.
hip-roofs,
slopes,
pediments, with the cornice carried up the slope,and
its members, except the crowning cyma,
or
gutter, running
often filledwith
also.
The pediments were
across
horizontally
of the gable
sculpturein relief or in the round, and the corners
accentuated by sculpturedornaments
called acroteria.
were

in

its first

74

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE
the

Larger elements of composition. In

composition Greek architecture showed
the

megaron,

Greek

house

remained

which
after

the

essential

three

forms

element

lay

of the

invasion, as it had been in

hall,either with a single
long,narrow

the

Dorian

Mycenaean times. The

divided by longitudinalranges
or
nave
or

of

conservatism

same

At the basis of the chief national

in the details.

as

the

larger elements

aisles,remained

the

of columns

into two

characteristic

most

element

of

Greek

ployed
emplans, capable of varied applications. It was
for the temple, for the stoa, the
most
typical of
Greek
secular buildings,and
commonly for any buildings
which might be required for extraordinarypurposes,
such as
the Athenian
arsenal at the Piraeus.
During the periods of
native development the model
was
scarcelyabandoned
except
under
when
it would
have
had
vantages
disadcompulsion, in cases

too

when

serious to be

overlooked.

Such

occurred

cases

in certo assist at a spectacle,

as
were
tain
large company
halls of mysteries,the theater,and the odeion, the forms
of which
were
suggested directlyby the practicalrequirements.
The exterior peristyle,
nade
a continuous
enveloping colonfirst adopted in the temples (Fig.28), was
the most
of exterior effect,finding later applications
striking element
in tombs
and
The
monuments.
peristylarcourt and the
hall with
interior peristyle essentially
Oriental
an
square
a

"

motives

"

became

acclimated

Types of build-ings.As
institutions, intellectual
Greeks

first met

and

in Greece

in Hellenistic

the

people

first

freedom,

solved

and

of

democratic

athletic

the architectural

times.

life, the

problems

which

these

involve, creating the council-house, the theater, the

stadium, and other persistent European types. Private
life

and
relativelysubordinate
simple. Sepulchral monuments,

domestic

was

was

time,

were

of the

state

modest

during

works
its

of

in

sculpture.

prime

were

architecture
best

the
All

lavished

the
on

Greek

resources

the

public

of civic
buildings, above
all, on the temples, the centers
life. Rising perhaps on the very site of a Mycenaean palace,
the
to
citizen, symbolized the new
temple, open
every
social

order

with

its rich consequences

for art.
Religiousbuildings. The forms of the religiousbuildings
'

were

in part conditioned

by

the

nature

of the

Greek

cults,

GREEK
in

ARCHITECTURE

part by traditions

of

primitive origin. In the worship

as Zeus, Apollo, Athena, and
Artemis,
sacrifice performed, not in a
a
was

of the chief
the

gods, such
principal ceremony

closed

room,

but

on

great altar in the open

of

relativelysmall size
giving shelter to an image

FIG.

28

"

P^ESTUM.

THE

GREAT

NEPTUNE."

valuable

75

air.

sufficed for the house

and

to

TEMPLE,

the

more

SO-CALLED

tuary
sanc-

of the

god,
perishable or

"TEMPLE

OF

(CHIPIEZ)

offerings. Though

almost

always open to
the people, it was
intended
for the assemblage of devotees.
not
In the worship of certain infernal gods the ceremonies
of these
closed doors, but in most
were
performed behind
of the initiated was
small.
mystery-cults the number
The
Under
these
stances
circumtemple: essential elements.
in adopting the form
there was
usually no difficulty

more

76
of the
the
or

house, the deep and

fundamental
naos

of the

into

the

cella

central

was

nave

as
rectangular megaron,
temple
namely, the cella
normally either undivided
"

and

narrow

side

aisles.

preceded by a vestibule or pronaos,

with
in antis (Fig. 29 [3],[6],etc.); less often it
columns
had a closed vestibule
at all.
(Fig. 29 [i],[2],[5])or none
The temple: normal form.
Though this simple form alone
sufficed for temples of minor
importance, the type which
became
elaborated
normal
(Fig. 28) was
by the addition
of two
The
other
elements.
opisthodomos (Fig. 29 [6],[8])
addition
the
at
but
rear
an
corresponding to the pronaos,
ordinarilynot communicating with the cella was obviously
in the interest of formal balance.
The peristyle,
introduced
colonnade
far
a
so
completely surrounding the ensemble
had
described
ficiently
sufno
(Fig. 29 [s]-[8]),
practicalfunction
for its origin. The
important to account
origin
in
should
an
perhaps be sought
supported by
open
canopy
Usually

"

element

narrow

(Fig. 29 [i]). This

divided

or

ARCHITECTURE

OP

HISTORY

was

"

"

columns,

like that
sufficed

the

over

early Christian

first to

shelter

altar.

This

may

image, and then

have
been
an
magnified to cover
inclosingcell. Certain it
is that in the temples of Doric style,in which
the arrangement
to have
seems
originated,the peristylehad an almost
connection
with the cella. Although in front it
accidental
to correspond to each
had generally one
column
of the supports
in
these
columns
stood
exact
no
behind,
relationship
of position either to the walls or
of the
to the columns
well

have

at

the

pronaos.

occasionally
temple: other features. Other elements
appeared in the temple, not limited to any specialregion
of specialsancor
tity,
period. There might be an inner room
the adyton,housing the image and opening toward
the
cella (Fig. 29 [i],[2],[5]). A room
similarlyplaced, but
introduced
in several
temples,
opening to the rear, was
the proas
a treasury under
notably the Parthenon, to serve
tection
of the god.
Intermediate
between
the simple cella
and
the peristylartemple were
the prostyle temple, with
columns
the front, and
the amphiprostyle
running across
These
form, where they were
repeated at the rear as well.
The

were

sometimes

used

as

the best substitute

for the

peristylar

78

HISTORY
when

arrangement

on

the

wall

outer

most

number

common

the

to

colonnade

or

desired

was

Nike

of the

(Fig. 28).

size of the

temple,

the

narrow

Acropolis
supported

was

of steps, three being

These
steps, proportioned
often

high

too

to

be

specialflightof practicable
opposite the entrance
(Fig. 26). Cella
steps or a ramp
covered
and peristyletogether were
by a simple gable roof,
the gables or
pediments serving as appropriate fields for
(Fig. 17). The temple was
sculptured decoration
usually
lighted only through its great door at the east, although a
few
Ionic temples, like the Erechtheum,
certainly had
others are
known
windows
well (Fig. 18). Some
to have
as
roof over
been
the cella, but
a
"hypagthral," or without
this is now
thought to have been due to incompleteness or
and

climbed,

this necessitated

were

in

on

temple

substructure, in the form

massive

rich effect

precinct of Athena
(Fig. 29 [4]).

at Athens

The

ARCHITECTURE

in the

as

space,

OF

difficulties in the construction.

to

temple: size, proportions. In frontage few temples

exceeded
feet,although a half-dozen
eighty to one hundred
with
dimensions
giants form a class by themselves
nearly
and sixty by three hundred
and
equal, about one hundred
as
fortyfiftyfeet. Some peristylartemples are as narrow
while
the
without
five or even
a
temples
thirty-fivefeet,
of
Athena
sometimes
like
the
Nike, are
peristyle,
temple
normal
feet or less.
The
but twenty
"hexastyle" Doric
the most
surprising
fagade, of six columns, itself showed
with
width
of thirty-four feet,
a
elasticity;the Metroon
and the temple of Zeus, with ninety-one feet, stand side by
side at Olympia
a
disregard for relations of scale which
characteristic
of Greek
architecture.
was
Beyond one
very
The

"

feet the

hundred

reaching eight
Selinus, and
Even
the
The
more
no

the
front

in the

ten

late

account

on

of the

twice

the

of columns

Parthenon
Ionic

in the

smaller

length
than

number

Ionic

had

and

temple of Apollo

temples

of the

width

have

to

ratio

between

the

little less than

number

of

Didyma.
on

corridors.

outer

peristylar temples varied

width

at

eight columns

of their

chronological tendency being traceable

The

be

multiplied,
in the great temple of
to

from
three

little

times,

in .this tion.
proporthe
columns
on

GREEK
flank and

on

the

ARCHITECTURE

front also varied

79

according

to

no

general

law, though such

high ratios as 6 : 17 and 6 : 16 occur

only
in the oldest Doric
and
the
ratio
low
of
6
: n
temples,
in
the
The
of
the
most
recent.
only
height
temple fagade
for the temples
more
usually ranged about half its width
"

six

with

columns, and

in any

more

case

less for those

with

Ionic than

for the

for the

than

more

six

"

Doric.

Development of the temple: archaic period. In the early

much
stages of the development of the temple there was
local variety,not only in the columnar
system, but in the
In Greece proper
the oldest temples
general arrangement.
of which the plans can
be studied
the Heraion
at Olympia
from before 700 B.C., the temple at Corinth from
before 600
already show the opisthodomos and the triple division
"

"

of the
the

interior,as well

Doric
less

many

as

contraction

the

peristyle. In other
sophisticatedforms

time, which

of

corners

parts of Hellas, however,

occur

at

even

much

later

primitive stage of
to through provincial conservatism.
development adhered
the
Early temples in Ionic regions frequently lacked
have
been
to
seems
peristyle,which
developed in the
mother
country after the Ionian emigration, and to have
been

may

carried

at

elaboration

represent

afterward

over

the archaic

as

of Hera

well

of the

into

Artemision

Samos, both

more

Asia.
at

Such

Ephesus

built in the sixth

and

great
the

ments
monu-

temple

century, show

the

received on
Ionic soil.
peristylesoon
In the colonies of the West, though they were
founded
later,
the single-ended cella prevailed till the fifth century, and
the problems of the peristyle
solved somewhat
were
clumsily.
A sharp difference in the diameter
and in the spacing of the
columns

which

the

of the front and

of the flank, sometimes

found

in the

during the archaic period;

and the normal
solution with sides and front spaced alike,
and a contraction
due to the triglyphs,does
at the corners
in until its close.
In several
not
come
outlying regions
into
aisles by a
two
with the cella divided
temples occur
singleline of columns
(Fig. 29 [2],[7]) obviously a more
than
a wide
primitivedevice to support the ridge over
span
the division by two
commended
lines (Fig. 29 [6],[8])which
itself to more
as
leaving an axial place
expert constructors

mother

country,

was

here

the rule

"

So

HISTORY

for the image.

in the

West,

Local

OF

This

latter arrangement
appears
very
of the cellas there being undivided.

most

traditions in

adherence

of Greece

An

temple design.

local traditions

to

ARCHITECTURE

be

can

seen

extreme
at

rarely

instance

Selinus,the

of

post
out-

in western

two
Sicily. Here were
primitive
closed megarons,
each with its adyton; and
less than
no
seven
peristylartemples in which the adyton is preserved,
in three of them
after they had otherwise
become
even
pletely
com-

assimilated
retained

the

archaic

to

closed
had

ones

the

normal

vestibule
an

as

elaboration

of the seven
Two
type.
well, and all of the four
of

the

front,

entrance

either

line of columns
or
by a second transverse
by a
of
the
few
which
has
cella,
prostyle development
examples
elsewhere.
Partly as a result of this multiplication of
all beyond the average
features, the temples were
tion
proporin length. Excepting one
of the megaron-cellas which
had a single division, only the gigantic temple of Apollo
had

interior

colonnades.

the
Temples of the central period. The fifth century saw
Doric
for all peristylar
victory of the normal
arrangement
and an
opisthodomos in antis, a cella
temples. A pronaos
undivided
with
three aisles,were
or
everywhere adopted.
The
plans of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, the great
temple at Paestum in southern Italy,and the little temple at
guishable
^Egina off the coast of Attica, all three-aisled,are distindetails.
The
holds
same
even
only by minor
such as
more
strongly for the temples with a singlenave,
the later temples at Akragas and the so-called Theseum
at
is well enough preThe
Athens.
great temple at Paestum
served
its
reconstruction
of
all
to permit a
substantially
temporary
parts (Fig. 28). The interior colonnades, as in other conmade
temples, were
by superposing two ranges
united
of small
columns.
lower
The
was
merely
range
with

an

architrave, and the columns

the

taper of those

Athens.
the

The

century

which, after
of the

range

tinued
con-

below.

architects

of the

second

half

of

innovations
began a series of unexampled
raisingthe Doric temple to its greatest richness,

ultimately set
leader

Athenian

of the upper

the

Ionic

democracy,

place. With Pericles as the

the great sculptor Phidias in

in its
and

FIG.

(i)
(9)
(10)

Theater
Stoa
Odeion

of

30
of

"

Dionysus

Eumenes
of Herodes

PLAN

ATHENS.
'

Atticus

(19)

(20)
(28)

OF

THE

of Athena
Temple
Propylaea
Parthenon

(KAUPERT)

ACROPOLIS.
Nike

f39) Old
(40)

Temple

Erechtheum

of

Athena

82

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

minister of public works, the most

cosmopolitan
life into the temple form
city in Greece infused new
just
the r61e of

it

as

stiffeninginto

was

directly

reminiscent

expedition
essentiallynew.
Parthenon.
a

to

"

the

Persian

wars,

and

erected

Parthenon

(Figs.16 and 17),which

temple projected before

conventional

more

duced
intro-

"

The

superseded

elements

only. They include features

the fruit perhaps of the
Egypt
well as
others
as
Egypt in 454

of

Athenian

The

The

Ionia

from

not

were

formula.

Iktinos

designed by

was

between

and

447

and

It had

432.

Kallikrates,

exceptionally

an

(Fig.30 [28])to give space for the colossal statue

of Athena
The
interior colonnades
of the cella
by Phidias.
turned
behind
the
across
were
image, making the first
In the rear
chamber
the superperistylarhall in Greece.
posed
Doric
Ionic
the
columns,
were
replaced by
ranges
a
single support
greater relative height of which enabled
wide

to

cella

reach

the

the

roof

without
order

Doric

of six columns

the

and

vestibules

columns.

elaborate

outer

The

The
in the

upward
columns

the

cella, those
walls themselves
effect of the

unknown.
subtle

upward

in the

Heraion

used
as

in the

the

at

the

than

The
'the

as

Theseum,

part of
and
also

were

in

inward

as

and

horizontal

toward

backward

as

entablature

well

Olympia

at

the

plan.

walls

of

sloping diagonally. The

sympathy with the pyramidal

corner

inclined,in

whole.

slightlythicker

center,

of

curvature

Parthenon

in the

lines of the

inclined

were

of marble

use

stone, instead of wood,

corridors, and a richness of

series of modifications

vertical members.
curved

The

coffered

hitherto
sculptured decoration
Architectural refinements. A
the stylobate,early employed
and the temple at Corinth, was
in the smaller
temple known
an

terior
ex-

prostyleporticoes
opisthodomos, and a peristyle

and

for pronaos

eight by seventeen
possible a ceilingof

over

the

retained, with

was

of

made

On

great diameter.

too

corner

columns

others, giving

were,
a

moreover,

definite end

to

although very slight,

delicate
like the entasis
sufficed to recognize in the most
possibilityof finer organization, and to give
every
way
of a livingthing.
of art something of the character
the work
the

All these

colonnade.

"

variations

"

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE
Nike.

Temple of Athena
Acropolis the Doric
Ionic, which

the
of

these

called

order

had

the

Kallikrates

by
435
shallow

temples of
completely

abandoned

was

familiar.

become

newly

of

"Temple

later

the

of Athena

little temple

the

was

In

83

The

the

southwest

bastion.

cella with

for
first

Nike, the

Wingless Victory," built

on

the

It

so-

about

has

prostyle porticoes
(Fig. 30 [19]). Although it is the smallest of
all Greek
temples, its magnificent situation, its harmony
of proportion with
the substructure, its perfection of detail,
it to
hold
its own
enable
worthily with its great
neighbors.
The
Ionic
Erechtheum.
Another
to
temple, dedicated
Athena
and
Erechtheus
built at intervals
(Fig. 18), was
from 435 to 404 to take the place of the old temple north
of the Parthenon.
It was
irregularin plan, corresponding
it sheltered and the unevenness
to the variety of cults which
it stood
of the ground on
which
(Fig. 30 [40]). It had a
cella with
the east,
on
a
prostyle portico of six columns
minor
porches to north and south, and a wall with engaged
four

columns

at

end

each

columns
to

of

the west.

on

the

south, the

In the famous

Porch

of the

show

sculptured supports

Maidens

masterly

functions.
six
The
adaptation to their architectural
figures,four in front, stand all with their backs to the
building. They rest easilyon one foot, with the supporting
the outside, enveloped in vertical
on
leg, always the one
folds of drapery which
the same
artistic function
serve
as
the

flutes of

of all Ionic

of

rosettes

is another

of the

and

east

sacred

strikingfeature.

south.

the

corner

inclosure

junctions show some

combine
a variety of
The
was
a novelty.
attempt,

such

architrave

rise from

west

beyond
the

its molded

with

and

North

the

capitals,having a double
honeysuckle, or anthemion.

necking
doorway
north

In

column.

as

the

north

of the

The

of the

columns
from

the

features

portico,moreover,

cella, and

includes

jects
pro-

door

to

building. Although the

lack of facility,
the very
attempt to
forms in a building for complex uses

west

of

richest

spiral,and a carved
The
superb north
enriched
by carved

levels different
The

is the

Porch

features

the

evolved

portico or

porch

in the
used

course

of the

independently

84

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

main

of the

favorite
devices
in the subsequent
facade, became
development of architecture.
The
Beyond the borders of Attica,
temple at Basses.
Iktinos was
employed about 420 to design the temple of
It surpassed
mountains.
Apollo at Bassas in the Arcadian
the buildings of his native city in the novelty of its
even
and
the
both
the
Doric
Not
only were
arrangements.
Ionic

orders

used, but

rich Corinthian
used

for

appeared

the

first time

for the

interior

as

of

third.

the

that

Ionic

order

columns

the

The

cella, with

the

know

we

was

full

the room,
been used in the treasury of the
as it had
A change from
Parthenon.
to engaged
free-standing columns

height of

in the

columns
the

columns

the

to

capitalsthemselves
They have volutes
colonnade
a

be

to

interior
wall

of their volutes

form

models

the

The

tian
Egyptian scrolls. Egypsuggested the singleCorinthian

have

crowns

column

the

at

with

entablature

same

prototypes for the

nearest

in certain

are

also

may

capital,which
under

across

capital.

Ionic

any

all three

on

The

walls.

cross

previouslyseen in Greece.
exposed faces,permitting the
the cella without
requiring

unlike

are

turned

special corner

short

by

begun, by attaching

also

was

the

end

Ionic

the

of

cella

columns.

temple design. The

set new
precedents in
richness of sculptural features and in modes
of introducing
Hitherto
decoration
them.
by figuresculpture had scarcely
been
employed, in Doric temples, except in the triangular
fields of the two
pediments, and in the series of metopes on

Sculptured decoration in Athenian

fifth-centuryAthenian
temples also

the

ends.

The

characteristic

been
buildings had
by
around
figures,running
its substructure.
the

metopes

Now,

of the

sculpture, and

continuous
the

Ionic

or

the

order
frieze

was

friezes

of the

wall

design of
Doric

external

continuous

bands

external

in the

for Ionic

of decoration

mode

cella

Parthenon,

of
or

all

filled with

were

added

around

the ceilingof the peristyle. In the

just below
Ionic temple of Athena
Nike with its prostyle arrangement,
united
whereby cella and portico were
by a single cornice,
Kallikrates
did not
confine
the sculptured frieze to the

the

cella

cella, but

carried

porticoes. This

it

along above

first

use

of

the

architraves

sculptured frieze

of the two
in the

en-

GREEK
of

tablature
similar

use

temple

at

ARCHITECTURE

Ionic

the
in the

order, immediately followed

Erechtheum

reformation

in the

remained

West
in the

and

the

In

and

in the

The

analogous
order

Tegea, followed

both

the

Doric.

Ionic
The

circular

new

and

the

the

lead

after 430, curvatures

of the Parthenon

favor,

ceilingsfor

general proportions similar

buildings. The sculptor Skopas, in
at

Segesta, and

universal

of

Alea

soon

no

the

of stone

use

At

those

to

found

Greece

temples of the

them.

by

Paestum, built

continental

resulted

marble

Ionic

interior of the

all current

temple elsewhere.

inclinations

but

occur,

did not

at

practice.
revolutionarydesigns of the
produce an instant or complete

little affected

great temple

in the

by

The

Fourth-centurytemples.
architects

and

influenced

Bassae, soon

Athenian

85

of

the

Attic

the

temple of Athena
Iktinos by employing

of

Corinthian

teriors.
in-

adoption of
the peristyle,

those

to

for

even

columns

as

well

as

in
principal use of these, however, was
at Epidaurus, Olympia,
temples, or tholoi
"

the
the
and

Delphi.
Late temples in Ionia.
The
great temples of the Ionian
renaissance
naturally reverted to the early national types
and
the Arterepresented by the temple of Hera at Samos
mision
With
at Ephesus.
ten columns
eight and sometimes
the front,they had two
on
rows
along the sides or else a
width
of corridor which
would
have sufficed for two
(Fig.29
with
The
columns
the
both
front
antae
were
[8]).
on
aligned
and sides,making possiblea regularityin the ceilingbeams
been
attained
in Doric
had
which
never
temples. The
taken
of the stylobate was
from
Doric
curvature
over
buildings in the Ionic temples of Priene and
Pergamon;
the

use

of half columns

of Corinthian

order

for the

interior

adopted in the temple of Apollo at Didyma.

An
the podium
element
or
pedestal
increasinglyused was
for the whole
structure, with base and crowning moldings,
tended
which
to take the place of the stylobate.
Mystery temples. The hall-temples of cults which included
initiation into certain mysterieswere
multipliedchieflyduring
from
down
the late period,though a few examples have come
of the cella

much

was

earlier time.

For

some

of

these, the conventional

megaron-cella sufficed,either undivided

or

with

longitudinal

HISTORY

86

colonnades

OP

ARCHITECTURE

Samothrace.

The

peristylecould also be
walls
appropriated to mystic uses by the building of screen
the columns
for a part of the height,as in one
between
of the
From
but
this it was
a
step to the
temples at Selinus.
of the Olympieum
at Akragas, in which
these
arrangement
carried the full height,and the cella thus extended
were
screens
to the outer
engaged colonnade (Fig.26). The huge size of
as

at

desire

temple and the consequent

by colossal
support, furnished

this

for

an

intermediate

the
figures between
have been responsible
for this complete closingof
columns, may
the peristyle. For the great hall of mysteries at Eleusis,the
traditional temple scheme
in the time
was
already abandoned
of Pisistratus for one
which
a
greater capacity and a
gave
view

by

from

of the ceremonies

of columns

rows

seven

all sides.

in each

the walls, served to house

about

though the
glimpses of
Altars.

forest
the

of columns

central

male

room

divided

direction,with tiers of
a

seats

largenumber

of spectators,
of them
but scant

left most

space.

sacrificial altars before

The

square

the

great temples, at
first of relativelysmall
size,became, in Hellenistic times,
monumental
selves
constructions, surpassing the temples themin

area

and

magnificence.

platform for the

for the burning of
a

the altars at
almost

sacrificants and
the

Parion,
the

same

In
a

they comprised

essence

raised hearth

above

offering. Especiallynoteworthy

over

six hundred

distance

in

feet

on

this
were

side, at Syracuse,

length,and at Pergamon,
U-shaped Ionic colonnade

sculptured podium and a

surrounding the platform of sacrifice.
the
the
Treasuries.
In
pan-Hellenic religious centers
temple cellas could not hold a tithe of the offeringsshowered
of erecting
the practiceearly grew
the gods, and
up
upon
individual treasuries in which
the giftsof each citymight be
deposited. These took the form of small temples, usually
in antis, although occasionallyprostyle.
with
columns
two
Each
bore the stylistic
impress of its city and of its time of
origin. Ranged on their terrace at Olympia, or picturesquely
disposed along the winding sacred way at Delphi (Fig.35),
features of the national
the most
they were
interesting
among
with

sanctuaries.

Temple enclosures,propyl"a. Monumental

gateways,

or

ARCHITECTURE

GREEK

porticoesinside and

propylaea,with

temple inclosures, and

along the inner

unprecedented

87
out, gave

for the

stoas

face of the walls.

in its unified

shelter

of

pilgrms

of these

fusion

to

access

the
ran

elements,

attempted by
in the propylaea of the Athenian
Mnesicles
acropolis (437conservatism
432). Though religious
prevented the complete
realization of his design, the part still standing shows
its
monumental
qualities (Fig. 30 [20]). The
greater temple
temples and altars,with groves
precincts,often with many
of olive and

ilex,with

complexity, was

forest of statues

and

ex-votos, formed

grandioseeffect (Fig.35).
Civil buildings. Specialbuildings for civil purposes
were
in
the
in
where
evolved
Greece,
relativelylate
assemblage
air was
feasible,and where the temples served many
open
The
universal
of the forms
civic functions.
most
employed
hall like the megaron
the
the stoa, a long narrow
or
was
temple cella,but, unlike the cella,having an open colonnade
ensembles

of

of the stoa
In the varied uses
place of one of the side walls.
as
shelter,market, and exchange, subdivision
by a single
did not present the same
artistic and practical
range of columns
in

in the

disadvantagesas

interior arrangement.

stories, however,

order

of the

beams

placed

was

with

not

were

taller and

columns

wooden

Stoas

architraves

carryingstone
Ionic

temple, and

the most

tripledivision,or
Doric

uncommon.

usual
in two

columns

usuallyformed the outer colonnade ;

less closelyspaced supported the

roof.

above

it remained

the

In

two-storied

Doric, each

stoas

the

Ionic

having its

full

entablature.

Agorae.

The

market-place,originally
serving political
of
fixed
dered
borno
an
form,
place
open
sides by stoas.
It was
frequentlyplaced
principalstreets, which passed through it

agora,

or

functions also,was
on

in the

one

or

more

angle of

two

along the sides.

The

several

stoas

were

thus

at

first independent.

closed area
of
a
Only in later days, in Ionia, was
surrounding colonnades
adopted,
regularplan with continuous
the
Oriental
of
The
court.
a peristylar
following
type
agoras
at Megalopolis,at Priene
(Fig.36),and at Magnesia (Fig.31)
show
of higher organization.
successive steps in this process
Frequent adjuncts to the agora were
shops at the back of the
porticoes,and a temple or fountain in the central space;

GREEK
it

near

ARCHITECTURE

the bouleuterion

were

89

council-house

or

and

the

other

for the sale

buildings. Often subsidiary markets
specialclasses of goods supplemented the principalagora.
civic

The

Council-houses.

bouleuterion, like

so

of

other

many

in origin a megaron.
In the one
at
buildings,was
conserved
the primitiveform
Olympia the older portion even
of house, with
an
apsidal end and a single longitudinal
Later examples, such as the Phokikon
at Daulis,
colonnade.
of columns.
like the mature
cella in having two
rows
were
Greek

Banks

of

seats

added

were

between

them

and

the

lateral

essentiallysimilar to that of the

problem was
ment
mystery temples and led ultimately,as in them, to abandonand adoption of a concentric
of a longitudinalscheme
arrangement of seats facinga speaker'splatform. At Priene,
third century B.C., the seats paralleledthree
in the second
or
interior peristyle a
the roof was
carried by an
walls and
solution unified and technicallysatisfactory.At Miletus the
walls.

The

"

seats

made

were

though

the

building itself was

supports bore
and

court

semicircular,
relation to the

no

than

more

few

model

of

rectangular and
seatingplan. A
None

added.

propylaea were

accommodated

the

on

hundred

the

interior

monumental

of these
at

theater,

buildings
A

most.

special

at
presented by the hall of the Arcadians
problem was
The
to be housed.
Megalopolis where several thousand were
architect adopted a series of concentric
colonnades
and seats
about three sides,but avoided obstructingthe view as badly
in the hall of mysteries at Eleusis by placing the columns
as
roof was
in lines radiatingfrom
the central point. The
of
of wood, and
the solution, though practicallysatisfactory,
course
was

neither

to

of

the

Dionysus.

drama

took

Greek

The

Theaters.

permanent

The

was

of the drama

choral

songs

natural
from

and

the

dances

sponding
growth, correprimitivecult

from

which

the

departure preserved their place in the later

and
were
responsiblefor the importance of

its

development,
the originalelement
of the

theater

growth

monumental.

nor

of the

dance, in the

other ultimate

elements

center
were

theater

"

the

of which

stood

the scats

risingin

the

skene, opposite them, containing the

the

and
participants,

the

orchestra, or
the

altar.

concave

circle
The

tiers,

dressing-rooms for

proskenion,a platform

before

the

go

HISTORY

skene, on which

wood.

early stage of development

convenient

first without
In

Sophocles

substituted, and

32

of the fourth

EPHESUS.

"

of wood

long,however,
the

elements

century, which

THEATER

(RESTORED

in

features, later with

it still remained

Before

painted canvas.

FIG.

auditorium,

fifth century, coincident

with
the
introduced.
^Eschylus, the skene was

time

theater

for the

DURING

THE

BY

FIECHTER)

much

HELLENISTIC

of

dramatic
In

the

of

walls

materials

elaborated

remained

at

seats

with

monumental

were

their

be surmised

may

the

of

were

hillside served

architectural

any

reforms
of

ARCHITECTURE

certain of the actors, or all of them, made

An

appearance.
in which
a

OP

into the
the

same

PERIOD.

but
then
the components
were
days. Even
Greek
into a single unit.
loosely juxtaposed, not welded
of parts
modes
of design were
to seek the union
too
naive
having forms and functions so distinct.
theater
A
at
Ephesus
typical Hellenistic theater. The
(Fig.32) shows the form which became
customary in the later
still laid out so as to
Hellenistic period. The orchestra was
Hellenistic

include

complete circle,although the circle itself

longermarked
it

were

the

with
stone

curbing,as in earlier examples.

more
seats, occupying somewhat
a

was

no

Around
than

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

91

restingdirectlyon the hillside. They were

divided concentrically
at half their height by a passage,
as
of steps, and were
well as radiallyby flights
stopped at the
sides by oblique walls.
Between
these and the buildingsof
semicircle,and

the stage were

for the chorus

when

Tangent to the
proskenion,about
three

doors

for the entrance

passages

it

of the

spectators and

from a distance.
supposed to come
the
orchestra, opposite the auditorium, was
ten feet high, with small engaged columns,

for the

was

entrance

and

exit of the

chorus, and

the

skene
remaining openings closed by wooden
panels. The
itself was
a
long narrow
building,two stories high, with a
series of large openings in the side toward
the proskenion,
three of them
The
large openings, which
containing doors.
in earlier days had framed
naturalistic stage settings,
somewhat
conventional
of slender columns,
were
now
given a more
filling
the ancestors
of the grouped decorative columns
of the Roman
stage backgrounds (cf.Fig. 47).
Variety in theater designs. In other examples there was
abundant
variety. The site available did not always permit
the auditorium
to be regularly geometrical as
at Ephesus;
it was
times
frequentlyirregularin its outer boundary and somein the layout of the seats themselves.
The conformation
of the ground often permitted subordinate
to the
entrances
intermediate
circular
Seats
of honor
might be
passage.
provided about the orchestra,like the beautiful marble thrones
A stoa in which
of the theater of Dionysus at Athens.
people
could seek shelter, or promenade, might also be added
where
somein the neighborhood of the skene.
Size of theaters.
In accommodation
these open-airtheaters
far exceeded
was

for 30,000
the rear

room

Those

the theaters

in

At Athens

times.

of modern

spectators, at Megalopolis for

rows

were

also

much

farther

there
44,000.

actors, but, in
than

those

auditorium
Odeions.

them
from
lower
a
compensation, saw
in our
diameter
galleries.The
upper
to five hundred
ranged from two hundred
Related

to

the

in purpose
the
auditorium
was

theater

the
a

step-likearrangement of the
covered
buildingfor musical and

first of the
seems

to

sort

have

the

was

had

one

built

both

oratorical

by

conical roof, with

Pericles

the

from

angle
of

the

feet.
and

in

odeion,

contests.

in Athens.

interior supports.

The
It
In

HISTORY

92

times

Graeco-Roman

buildings for

cities of any

customary

in

ones

rectangular, with

were

modern

lecture

covered
built

Roman

the second

its share

The

was

It

furlong.

was

sometimes

parallel banks
Where

marble

or

were

The

times.

with
in

these

division

wide

of earth, the

like

essentially

famous

odeion

the

Athens

in

fail to create

did not

architecture.

smaller

seats

were

For

seats

foot-races

either by
artificially,
Seats of stone
Olympia.

built up

were

of

earth, as at
late addition, at Athens

turn.

monumental
in the

largerones

of the Greeks

capacity varied
Hippodromes were

thousand.
but

the

mounds

by

or

The

from
the Greek
evolved, taking its name
laid out where
the topography favored, with
in a singlebank, but preferably in two
long
close
together, connected
by a semicircle.

necessary

walls

size.

being
against the Acropolis at
Christ (Fig.30 [10]).

athleticism

became

purposes

curving stepped

of their monumental

stadion

seats

Atticus

such

considerable

recital hall ; the

theaters,the most

century after

Stadions.

the

or

Herodes

by

ARCHITECTURE

OF

center

from

thousand
on

Roman
to

similar

fifty
plan

scarcely sufficed for executing

materials

startingbarriers

twelve

also laid out

Means

of the

until

not

Greek

during

remained

course

times.

The

simple bank

of wood.

buildings. The gymnasium and the palaestra

served for general exercise and preparationfor the great games.
the place for
Originally,and in strictness,the palaestrawas
Other

boxing
later
rooms.

athletic

changeably
wrestling,but the two terms are often used interIn primitivedays a simple inclosure sufficed;
added along one
stoa was
side; then others,backed by
The
simplifiedin Hellenistic times
arrangement was
and

by the substitution of a homogeneous

Olympia and Epidaurus. The side
south was
usually doubled in depth.
furnished

places for instruction, or

colonnaded
of the

court, as

court

at

facing the

The

surrounding

for

the

rooms

assemblage

of

of them
In one
the
was
readings or conversation.
or
a
bath, with
trough. Separate bathing
simple tank
establishments
not
were
frequent or extensive until late
friends for

luxurious elaboration
ensued
Hellenistic times, when
a
therms.
furnished the prototypes for the great Roman

Domestic
remained

the megaron
architecture;
of

house.

secondary importance until

The

which

privatehouse

well into the central

ARCHITECTURE

GREEK

period, as a
public life of

result

the

of the
It

men.

modest

hall,the descendant

toward

the street, besides

in the

fourth

exclusivelypoliticaland

almost

normally

seems

of the megaron,

minor

to

have

and
The

rooms.

still show

century

93

included
court

houses

closed

of Priene

ever-recurringtype

an

of

ing
megaron-house, with a porticoin antis before the hall,dominatthe court
in Mycenaean times (Fig.33). The entrance
as

FIG.

from

of

the

rooms,

at

was

xxxn".

(WIEGAND)

one

however,

the open
house with

through

"HOUSE

PRIENE.

"

corridor
side,opening into a narrow
Most
along the side of the court by a colonnade.

the street

continued

33

could

only

be

reached

by passing

court.

In the third century this

court.
peristylar
type began to be superseded by one in which the court had a
The megaroncontinuous peristyle,
the Oriental arrangement.
hall was
given up for a broad hall lying along one side,as is
the
seen
especiallyat Delos (Fig.34). The peristylewas
characteristic central feature of the kingly residences of the
Hellenistic period like those of the Acropolis at Pergamon.
All these dwellingsalike turned
a
simple wall to the exterior,
the door.
with few windows
and rarelya porticoover
or none,
A second story over
Wall
some
portionswas not uncommon.
The

painting is

interior,as

burial

The

outside

house

for the

Interment

architecture.

city gates. Democratic

the marking of the grave,

in

FIG.

few

34

of

to

be found

"

DELOS.

traditional

decoration

HOUSE

OF

heroes, the

outside of Greece

of the

period.
was

not

was

on

the usual
unknown.
the

feelingdemanded

the

so

THE

plicity
sim-

(P. PARIS)

elaborate

proper,

plain

that, except for those

TRIDENT.

most

is

until he decorated

part in cemeteries

for the most

was

Alcibiades, who

of the dead

Greece, although incineration

in

custom

usual

of

in the Graeco-Roman

Pompeii

at

Funerary

painterin his

it became

Later

walls.

ARCHITECTURE

in the time

first mentioned

confined

said to have
the

OF

HISTORY

94

monuments

in the late

are

period when

foreignersappreciated and employed Greek architects. At

Athens
an
unpretentiousslab, or stele,was the favorite type,
often
and
carved
with
ornament,
honeysuckle or acanthus
the end
decorated
with symbolic sculpturedreliefs.
Toward
of the fourth century the stone
sarcophagus,already used in
the Orient, appeared in Greece.
The most
famous
examples
are

those

which

of the

the

setting for

group

for the

details of the
relief

house

Hellenized
or

temple

Sidon, in
imitated, as a

rulers of
are

was
sculpture. The
temple form
employed at a largerscale for actual sepulchralchambers
from
of a hero.
These multiplied,
chapels to the memory

also
or

the

GREEK
end

ARCHITECTURE

of the fifth century, in Asia

95

Minor, culminating about

350

of the Carian
gigantic monument
King Mausolus.
This had a peristylar
cella supported on
a
loftypodium, or
basement, and crowned
by a pyramid of twenty-four steps
bearing a quadriga, or four-horse chariot. Pliny gives the
hundred
and forty feet and the perimeter
total height as one
and forty. Speciallyfamous
the richness
was
as four hundred
of its sculptureddecoration,with no less than three friezes in
free standing figures. The
besides many
relief,
arrangement
notable
of a peristyleon a podium, made
by this building,
for later monuments.
became
a typicalform
in the

Commemorative

Similar

monuments.

forms

as in the monument
monuments,
at Athens, erected in 335~334(Fig.
25). Here

of

commemorative

placed for the first time over

larger votive offeringsat the national
was

The

monuments

of

variety of

forms.

used

were

in

Lysicrates

circular superstructure

base.
square
sanctuaries
braced
ema

column

and monumental
often used as the support for a figure,
in hemicycles
of statues
created for groups
were

was

settings
or

exedrcB.

Delphi (Fig.35).
The
such
Ensembles.
as
Delphi
pan-Hellenic centers
included
not
and
Delos
merely religious
(Fig.35), Olympia,
buildings. Like the cities,they show Greek architecture in
its ensemble.
At Delphi the theater and the stadion were
adjuncts of the sacred inclosure of Apollo; at Olympia a vast
complex of athletic buildingsgrew up, with a council-house for
the officials,
lodgings for distinguishedguests, fountains,
a
private residences. Delos was
port
stoas, and later even
well as a sanctuary, and had, besides its'temples,its warehouses,
as
commercial
clubs, and exchanges. On such ancient
above
all at a site like Delphi,which
and sanctified ground
fissure
owed its choice to a mountain
no
great formality of
skill was
shown,
arrangement could be expected. Great
however, in adapting new
buildingsto the irregulardisposition
to the topography
of the old, and there was
a responsiveness
which resulted in great picturesqueness.
The cities. The same
qualitiesdistinguishthe older cities,
where the sites were
chosen for militarystrength,and changes
cities
difficult by inherited restrictions. These
made
were
the image of their
of time; their plans were
the work
were
All these

are

seen

in rich array

at

"

"

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

97

history. Although their domestic quarters remained poorly

and closelybuilt,the centers of civic life were
enriched until
they rivaled or surpassed the national places of pilgrimage.
above all at Athens, where
the Acropolisgave
This was
true
unrivaled
of superb works, rich in
an
settingto a group
Citadel
of Athena
Temple

Lower
FIG.

36

PRIENE.

"

Theater

Upper

Agora
Gymnasium

Gymnasium

Stadium

BIRD'S-EYE

VIEW.

(RESTORED

BY

material, unique in perfectionof workmanship

ZIPPELIUS)

and

subtlety
rising
approach was
steeply on the other sides, with the theaters clingingto its
flank (Fig.30). In classic times a winding road led
southern
Nike",to the Propylasa. Passing
up, past the bastion of Athena
its porticoesand its central wall with the five huge gates, one
The

of form.

came

out

of Athena

on

the summit

from

the

west, the

rock

of the rock, before the colossal statue

the Parthenon; to
right was
the left,differently
turned to the light,the Erechtheum
and richness servingas mutual foils. Winding
their simplicity

Promachos.

To

the

"

OF

HISTORY

98
between

them

hundreds

of statues

was

the
and

ARCHITECTURE

processionalroadway, decked
of the highestartistic
offerings

with
merit.

planning. The later cities show the influence of the

Greek
tendency to rationalize all things,to reduce them to
universal and geometricaltypes. After the success
of Hippodamus
with the regular plan of the Piraeus,he was
employed
least
for the
at Thurii
at
and Rhodes.
Rectangular plans,
Hellenistic
cities.
principal streets, were
adopted in most
main
there were
Sometimes
two
times
intersectingarteries,someseveral
in each
direction. No
general rectangular
outline of the whole
to have been sought. Though
cityseems
made
Aristotle
that
notes
Hippodamus
provision for the
that
this
grouping of dwelling-houses,it seems
proper
Town

consideration

subordinate, in Greek

remained

cities,to the

spectacular grouping of public buildings. In the application

not
formulas
the architects were
newly discovered
always scrupulous in regarding topographical conditions.
At Priene
forcibly
(Fig.36) the rectangular street plan was
streets
imposed on a steep hillside site,where the transverse
tiously
veritable
became
stairways. Well preserved and conscienof
best evidence
excavated, however, it gives us our
the aspect of a late Greek
city,distantlysuggestingthe lost
magnificence of Antioch and Alexandria.
Greek
architecture
rested on the
Like the Greek
city-state,
first by a simple
synthesisof a few elements only. Animated
adaptation to nature, later by self-confident reason, it sought
and attained supreme
clarityof expressionwithin the restricted
field which modest
needs had suggested,

of

the

PERIODS

MagnaGrada
Sicily
I.
II.

PRIMITIVE
ARCHAIC

peristylar
temple at Selic.

GREEK

ARCHITECTURE

and

Earliest

nus,

OF

575.

^
PERIOD,
PERIOD,

about
about

1100-776

776-479

an

B.C.

B.C.

Predominance
at
of Ionia,
Temple of Hera
to
c. 550.
Olympia, eighth
at
Temple of Hera
century.
600.
c.
Samos,
Temple at Corinth,
temis
Older temple of Arbefore 600.
at
PisisiraAthens
under
Ephetus.

sus,

c.

560.

GREEK
Gratia

Magna

ARCHITECTURE

and
Greece

"Basilica"

ARCHAIC

at

turn,

c.

776-479

PERIOD,

Pass-

of

Temple

Predominance

ofwestern
colonies,
c. 550-480.
Great
of
temple
nus,
Seliat
Apollo
begun after

540.
Canonical

temples at
Selinus, c. 500-

B.C.

"

Olympian
begun, c.

Zeus

560.

Ionia

proper

Sicily
II.

99

530.
Earlier Hall
at

of

Persian

Eleusis.

of
temple
phi,
DelApollo at

Persian

wars,

ing
awaken-

of

continental

Greece, 400-470.

480.

Carthaginian

war,

480.

Older

Parthenon

Athens,

c.

at

490-

480.

Temple of Aphaia at
JEgina, c. 490480.

in.

CENTRAL

about

PERIOD,

479-330

Prosperity in Sicily, National Unity, c. 470460.

480-465.
Temple of Olympian Embellishment
of OlymZeus
at
Akrapia, Delphi, and
gas,

Temple

after 480.
of

Apollo

Selinus

Delos.
at

pleted.
com-

at
Temple of Zeus
Olympia, c. 468-

56.
Civil

and

war

war

with

Steels,465-444.

Trophy of Plataea
Delphi.
Athenian

at

supremacy,

age of Pericles,c.
461-430.

The

Parthenon, 447432.

Renewed

prosperity in
Sicily,c. 444-400.
Great temple at Paestum,

Temple

c.

at

430.

Segesta,c.

430-420.
Temple of
at

The

Propylaea, 437432.

of
Temple
Nike\ c.
"Theseum,"
Later

Akragas.

at

Laying

435.
c.

of

Hall

Concord

Athena

out

Piraeus.

430.

teries
Mys-

Eleusis.
of

the

conquest of lo-

nia, 546.

Earlier

530-514.

Asia

Continued

teries
Mys-

c.

and

B.C.

HISTORY

too

Magna Gratia and

Sicily

Q
PERIOD,

CENTRAL

in.

ARCHITECTURE

OF

about

B.C.

479-330

Continued

"

Peloponnesian war; political

downfall of
Athens, 431-404.
The

Erechtheum,

c.

435-404.

Spread of Athenian
Fall

fore
of western SicilybeCarthage,409406.

of

Temple

Apollo

Bassae, c.

Temple
Alea

fluence.
in-

at

420.

of

Athena

at

Tegea,

Ionian
c.

renaissance,

from

39"-

Temple, tholos, and

theater
at Epidaurus,

c.

Messene, 370 ff.

Pollux

Macedonian

Ak-

at

after 338.

ragas,

IV.

Philippeionat Olympia, c. 336.

HELLENISTIC

about

PERIOD,

A dministration

temis
temple of Arat Ephe-

334.

Conquest of the Persian

ander,
Empire by Alex334-330B.C.

fluence.
Spread of Greek inAlexandria

338-322.
lined

Theater

356-334-

sus,

Athens,

at

curgus

after

Temple of Athena at
ed
Priene, dedicat-

330-146

of Ly-

Hali-

353-

conquest of

Greece, 357~338.

at

carnassus,

Later

350.
Man-

Rebuilding of
tinea;buildingof
Megalopolis and
Temple of Castor and

350.

c.

Mausoleum

with

founded,

332.

stone.

Stadion
Arsenal

built,c. 330.
of Philon, c.

Ephesus

330of

Altar

Hieron

Syracuse,

at

276-

215Roman

conquest of Magna

Grcecia

by 272,

of Sicily by 241.
Temple of Asklepios
fore
at Akragas, be-

of

Portico

Asiatic

Zeus

Stoa

174.
of

Temple

Seli-

by

and

of Corinth
the
Romans, 146.
by

Eumenes,

I97-I59of Zeus, c. 1 80.

Council-house
Priat ene,
c.

and

200.

at

tus,
Mile-

between

175

Bouleuterion

138.
Destruction

241-138.
of

Altar

tween
Attalos, be59

flourished

esp.

Palace

Olympian
rebegun,

at

290.

Pergamon,

rulers.

of

210.

"B"

Philon,

Eleusis, 311.
Adornment
of Athens
Temple

founded, 301.
refounded,

Antioch

164.

ARCHITECTURE

GREEK
Grtzcia and

Magna

"

Greece

GR^CO-ROMAN

Corinthian-

temple
second

at

Ionia

proper

Sicily
v.

101

after

PERIOD,

about

Doric

146

Roman

Paestum,
''Tower

century

of

Winds"

B.C.

and

Asia

B.C.

provinceof Asia
organized,133 B.C.

the
ens,
Ath-

at

first

tury
cen-

B.C.

Adornment

of Athens

Roman

by
and
Arch

emperors

citizens.
of

135

Hadrian,

c.

A.D.

Buildings of Herodes
Atticus:
of

140 A.D.,
c.

Seats

Stadion,

c.

Odeion,

160.

of

Exedra
at

Herodes

Olympia, 156

A.D.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

W.

J. Anderson

and

R.

P.

NOTE

Spiers's The Architecture of Greece and

Rome, 2d ed., 1907, gives a consecutive historical account; A. Martechnical analysis. More
tailed
dea
quand's Greek Architecture,
1909,
with
and
full bibliographicalreferences,
is
authoritative,
der
dcr
Dunn's
Baukunst
ArchiGricchcn,3d ed.,1910 (Ilandbuch
J.
vol.
Perrot
and Chipiez's Histoire de I'art dans
i).
tectur, pt. II,
Vanliquite,vol. 8, 1903, which includes the archaic architecture of
R. Koldewey and O. PuchGreece, with illuminatingrestorations.
stein's Die griechischen
Unteritalien und Sicilien,
2 vols.,
Tcmpel wn
remains
final
for
of
the
the temples
the West.
H.
authority
1899,
vol.
Monuments
and
d'architecture
d'Espouy's
antiques,
Fragments
i, 1910,
vol.
vol.
antique,
i, 1896, pis.1-25,
2, 1905, pis.1-30, contain
of Greek architecture
a choice of the superbly presented restorations
made
by pensionersof the French Academy at Rome, ensembles and
details,respectively.Many of these drawings, however, involve a
of conjecture and embody architectural theories now
largemeasure
abandoned.
F. Noack's
Die Baukunst
des Altertums,1910, includes
very

fine

embodying

photographs
the

results

of the

Greek

of the

latest researches.

monuments,

with
A

brief text

topographical

HISTORY

102

is

treatment

by
of

lists
K.

Frazer,

der

Archaologie

tums-Wissenschaft,
be

may

roux's
Rider's
.R.

Theaters,
Ancient

noted
Les

Town

edifice
Its

House:

Fiechter's

1914.

I'

de

Greek

Planning,

reprinted

sites

and

's

hypostyle

the

planning
1913,

chapters

Grece,

en

cities,
3

and

see

4.

LeB.

des
F.

C.
and

1916;

Entwicklung
of

1913;

Development,

and

topics
G.

1912;

etc.,

in

klassischen

special

Refinements,

Greek

History

of

mentary
com-

given

are

der

studies

Among

Detailed

1913.

regions

(Handbuch

baugeschichtliche

Die
On

1898,

1895

6).

Goodyear

H.

origines

The

Kunst,

vol.

W.

vols..

individual

covering

works

Sittl's

Alter

E.

J.

with

translated

of Greece,

Description

Pausanias's
G.

ARCHITECTURE

OF

antiken

Haverfield's

CHAPTER

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN

Greek

Between
is

such

no

distinction

of

its

influence,

independent

beginning.
especially

moreover,

dominant,

was

field

arts.

of the

practical

sense,

science

luxurious,

their
the

material

became,

life

as

initiative

in

than

the

common-

to

in

create

first Spartanly

world,

the

of

rich
of

organization

admirable

derived

the

developments
At

conquerors

on

culture

receive

construction.

and

became

of remarkable

capable

superposing

much

peoples,

who

political,war-like,
to

another

Italian

Romans,

promise

to

the

sphere

the

permit

to

of the

the

From

and

Greece

from

from

Orient.

Relation
the

Greek

to

Greeks,

the

of

their

and

arch,

they

of

sculpture,

and
In

sophisticated

days

used

as

where

they

had

both

to

their

cultivation

of

rhythmical

subdivision

of

no

of

this
to

Greece

adaptation

be

lost,

itself.

adjuncts

structural

and

of surface.

as

make

First

of

as

its

in

later

to
a

wall

the

tablatures
en-

to

or

where

but

classical

majestic

accepting

and

and

Columns
a

to

original

the

to

Greek

forms

the

functions,

expression
to

realized

Romans

adapt

to

and

Italy

architecture,

sought

with

contact

Southern

Asia, the

Greek

give visible
builders

in direct

came

first

decorative

were

served

they

western

significance tended

structural
more

and

Greece

monuments.

own

As

conquest

advancement

superior

literature

forms.
the

by

Sicily, then

an

of

adapted

planning

Romans

character

in

independently

fell within

potent

primarily

was

better

"

of

ascetic, the
and

It

The

as

aesthetic, though

matters

in the

such

not

Italy

too

preclassical

another.

one

was

that

various

part

with

civilization

which

the

most

little in contact

of Greek

beginning

the

for

there

architecture

Roman

between

as

developed

regions relatively
very

and

architecture

sharp

which

styles,

the

and
forms

HISTORY

A
of

the

orders

columnar

ARCHITECTURE

OP

Greece, the Romans

they
proceeded to

ornamentation

in

and

accentuation
members

with

as

scale.

found

them

enrich

them

The

moldings,

arch

received

were

with

formal

the

other

Romans,

ever,
how-

of the system.

Importance of types of buildings. Among

it

Hellenistic

still further in

harmonize

to

in

not

was

much

so

as
significant

the

the

varied

the

the individual forms

many

needs

functional
of their

of detail which

types developed in

tion,
complex civilizawith a logical
and in accordance
analysisof its problems.
First came
an
extraordinaryexpansion of engineeringworks,
civil and military roads, bridges,drains,aqueducts,harborworks, fortifications frankly adapted to their utilitarian
in expressionof structure,
functions, yet artistically
satisfactory
in broad
handling of materials, in proportion. In the
train of an
active political
and
commercial
life came
more
extended
and
magnificent solutions of the problems of the
the forum
and the basilica.
assembly-placeand the market
For military and monarchical
the monumental
glorification
seized on and
were
types already employed by the Greeks
arch, was
magnified, and a new
type, the commemorative
added
To
to them.
setting for
provide an architectural
favorite amusements
combats, races
comedy, gladiatorial
the Greek
in
form of auditorium
received diverse applications
theaters, amphitheaters, circuses,often built regardlessof
whether
the topography favored or no.
To minister
expense,
its
to increasing wealth, domestic
architecture abandoned
earlyrepublicanausterityfor an Oriental luxury and splendor,
Their
culminating in the palaces and villas of the emperors.
lishments
lay in the public bathing-estabcounterpart for the masses
response

to

more

"

"

"

"

"

or

recreation

thermae, in which

was

Construction.
methods

with

made
In

every

form

of refreshment

and

accessible to thousands.
construction

the

great ingenuity and

Romans
skill to

adapted their
operations on a

under
problem of placinggreat numbers
from the weather.
cover
Taking up the arch and vault in a
condition
still rudimentary and
cumbersome, they followed
its form
out
through the elementary geometric possibilities
from
and combinations, at the same
time freeingthemselves
work.
Building in
bondage to the difficultiesof cut-stone

largescale

and

to the

ROMAN

deploy
never

them

enabled

concrete

ARCHITECTURE

surfaces

upon

the

have

been

extend

to

of walls

obtained

105

their

undertakings

rich materials

in sufficient

and

which

quantity

for

to

could
structive
con-

permitted them to vault great spans

interior supports, securing a new
of interior
without
range
Roman.
spatialeffects,specifically
units which manifold
Planning. In disposingthe numerous
progressed from a
requirements called into being,the Romans
like that of the early Greeks, through pronaive
irregularity,
gressively
higher degrees of organization. Ultimately they
who
far surpassed in this respect the Hellenistic Greeks
were
uses.

their

teachers.

It also

functions

The

of

different

rooms

were

their sequence
carefullyconsidered both from the
specialized,
the
standpoint of spatial
practical standpoint and from
Not
with establishingformal
content
diversityand climax.
verse
symmetry on a singleaxis, the architects introduced transand a variety of minor axial lines parallelto both
axes
the major ones, producing a highly complex unity of subordinated
complished
parts, with the greatest variety of effect. They acthis not merely on level ground, but also on
the
most
irregularsites,making a merit of difficult topographic
conditions
which reor
sulted
artfullyconcealing the irregularities
from

them.

architecture became, like the Roman

Universality.Roman
and
climate
Race
not
were
Empire, something universal.
diverse, yet the official
greatly determining, for these were
art, in spiteof minor differences conditioned by local traditions
Itself
and
building materials, was
surprisingly uniform.
ject
largelyadopted from the Greeks, it was imposed on other subracial stocks,
peoples,and practisedby artists of many
themselves
contributed
to
its general development.
who
Forms
much
the same
of incongruity,
were
repeated,without sense
in the sands of Africa, fhe foothills of the Alps, the
In this, as in so many
other points,
forests of Germany.
Roman

architecture

was

like modern

architecture

"

material

imagination in
detail,while preoccupied with largerquestions of planning,
and

urbane, frequentlylackingin delicacyand

construction, and
Periods

mass.

of development.
three

periodsmay

In the

development of Roman
chitecture
arbe distinguished,
in which, side

HISTORY

with

native

io6

by side

felt in three
shared

with

the western

FIG.

From

hundred

two

37

"

AN

arch.

From
more

the
and

monuments

have

most
to 300

of Rome

furnished

of the

must

fortification walls with

to the material

with

mingled

republic,
absorbing from

BY

HULSEN)

of the

problem

new

empire

to its fall

Hellenism

of

they
Asia,

important contributions.
B.C.

The

character

are

prototypes.

polygonal or

of the earliest

from
principally

be deduced

works, which

their

the Romans

itself the grammar

the Orientalized

on

own

the

itself

of the

were

(RESTORED

strugglingwith

more

Etruscan

the end

Greece

TEMPLE.

establishment

while making their

Earliest monuments

Hellenism

till near

from

B.C.

300

fiftyyears, they

ETRUSCAN

orders, and

influence made

about

diluted

colonies and

of the
drew

Until

then

and

Greek

ARCHITECTURE

developments, Greek

different ways.
the Etruscans

Italic elements.
about

OF

known

The

traditionallyto

principaltypes

ashlar

temporary
con-

masonry,

are

ing
accord-

available; gates, drains,and bridges,with

ROMAN

simplearches

ARCHITECTURE

between

houses

(Fig.37) ;
The

house.

tombs

these

types

house

of classic times.

but

the

was

After

vestigesof houses
primitive forerunners

characteristic
Oriental

form

origin
"

opening in

and

dwelling, the

few

the

of

individual

most

the

contemporary

seventh

the

influential

most

of

ancestor

northern

of

the

of

Roman

century there

are

character, similar
in

megaron

Greece.

to

The

distinct from

one

was

the

of

in

as

porticoesand lintels of wood

forms.
a varietyof native

columnar

and

The

abutments,

generous

Greece; temples with

107

house

with

an

these, seemingly of
atrium, having a central

the roof

(cf.Fig. 54 [A]). The temple,on the other

hand, was
stronglyinfluenced from Greece in at least two of
its three forms.
The
first of these, the circular temple, has
evident traditional relations with the circular hut, although it
later received a peristylein the manner
of Greek
examples.
The second
form, with a singlerectangularcella,reproduced
the typicalGreek
arrangement with few changes: the portico
in front was
made
was
deeper and the colonnade
frequently
omitted
from the sides and always from the rear.
The third
cellas (Fig.37),may
be looked on less
form, with three parallel
creation than an adaptation of the Greek
scheme to
as
a new
the exigenciesof a new
cult.
To constitute it,it sufficed to
place prostylecellas side by side, and to give their porticoes
somewhat
more
depth.
Arched
as

the

in Rome
Roman
are

construction.

The

arches

and

vaulted

drains, such

Perugia (Fig.38),and the Cloaca Maxima

formerly thought to descend from the legendary
kings and to antedate Greek examples of the arch
placed in the fourth century at earliest. They represent

gateways

at

"

"

now

no

constructive

advance

on

the

Greek

arches, but show

effort to

give architectural expressionto the functions of

the parts by a decorative
emphasis on the keystone and
below
the springspringingstones, or by projectingmembers
ing
and around
the voussoirs
the impost and label molding.
an

"

Columnar

system.

The

architectural

forms

of the columnar

system reflected those of Greece, all three orders findingcrude

Most
the derivative of the
important was
counterparts.
had
dominant
in western
Doric, which
always remained
Greece.
of
profile

It

recurs

the

in both

echinus

of its later Greek

reduced

to

forms:

straightline

and

with

with

the

it

108

rounded

into

HISTORY

quadrant ;
the
base simplifiedfrom
these two
to

be

Ionic

forms, with rounded

in the

varietyof

time

ied, though
were

base

order.
echinus

and

It

and

often

cased

38

The

triglyphfrieze

"ARCH

PERUGIA.

"

OF

usually the order

widely projectingeaves

steep gable

molded
latter

of

richly decorated
imitated

the

no

formed

cop-

frieze.

by

the

Instead
wooden

themselves,

were

plates (Fig. 37).

with figure

terra-cotta

pediment,

sometimes

was

AUGUSTUS"

had

more

in

the

was

and

rafters,which, like the architraves

beams

with

bases, which came

ing
Tuscan, though Vitruvius, writspecifically
of Augustus, recognized that it was
but a

the Doric.

FIG.

without

regarded as

there

ARCHITECTURE

OF

sometimes

sculpture.

Republican developments,to
In

the

later

and

and

more

about

50

formal

In the
in

bridge of ^mih'us

series of arches

was

Greek

influence.

structive
powerful days of the republic,con-

developments went
first aqueduct, built by Appius

the

B.C.

the

on

simultaneously.

Claudius

in 312

B.C.,

Tiber, 179-142
B.C., a
built side by side,their thrusts balancing
across

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN
the

on

long before

in

the

and

in

the

Thebes
of

prove

the

Romans.

spoilsof
Greece

destruction

Greek
and

of

captives,and other
opportunity,furnished

of

Forms

to

was

architecture.

taken

became

under

Roman

province in

of the

the

second

133.

desire

most

wealth

by

requisiteknowledge
B.C.

the

for imitation.

artists attracted

century

to

skill.

and

of the

tects
archi-

Greeks.

were

detail.

authentic

Greek

of the Romans

eyes

awakened

and

art

active in Rome
in

Minor

at

Babylon,

at

was

Corinth, opened the

the middle

By

Ramesseum

in 209, of continental
Syracuse in 212, of Tarentum
in 196 and 167, and above
all in 146, after the

of Hellenic

riches

the

cessible
becoming directly acGrascia was
conquered by

Greece

protectorate in 196; Asia

The

were

Magna

241;

principle,
applied

in later Roman

monuments

Sicilyby

B.C.,

of

great substructure
fruitfulness

Greek

to

272

store-chambers

uncommon

Meanwhile

revival of this

The

supportingpiers.

109

Their

influence

of detail and

forms

itself visible

made

soon

in

sophisticated
applicationof the orders generally. As early as 250 B.C.
Greek
details,individuallycorrect, and effective in spite of
in the sarcophagus of
their uncanonical
combinations, appear
ventional
Scipio Barbatus.
By the first century B.C. the use of conmore

detail

naturalized, so

universal, the forms

was

that

conformity

with

more

of the

Greek

of

Fortuna

Tivoli

(Fig.39),all

temples of Rome
the first century B.C., may

from

for characteristics

Roman.
specifically

lie first in the freedom

of which
significance
be sure, always the

of
was

need

membering, as
so-called temple

circular

Virilis, the

were

standards

longer be taken as their criterion. The

in Rome, in the
exemplifiedin the Tabularium

no

orders

and
be

of

ined
exam-

The

peculiarities
of parts, the original
combination
now
long forgotten. There is, to

canonical

subdivision

of the

entablature

into architrave, frieze,

and

cornice,even the Ionic order having

uniformly a frieze. In general, the triglyphsare confined to
the Doric
order and its derivatives,though in certain cases

they

occur

with

the

Ionic

capitaland

even

the

Corinthian.

Less
at

strikingforms, such as dentils,however, were

transposed
will.
If arbitrary canons
tinction
diswere
violated, reasonable
not
were
ignored,and the wealth of detailed forms

liberated from

inherited

was
prescriptions

appliedwith

un-

no

HISTORY

failingrespect

for

OF

ARCHITFCTURE

appropriatenessto positionand

expressive

functions.

lay in the freedom

of the

columns

with

with

combined

was

the orders.

Applicationsof

which

the columnar

the wall.

The

39

of the cella,to give the effect of

A

similar

unstructural

unknown

been

effect

The
the

"Roman

piersof
Roman

arch

of

columnar

wish

to

had

forms

secure

of the Roman

so

not

columnar

cella,was

wide

wall

still further
with

arches,

extension
or

rather

lay
on

in

the

arcade, usually in several stories,a scheme

common

arch order.

order."
on

continuous

became

peristyle(seeFig.41).

use.

of columns

use

which

of its

the walls

of the fifth century and had

Its adoption as the normal
treatment

frequent.
temple, the outcome
in spite of the breadth

extension

free-standing

in the Greece

even

since become
of the

whole

VESTA"

OF

full

of the

use

of the

as

repeated along

"TEMPLE

TIVOLI.

"

system

forms

temple porticowere

FIG.

characteristic feature

more

The

as

to

receive

Tabularium, the

the
specialname,
archive buildingof

ROMAN
the

ARCHITECTURE

Capitol (78 B.C.),furnishes

scheme, which
in the Colosseum

with

piersof the arcade

floors,of the columns
superposed orders.

FIG.

arches
orders

was

with

noted

(Figs.40, 59) consisted

to the

the

the first dated

later to find its most

was

in

40

"

and

to the horizontal

and
The

entablatures

THE

if not

of

Greek

superpositionof

mere

ROME.

itself almost

of

example. This
exemplification
the application,
bands opposite
stoa

ranges

of

COLOSSEUM

quite

as

novel

as

the

use

of

the
to look on
reallybetter justified
arrangement as the strengtheningof a Greek stoa to support
vaulting, thickening the supports and building up arches
between
the columns
the
similar to that by which
a process
first engaged columns
in Greece
were
sity
produced. The necesfor greater strength lay in the desire to span the passage
behind
the
the facade by a more
than
means
permanent
wooden
ceilingsand roofs of the Greeks, usually by a barrel
them.

It is

"

vault, which
arches

across

sprang

from

above

to the inner wall.

the
This

crowns
was

of the

indeed

external

notable

step

in construction, for the

abutment
Orient

as

ends

had

of the
contradiction
Domestic
fourth

the

thrust

the

had

no

subterranean

character

of the

of the

vaults

the Etruscan

model
At

rooms.

were

the

The

built wall
in

having

rear

in

of the

structural

architecture.

century

arcades

peachable
unim-

such

aqueducts and bridges.

The
experiment succeeded, nevertheless; the resistance of the
than
sufficient.
the
From
heavy outer wall proved more
ful,
purely formal standpoint the arch order was
equally successin spite of certain
difficulties.
The
longitudinal vaults,
being semicircular, rose
higher than the top of
perforce even
the entablature
in front of them, but this was
overcome
by
the insertion
of an
attic with
the stories.
pedestals between
The
and verticals,
calm and dignifiedrepetitionof horizontals
mastering and co-ordinating the freer lines of the arches, the
consistent
molded
of entablature, impost, and
treatment
dependen
form
to
a
pedestal, combine
system of powerful effect, inthe

or

of

outward

was

individual

details

expressions of
private houses,
wall

to
a

central

small

in close
atrium

garden.

of the

or

lintel and
which

from

arch.
the

blocks, followed
with

ing
surround-

Later

more

portion, built about a court with a colonnade,

added
Greek
influence
the so-called peristylium,was
under
(Fig. 54 [C]). By the second century B.C. this composite type
the model
for the ordinary dwellings of the well-to-do;
was
from early in the first century the wealthy began to elaborate
and
them
into veritable
columns
palaces, with marble
ments.
paveof metropolitan life
On the other hand, the pressure
elaborate

now
or

inner

forced

the

four

stories.

Other

types.

erection

of tenements

for the

poor,

in three

mental
period the principal monuCivil buildings, in Italy
the temple.
type remained
in Greece, were
late in developing. Political assembly and
as
commercial
intercourse alike took place at first in the open
out
air.
The
in the beginning met
senate, to be sure, which
of doors or in some
at an
housed
temple, was
early date in a
followed the
to have
specialbuilding,the Curia, which seems
scheme
of the temple cella.
B.C.
200
began the
By about
which
construction
of basilicas,exchanges for the merchants,
other
became
the seat of tribunals and gradually accumulated
first of which
The
know
built by Cato the Cenuses.
we
was

Throughout

this

ROMAN

ARCHITECTURE

113

in 184 B.C., and others quickly followed.

Regarding the
originalform of these and, indeed, of all the basilicas of Rome
sor,

priorto the days of Caesar,we have no certain knowledge.

Grouping: town planning. The grouping of publicbuildings,
such
the

temples and

the

as

principalopen

accidental
Greece.
there

was

of the

space

like that

one,

Only

basilicas which

in

town

the

forum,

irregularand
of the great sanctuaries
of early
like Pompeii,
Hellenistic,
essentially

uniform

more

fronted

city,was

such

treatment

an

as

that of the

Ionian

fore
resultingfrom the inclosingof the forum, shortlybe100
porticoesforming a long rectangle.
B.C., by columnar
formed
Although the city of Rome, with its unexpected growth, conagoras,

regularplan, many

to no

characteristics

towns

showed

derived

from

in their

general

secrated
principleconin Italyfrom the earliest times, division by two axes
which
crossed at right angles. Parallel to the principal
which marked
these axes
minor
streets
streets delimiting
were
of the angles was
the house
blocks; in one
frequently the
forum, as at Pompeii.
Imperial architecture,c. 50 B.C. to 350 A.D.
Development.
transformation
of Roman
architecture
The
to its imperial
scale and splendorbegan with the buildingsof Pompey and of
Pompey
JuliusCaesar,in the middle of the first century B.C.
erected in 55 the earliest stone theater,built up from the plain

layout common

on

an

arched

adding

new

basilica

quarters for the

the custom

; Caesar

substructure

of

senate

adding an
buildingswhich

did not

content

himself

with

forum, and providing better

and
other assemblies, but initiated
forum, beyond the timeentirelynew

to

the

prevented any enlargement of the old

Romanum.
The buildingsand rebuildingsof AugusForum
tus
his
boast
that
he
found
to
were
so
numerous
as
justify
Rome
of brick and left it of marble.
Most
noteworthy, perhaps,
the forum
which
bears his name
was
(Fig.44 [C]),with
its octastyleCorinthian
temple of Mars.
Agrippa, his ablest
minister,gave great attention to the aqueducts, and built the
first of the great thermae.
In Augustus's reign also the
architect Vitruvius
compiled, largelyfrom Greek sources, his
fusion
compendium of rules and maxims, designed to assist in the difof correct principles.Under
Nero the destruction of
crowded quarters by fire gave opportunity for rebuilding
them
honored

ii4
on

HISTORY

regular plan, with

wider

tendencies

toward

better

the

emperors,

regal luxury of accommodations

hill with

Palatine

houses, and
69-96 A.D., the

materials, lower

Flavian

of detail reached

elaboration
the

With

streets.

ARCHITECTURE

OF

its

and

toward

their

height. Their palace on

halls, their
magnificent vaulted

of which
there was'
temples and fora, in the entablatures
left undecorated, the "Composite" capital,
scarcelya member
in which
attest

of the Ionic and

elements

their

Hadrian,

strivingfor

and

enrichment

Antonines,

the

in favor

of Hellenic

the

still

forms.

combined,

were

of form.

while

increased

undertakings
reaction

Corinthian

Under

magnitude

Trajan,
of

further, there

was

of
giganticForum
Oriental principles

"

"

earlier
and
which
cases

"

At

constructive

science

time, however, Roman

quering
proceeding with rapid stride,con-

was

successivelythe

vaulting semicircular
rectangular rooms
requiringlateral

Hadrian, the halls of the

of Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian, these

imperial thermae
elements

attained

unattainable.

achieved

some

great scale.
to extend

or

vast

In

the

of

size and

monumental

thermas

also

even

Roman

effects hitherto
architecture

of its greatest triumphs of logical

planning at a
The
towns
laying out of new
opportunity
gave

its principles,
in Hellenistic
as

Prevalent
sole

same

difficulties of

circular rooms,
and
openings. In the Pantheon

apses,

the

In the

Trajan (Fig. 44 [F]) itself composed on

the great basilica dispenseswith the vaulted arcades of
works, and employs a purely Greek
system of column
lintel. The
in
temples of the time bear entablatures
is much
in some
the multiplicity
of ornament
reduced
to the point of austerity.
even
Constructive advances.

structive
con-

types.
as

the

The

temples

no

chief monuments.

and

Asia, to the whole

city.

longer appeared as the

In spite of vast
size
secondary in importance,

costlymaterials they had become

which was
administrative,
as an
expressionof the national life,
and
Besides
luxurious
commercial, pleasure-loving,
egoistic.
the emperors
erected
temples for self-deification,
and
arches, mausolea
triumphal columns
surpassing the
dulged
in size and magnificence, and inoriginalat Halicarnassus
the populace with buildings for their favorite amusements.

palaces and

Late

imperial architecture.

In the

later monuments

new

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN

itself in the relations of arch and

logicgraduallyshows
coincident
over

with

construction

thermae

the

fresh

and

arches

115

of Oriental

wave

detail alike.

are

not

framed

influences

In the
in

column,

sweeping

Pantheon

and

and

entablatures

by

the

frankly on them; in the second century

of Syria and
the palace of Diocletian
the
monuments
on
Adriatic,at the beginning of the fourth century, further steps
and the bringing
taken in the elimination of the entablature
are
down
of the arch directlyon the head of the column
(Fig.58).
architecture
end of its development Roman
Thus
at the very
of its formal
the
attained, by the abandonment
canons,
solution of the difficulties of expressionwhich confronted
it,
laying the foundation for the development of the Middle
Ages.
Artistic centers.
Throughout this long historythe center of
the
artistic activity had
remained
city of Rome, which
columns,

but

rest

"

focussed

the influences of Greece

days

of the

more

to

empire

the east, and

administration
on

was

the

balance

and

the Orient.

of power

inclined

In the last

and

more

Constantine, 306-337, the seat of

stantinopl
removed
thither,to Byzantium or Conunder

the shores

of the

Bosphorus.

The

wealth

and

The
adoption of
population of Rome
rapidly fell away.
Christianityas the state religionin 330 caused the temples to
fall gradually into disuse, and temples and public buildings
alike were
plundered for materials to build the great Christian
basilicas,the only important fresh undertakings of the time.
With the sack of Rome
by the Goths in 410 and the Vandals
in 455 the last vestigesof its imperial power
broken,
were
and the abdication
of Romulus
of the
Augustulus on demand
barbarian

nominal

in

476 marked

existence of the Roman

Empire

chieftain Odoacer

Character

the end

even

of the

in the west.

in Greece it is the
of important types. Whereas
development of the forms of detail,to which the Greeks gave
the most
scrupulous attention,which is of primary importance,
in Rome
it is rather the development of the great functional
intensive study.
an
types which demands
the temple was
intended than
more
no
Temples. In Rome
in Greece for congregationalworship, and
the great size to
rather the result of a desire for
which it ultimatelygrew was
imposing effect. The ritual,influenced by that of the Greeks,

n6

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

left considerable

libertyin form and orientation,though the

In matters
of disposition
image was preferablyat the east.
the development was
toward
a
steadilycloser approximation
scheme
with
continuous
exterior peristyle.
to the Greek
a
The
Etruscan
at the rear, the
a colonnade
temples had never
Roman
cellas,as early as republican times, were
provided
with a decorative
of
columns
the rear
disguise engaged
on
as
well as on the sides,and this was
retained in early imperial

FIG.

times.

The

best

so-called Maison
a

41

preserved and

and

were

behind

subtlety of

and

surface

of

light and

which
shade

example is the
France
(Fig.41),

order, which

that

in mastery of proportions
of line
delicate curvatures

The
the

in Greek

regularityand varied
monuments

the

play
in its plan.

recur

temples, like that of Mars in the Forum

in Etruscan
perpetuate a type already found
Other

shows

the Greeks

form.

relieved

famous

in southern

of rich Corinthian

not

CARREE"

MAISON

most

Carree at Nimes

hexastyletemple

the Romans

"THE

NIMES.

"

of

Augustus,

times, and
nearly having

approaching the peristylararrangement more

colonnade
a free-standing
along the sides as well as the front,
and more
the rear.'
but not across
The
more
tendency was
toward a complete peristyle,
stillin use in half-Greek Pompeii
"

FIG.

42

"

SHOWING

ROME.

INTERIOR
THE

CONDITION

OF

THE

PANTHEON

AFTER

THE

(RESTORED
RESTORATION

BY
OF

ISABELl.E),
3EVERUS

n8

HISTORY

second

in the

OF

century

ARCHITECTURE
before

B.C.

the

colony there, and appearing in

completed by Augustus in the Forum

Rome

Roman

notable

most

examples

built by Hadrian

Rome

columns,

ten

which

were

and

the

was

cella with

for the first time

magnificent decoration

of the

the

temple

One

of the

temple of Venus

Forum.

It had

two

chambers

vaulted

with

of half

with

of Caesar.

double

the

near

establishment

columns

fronts

back
barrel

and

to

of

back,

vaults.

statued

along the interior walls is the lineal descendant

and

niches

of the interior

early Greek cellas,through the temple at

A few temples,
Bassas and the temple of Apollo at Didyma.
though rectangular,varied from the traditional arrangement
in having the porticobuilt against the long side,but this was
stylobate and podium
only from specialexigencies. Both
used
were
as
substructures; the roof remained
steadily a
gabled one, fronted by a pediment. In a few instances only,
colonnades

of the

temples left roofless.

Circular temples. A class of considerable importance was
that of the round
temples. The two well-known
republican
and Tivoli (Fig.39), do not differ greatly
examples, in Rome
Both are of the Corinthian
from similar buildings in Greece.
cellas. The
first Pantheon
in Rome,
order, with unvaulted
have been similar in principle,
built by Agrippa, must
though
The
Pantheon
which
stands
far larger scale.
on
a
to-day,
were

rebuilt

(202

A.

(120-124A.D.)and

by Hadrian
D.),shows,

Roman
dome

restored

the circular interior of

forty feet diameter, its crown

the pavement.
Light comes
rain may
through which
thanks

to

Severus

the contrary, an applicationof the new

methods
(Fig.42). A singlehemispherical

on

constructive
spans

under

the

area

one

over

hundred

and

just an

equal height above

through a singleeye at the top,
fall without
venience,
causing any inconat

and

of the interior.

volume

The

piercedby eight niches, alternatelysquare

of
and
semicircular, originallyarched across, with screens
Corinthian columns; the vault is deeply recessed with coffers
decorated
with bronze
diminishing as they ascend, and once

massive

rosettes.

brickwork

walls

are

A rich
of the

veneer

walls

of marble

slabs

complements

unity of the generalform.

Temple Enclosures. Although

many

over

the

the constructive

unrivaled

earlytemples

abstract

in

Rome,

i2o

and

their

HISTORY

OF
the

ARCHITECTURE
sites,stood

directlyon the
borders of the Forum, it was
preferredin later days to follow
the practiceof Hellenistic Greece
and place the temple in a
colonnaded
inclosure, serving both to give shelter to the
the sacrifice and to heighten the
worshippers who watched
architectural
effect. At Pompeii, in the precinctof Apollo,
this arrangement
was
a
legacy from the Greek days of the
it came
in, with the peripteraltemple, in the
town; in Rome
of

Forum

Caesar, which

same

the

at

was

the

time

same

(Fig.44 [B]). Later architects

simple rectangularplan. In the

inclosure
with

on

successors

contented

not

were

Forum

temple

of

Augustus

great segmental exedras to

introduced

right and left;

in Syria they added
in the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek
a
of
in
front
the principalone.
second, hexagonal court
Size oftemples. In size the temples varied as much
as those
they

Greece, and

of

temple,however,
and

Fora.
well

as

much

rivaled

the

of its

extent

space

within

thousand
The
for

by

forum

at

which

In

the

volume

of trade

various

classes of

and

general business

forced

Greek

complexity

it covered

in all

feet.

first for all forms

political
assembly, and

towns.

No

in the

at Baalbek

one

four hundred
served

limits.

same

accessories,with

smaller

for

the

cities,and

this remained

of subordinate

goods,leavingthe forum civilefor

About

it

as

in the

true

especiallyin Rome,

the institution

intercourse.

of trade

the

fora for

the bankers

were

grouped

the

principalpublic buildings(Fig.43). Thamugadi (Timgad), a colony planted by Trajan in Africa, shows the form
which
might be selected for the forum in imperialtimes, in a
where
all was
case
planned from the beginning a square
surrounded
court
peristyle. In Rome, the
by an unbroken
culminated
supplementary fora civilia built by the emperors
in that of Trajan, designed by Apollodorus of Damascus,
which
included a vast complex of buildingsfor varied uses
has been recogas
(Fig.44 [F]). It followed in disposition,
nized,
the Egyptian temple scheme.
First came
a broad
court,
sides
the forum
surrounded
three
on
by a colonnade,
proper,
"

on

the

flanks

of which

were

enormous

exedras

bordered

with

shops. Across the further side of the court, like the hypostyle
hall of the Egyptian temple, lay a basilica of unequaled
the temple
extent ; beyond it,like the Egyptian sanctuary, was

"""""

"

"

^;//4/^-%
L^

..-"SV/^ /" 7

FIG.

44

"

ROME.
EMPKRORS.

(A)
(B)
(O
(D)
(E)
(F)

Forum
Forum
Forum
Forum
Forum
Forum

Romanum
of Julius Caesar
of AiiKur.tun
of Vrapasian
Transitorium
of Trajan

THE

,ae

FORUM

ROMANUM

PLAN.

(RESTORED

(G) Area ("apitolina

(M) Comitiutn
(1) Tabularium
(2) Curia
(j) Basilica Julia
(4) Basilica /Emilia

AND
BY

THE

FORA

OF

THE

GROMORT)
of
Maxcntiiu
(5) Basilica
(Constantino)
(6) Temple of Venus Gfnetrix
of
Mars
the
(7) Temple
Avenger
(8) Basilica Ulpia

122

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Trajan, surrounded by a second, oblong inclosure.

the pylon and the obelisk had their counterparts in the
of

arch

which

the

to

access

gave

first court

Even
mental
monu-

and

the

to the second.
triumphal column which stood at the entrance
There
was
a
variety and technical dexterity of planning
which the Egyptian prototypes had lacked.
Romanum,
Adjunctsof the forum. As adjunctsto the Forum
which
remained
the political
the
Curia
senate
or
center, were
the
Comitium
for the meeting of the assembly, and the
house,
Rostrum
from
which
addressed
the populace. This
orators
platform, which stood at the end of the principalspace toward
the Capitol, was
with
sculptured parapets
richly decorated
and small commemorative
well
the ships'
as with
columns, as

which

prows

itself

gave

columns

as

temples and

the pavement
of the forum
such triumphal arches and

as

rich

as

with

the

of

facades

of the national

those

of Greece.

Basilicas.

The

basilicas,which

of intercourse
in

were

effect

basilicas,
an

sanctuaries

but

On

forest of statues, and

could
find place, making,

was

it its name.

under

general

supports,

cover,

buildingsof

not

served
not

were

varied

uniform

sities
neces-

in

plan,

spacious interior,with

and

narrow

the

on

open

side

one

umnar
col-

like

galleryor stoa, but broad and inclosed,like a hall. In Greece

fall under
there were
this
already a few buildings which
not designatedby the same
name.
definition,
though they were
They belonged both to the Greek type of plan, a deep hall
with
longitudinal colonnades, and an
opposite the
apse
entrance,

and

to

the

Oriental

type,

broad

hall

with

an

interior

the
also
existingmonuments
peristyle. In Rome
include examples of both types, to neither of which
can
a
chronologicalprioritybe assigned. The Oriental type counted
its representatives
ings,
of the most
two
conspicuous buildamong
and the Basilica
the Basilica Juliain the Forum
Romanum
of Trajan (seeFig.44 [3]and [8]).The
Ulpia in the Forum
Basilica Julia turned
its long,principalfagade to the Forum
and was
lined on the rear
was
by a range of shops. Between
dors
an
by two concentric vaulted corrioblong hall surrounded

in two
Tabularium.
the

central

stories,of

ordonnance

similar

to

that

of the

of securing sufficient lightin

impossibility
through the lateral openings gives rise to the

The
hall

an

ROMAN

its ceilingwas

123

raised

clerestorywith
windows
above
the flat roofs of the aisles,as in the Egyptian
show
buildings which
temples and in certain late Greek
Egyptian influence. The buildingwas
exceptionalin having
of the exterior,arisingpartly,doubtless,
such an open
treatment
from a desire for a rich effect suitable to its conspicuous
position. Similar in its general plan to the Basilica Juliawas
stead
the Basilica Ulpia,in spiteof its having columns
and lintels inof piersand an arch order.
The central space, although
over
eighty feet in span, was doubtless covered by a wooden
assumption

FIG.

45

that

ARCHITECTURE

ROME.

"

BASILICA

OF

roof.

unique

addition

either end.

The

the

Juliaby

Basilica

existingform
plan of
and

to much
a

was

that

narrow

positionin

the
and

(RESTORED

D'ESPOUY)

of the

Basilica Emilia, which

its

CONSTANTINE.

OR

MAXENTIUS,
BY

on

the

great

forms

Forum,

apses

pendant

and

owes

at
to

its

the conto show

trary
time, seems
deep hall,turning its flank to the

same

having its galleries

along two sides only. The
same
varietycould be traced through the provincialexamples.
The basilica ofMaxentius.
the
Unique in its structure among
Forum,

A
basilicas

was

ARCHITECTURE

in the Sacred

one

Constant

completed by
substituted

OP

HISTORY

for the

ine

wooden

and
Way begun by Maxentius
(Figs.44 [5]and 45). A vault was
roof over
the nave,
the vaulting

almost
intact from its earliest represystem being taken over
sentatives,
the great halls of the baths
in which
shall
we

study

it.

There

are

but three

bays

in

length of nearly two

feet,and

hundred
five feet.

in the form

the clear span of the nave

is over
In spiteof the considerable
modifications

seventynecessary

points of support and of the clerestory,the

essential scheme
of the basilica is recognizable. It belonged
to the Greek
originally
type, with aisles along two sides only,
of the narrow
the entrance
one
on
ends, and an apse opposite.
As completed by Constantine
it had
second
in
entrance
a
the center

of the

of the broad

side toward

the

Forum, and a second

hybrid plan. In the adoption

opposite this,producing a
and permanent methods
of coveringwhich had
of the fire-proof
been
developed in other classes of buildings the Basilica of
Maxentius
marks a notable progress, propheticin many
ways
of the development of the Christian basilica into the mediaeval
apse

vaulted

church.

Theaters.
Roman
to

The

preconditions of

the

theater, in its differences from

be found

in the native

development
the Greek

Italic drama

and

of

the

theater, are

the method

of its

As the audience at first stood on

presentationin earlyRome.
level ground during the performance, the stage had to be of a
chorus
there was
moderate
no
no
height. As there was
necessity for an open space or orchestra before the stage.
first inclosed

The

theaters

were

of

wood, doubtless

rectangular,

ing
parallelto the stage and soon arranged in ascendtiers (Fig.46). Stage and auditorium
were
easilybrought
roof.
No
and
under
into architectural
a
great
unity
single
within
the
the
involved
in
substitution,
change in principlewas
rectangular building,of segmental or circular seats, as seen
after 80 B.C., under
in the small theater at Pompeii, built soon
of the
close by.
the influence
existing Hellenistic theater
with

As

seats

the dimensions

substituted for

increased,an awning or velarium had to be

wooden
mained
roof,but the walls of the building re-

equal height,and the one at

the sc"naz
frons,decorated with columns
background of the Greek stage, had to
of

of the stage,
in imitation
of the

the

be

rear

treated

in two

or

ROMAN
stories.

three

ARCHITECTURE

This

was

when, just before the end

established

Stone

theaters in Rome.
in

the model

46

"

Rome,

for

(S) Senatorial

of

theater

OF

THE

first
lowed
fol-

rived
features debeen

DEVELOPMENT

merely

OF

THE

(FIECHTER)

(C) Cavea

seats

have

can

have

to

The

Mitylene.

at

the

Pompey,

built in 55 B.C., is stated

THEATER.

With

auditorium.

however,
Roman

was

reduced
element

(T) Tribunalia

(P) Passages

as

this
much

retained

the

came
as

was

orchestra, which,

possible,to
the

semicircle.

close structural

union

the stage, the walls of which

doubtless
A necessary
to the full height of the seats.
prerequisite

of the auditorium
rose

Roman

court
generalidea of the building,with a vast colonnaded
the dominating circular form
promenading, and, especially,

of the

The

the

republic,a singlebuilding

theater

REPRESENTATION
ROMAN

the

The

of the theater

SCHEMATIC

(B) Stage

of the

this prototype, however,

from

FIG.

of

state

the final form.

theater

stone

the

125

for the execution

with

of the auditorium

in stone,

plain,was
the development of the Roman
technique of vaulting,by
which the seats were
supported far above the ground, and by
left for passages
which
radial openings were
and
stairs to
For the fagade the scheme
of the Tabulathe upper
ranges.
rium, with arches and columnar
decoration,was
adopted, as
later in the Colosseum
in Greece
(Fig.40). Thus whereas
the primitiveejements and
orchestra and circle of seats were
on

126

HISTORY

OF

the stage with its accessory

in Rome
the stage was
orchestra
from

and

buildingswas a later development,

the original component,
and
the

auditorium

circular
The

Greece.

ARCHITECTURE

additions

were

taken

over

of the

synthesis,as exemplifiedin
the three great theaters of the cityof Rome
those of Pompey,
in the theater at Ostia (Fig.47),
or
Marcellus, and Balbus
had its own
was
a creation which
merits,not only in adaptation
product

"

"

FIG.

47

"

OSTIA.

THE

(RESTORED

THEATER.

BY

ANDRE)

the

drama, but in unity of

requirements of the Roman
design and splendor of external and internal effect.
Theaters in the provinces. In the provincesthe same
scheme
was
repeated,although less ample means
usually resulted in
to

the

use

auditorium,
of the

hillsides to support at least a part of the

In most
at Verona, and at Orange in France.

of convenient
as

eastern

examples the looseness

of connection

in

plan

persistedin spiteof the adoption of a high stage background.

At Aspendos in Asia Minor, however, the interior shows
the
full Roman
sconce

type, with

frons. In

one

contrast

stage backgrounds, which

of the richest

Augustan

to most

show

developments

an

ever

and

of the

later western

greater elaboration of

ROMAN

ARCHITECTURE

127

great niches enframing the doors, this shows

three

of the

multiply openings and

retainingthe flat wall surface.
east

while

jrons was

scana

longer a resultant, a

itself,resulting only remotely from

treated

drama,

columnar

to

no

in accordance

rather

the

In both

means,

but

visions
subdi-

the

the

cases

end

an

suggestions from
with

dency
ten-

in
the

tive
general decora-

conceptionsof imperialarchitecture.
the drama
ary
secondwas
Amphitheaters. Among the Romans
of gladiatorialcomto the more
exciting amusement
bats,
from
introduced
Campania in the third century and
the circus. In the provision of
held at first in the forum
or
specialarchitectural arrangements for such contests Rome was
also behind
with
arena
Campania, for in Pompeii an elliptical
it
stepped seats was begun soon after 80 B.C., whereas in Rome
theater auditoria of wood, facing
not until 58 B.C. that two
was
built to form
the first amphitheater of the
each other, were
of Caesar
still celebrated
within
were
city. The
games
not
wooden
until the time of Augustus,
stands, and it was
had its amphitheater in stone.
Although
29 B.C., that Rome
in Pompeii, however, the arena
was
largely excavated in the
seats
earth, and the rear
were
supported on solid masonry,
in Rome
the amphitheater was
built up from
the plain like
the theaters, with a richlyarcaded exterior.
The
Flavian
The Colosseum.
the
as
amphitheater, known
Colosseum, which succeeded that of Augustus in the years
70-82

shows

A.D.,

this arrangement

most

three
rose
arena
elliptical
successive tiers of seats
separated by high parapets, and
On the
crowned, very probably,by an encirclingcolonnade.

splendidform

(Fig.40).

About

in its final and

the

arcades
first,three stories of open
the arch order, Doric, Ionic,and Corinthian.

exterior
with

were,

story wall, perhaps originallyof wood,

Corinthian
which

masts

formed
orders

pilasters.Corbels near
probably supported the

the necessary
below.
The

visual

crown

and

about

such

dignity,which

with the power

fourth-

treated

with

top carried wooden

the

immense

velarium, and

for the uniformly repeated

regular spacing of the tiers,diminishing

rhythmically in perspective,and
cornices

was

decorated

vast

surface, gave

the
justified

of Rome

the

unbroken
an

sweep

of the

unequaled majesty

identification of the Colosseum

itself.

the triumphwas
Structurally

128

HISTORY

OF

less remarkable.

no

The

ARCHITECTURE

elliptical
plan required every

of

one

the radial passages

and every foot of the concentric vaults
differ from
its neighbors,yet much
executed
in stone,
was
cut

third

had
the

in the

done

the vault
previousstories,

same

the

which

thrusts

as

the

arches

was

ing
carry-

facade,
dropped

tions
penetrated by continuaThe
of them.
resultingform, the groined vault, here
appearing for the first time in Italy,had general advantages
which
were
soon
manifest, in that it required for its support,
massive
continuous
not
a
abutment, but isolated piers on
to

level

of the

the arches

curately
ac-

In the

geometricalshapes.
practicalnecessities prevented the

barrelVault above

concentric

been

difficult

the most

arcade, where

of
as

to

to

and

After the form

concentrated.

were

of the

erected in the Italian

amphitheater in the capital,others were
and
existingat Verona,
provincial cities,notable remains
other places. These
had
seats for
Nimes, Aries, and many
spectators, while the greatest,
twenty to twenty-fivethousand
in Rome
and Campania, had a capacity of twice that number.
the circuses for chariot-racing,
Circuses.
Mightier stillwere
the

oldest

of Roman

the

between

Palatine

and

the

Aventine

the

Circus

built
of years
was
ultimatelyfor two hundred
course

long

was

and

first held

amusements,

with

narrow,

thousand
a

sharp

spina, separating

barrier, or

the

The

course

like that of the Greek

turn

of which

the center

Down

valley

in the
hills,where
Maximus, with seats

spectators.

stadion, to the seating arrangements

circus also conformed.

in the

of the

those

of the

course

stretches, adorned

with

at the end opposite the turn

monuments;
with
individual
cells for
the starting arrangements,
chariot, in a segment
focussing on the first corner.

and

obelisks

exterior

was

on

and

Baths

system like that of the theaters and

The

thernuz.

Roman

bathing

exercise,but
club.

for the

Examples
Pompeii show, at

rooms

and
was

from
a

the

small

of

were

each
The

theaters.
amphi-

establishments

progressedfrom the simplestutilitarian structures

facilities not only for bathing
institutions,
offering
social intercourse

the

was

to luxurious

and

modern

physical
cafe

or

days of the republic

scale, the typical complement
later

their arrangement.

accompanied by

court,

series of

or

rooms

palaestra,for
in which

at

of

ercise
ex-

dif-

ROMAN

ARCHITECTURE

129

the frigidarium,the
ferent temperatures were
maintained:
The
the
tepidarium,the caldarium.
frigidariumcontained

cold plunge bath, the caldarium

served

to lessen the shock

in

the hot

passingfrom

baths, the tepidarium

one

to the other

and

ifHT

r-

LTJ:

ci

.idin

h"

/-

"
-.
.

FIG.

48

"

THERMS

ROME.

(A)
Entrance
(B. B) Porticoes
(C, C) Private baths?
(D, D) Vestibules

also
too

bath

OF

PLAN.

CARACALLA.

(RESTORED

BY

BLOUET)

(E, E)
(F, F)
(G)

Apodyteria

(I)

Frigidarium

Peristyles

(L, L)

Tepidarium

(M)

(H)

Caldarium

(N)

Halls (or exercise

Stadium
and
Reservoirs
aqueduct

might contain basins for those who found the cold bath
A dressing-room the apodyterium and a steam
severe.
"

"

baths

the

laconicum

intended

"

for both

were
men

"

further
and

women

desirable
two

features.

In

suites of these

provided,their caldaria abutting near the furnace,

with the other rooms
distant from it.
successivelymore
In the thermae of imThe thermcB of Caracalla, 217 A.D.
rooms

were

i3o

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

penal times, initiated by Agrippa, all these features were

scale and combined
with those of the
magnified to enormous
Greek
The bathing establishments
were
gymnasium.
proper
surrounded
vast
inclosures
with
shaded
walks, exedras,and
by
for various games.
areas
Among the dozen thermae in which
successive

tried

emperors

outdo

to

another, those

-one

of

The

distinguishedboth by their fair preservation

by the logicand the formal interest of their plan (Fig.48).
three principalelements, each unique, were
placed on the

FIG.

49

Caracalla
and

"

are

ROME.

THERMS

OF

main

axis in

ceilingor
the

an

to

open

PAULIN)

ascending series,the frigidariumwith flat

the sky, the tepidarium with groined vaults,

with

caldarium

(RESTORED

TEPIDARIUM.

DIOCLETIAN.
BY

dome

and

niches

like those

of the

theon.
Pan-

vestibules and dressing-rooms,

rightwere
with
two
by minor
great peristylarpalsestrassurrounded
still of large size. The
of
tepidarium, as the room
rooms,
medium
seized on as the key to the circulation
temperature, was
of people, and its axis was
taken as the principaltransverse
line of the plan, prolonged through the peristyles
and
their exedrae.
to the courts
Separate access
was
provided from
To

both

front

freelyto
themselves

left and

and

the

side, and

gardens by

had their

axes

the
means

rooms

of the

rear

of colonnades.

emphasizedby

were

The

the stands

opened
gardens

opposite

ROMAN

ARCHITECTURE

131

The
exedrse.
projectingcaldarium, and by subordinate
varietyof form of the units and the rich interplayof the axes
for the complex and elaborate
have been an inspiration
plans
the

t'.mes.

of modern

tepidarium. Most fruitful for later developments was

of the tepidarium,repeated in the baths of
the typicalform
Diocletian
(Fig.49) for the caldarium as well. Its length was
divided
into three bays marked
columns, each
by enormous
with a fragment of entablature
served
which
as
impost for
These
had
the form
of a longitudinal
the groined vaults.
cylinders,spaced a
cylinder intersected by three transverse
short distance apart and projectingslightly
sections.
beyond the interThe
of masonry
between
the diagomass
nally
square
umns.
descending groins rested on the entablatures of the colThe

entire outward

The
these

on

above

the

windows
buttress
which

roofs

walls

up

as

vaults,concentrated

deep

walls

transverse

visible buttresses

high

of the

Pantheon

filled with

were

carried

were

emphasized
with

the

by

carried

were

of the

These
struck in
neighboring rooms.
circular
height of the spring of the vaults, leaving the semibeneath
the crown
free for great clerestory
spaces
in each bay and at the ends.
The spaces between
the

the

at

sustained

points,was

them, which

behind

thrust

the

of

screens

barrel-vaulted

smaller
relatively

great scale of the

the vaults

main

columns

order.

richlycoffered,the

were

niches, across

walls

As

which
in

the

incrusted

marble.

Aqueducts. Bridges. The aqueducts which furnished the

for the baths and for the general use
water
supply necessary
of a Roman
for the most
citywere
part not on a pressure system,
but were
carried into the city at a high level after being
For a city
brought with a gradual fall from elevated sources.
in the midst of a plain,like the metropolis,this necessitated
the support of a great length of the water
channel
at a considerable
of
height above the ground. The uniform
ranges
arches on
tall piers,by which
this necessitywas
met, show
construction

ornament,
and
are
a

the

in stone

devoid

concrete

or

yet impressiveby the

of every extraneous
ruggedness of the material

straightforwardness with which

confessed.

Where

deep valleythere

was

the
an

aqueduct

added

constructive

had

to

interest due

methods

be carried
to the

across

varied size

there

(Fig. 50),where

another, the whole

and

fiftyfeet

voussoired
over

the

The

arches

imposts
to

and

the

the

as

same

in the two

"

NIMES.

THE

are

placed freelyat

"

range

upper

between
in the

with

the

PONT

above

one
a

Nimes

hundred

the

ranges,

heavy
the pair

aqueducts

CARD"

DU

whatever

of uniform

of the

columns

division
low

of arches

lower

footing.

at

long and over

in the valley. Of

50

rivers with

Gard

mile

stream

of stone

quiet cadence

intermediate

problems

sixth of

du

ranges

FIG.

The

the

three

are

Pont

of the best

distinguishedby a visiblygreater width than

the slopesby a correspondingreduction.
next

are

others,those

demanded.
up

above

the river

is the

instance

famous

most

ARCHITECTURE

franklytook advantage

which

of the arches
The

OF

HISTORY

132

heights the
smaller

sky-line,like
and

cornice.
in the

recur

of types recurs.
have a uniform

The

arches

spans

leads

Doric

triglyphs

Much

the

same

highway bridges,
bridgesover wide

series of arches, sometimes

piers lightened by minor arches supporting

banks

the

those over
at Rome;
roadway, as in the Pons Mulvius
deep ravines have a singlearch or several of sharply graded
The ends of the principalpier might be
size,as at Narni.

decorated

with

monumental

arch

or

small

shrine.

ROMAN
Monuments:

commemorate

column

decorated

column,

it

as

the

column;

Greek

appropriate the
To

133

trophy. The desire of the

them
to
military glorification
early caused
the

for

Romans

ARCHITECTURE

votive

naval
with

use.

The

greatest of the

columnar

Aurelius and
Trajan and of Marcus
Faustina, each consistingof a marble Doric shaft on a square
one
sculpturedpedestal. They carried, at a height of over
of
their
hundred
feet, gilded statues
founders, and were
with
continuous
decorated
spiral reliefs celebrating their
the custom
of erecting
campaigns. From the Greeks also came
and
the battlefield a trophy of victory,composed of armor
on
them
in stone.
imitated
from
The
or
possibility
weapons,
of a further monumental
development of the trophy lay in its
pedestal,which was elaborated to an even
greater extent than
in the Hellenistic examples. In the trophy of Augustus, near
stories on
circular peristylein two
tall square
a
Monaco,
a
basement, and with a steep conical roof, supports the trophy
at a great height.
proper
A more
native monumental
The arch.
characteristically
the commemorative
or
"triumphal" arch, originally
type was
and perishablematerials, erected to
of temporary
character
in
welcome
a
returning victor as he passed through Rome
triumphal procession. In the imperial period such arches,
monuments

made

those

for monumental

victory,Duilius,in 260 B.C., erected

the prows
of captured ships,a rostral

called.

was

column

were

in stone,

permanent
purposes,

examples, from

of

in

parts of

all

the time

of

and

in the

an

entablature, perhaps with

Soon

pedestalor
a

second

the

of

arch framed,

two

columns

pediment. In any
attic above, servingas a support

column

was

added

on

Titus

in

Rome

earliest

the

"

Arch

show

tive
commemora-

The

empire.

theaters,by

the

pair,inclosinga rectangularfield
the

for various

Augustus,

as

was

Tabularium

used

were

case

and
there

for statues.

either side of the original

the classic instance being

(Fig. 51).

The

columnar

apparatus, here franklydecorative,is handled with the greatest

Emphasis is given the central opening by
mastery of form.
and
projecting architrave, uniting the inner columns
castinga deep shadow over the relief sculpturein the triangular
The silhouette is enriched
by the breaking
spandrelsbelow.
of the entablature about the corner
columns, while they are

the

134

HISTORY

united with their

OF

ARCHITECTURE

simplepedestalwhich quiets
As the
the variety above
and
rests
firmly on the earth.
completion above, one must
imagine the quadriga,
necessary
chariot with four horses and sculpturedfigures. A
a bronze
further development of the monumental
arch was
the widening
of the side bays and the insertion of subordinate
arches in
them,

neighborsby

in the Arch

as

of

Domitian,

appropriatedby Constantine.

FIG.

51

the

"

ARCH

Colosseum, later

pedestaland entablature

Here

THE

the

near

OF

TITUS

columns, and the unity depends on the

of the
arches.
in the
Later, and
rhythmical symmetry
provinces, the designers of arches sought to exhaust the
break

all four

about

of combination
possibilities
Gates.
over

Porta

the

to

Roman
Even

The

peace
a

of the

city gates,
rather

gate which

Nigra

monumental

motives

'of the arch and

triumphal arch

which

had

often

symbolicalthan
on

the

expression by

were

also carried

in the

days of the
militarysignificance.

its fortified character, like the

retained

in Trier-

column.

German

columnar

frontier,was
adornment

given a
(Fig. 52).

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN
The

main
enframed

are

and

in the

as

Colosseum,

and

of towers

but

with

galleries

greater sternness

sobriety.

Grave

The

monuments.

commemorative

monuments,

which

greater than

52

same

and

columns

FIG.

even

the windows

openings and

"

TRIER.

instinct that

arches

PORTA

shows

created

the

itselfin the grave

NIGRA

in imperialtimes took
in Hellenistic Greece.

on

Both

magnificence
burial and

and
practised,and richly decorated urns
but
sarcophagi were
employed. These were
secondary in
however, to large constructions containingthe
cases,
many
tomb
varied forms.
Patrons
chamber, and taking the most
and artists drew their suggestionsfrom the tombs
of every
the Romans
the
had come
in contact
people with whom
Asiatic and Etruscan
tumulus, the Egyptian pyramid, the
Greek
and
peristylarmonument
exedra, the temple, both
incineration

were

"

36

rectangular and
the

lining
the

of

those

appeared in rich array

led across
the
from
which
Campagna
city. Only in special cases, such as
All

circular.

streets

gates of

the

the

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

these

interment

was

emperors,

within

the

walls

permitted.
The

tumulus

of earth,

FIG.

was

53

"

the tumulus, the

was

girtat the base by

MAUSOLEUM

ROME.

selected

Campus

It

type.

OF

in

circular wall of stone, which

(RESTORED

HADRIAN.

BY

28-26

In

B.C.

this and

is

principalmember,
pedestal after the manner
The
three
with

cypress

emperor.

feet
trees

Even

(Fig.53), which

more

itself raised

of the

and

of

crowned

with

splendidwas

on

had
cone

massive

square

still subsists in the

ments.
monu-

drum

marble
of earth

colossal statue

the mausoleum

the

developed

Hellenistic circular

Augustus
diameter, bearing a

mausoleum

hundred

and

on

Roman

other

substructure
examples, however, the cylindrical
into the

VAUDREMER)

erected

for his mausoleum,

by Augustus

Martius

primitivemound

of

planted
of the

of Hadrian

Castle of Sant'

Angelo.

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN
Its wall

steps surmounted
The
the

order,its
quadriga.

decorated

was

with

by

rectangular type

The

elaborate

most

an

In the erection

temple type.

137

less

was

the

was

cone

of tombs

of

than

employed

of marble

was

the

circular.

of Diocletian

mausoleum

form

temple

in his

interior richly
Spalato, about 300 A.D., the domed
with superposed columns, the octagonal exterior
membered
with a peristyle
and a projectingportico. As in other tombs

palace

at

of this

class,the cella

sarcophagus
notable

step

of Constantine

which

deposited in

was

was

used

was

second

in the tomb

taken
the

for memorial

of

Great, who

services,the

chamber

below.

Constantia, the daughter

died

in 354.

is broken

The

wall

and

on

instead
through,
arched
niches there are
deep arches supported on pairs of
columns
united in the thickness of the wall by an entablature.
central space
The
is surrounded
aisle,the
by a continuous
into a circular building,
of the basilica is carried over
clerestory
creatingnew
spatialeffects of which Christian architecture
to make
was
great use (Fig.71).
the

dome

Domestic

rests

architecture.

The

Roman

of the

house

town

best

may

Pompeii, where the debris of the eruption of

Vesuvius, 79 A.D., has preserved almost intact a great number
of dwellings of every
a
class,ranging over
period of three
hundred
The
already essentially
type of plan was
years.

be

studied

at

fixed in the second

with
The

the

tenements,
a

small

middle

of the

means

poorer

century B.C., and varied less with time than

atrium

and

class had

which

their

couple

republic an atrium
walled garden at the

for the
and
rear.

exigenciesof
were

site.

the

crowded

in

high

the street, or had

of their own.
The

shops along
of

still to content

served

"

over

the

in Rome

of whom

folk,many
here lived

and

owner

rooms

themselves

best

in the

surrounding
The

entrance

with

the ments
arrangeearlier days of the

with

rooms
was

by

small
narrow

atrium
was
a
large
shops. The
with a roof slopinginward
to a central opening,
oblong room
from wall
type, supported on beams
generallyof the Tuscan
to wall.
Primitivelythis had been the principalliving-room,
containingthe hearth, the smoke of which escaped through a
small
opening in the roof. With the transition to urban
increased to lightthe
conditions the size of the opening was

passage

between

rented

138

ARCHITECTURE

with the result that

surrounding rooms,
had

OF

HISTORY

sheltered livingright of the atrium

more

provided. To left and

small sleeping-rooms,
were
cubiculce,
opening from it. Behind
of the atrium, were
two
these, forming lateral extensions
rooms

alcoves

or

be

to

ales,put

to

various

survivals

uses,

when

day

perhaps of the
the

isolated,and
introduced
At the

the

house

light could
the

from

rear

stood

the

was

sides.

tablinum,
used

reception-room,
in smaller

also

family

houses

added.

houses.

of

In

the

wealthier

class

the atrium

only was
but

the

of

larged,
en-

entire

paratus
ap-

Hellenistic

the Delian

on

minor

sometimes

was

house

as

story, with

Larger
not

houses

living-room.

second
rooms,

be

model,

with

exedras, and
peristyle,
triclinium, or
dining-room

with

three

added

to

columns
the

at

couches,
the

Four

rear.

often

were

was

added

of the atrium

corners

opening,creatingthe

tetra-

styletype of which Vitruvius

than
more
speaks, or even
like
four, making the room
a
FIG.

54

POMPEII.

"

HOUSE

OF

PANSA.

{A)
B) Impluvium

(C) Peristyle
(D) (Ecus

clients and

and
visitors,
which
peristyle,

the
second

atrium, beside

apartments
an

entire

were

in

the

court,

the

grouped.

block, with

more

Corinthian

applied

it.

to

more
family came
leave the originalatrium

to the

to

to

ing
surround-

rooms

supplemented perhaps by
which

first,about
The

appears

The

to withdraw
were

as

name,

atrium, then

PLAN
Atrium

Greek

most

elaborate

extensive

the

domestic

houses

garden behind

filled
the

ROMAN

peristyle. Such
Pompeian house
of privacy,is the
Decoration

ARCHITECTURE

high development of the

in differentiation of functions
and guarding
so-called House
of Pansa
(Fig.54).

showing

one,

of houses.

To

door

where

frame.

they

could

at first in imitation

in

few

suggested in

walls,

the

on

architectural

the first instance

more

villas

outskirts

the

windows,

turned

perhaps

other

hand,

richlypainted,
costlymarbles, were
of these, later with mythological scenes,

of the stage.
Villas. In
on

houses

be of

setting of attenuated

the

small

interior

The

not

exterior

the

blank, plastered wall, with

richer

139

by

forms

which

the architectural decorations

intimate relation to the landscape were

of the

were

city,with

terraced

the

courtyards,

Others, less formal, served as retreats

in the country or by the seaside.
The larger villas went
far
beyond the satisfaction of practicalneeds, with luxurious
amusement.
provision for dining, bathing, exercise, and
Especiallywas this true of the imperial villas,of which the

gardens,and

orchards.

villa of Hadrian

Tivoli

at

gives the

best

included, besides the livingquarters and festal

of the most

famous

capriciouslystrewn
two

were

over

buildingsof Greece and of the Orient,

a
picturesque topography. There'

a
theaters,libraries,
stadium, thermae,

academy,

and

terminated

by

of Alexandria.

a
a

long canal, bordered

great niche, in imitation

The

imitations

than

suggestive,however, as
technique of brick and concrete
in the
which

(Fig. 55). It
suites,reproductions

idea

combination

of vaults

was

and

and

so-called

by porticoes and
Canopus, a suburb

to have

seem

all

of

been

executed

less literal

in Roman

designed with a facility

the composition of plans

is purely Roman.

in
palaces of the emperors
less to
Rome, established on the Palatine Hill (Fig.56), owe
the Roman
house than to the palaces of eastern
capitalssuch
as Alexandria, Antioch, and
Pergamon. Begun by Augustus,
extended
later emperors,
they were
by Tiberius and many
ments
especiallyDomitian, who built the great series of state apartin the center.
the
Palatine
to
connect
Caligulasought
to the
with the Capitol by a bridge,to secure
easier access
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus; Nero united the imperial
gardens on the Esquilinewith the Palatine by building in the

The

palacesof the

C"sars.

The

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN

intervening valley, where

with

House

Golden

not

were

the

141

Colosseum

its luxurious

stood, his

later

park. Though

these
covered

permanent, the Palatine itselfwas

magnificentbuildings,includingseveral temples.

FIG.

56

"

PALACES

ROME.

OF

THE

CAESARS.

sions
exten-

with

The

state

(RESTORED

PLAN.

BY

DEGLANE)

apartments
colonnade
was

the

formed
toward

an

the central

richlyadorned

barrel vault
with

basilica

columns

of the
hundred
and

long
fagade

feet

niches.

imperial tribunal,the
this suite lay a square
lararium or private chapel. Behind
at the rear
a triclinium,
peristyle,
opening into supplementary
were

the

with

fronted

In the center

area.

audience-room, having

in span, the walls

To right and left

block

oblong

or

HISTORY

42

of the

private apartments

The

rooms.

ARCHITECTURE

OF

occupied

emperor

the soblock centering on a court ; beyond them was

inclosed garden surrounded
called Stadium, an
by porticoes
and dominated
by a great vaulted exedra.
another

The

palace of

Diocletian

is that

arrangement

of the

Spalato in Dalmatia,

retired in 305

the emperor

Palace

the

on

at

potato. A

of Diocletian

shores

(Fig.57)

at

Adriatic, to which

of the

layingdown

on

different

very

his

authority.

r'

""'

The

'

J^-

57

FIG.

SPALATO.

"

securityof
the

PALACE

the

lines of

OF

empire was

(RESTORED

DIOCLETIAN.

no

BY

HEBRARD)

longercertain,the palacefollowed

fortified camp.
It forms
a
rectangular walled
inclosure quartered by two colonnaded
streets
at right angles,
with

gates and

sides.

Along

which

are

monumental

towers

at

the seaward

the

the
face

middle
runs

imperial apartments,

vestibule at the head

points of the landward

long colonnade behind
also

of the

reached

from

longitudinalstreet.
Next them, frontingeach other in balancing inclosures which
filled the remainder
of this half of the palace,are a temple,
for the
serving as the imperial chapel, and the mausoleum
streets
are
Beyond the transverse
emperor.
quarters for
service and for the guards; around the outer walls are store-

ROMAN
chambers, reached

from

most

appear

Ensembles,

town

clearly(Fig.59).
planning. The Romans

satisfied

not

which

symmetry

with

even

had

they

relations to
Rome

plan.

as

Thus
the

circuit.

individual

to

sought

give the
too

was

imperialtimes
and
complex
units

to

citya

and

as

organize their

whole

vast

such

coherent

consecrated

too

effected.
portions a unification was
a splendidfacade, ingeniously
planned, was built before
irregularbuildingsof the Palatine, to give them a symmetrical

aspect from
the

was

the

in certain

this, but

for

whole

to

of

extended

fora, but

and

another

one

the

given

palaces,thermae, and

the

makes

influeiice is seen, and the developments

architecture in new
relations of arch and

of late Roman

were

which

passage

143

of detail eastern

In the forms

column

ARCHITECTURE

suggest

Maximus.
of the

consistent treatment
a

galley,with

vast

about

disposed

were

the Circus

devised to mask

greater scale

series of

the actual

of the

and

Tiber, of which

to

Its

buildings
courts, artfully
plan. On a far

connected

works

Tiber,

in the

stern.

of
irregularity

the harbor

were

the

warehouses

of

Ostia,

the

hexagonal Port of
the most
by uniform
Trajan surrounded
buildings was
towns,
systematic. Newly founded
especiallythose of a
semi -militarycharacter like Augusta Praetoria (Aosta),in the
foothills of the Alps, and Thamugadi (Timgad) in Africa were
laid out in rectangularform bisected by the principalstreets
with others parallel
to them.
a formal
They marked
progress
of their outline as well
in the regularity
Hellenistic towns
over
at

as

the mouth

island

and

prow

fundamental

More

of their minor
Individual

architecture
behind

by

the

no

forms. Although
fall behind
forms

means

further

subdivisions.

of

slavish

the

imitations.

formal

without

in

Greeks

in

new

interest,as
originality,
they were

In

took

many

place,
or

of Roman

in

their combinations

development
structural functions produced
For purely utilitarian purposes,
used

the individual forms

in

modified

post, lintel,and

instances

others,

new

expressions.
arch

were

simple and as
effective as the primitive system of the waiting-hallof the
in Egypt.
In Roman
Africa and
pyramid of Khafre
Syria
of
instances
monolithic
with
are
piers
many
square
square
lintels,
repeatedperhaps in several stories,which, like the
ornament

manner

as

i44
arches

HISTORY

of the

constructive

ARCHITECTURE

OF

aqueducts, have
membering.

Walls, doors,windows.

other

no

The

of

problems

for the wall and

in

for the post and lintel had

exemplary way by the Greeks, whose

an

accessible

and

of stone.

elaborated

by

authoritative

than

treatment

richer

the

expression

already been
solutions

solved

were

too

be

ignored. In these
features the innovations
of the Romans
minor.
were
relatively
They made more
frequentemployment of grooved or rusticated
joints,of cap and base moldings, followingthe Hellenistic
The
tendencies.
of their moldings were
less studied
profiles
and subtle, conforming more
closelyto arcs of circles than to
and other conic sections.
Doors
and windows
arcs
elliptical
followed
late Greek
architrave
examples in having a molded

of

too

frieze and
the

pediment.
was

with

an

best

seen

The

cornice

addition

For

windows

in the

Doric

and

and

of two

added, sometimes

brackets
an

or

even

free

consoles, or
richer treatment

standing columns

triangularor segmental
Pantheon
(Fig.42).
"

"

in its Greek
or
order, whether
its Tuscan
in
the
form, v/as littleused in imperialtimes, except
lower stories of buildingswith superposed orders, where
its
relative massiveness

The

often

niches

pediment

interior of the

order.

were

of curved

devised, the tabernacle

entablature

to

Doric

preference. An occasional
with
example shows the echinus of the capitalornamented
multipliedand enriched.
egg and dart and the other members
The difficultiescreated by the corner
overcome
triglyphwere
in imperial times by placing it on
in
the axis of the column
spite of its leaving a fragment of metope
beyond, thus
functional
sacrificing
expressionto formal regularity. In the
unbroken
this
amphitheaters, with their continuous
sweep,
problem did not arise.
The Ionic order.
Ionic order followed
The
the precedents
of Hermogenes
in having always a frieze,and a capitalwith
relativelysmall volutes and a low connecting band, which in
lost all its curvature.
Roman
The Attic base
examples finally
was
preferred. The angular capitaloriginated by Iktinos,
volutes
with
all four sides projecting diagonally,was
on
the colonnade
had
to
corners
frequently employed where
stillgave

it the

turn.

The

Corinthian

order.

The

Corinthian

order

was

the

one

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN

with

comported best
imperial Romans

which
the

the

shared

love

with

of

the

magnificence which

Hellenistic

exclusivelyin the later

of capitalgenerallypreferred was
scheme
The
example from Epidaurus,
with
two
alternating
of eightleaves each,
rows
but the spiritof the execution
and

almost

used

was

monarchs,

monuments.

that

of the

bolder, the

was

luxuriant.
leafage more
nished
Each
building still furself
a problem for itits

showed

and

own

designof capital.Among
the
amples,
superb exmany
of

that

temple

of

Castor

Pollux

in

the

Romanum

the

and
Forum

given
as
representative(Fig.
58). A second common
type

that

was

the

of

Vesta

of

Temple

Tivoli, with
leaves

be

may

the

close down

at
upper

the

on

with
and
a
lower,
crinkled, parsley -like

serration.
the

Corinthian

was

the

Composite

so-called

capital in
echinus

which

and

scrolls

of

variant

of

an

the

diagonal

FIG.

58

AND

ENTABLATURE

OF
CAST

"

ROME.

CASTOR
IN

CORINTHIAN
FROM

AND
THE

POLLUX.

METROPOLITAN

CAPITAL
THE

TEMPLE

(RESTORED
MUSEUM)

angular

Ionic capitalwere
placed above
This attempt to
Arch of Titus.

the

rows

of leaves,as

in the

stillgreater richness involved

secure

of scrollsand leafsacrifice of the organicconnection

age
in the original. In the Corinthian
entablature the dentils
a

became

secondary to great

or

modillions,sometimes

with
blocks,sometimes
as scrolls decorated
of Castor and Pollux.
In the temples
as in the Temple
leafage,

treated

as

molded

brackets

HISTORY

46

at Baalbek

there

ARCHITECTURE

OF

consoles in the frieze

are

well. Entablature

as

developments of
capital alike took part in the stylistic
the imperialperiod the passionfor decoration of the Flavians,
the puristicreaction under Hadrian
and the Antonines.
The
and

"

Antoninus

of

temple

modillions

Faustina,

has

A.D.,

141

neither

dentils.

nor

Pilasters.

and

The

which,
pilaster,

Roman

counterpart of the

instead

anta

the

was

of

being studiouslydistinguishedfrom
the column
in width of side and profile
of capital,
imitated
was
directlyfrom it. Late Hellenistic and republican buildings
show the pilaster
used not only to respond to the columns
of a
at the rear
temple portico but to form a similar termination
of the cella,and to continue the rhythm of the spacing
corners
between
in the same
that engaged columns
used.
manner
were
Pilasters were
used also,instead of engaged columns, in various
buildingsof the empire where lack of means
or a desire for less
accentuation
suggested the substitution.
In

arch.
i.The.

the

combination

with

the solution

of

times
added

in

at the

molded

were

like that

impost

the column

the Romans

which,

as

have

we

of the
had

arch

occupied

seen,

outside

Pantheon

and
Roman

an

to

function

the
as

like

form

In

capitalor

bed

lintel,although characteristic

the entablature

the
of

whole

can
republi-

stone

was

similar way

of support, and
The enframement

console.

art,

its

voussoirs,the voussoirs themselves

archivolt,a ring having a section
architrave.

columnar

given a

often treated

period of

form

to

suited

column

of the

and

problems,

new

history. After the simple treatment

which
of
a
course
projectingmolded

of the

was

members

by

elaboration

of their

course

was

formal

not

was

the

itself was

molding, with
the keystone
of the arch
of the

final scheme.

used

as

the

central
In

the impost of

the
an

spanning the
wide
a portico. In the thermae
a fragment
of entablature
and give a larger
served to lengthen the column
bearing for the springingof a vault; in Syria and at Spalato
and
this fragment was
reduced
molded
to a mere
stilt-block,
down
finallyomitted
altogether, so that the arches came
directlyon the heads of the columns
(Fig.59). The column
thus gradually attained a relation with the arch as structural
its original
relation with the lintel.
as
arch;

Palmyra it was
central opening of
at

bent

into

an

archivolt

ROMAN

ARCHITECTURE

Wall

form to
membering. The relation of the columnar
wall membering proceeded in the opposite direction from the
the contradiction
of expressionswas
common
starting-point;
reconciled
structural
by removing every
suggestion and
leaving the decoration undisguised. In the arch of Domitian
Transitorium, begun by
(Constantine) and in the Forum

Colosseum
arch

noinan

Pa.n1hepn
order

cTOAJ).

FIG.

59

DEVELOPMENT

"

Thermo?

Cen1r"vl niche
C.125AJ).

Spalato

of Caracal/a.

Cenlral

Spalato

arch

Porla

C.M5A.D.

IN

THE

ROMAN

ajjrea

Spaloto
Slreel

c.MOAD

RELATIONS

OF

ARCH

AND

COLUMN

IN

ARCHITECTURE

Domitian, the columns, instead of being engaged againstthe

wall, stand free in front of it,supporting merely an end of
entablature

and

an

attic

or

statue

over

it.

In

the

free

still
the stage backgrounds this tendency went
and tabernacles
whole
apparatus of colonnettes

composition of
further; the

application. Tabernacle
work
of this sort came
and more
to supersede,for the
more
enrichment
with engaged columns
of facades, the treatment
of the full height of the wall.
In the north
gate at Spalato,
the niches and colonnettes
no
are
finally,
longer carried down
to the ground, but are
supportedmerely on projectingbrackets
obviously

was

or

corbels.

fondness
of any

decorative

mere

Meanwhile

for Greek

columnar

other

art in the

subdivision

temple of Antoninus

and

pilasters
only at the corners
concrete, plastered over

forces had

been

at

work.

The

second century led to the omission

The
of the wall in certain cases.

Faustina, although prostyle,has

of the cella.
with

The

use

stucco, in vast

of brick and

constructions

148
such

as

HISTORY

the thermae

limitation

of

OF
and

membering

ARCHITECTURE

the Villa of
to

the

Hadrian, encouraged the

openings,where

columns

and

fulfilled their originalfunctions.

The
pilasters
tendency was
pression,
thus, by various paths, toward frankness of constructive exin spiteof conditions far more
complex than those in
which the Greeks had achieved their earlystructural purism.
For elements
Elements of plan and space.
of plan and space
drew both on Greece and on the Orient ; they later
the Romans
made
of their own.
The
important contributions
temple
cella and
the basilica with
longitudinal colonnades, the
exterior peristyle,
of Greek origin;the peristylar
hall and
were
of Oriental origin. On the other hand,
court, the clerestory,
the forms suggestedby vault construction,the apse, the circle,
or
polygon, with abutting niches, the groin-vaulted rectangle
with
side compartments,
Roman
in development. In
were
two
or
a dome
one
was
cases
placed over a square room, in the
form of a circumscribed
hemisphere intersected by the planes
of the four walls in the manner
later familiar in the Byzantine
domical
vaults.
The
forms
of vaults
were
ordinarilykept
rigidlygeometrical,and, in consequence,
they often determined
the
with
below.
Thus
precise proportions of the rooms
surfaces
were
groined vaults, in which cylindrical
employed,
in
the line of intersection
fell
the two
a
plane only when
of equal diameter.
As a result the Romans
cylinderswere
employed them by preferenceonly over
bays. The
square
vaults first made
possiblea plastichandling of interior space,
in which
wall and ceilingblend in coherent unity,and adjacent
elements
It was
characteristic
freelyinto one another.
open
of the Romans
to emphasize strongly the predominance of
the central element
of a group,
the surrounding units being
rather shallow
but
bays than long arms, having themselves
minor

subdivisions.

alternately
square

and

Architectural

treatment

involved
well

as

received

new

favorite

semicircular

problems
impost

in detail

which

in

The

was

with

niches

plan.

vaults.

of

in construction.
an

treatment

The

and

interior

vaulted

exterior

treatment

as

vault, like the

arch, usually
either a full entablature,
was
enriched the wall below, or else

supported by an order which

a
stringcourse
composed somewhat
The vaulting surfaces themselves

on
were

the lines of

cornice.

generally unbroken

by

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN

149

projecting ribs, having merely a recessed pattern of

coffers (Fig. 42). Externally, barrel vaults were
generally
covered
by gable roofs. Groined vaults at large scale, as in
the tepidaria,had lateral gables over
each bay, intersecting
the main
longitudinalroof and producing valleys by which
the rain was
each pier. The
dischargedover
tendency was
the massive
to rest the tiles of the roofs directly
on
increasingly
shell of the vaults, fashioned in inclined planesto receive them.
any

In the
form

largedomes, like that of the Pantheon, the curved

retained on the exterior,the upper
portion being a
of

case
was

saucer-like

girded by

zone

several

monumental

steps, which

carried the visual support to the high exterior wall.

For
the vast
Construction in brick and concrete.

takings
under-

capital,and in other parts of the empire where

rendered
stone
not
was
by natural conditions the inevitable
of construction
were
building material, methods
developed
which
lent themselves
admirably to the scale of operations
and to the character
of the labor supply. A building of the
of the thermae of Caracalla could not be erected wholly
extent
had been,
the Parthenon
by skilled craftsmen
as, relatively,
could it be built wholly of marble.
used in
The methods
nor
the mass
of the construction
had to be adapted to large forces
of slaves and unskilled
directed
tendents.
by trained superinmen,
These
conditions
were
happily fulfilled by the
often so thick as to produce
employment of brick,with mortar
in which
the cement
practicallya concrete, or of concrete
the

at

itself was
and

the essential element,

small materials

furnished
and

secure

about

better

walls the bricks

veneer

of marble

left to form

covered

slabs.

pozzolana
in strength

that

They

temporary
as

much
were

as

forms

Walls

face and

large,
triangular,

very

were

side, but

often

backing.

In

some

the final exterior surface, but

with

coating of

of concrete

stucco

or

constructed

were

mixture, in a semi-liquidstate,
devised
built of wood, which
were
so

by depositingor pouring
into

on

between

were

bricks

Roman

foot

bond

were

usually they

more

The

construction.

usually square,

volcanic

left nothing to be desired

which

cement

The

monolith.

aggregate of loose

an

quickness of setting.

Wall

to

into

binding

possibleof

usuallyfaced

the

the lumber
with

could be used

brick

or

stone

repeatedly.
fragments in

HISTORY

ISO

form, and

some
manner

reticulatum

opus

the

to

or

veneered

in the

same

facing received special

pattern produced on the surface
kinds

The

walls.

according

names

generallycoated

then

brick

as

ARCHITECTURE

OF

of

"

for small

of stone

squares

standing

on

their

diagonal lines, opus spicatum for kernel-shaped

of
fragments in herringbone pattern while the general name
in

corners

"

opus

incertum

of

regularform.

no

at intervals to

and
the

Bonding

tie the

with

treatment

of brick

courses

facingsfirmly to

the

fragments
often

were

body

laid

of the wall,

reinforced with
brick or stone in
sometimes
angles were
form
of quoins, or blocks of alternatinglength toothed

into the

mass.

Vault
of

for

reserved

was

construction.

In

in

materials

small

advantages greater

thick
than

even

of vaults

construction

the

the

use

presents constructive

mortar

in the construction

of walls, for

it obviates

greater difficulties in the individual shaping of the

elements.

of

vault

lacks

alone, however,

concrete

any

arching action until it has set, and bears with its full weight
the temporary wooden
form or centering,which has to be
on

correspondingly
worked

to avoid

cumbersome

and

The

wasteful.

Romans

this

by constructing first,over lightcentering,

of brick arches,with projections
cells to secure
a framework
or
with the concrete, a great part of the weight of
a good bond
thus removed
from the wooden
which was
supports (Fig.60).
In groined vaults of this sort ribs of brick reinforced the chief
constructive lines; in domes
they followed principallythe
elements

of the

hardened, of
purpose

and

was

in the

any

of

had

concrete

brick

had

thoroughly

fulfilled their

specialstructural function,

of the vault.

mass

without

the

ribs

longer served

no

sometimes

unbroken

such

course,

being merged
through them

Once

surface.

Coffers

were

affectingstability.A second

followed

which

did

not

demand

even

cut

principle
even

an

centering,but requiredmerely a light

laid a layer of
form of slats spaced openly. Over these was
flat tiles,
touching each other only at their edges yet strongly
these another
and perhaps another, forming
cemented; over
a skin of no
strength (Fig.61).
great thickness but of surprising
it until it had
This
supported the concrete
placed upon
interior facing to the
a
hardened, and formed
permanent
surface

in the

vault.

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN
Ornament.
the

In their enrichment

Romans

followed,

tendencies

initiated

decorative
dart

and

forms

so

other

many

Asiatic Greeks.

Ionic

forms

their

made

recur,

60

ROMAN

"

CELLULAR

VAULT.

FIG.

6l

(CHOISY)

in accordance

with
of

polychromy

the

In

taste.

Greeks

came

sumptuous

columns,

and

had

the

pavements

advantage

and

walls,

and

rounder

LAMINATED

(CHOISY)

place of the painted

polychromy of richly

marbles, especiallyin interiors,which

colored

with

luxuriant

more

ROMAN

VAULT.

Roman

egg

fuller and

"

the

moldings,

in marble

profiles.The

in harmony with the moldings themselves, and

FIG.

surfaces

matters,

The

carved

order,were

suggested by

familiar

other

the

by

like those of the Greek

in

as

moldings and

of

was

more

of permanence.
Shafts of
exhibited
variegated and

employed not only with mastery of pattern

and
of structural
color, but with discriminatingavoidance
left unfluted to
pretense. Dark and richlyveined shafts were
exhibit the beauty of their material.
POT the veneering of
preciousmaterials

brick

or

walls marble

concrete

the most

of limited

blocks

were

sawn

material,and large slabs

were

thin to make

appliedwith

jointingand an absence of bond that gave no

false suggestionof ashlar masonry.
Local variety.Although the official art of the capitalwas
the same
diffused through the empire in much
the
as
way
official Latin tongue, this did not preclude the existence of
in the more
provincialvarieties or dialects,or the maintenance
a

freedom

of

civilized East
Roman
The

of

Greek

tradition which

held its

own

with

developments.
West.

Provence.

Germany.

In the West

it was

less

152
any

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OP

survival of pre-existingstylesthan

available

materials

in certain

and these
localities,

of construction

which

of fine limestone

and

at Aries

barrel

vaults

supported

barrel

in Provence,

Thus

France,

rise to

clay gave

arcade

of the

beams

vaults, in this and

for the

usual

radial

spanning

barrel

corridor.

the

instances, do

other

many

amphitheater

arcade

upper

abundance

an

slabs is substituted

stone

on

of

of

lower

vault; in the

concentric
are

of form.

absence

an

specialcharacteristics
naturallyrather in matters
in

the south

expedients. In the
of long
a flat ceiling

technical

were

in matters

than

valleyregion in

the Rhone

The

resulted

influence of the

the

have

not

bonded

togetherlengthwise,but are made up of

independent rings of voussoirs side by side, which could be
erected one
by one on a movable
centeringused over and over.
In the so-called Baths of Diana
the ringsare not kept
at Nimes
in a singlecylindrical
rest on
surface,but the alternate ones
their stones

those

and

between,

without

thus

centering of their

any

climate

severe

could

led to

laid

be

In

own.

them

on

the

Germany
inclosure

greater degree of

afterward
more

and

the

adoption of devices for artificial heating. The thermae and

the palace of Constantine
at Trier are
lacking in colonnaded
openings to the exterior,and have double outer walls with
air in the cavities.
warm
exceptionalfacilities for circulating
Although late constructive
developments in general were
tending to requiremassive outer walls as a support for vaults,
it is not

climate

fanciful to suppose
also.

East.

The

originalsfor

Syria.

contribute
hand

many

theater

with

eastward.

Greek

was

new

forms

and

influence from

itself furnished

types, and

of seats

and

buildingspurely Greek, like

like the Odeion
purely Roman,

ancient

degree of mixture

native

in Hellenistic

Syria,in

Roman

the other

with

the

was

of the

many

of

Herodes
as

in the

added.

In

still

days.

touch

artistic fermentation

art

were

closed

the

appears,

stages

to

their way

stage, found

Besides

the

continued

during the imperialperiod. On

origin,like
arrangements of Roman

in Athens, every
theaters
which
to

Egypt the
as
buildings,

had

East

Roman

its union

temples, and
Atticus

The

an

them

to

certain

in these instances

persisted for religious

hotbed of eastern
ments
developinterior of Asia

beginning.

where

Of the citieswhich

FIG.

62"

MOUSMIEH.

PR^TORIUM.

(DE VOGUE)

154
reflected

HISTORY
Hellenistic

caravan

station

vivid

picture.

end

with

of the
The

oasis

of

flourishing

the

Syrian desert,

streets

columns,

details

The

in the

principal

richly profiled

termini.

ARCHITECTURE

architecture, Palmyra,

tall Corinthian

with

side

OF

lined

are

still

from

gives
end

forming porticoes on

arches

to

either

intersections

the

at

and

the

temples there and at Baalbek

the
show
the
Orient
and
new
spirit that, coming from
broke
spreading westward,
through the classical canons.
At
arch
the
Palmyra the entablature
springs as an
over
wide
central
the carving
opening of the portico; at Baalbek
loses the
and
acteristic
projection
always charplay of surface
of
to

be

Greek

incised

and

below

the

the

background
buildings, especially
"

from

departures
marked.

The

(Fig. 62)
instead
at

Graeco-Roman

has

of

as

face
surrounding surdisappears. In other
Syrian

woodless

Hauran

style of the capital

house
guard
prastorium or
vaults
with
resting on columns
entablature,

devoid

above

entirely with

of

stone

architecture, its magnificent

in meeting
flexibility
easy

to

the

wide

and

block,
basilica

resting on
as
freely

and

wide

those

of

the

diffusion

of

associations, and

its

makes

it

problems

complex

influence

the

which

it exercised, both

the
Roman
to
immediately succeeded
centuries
later,
possessions and on those who
sought, many
revive
Roman
Under
culture.
the
to
Byzantine rulers of
the
its architecture
the East
empire still lived on, and
had
direct
a
were
continuance,
rapidly
though its forms
West
modified
In the
there.
by forces already at work
on

the
the

the

understand

new

only

as

more

Mousmieh

at

slabs

adornment

extraneous

still

are

them;

functions
adapted to their constructive
bridges and aqueducts.
architecture.
The
Infiueticeof Roman
Roman

district, the

is roofed

Chaqqua

arches

the

tends

the

the

classic

of

plane

plane
in

and

ornament

peoples who

Christian

point

of

of

monuments

departure

invaders, the

by the

for

indebtedness
name

the

of

the

last

architecture
which

Romanesque.

to

furnished

emperors
of

Rome

the

Teutonic

is well

gested
sug-

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN

OF

PERIODS

All

I.

in the

buildingsare

ARCHITECTURE

city of Rome

unless

stated.

otherwise

influenceEtruscan
Early republicanperiod,to about 300 B.C.
First temple of Jupiter Capitolinus,dedication
ascribed to
B.C.

510

Sack

of Rome

"Wall
Cloaca
"Arch

II.

ROMAN

155

by the Gauls, 390

B.C.

of Servius."
Maxima.

Fourth

of

Augustus"
Perugia.
of
Appius Claudius, 312
Aqueduct
Later
republican period, about 300

B.C.?

centurv

at

B.C.
B.C.

to

50

B.C.

Greek

influence.

Conquest of Magna Graecia by 272, Sicilyby 241; destruction

of Corinth, 146; Province
of Asia organized, 133 B.C.
Rostral column
of Duilius,260 B.C.
Basilica of Cato the Censor, 184 B.C.
B.C.
Bridge of ^milius, 179-142
Pons
B.C.
Mulvius, rebuilt no
Porticoes of Forum
at Pompeii, before 100
B.C.
after 100 B.C.
Temple of Hercules at Cori, soon
Basilica at Pompeii, before 80 B.C.
Small theater at Pompeii, 80 B.C.
Amphitheater at Pompeii, after 80 B.C.
Tabularium, 78 B.C.
Virilis." 1 Toward
middle
of the first
Temple of "Fortuna
Circular temple at Tivoli.
century B.C.
First amphitheater in Rome
(of wood), 58 B.C.
Theater
of Pompey, 55 B.C.
III. Imperial period, about
Oriental influence.
to 350 A.D.
50 B.C.
Basilica Julia and
Forum
of Julius,dedicated
(unfinished)
46

B.C.

Amphitheater of Statilius Taurus,

Augustus, 27
Mausoleum

B.C.-I4

30-29

B.C.

A.D.

of

Augustus, 28-26 B.C.

"Baths
of Diana," Mimes, 25 B.C.
Theater
of Marcellus, dedicated
n
B.C.
of Augustus and
Forum
Temple of Mars
dedicated
"Maison

B.C.

Carrie," Nimes,

Thermae

of

Pont

Card, Nimes.

du

Agrippa.

4 A.D.

the

Avenger,

i56

HISTORY

Nero, 54-68

Burning
Flavian

ARCHITECTURE

A.D.

of

"Golden

OF

Rome,

A.D.

of

Nero, 64 /.
(Vespasian, Titus, Domitian), 69-96

House"
emperors

Greatest

64

richness

of detail.

Colosseum, 70-82 A.D.

of Pompeii and Herculaneum,
Destruction
Temple of Vespasian, 80 A.D.
Arch
of Titus, dedicated
81 A.D.
of the

Palace
Arch

A.D.

Flavians

the

on

79 A.D.

Palatine.

Domitian.

of

Transitorium, completed by Nerva, 98 A.D.

"Good
emperors."
Nerva, 96-98 A.D.
Trajan, 98-117 A.D.
Thamugadi (Timgad) founded 100 A.D.
of Trajan and Basilica Ulpia, dedicated
Forum
113 A.D.
of Trajan, 113-117
Column
A.D.
of Trajan.
Thermas
Port of Trajan at Ostia.
in details.
Return
to Hellenism
Hadrian, 117-138 A.D.
Forum

Pantheon,
Mausoleum

A.D., modified
of Hadrian.

120-124

Villa of Hadrian

Temple
Temple
Antoninus

and

of Castor

A.D.

Tivoli.

at

of Venus

202

and

Pius, 138-61

Rome.
Pollux.
A.D.

and Faustina, 141 A.D.

Temple of Antoninus
Atticus
in Greece, c. 140-160
of
Herodes
Buildings
Principalgroup at Baalbek.

Aurelius,161-80

Marcus
Column

Septimius Severus,
Arch

A.D.

Aurelius.

of Marcus

A.D.

193-211

of Severus.

Caracalla,211-17
Thermae

A-D-

of Caracalla.

A.D.
Gallienus,260-68
Porta Nigra, Trier,c. 260.
Aurelian, 270-75 A.D.

Wall

of Aurelian.

Diocletian,284-305
Thermae
Palace

A.D.

of Diocletian.
of Diocletian

at

Spalato.

A.D.

ARCHITECTURE

ROMAN

Maxentius, 306-312

A.D.

(Constantine).

Basilica of Maxentius

Constantine, 306-337
Arch

157

A.D.

of Domitian

rebuilt,312 A.D.
A.D.
Christianitymade the state religion,
330
to Constantinople (Byzantium).
Capital removed
of Constantia
Tomb
(died 354 A.D.).

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

The

most

is J. Durm's

authoritative

NOTE

general

der Etrusker

account

of Roman

architecture

Romer, 2d ed., 1905 (Handbuck der Architektur,pt. II, vol. i),which also suppliesreferences to
discussions of individual questions and monuments.
Anderson
and
's Architecture
F.
of Greece and
Rome, 26. ed., 1907, and
Spiers
Baukunst
des
Noack's
both
Altertums, 1910, are richlyillustrated,
classes
of
works
General
buildings.
arranged primarilyby
containing
measured
drawings of Roman
buildings are A. Desgodetz's Les
antiquesde Rome, first published 1682 and several times reissued;
edifices
G. L. Taylor and E. Cresy's The Architectural Antiquitiesof
antiques,8 vols.,
Rome, 2 vols.,1821-22; Restaurations des monuments
1877-90; H. d'Espouy's Fragments d'architecture antique, 2 vols.,
antiques,vols. 2 and 3, 1910-12.
1896-1905; Monuments
be mentioned
Among studies of specialtypes or problems may
G. Leroux's Les originesde V edifice
hypostyle,1913 (forthe basilicas);
E. R. Fiechter's Die baugeschichtliche
ters,
Entwicklung des antiken TheaA. Choisy's L'art de bdtir chez les Romains, 1873 (for
1914;
L'art decoratif
de Rome, 1908;
constructive
methods); P. Gusman's
A.
Town
Mau's
F. Haverfield's
Ancient
Planning, 1913.
Pompeii,
translated by F. W. Kelsey, 2d ed.,1902, is especially
important for
Roman
The

Baukunst

domestic

architecture

and

und

interior decoration.

unique importance of the city of Rome

distribution

of Roman

architecture

and
makes

the

wide

graphical
geo-

topographical
works of specialimportance. Detailed listsof those published down
in K. Sittl's Archdologieder Kunst, 1895
contained
to its date
are
vol. 6). Recent
(Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft,
H.
works
the
of
Rome
and
Chr. Htilsen's
are
Jordan
covering
city
thoritative
auTopographic der Stadt Rom, 2 vols. in 4, 1871-1907 (the most
for the sections covered
work
by the latest volume);
and S. B. Platner's Topography and Monuments
of Ancient Rome,
2d ed., 1911.
The
and
published by J. Buhlmann
panorama
H. Wagner, Das alte Rom, 1892, givesa graphicidea of the cityin the
For the other principalregions see
time of Constantine.
A. L.

HISTORY

158

Frothingham's
Cook's
und

Old

Provence,

Pisidiens,

Syria

Africa,

1902;

vols.,
Of

the

most

Books

explanatory

vols.,

vols.,

in

the

and

S.

and

Italy

H.

C.

Les

Pamphyliens
in

Architecture
A.

1903;

Northern
Roman

Graham's
de

antiques

monuments

A.

T.

1910;

Stadte

Butler's

Djebel-Hauran,
GselTs

Dalmatia,

Lancoronski's

1905;

1890-92;

and

ARCHITECTURE

VAlgerie,

1901.

the

treatises

Roman

in

translated

on

the

English
M.

by

Supply

Water

chapters,

architecture

on

editions

useful

Architecture,
Two

Cities

Roman

Central

OF

by

C.

H.

of

preserved
Vitruvius's

are

Morgan,
the

Herschel,

from

City

1914;

of Rome,

1899.

Ten

and

antiquity
Books

on

Frontinus's

translated,

with

CHAPTER

VI

CHRISTIAN

EARLY

ARCHITECTURE

As we
approach the study of
point of view.
indeed
of all medieval
architecture, and
early Christian
note
at the outset
a change in the point
architecture,we must
of the designer and builder which
of view
strongly impresses
Medieval
finished work.
the
architecture, compared with
earlier and later styles,represents the spontaneous
expression
rather than
the genius
of the artistic ideals of a community
The

of

an

medieval

individual

or

that the individual

varied

more,

and

number

of architects.

lost all importance, but

was

never

so

great

as

This
that

does

not

mean

his importance

in earlier

and

later

ecclesiastical architecture
is of strongly
periods. Moreover
that
predominant importance. Again, this does not mean
be neglected,for at certain
medieval
secular architecture
may
times and in certain placesit rival* contemporary ecclesiastical
in interest,but on the whole
the main
interest of
architecture
is in the ecclesiastical work, and
architecture
medieval
the
is justified
in devoting the major part of his time to
student
the study of the churchly rather than the secular buildings of
the Middle
Ages.
Classification.Early Christian and Byzantine architecture.
The
earliest of what
are
generally classed as the medieval
stylesare the early Christian and the Byzantine, the former
have
Historians
perhaps slightly antedating the latter.
tended
the two, and to treat
to make
a sharp division between
distinct and
them
The
as
independent movements.
early
called
the
Christian, frequently also
Christian-Roman, is
regarded as the typical style of the early Christian Church;
the Byzantine is considered
different organic style,
a
very
classic architecture
and
the flexible
forming a link between
vaulted styles
of the Romanesque period. This classification,

5.

Stefeno

Rptondo

5. Pietro

ViacoH

FIG.

63

"

PLANS

OF

EARLY

CHRISTIAN

CHURCHES

in

Rpme

ARCHITECTURE

CHRISTIAN

EARLY

161

clearness,often engenders a profounder

superficial
is apt to forget that early
On account
of it one
confusion.
Byzantine is ipso facto early Christian architecture,that its
to obtain

roots

back

go

indeed

and

Rome

far

as

those

as

coincide

of the architecture

with

of Christian

them, in short that the

two

and
stylesare roughly contemporary, frequentlyinteracting,
of the same
artistic
variegatedmanifestations
reallysomewhat
These

movement.

facts

classification of the

togetherthe
and

Rome

architecture

of

the East.

self-consciousness

of

absence

marked

more

was

be called the medieval

might

two

in the early Christian style.

of self-consciousness

Lack

never

two

understood, however, the separate

Taken
styles will be found useful.

ever

more

than

in

in the

medieval

architecture

early Christian

direct result

During the period of gestation,so

was

style. No

environment

of

The

and

art

need.

speak, of Christian art

the Roman
Empire was hastening toward disintegration.In
other words, classical authoritywas
weakening. At the same
time the old Latin stock was
being transformed
by fresh blood
into a race
the East and West
from
barbaric, perhaps, but
ideas and
ideals.
From
the West
came
susceptibleto new
East
from
the
far
the
most
thought. By
significant
;
energy
importation from the East was Christianityitself. At home
it was
in the East, at Rome
of the weaker
at first only one
Eastern
The
sects.
beginnings of its art, therefore,like the
beginnings of its ritual,are wrapped in a bafflingobscurity.
and it learned to be not
To conquer, it had to strugglefiercely,
adaptable. These characteristics,
only ruthless but infinitely
the early religion,
marked
in the
became
impressed upon
architecture,and
one

never

more

so

to

than

religionemerged triumphant.
might expect, the struggle was
was

therefore

at

once

more

after 330 when

In the East,
less

the Christian

however,

as

tecture
violent,and the archi-

spontaneous

and

more

suited for

subsequent development.
Weakening of classical authority. From the very beginning,
both in East and West, the weakening of classical authority
of the highest importance. The
was
Romans, in combining
the trabeated

architecture

both

accordingto

canons.

elements

With

of Greece

with

the

empire

these

arch, had used

consciouslyformulated, if varying,

the decline of the

canons

became

IhH

"Tg^sa

EARLY

CHRISTIAN

ARCHITECTURE

163

first ignored,then

from
forgotten. The result was decadence
of infinite developpoint of view, but possibility
ment

the Roman
from

the Christian.

combination

of the

One

of the first results

and

the free

was

arch, anticipatedin late

Set rules once
Roman
removed, these elements
imperialwork.
could not only be subjected to many
combinations, for example
column

the

the
springing of an arch direct from a capitalwithout
intervening entablature, but could also be varied in scale,
of use.
From
this the invention
of new
shape, and manner
forms was
the keynote of medieval
a logical
step, and flexibility,
The inevitability
of this tendency
architecture,was obtained.
in Christian architecture
is proved by the same
tendency in
the

late classical work.

and

Basilican

central

types.

The

way

being paved by

classical

buildingof this sort, Christianitysoon evolved a new

architecture
adapted to its needs and incidentallyexpressive
In general the buildingsthus produced may
of its ideals.
be
divided
into two
classes, according to whether
they were
designed with reference to a longitudinalor a central vertical
axis.

former

The

we

call the

may

basilican,the latter the

central type.
The basilica,
with its long lines centeringattention
the apsidal end of the church, the altar,the pulpits,
on
the

bishop'schair, and the chancel reserved for the clergy,is

perfectlyadapted for the ordinary ritual of the Christian
church.
or
Every detail of such a building, invented
ing
Receivborrowed, is a direct result of the needs of the service.
its first development in Rome, the basilican ideal persisted
in the West, and it is significant
that from the liturgical
point
of view
the
cathedral
finished Gothic
is but
a
vastly

complicated and
The

central

East.

of

In

organized ramification

type

plan

it

with

cross

concentrated

of the basilican type.

its greatest development in the

received
be

might
equal

attention

circular,polygonal,or in the form

arms.
on

the

Buildings
central

of

such

character

vertical axis and

were

best adapted for tombs, baptistries,

and inclosures of sacred
well suited for the needs
of the
so
spots. Although not
Christian

the

this type was

basilicari,
frequently
with
in
and
at times,
a
only
designed
liturgical
view,
purpose
in the East, the two
combined
in a manner
especially
types were

which

liturgy as

makes

classification difficult. Thus

the

domed

64

HISTORY

basilicas of Anatolia
and

Hagia Sophia

under

both

and

Western

material

construction.

aisles

cotta

was

well.

the

exterior

and

Eastern

than

the

The

heavy

Roman.

walls of the latter made

unsightly.

of

use

In

construction

The

the

the

to

East

the

roof often

apse.

vaulting
terra

drab

brick

and

other

hand,

as

appears

pretentiouson

the exteriors unobtrusive

interiors,on

the usual

was

stone, brick, and

cut

though the timber

more
buildingswere

common,

The

wooden-roofed.

were

the rule, and

was

material

In

the lighter. Brick

buildingswere
confined
Rome, and vaulting was

in

and

Nave

at

of both
schemes,
partake of elements
Constantinopleitself might be classified

heads.

Material
the

ARCHITECTURE

OF

the

the

plain

if not

actually

were

lavishly

decorated.
Conservatism

possibilities
of development. The Roman
early,and givesthe impressionof
type of buildingcrystallized
The Eastern
a finished product.
type, perpetuallychanging,

FIG.

on

the

65

and

SAN

ROME.

"

PLAN

THE

SHOWING

ATRIUM

represents a step in the development

whole

The

value

to

to

thing
some-

style the Byzantine could

limited
Western, though offeringsuggestionsof unand Gothic styles,
remained
the Romanesque

From

new.

develop.

CLEMENTE.

the

Eastern

for centuries self-sufficient.

The

Christian-Roman
let

us

examine

Christian-Roman

basilica.
first the

basilica

is

Turning
buildingsin
easy

to

to

concrete

Rome.

describe.

ples,
exam-

The
In

ideal

plan

oblong rectangle,divided into three or five aisles,

In the
and provided at the end with a semicircular
apse.
finished examples, such as old Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's
it

was

an

CHRISTIAN

EARLY

Outside-the-Walls,
salient at the

ARCHITECTURE

rudimentary transept,

introduced

sides,was

buildingand

the apse,
that of the Latin cross.

between

giving the plan

In front of the

be

may

at San

seen

penitentsand the unbaptized, and

dignifiedseclusion to the church.
the

The

narthex.
or

placesin

of the

rear

neophytes, while

the side aisles.

approximating
buildingwas a covered
"atrium,"
a peristylar

reserved

The

Clemente

atrium,

ample
ex-

an

(Fig.65),was

for

it gave at the same

time a
Penitents might also enter

nave

chumens,
reserved for the cate-

was

the faithful

The

bema, slightly
the rectangular

form

vestibule,or "narthex," and before that

open to the sky, with a font in the center.
of which

or

165

generallytook

bema, and often the

apse,

for the

their
upper

This

officiating
clergy.
space was
inclosed by a railing,
the "chancel," which
frequentlyran far
into the nave.
At the very back of the apse, facingthe
down
the bishop's
congregation and on the longitudinalaxis, was
Before it,usuallyat the intersection of the
chair, or cathedra.
nave

were

apse

and

simple

the

bema,

marble

two

pulpits,or

read

and

the

all this church

the

canopy,

were

the

was

altar of

ciborium.

preached.

furniture

was

The

been

Elevation.

In elevation

the

with

chancel

gospels were
material

common

for

marble, inlaid with mosaic, which

given the suggestivename

Occasionallytwo rooms, the diaconicon
placed on either side of the apse.
has

the

Flanking
which

ambones, from

sermons

marble, covered

the

nave

of opus Alexandrtnum.
and the prothesis,
were

of the basilica

was

much

higher than the side aisles,permitting a broad clerestory

admitted
through which light was
by windows, fitted with
oiled
wooden
thin, perforated,marble screens, or even
grilles,
cloth.
The
aisles were
covered with slantingroofs, usually
hidden
from the floor by flat ceilings.The
triangularspace
thus obtained between
the aisle ceiling
and roof constituted the
At times the triforia were
"triforium."
to
sufficiently
roomy
the aisles,
and these
on
permit the superimpositionof galleries
for the catechumens
reserved
for the segregationof
were
or
carried on
women
(gynacaa). The clerestorywalls were
from the
columns, generallyantique,which separatedthe nave
aisles. Sometimes
in old Saint

walls

were

the system
Peter's,the columns

set.

Nave

and bema

was

trabeated; sometimes,

bore
were

archivolts

on

covered with

which

as

the

gableroofs,

HISTORY

66

reinforced

with

ARCHITECTURE

trusses, and generally,

though frequentlyat

period later than

by richlycoffered
alone

OF

the
and

originalbuilding,hidden from the

gildedceilings.The semicircular

floor
apse

vaulted.

was

Decoration.

the basilica

Ample
made

compensation
by the gorgeous

dull exterior of

for the

tion
polychromatic decoraof the interior.
The pavement
consisted of marble
flags
and tesserae, in divers brilliant colors and ingeniouslycomplicated
The
columns
of
were
geometric designs.
precious
in scale accordingto
marbles, fluted or unfluted,varying even
whether
not the builders could steal,for the greater glory of
or
God, a homogeneous set from some
building. In like
pagan
the capitalsvaried, frequently not even
manner
fittingthe
was

that

columns

bore

them, and the entablature

above

was

often

classical fragments. That such

composed of unrelated pilfered
form
an
an
apparently accidental
hodge-podge should
and decorative
whole
testifies strongly
extremely harmonious
builder.
to the underlyinggood taste of the Christian
Finally
the wall spaces,
and especiallythe concave
surfaces of the
covered
with glass mosaic, goldapsidal semi-domes, were
backed
Sacred personages,
and flashingwith brilliant color.
thus portrayed, and eventually
especiallythe Saviour, were
whole
of
cycles of biblical history were
taught by means
This mosaic, like the opus Alexandrinum,
pictured mosaic.
in originessentially
Eastern.
was
basilica. The
originof the
Origin of the Christian-Roman
Christian
basilica is somewhat
obscure.
Superficiallythe
into completed being with the reign
to have sprung
type seems
of Constantine, but this merely proves
that the preliminary
steps in its development have been lost. The most obvious
theory of the creation,dating back to Leon Battista Alberti,is
and copied the
that the Christian architects merely took over

ancient Roman
however

"

Western,

of two

were
or

Hellenic.

the Christian
later

classical basilica.

sorts,one
The

The

Eastern

plan of

ancient
in

buildingwas

derived from

originand

the latter

basilica,and it is reasonable
the Greek

civil

basilicas,
the other

strongly suggests

to suppose

that the

civil basilica of the

been
to have
building seems
of the
modified
in detail,however, by the imitation of some
forms of the Roman
house, wherein the early Christians were
classic times.

The

Christian

FIG.

66

"

ROME.

SAINT

PAUL'S
FROM

FIG.

67

"

ROME.

SAN

OUTSIDE-THE-WALLS.
THE

LORENZO

INTERIOR

ENTRANCE

FUORI-LE-MURA.

EXTERIOR

SEEN

68

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OP

worship, and by the invention

fulfilment of liturgical
needs.
wont

Within

Variations.
there

was

the

fixed

for considerable

room

Some,

like Santa

forms

new

limits of the

for better

type thus

individual deviation.

basilicas in Rome
of the many
are
like old Saint Peter's (Fig.63),had

two

no

of

to

set

Indeed

preciselythe

same.

five

aisles;others,
At times, as in

Maria

Maggiore, had but three.

Santa Maria
times the
at
Maggiore, the architrave appears;
archivolt takes its place,as in Saint Paul's Outside-the- Walls
(Figs.64 and 66). In general as time went on the archivolt
and

more

of

the

of

Santa

took

more

smaller
Maria

the

place of the

buildings,like
in

remarkable
where

the

the

Cosmedin,

deviation

the

In

and

omitted.

was

in

many

church

eighth century
bema

appears

is broken

colonnade

architrave.

the

other
An-

building,

same

inserted

piers are

at

regular intervals.
with

smaller

influence.
Vincoli
of

finished
Occasionallythe side aisles were
salient apses
suggesting Syriac or Egyptian

Such

Galleries

(Fig.63).

the

Orient

t'Agnese

arrangement

an

the

than

fuori-le-mura

above

Occident,

the

aisles,more
to

are

Pietro

be

in

typical

found

in San-

(Fig.64).
Christian

interesting,if
in San Lorenzo
fuori-le-mura (Figs.
freakish,variation occurs
63, 67, and 68). Here two churches, an earlyone and a later,
oriented in opposite directions and juxtaposed apse to apse,
have
been
joined into a singlebuilding. In early times,
the influence
of
under
especiallyin buildings constructed
Constant ine (Saint Peter's, Saint Paul's, the Lateran, San
Lorenzo), the facade and not the apse was placed to face the
Orientation

face

east, and

the

possiblethroughout
The

church.

Soon, however, the orientation

east.
to

of

the

in San

appears

the

Christian-Roman

this

Middle
basilica

basilica

Christian-Roman

scheme

was

was

An

fixed with
followed

the apse
whenever

Ages.
in Italyoutside of Rome.

is best

studied

Rome,

at

The
but

is

the

empire frequently alongside of, and

contemporaneous with, buildingsof a different style. Only
in Rome, however, did it show so completely the conservatism

found

which
for
nare

throughout

is one

example,
Nuovo

of its most
we

marked

find- the sixth

(Fig. 69)

characteristics.

century church

basilican
essentially

In Ravenna,
of Sant'

in

Apolli-

form, yet

so

FIG.

68

FIG.

"

ROME.

69

"

SAN

RAVENNA.

LORENZO

SANT*

FUORI-LE-MAURA.

APOLLINARE

NUOVO.

INTERIOR

INTERIOR

170

Byzantine

OF

HISTORY
in detail that

the

ARCHITECTURE
work

might be classified under

either head.
The

Roman

buildingof the central type. In Rome

buildings
of the central type, though they are to be found, never
attained
anything like the importance of the basilicas. The most
characteristic example of the type in Rome
is the church
of
San Stefano Rotondo
(Figs.63, 64, and 70). This structure,

FIG.

consecrated
aisles

7O

"

ROME.

SAN

in 468, had

STEFANO

ROTONDO.

the
originally
inclosinga cylinderraised above
The

whole

was

form
them

wooden-roofed, and

INTERIOR

of two
to

concentric

form

story.
clere-

in cross-section

of a basilica. Designed
preciselythe appearance
of buildingfrom the
as
a church, the ineptitudeof this -form
ritualistic point of view is eloquentlyvoiced by its centuries
of almost
That
buildings of the central
complete disuse.
in Rome
is proved
constructed
type, vaulted throughout,were
by the church of Santa Costanza
(Fig.71). Outside of Rome
the buildingsof the central type are generallyso obviously
would

have

EARLY

CHRISTIAN

ARCHITECTURE

Oriental in inspirationthat they

the diffusion of Eastern influence.
The

71

"

ROME.

Geographicaldivisions.

best

discussed

under

study of Eastern
different problem. In the nearer
architecture
offers a very
Orient one finds no conservative,well-developedstyleawaiting
ure
definition. Generally speaking,the early Christian architectof Rome
was
static,that of the East dynamic. In the
East architecture was in a state of flux,or rather progression,
a
stylechanging almost as one seeks to fix its type. Moreover,

FIG.

East.

are

171

SANTA

local variations
involves

were
a

COSTANZA.

SECTION

The

SHOWING

THE

CONSTRUCTION

the first step toward

ness
clearthe East into three distinct

and
striking,

subdivision

of

in the north,
regions;Anatolia, Syria,and Egypt. The first,
correspondsto Asia Minor, and its artistic center was Ephesus.
The
and
second, farther south
including Palestine, was
Alexandria
controlled the
guided artistically
by Antioch.
of northern
third. A fourth broad division might be made
Africa, not so important historically,
yet affording many
examples of early Christian art.
first
The Syrian basilica. Beginning with Syria, let us
consider the basilica. Here, besides examples very like the
Roman
in
buildings,other structures
absolutelynew
appear,

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

172

the

history of

art.

Only within comparativelyrecent

has

attention

been

directed

to

Antioch

and

the

times

so-called

receding civilization has left

as impressiveas any
ruins,and often well-preservedbuildings,
in Pompeii. In the typicalSyrian basilica the
to be found
and a covered
abandoned
atrium
was
porch, flanked by two
"dead

of

cities"

monumental

Syria, where

towers,

unique fagade,very

72

FIG.

was

thus

Greek

sometimes

In the
gave

timber

and

Between

bore colonnettes

THE

TOURMANIN.

"

double

great space.
of the

suggestiveof

obtained.

colonnade

substituted

was

which
roof

and

way

the

later medieval

narthex.

architecture,

RESTORED

BASILICA

the
interior,
generallythree-aisled,
to great piers,bearing an
arcade,
of span,

giving an
clerestorywindows

wide
the
ran

for

up

gave

to receive

the

impression of
corbels

the transverse

structure

something

often
beams
of the

feelingof logicalarticulation so commonly associated with the

generally
organicRomanesque and Gothic styles. There were
three apses at the east end, usuallyround, though occasionally
square, in plan, and at times horseshoe-shaped.

EARLY

CHRISTIAN

ARCHITECTURE

173

be seen
examples of Syrian basilicas may
and
at Ruweiha,
at Mchabbak,
at Tourmanin
(Fig. 72).
the
finest
of
the
Perhaps
Syrian fagade is that of
example
Tourmanin, and the most
complete, and probably the best
singleexample of Syrian architecture,is the church of KhalbLouzeh
of the scarcity
(Fig.63). In the Hauran, on account
of wood, an even
remarkable
more
development took place,

Examples.

FIG.

and
cut

73

"

one

stone.

Good

KALAT-SEMAN.

THE

BASILICA

finds buildingsconstructed
Transverse

arches

were

OF

SAINT

STYLITES

SIMEON

entirelyof monumental
thrown

across

the naves,

to the main
supported roofs of stone flagslaid parallel
axis of the building.The timber roof then entirely
disappeared.
The originality
of these buildingsreallyindicates a reversion
of the Orient to its native genius.
Buildingsof the central type in Syria. The buildingsof the
central type in Syria were
equally important. Constantine
of the Holy
himself set the style with the famous
church

and

these

Sepulchre,crowned

with

dome

supported on

an

interior

174

HISTORY

colonnade, and

OF

surrounded

by a circular aisle carrying a

buildingsof capitalimportance in the

galleryabove it. Two

history of architecture are
(Figs.63 and 64) in Syria.
inscribed

in

ARCHITECTURE

the

churches

The

former

The

square.

of Ezra
is in

plan

an

Bosra

octagon

is covered

drum

octagon

and

by

an

egg-shaped dome, the transition from the drum to the dome

being made by squinches. A salient apse, semicircular within
and

three-sided

of Bosra

is

inscribed

carried

without, appears

even

ingenious.

more

within

at the east end.

The

The

square.

plan

great

The

is that

central

system

of

circle

dome

was

and,(to neutralize its thrust,was

eight pillars,
by an annular barrel vault, fortified by four
exedras at the anglesof the square.
Three apses

on

rounded
sur-

circular
semiwere

placed at the east end.

Perhaps the most
perfect of the
the monastery
of
Syrian buildings of the central type was
Saint Simeon
an
Stylites(Fig.73). Round
octagonalcourt,
in the

center

of which

the column

was

four great three-aisled basilicas

Greek
The eastern
cross.
arm,
the

church

the

proper;

of the famous
form

placed to

were

ascetic,
a

gigantic

finished with

others

three apses, was

reserved
for pilgrims.

were

The

of invention
in these buildings
extraordinary fertility
shows
the beginning of an attempt to produce a satisfactory
ecclesiastical buildingof the central type.
The architects of
to be preoccupied largelywith this problem.
Byzantium were
The Mschatta frieze.Not less significant
Syrian decoration.
have seen
at
the decoration
of the Syrian building. We
was
and free use
Spalato,imported from Syria,the modification
of classic detail to
same

procedure

embellish

was

the

maintained

exterior
with

of

Oriental

motives

are

combined

The

infinite variations

Moreover, the Syrians evolved

Syria proper.
in
of sculptured decoration, superbly shown
in the Berlin museum,
Mschatta
(Fig.74) now
and

edifice.

an

the

new

in

scheme

frieze from

wherein

classic

in the richest of patterns

Polychromatic decoration, too,

in Syria. In short, the region showed, at an
was
common
early date, new
developments in architecture which unquestionably
for the Byzantine style,and
aided in paving the way
for the remote
Romanesque of Europe.
perhaps even
struction
Early Christian architecture of Egypt. In plan and conthan
show
far less ingenuity
the buildings of Egypt
and

crisplycut

in low

relief.

FIG.

74

"

BERLIN

MUSEUM.

THE

FRIEZE

GOWSKl)

FROM

MSCHATTA.

(STRYZ-

176

those

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

of

class of Egyptian monuments

Syria. An interesting
is marked
by the use of an immense
trefoil-shaped
sanctuary,
divided from the three-aisled nave
wide
by a
transept. The
trefoil sanctuary, however, may
well be an importation from
invention, the cistern with its cover
Syria. One Alexandrian
supported on columns, was caused by local needs and destined
to exert
a
strong influence in Constantinople. The special
evolved
importance of Egypt lay in the decorative schemes
there.

centuries

For

school of

Alexandria

had

decoration.
livelypictorial

been

To

early Christian

centuries brilliant work

inlaid marble.

Thus

decoration

in

was

of

center

added

in the

glass mosaic

and

equipped, Egypt was able to dower both

Italy with the rich polychromatic interior
became
the vogue
practicallythroughout

and

Byzantium

this

the

which

Christendom.
basilica in Anatolia.

The

themselves

In Anatolia

structurallythe most
Ephesus, but

citywas
studied

the

the architects

inventive

of all.

sites where
the

proved

The

trolling
con-

the architecture

best

perhaps being
and one
Bin-bir-Kilisse
churches),in the plain
(the thousand
Anatolia.
Here
the majority of
of Konieh
in southeastern
the basilicas recall the buildingsof Syria. They are generally
three-aisled with a singlestrongly salient apse, either circular
is a porch flanked
to the nave
or
polygonal. At the entrance
All this might be Syrian,but the Anatolian
by two towers.
strikes his specialnote by vaultinghis structure, and numbers
and
of these buildingshave
nave
heavy barrel vaults over
be
aisles. An excellent example of this type of buildingmay
Side by side with these vaulted structures,
at Daouleh.
seen
be

may

however,

are

be

may

brick walls, and

very

numerous,

timber

roof.

central type in Anatolia.

buildingsof the central type. We

The

of
of

The

Nysa.

cross
a

Martyrium,

bound

conical

conical
the most

Persian.

at

dome

dome

type, with atrium,

the Graeco-Roman

seen

written

monument

was

in
Anatolia, too, abounded
have an interestingdescription

in the fourth
to be

century by Gregory

cruciform,the

arms

of the

by semicircular niches, and

of the
the crossing. The
use

their intersection
was

to

cover

suggests the

influence

of

Persia, and

indeed

is
architecture
in Anatolian
element
significant
The
buildings, like
Syrian conical-domed

the
the

EARLY

CHRISTIAN

churches

of

Anatolia

or

variations
at

of

and

ARCHITECTURE

copied from
themselves
inspired direct from Persia. Many
Gregory's scheme may be seen to-day,especially
Ezra

Bosra, may

have

177

been

Bin-bir-Kilisse.
The

been

Anatolian

domed

basilica.

the
Historically

esting
inter-

most

in Anatolia, however, is what

of the types evolved
has
called the domed
basilica.
The first step in its development

by placing a square bay before the apse to

and adding galleries
above the aisles
enlarge the presbyterium,
To give a lightereffect to buildingsof such
for the faithful.
weakening the barrel vaults by
large dimensions, without
piercingthem with windows, the architects hit on the scheme
of breaking the barrel vault with a dome, and thus the domed
was

made

basilica,destined

to

exercise

an

enormous

influence

on

later

being. A perfectexample of the type

be seen
the dome
at Kodja-Kalessi (Fig.63), where
cupies
ocmay
The
two
same
bays of the nave.
type, constructed
in Saint Clement's
in brick, occurs
In both the
at Ancyra.
dome
is carried on squinches. On the other
hand, at Saint
Nicholas
of Myra, and at Dehr-Ahsy in Syria,we find domed
basilicas with the domes
carried on pendentives.
The problem of the dome.
the
Many and ingenious were
solutions of the problem of the dome
in Anatolia.
Materials
were
varied,and bricks and terra-cotta, adopted from neighboring
To
used to reduce the thrusts of heavy domes.
Persia,were
make
the transition from the square
or
polygon below to the
round
dome
methods.
above, the architects adopted many
sometimes
commonest,
Squinches were
merely of flat stones
laid across
the angles of the square, reducing it to a polygon,
and then other stones
laid across
the angles of the polygon,
the
obtuse, until in successive courses
making them stillmore
into the roughly circular form necessary
coaxed
to
was
mass
architecture,came

receive the base

of the dome.

angles of the

Sometimes

arches

were

thrown

polygon, and again, when

the dimensions
were
small, singleblocks at the
sufficiently
hollowed
out in pendentive form.
angles were
The pendentive. By far the most
important solution of the
problem, however, was the true pendentive. In mathematical
of a hollow hemisphere, the
terms
a pendentive is a segment
diameter of which is equal to the diagonal of the square to be
across

the

into

square

or

HISTORY

178

In

covered.
is not
a

so

easy

non-technical
to

ARCHITECTURE

language, however, the member

Imagine a square to be covered by

describe.

of such

dome

OF

dimensions

that

its

edge would

touch

the

Obviously the dome would

only at the four corners.
project beyond the four sides of the square.
Imagine all
portionsof the dome projectingbeyond the sides of the square
off vertically,
and the result would
be a pendento be shaved
dome
tive dome, or, technically,
on
a continuous
pendentives.
square

FIG.

75

RAVENNA.

"

THE

MAUSOLEUM
OF

THE

OF

GALLA

PLACIDIA.

DRAWING

EXTERIOR

Imagine then the top of the pendentive dome to be sliced off

of the lateral
horizontallyat a point just above the crowns
be four
The result would
arches caused by the vertical cuts.
sphericaltrianglesor pendentives,segments of a sphere,the
diameter

On

below.
dome
The

of which

on

these

would
a

true

equal the diameter

dome

could

square

placed,producing

pendentives (Fig.64).

originof the pendentive. The

to become

be

of the

one

of the most

marked

pendentive was

destined

characteristics of Byzantine

EARLY

CHRISTIAN

ARCHITECTURE

179

Though its originis open to dispute,it must

have been the logical
outgrowth of the Persian vaults of light
without
material
centering. The strong probabilityis that
architecture.

the

architects

of Anatolia, in close contact

this most

independently created
Diffusionof

with

Buildings at

Through the influence of commerce

and sixth centuries were
ticism the fourth, fifth,

and

Ravenna.

widespread diffusion of Oriental

it appears,
as
palace of Diocletian in

have

we

Orient,

member.

important
influencein the West.

Oriental

the

influence

monas-

marked

by

in the West.

noted, in the fourth

though
Al-

century

in the
Spalato,and again later in Rome
decorations
of the basilicas,and
especiallyin the buildings
of the central type, its full force in Italyis best judged in the
Here
architecture
of Ravenna.
two
buildings of the midof Galla Placidia (Figs.63 and
fifth century, the Mausoleum
75) and the so-called Baptistry of the Orthodox, attest the
of Oriental inspirationin this
almost
complete domination
Western
city. The former, now the church of Santi Nazzaro e
Celso, is Greek cruciform in plan, the crossingbeing covered
dome
with
continuous
on
a
structed
pendentives, ingeniously conof hollow
terra-cotta
amphorae inserted one within

The

another.

material

Orient, especiallyof Persia.

walls
the

as

square.

by

is

blind

interior shows

The

polygonal structure, with

of the tomb

of Galla

is

plain,the brick
arcades.
Externally

incrustation of preciousglass mosaic

The
Baptistry of the Orthodox

Fonte)
that

appears

the influence of the

exterior

The

being lightenedsomewhat

dome

manner.

establishes

alone

plete
com-

in the Alexandrian

dome

(San

Giovanni

constructed

in
like

Placidia.

though
AlMingling of early Christian and Byzantine elements.
such
works
fall within
in point of time
the early
Christian
period,to classifythem merely as early Christian
would
produce a deep misconception of their architectural
elements
of
significance.Already they anticipateso many
the Byzantine style that they might as justlybe called Byzantine
This does not mean
that they were
importations
from
Italian
Constantinople. On the contrary, they were
Eastern
influences that were
products of the same
already at
work
in Constantinople to produce the Byzantine style.
Conclusion.
therefore,
Early Christian architecture may,

180

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

From
one
regarded from two points of view.
sufficient style,amply providing the early Church
be

beautiful
fulfilment

in themselves
needs

of the

from

and

with

ings
build-

finer in their

even

for which

it is

they

complete

designed.

were

self-

garded
Re-

this

basilica is
point of view, the Christian-Roman
the supreme
From
product of early Christian architecture.
the other and broader
point of view, the earlyChristian style
ening
is a link in the great architectural chain, connecting the weakclassic art with the vigorous new
style of Byzantium.
Especiallythe buildingsof Eastern Christianity,
experimental,
lawless in their disregard of classic tradition,at times even
crude though always full of promise, herald in no uncertain
of the art so soon
in Constantinople.
tone the advent
to appear

CHRONOLOGICAL

LIST

OF

EARLY

CHRISTIAN

MONUMENTS

It must

be noted

that it is often

ments
impossibleto date medieval monube
satisfied
with
the half
must
we
frequently
in
which
erected.
A
a building was
singledate,
century or century
refers to the beginning of the portion of a
without
qualification,
In general it is always well to
building referred to in the text.
in dating a medieval
remember
that an error
is apt to
monument
give the monument
greater antiquitythan it deserves.

exactly, and

ITALY

Rome,
Rome,
Rome,

Saint

Old

Peter's.

"

Consecrated

Santa

Costanza.

Saint

Paul's

Outside-the-Walls.

Maria

Maggiore.

"

Built

326.
rebuilt

323-337;

Founded

"

1256.
386, but

rebuilt

1823.
Rome,

Santa

Rebuilt

"

432"440.

Founded
ca.
Rome, San Pietro in Vincoli.
450.
Placidia.
Mausoleum
of
Galla
Ca.
Ravenna,
450.
the
of
Orthodox.
Mid-fifth
Ravenna, Baptistry
century.
San
Stefano
Rotondo.
Rome,
468-483.
after 500.
Soon
Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare Nuovo.
Lorenzo
Fuori
le Mura.
Rebuilt
Rome, San
578; remodeled
"

"

"

"

"

"

1216-27.
Rome, Sant'

Rome,

San

Agnese, Fuori -le-Mura.

Clemente.

"

"

Rebuilt

1108.

Rebuilt

625-638.

EARLY

ARCHITECTURE

CHRISTIAN
THE

of the

Jerusalem Church
Ruweiha.

Fourth

"

Kodja-Kalessi.
"

Frieze.

Mschatta

EAST

Holy Sepulchre.
"

312-337.

century.

possibly fifth century.

Possiblyfourth,possiblysixth century.

Fourth
"

Fifth

Mchabbak."

181

or

century.

Fifth century (?).

Saint Simeon
Stylites. End of fifth century.
Saint
Clement.
Fifth century (?).
Ancyra,
Daouleh.

"

"

"

Myra, Saint Nicholas.

Bosra.

"

Ezra."

"

Fifth century

(?).

512.
515.

Tourmanin.

"

Khalb-Louzeh.

Sixth
"

century.
Sixth century.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

A. Michel's

Histoire de

vol.
I'art,

NOTE

i,

pt.

i,

1905,

contains

valuable

Perate
and Camille
Enlart
summarizing early
by Andre
Christian art, including architecture.
H. Marucchi's
Basiliqueset
de Rome, 1002, is an authoritative
work, forming vol. 3 of the
eglises
A. Venturi's
author's
Elements
series,
d'archeologiechrelienne.
and
contain an
Storia dcll'arle italiana,vols. i and
1902,
2, 1901
of early Christian architecture in Italy. G. T. Rivoira's
account
Le originidella archittetura lombarda, vol. i, 1901, is an exhaustive
study of the originsof Italian medieval architecture by an eminent
whether
they involve early
scholar,who believes that these origins,
rather
than
Christian
or
Byzantine architecture,are Occidental
Oriental.
G. Leroux's Les originesde V edifice
hypostyleen Grece, en
Orient,et chez les Remains, 1913, is a scholarlywork, important for the
basilica. W.
lightit throws on the origin of the Christian-Roman
is
the
Lowrie's Monuments
a skilfully
Early Church, 1906,
arranged
of
of early Christian art, with architecture soundly treated.
hand-book
A. L. Frothingham's Monuments
of Christian Rome, 1908, is another
of the histories of the monuments.
hand-book
with good summaries
M. de Vogue's Syrie cenlrale,
and groundbreaking
1865-77, a monumental
somewhat
of date, is the
out
piece of scholarship,now
of
the
author's
most
publications dealing with
important
many
architecture
and other arts in Syria. By H. C.
early Christian
Architecture and Other Arts, 1903, and Ancient
Butler are two works
former
is the publicationof an
The
Architecture in Syria, 1907.
American
expeditionto Syria in 1899; the latter is the second divi-

articles

"

82

of

sion

"Publications

the

Both

1904-1905."
elaborate

most

de

an

they

thesis,

author's

Christian

Diehl's
of

Manuel
the

and
d'art

history

Christian

early

4,

with

points.

of

Die

exhaustive

oder

for

is

1910,

Byzantine

with

art,
of

East

the

(Handbuch

1914

to

highly

is
the

the

most

latest

as

an

der
recent

discussions

lications,
pub-

ments,
monu-

of

account

the

impulse

the

in

Orient.

authoritative

valuable

of

Though

creative

from

came

of
zpoj,

series

Christian
on

the

that

art

information.

early

the

publications

last

especially

defended,

Baukunst,

the

than

both,

in

Kleinasien,

1901,

encyclopedic

Byzantine

byzantin,

references

Rom,

the

in

Syria,

to

material

new

of

publications,

Byzantine

Kunst,

altchristliche

of

successors

of

architecture

Altchristliche

Wulff's
ch.

successfully

Expedition

masses

worthy

scholar
with

important

are

Princeton

are

original
more

the

Orient

Denkmaler

deal

works

early

are

J. Stryzgowski's

by

ARCHITECTURE

present

and

Byzantinische

the

of
works

way,

Vogue.

and

OP

HISTORY

C.

sis
synthe-

discussion

of

introduction.

the
O.

Kuntwissenschaft),
summary

of

of
individual

all,

CHAPTER

BYZANTINE

VII

ARCHITECTURE

Origins. Byzantine architecture

like the Wise

came,

Men,

East, the roles of the Magi being played by the

three great cities: Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus.
From
the
of the

out

first of the three

the

came

of the

stylefrom
Byzantine ideal

the

relief and

cut

an

all-over

acteristic
a charpolychromy which remained
The
second
beginning to end.
plied
supof sculptured decoration,flat,crisply
The
third,
covering of the surface.

important of all,gave the structural elements which

Byzantine architects fused, systematized, and developed

most

ten

for

centuries.

Centralization.
from

area,

center

nerve

To

the

the

Although

Armenia

to

remained

this centralization

France

diffused

stylewas

and

from

Russia

practicallyalways
are

due

the

main

at

to

over

vast

Africa, the

Constantinople.

characteristics

and

general homogeneity of the style. Byzantium took the ideas

of the Orient, handled
with the lavish means
them
and broad
with a refinement
conceptions of Rome, and welded them
The
Attic.
result was
neoa
new
art, but, like the
literally

Architecturallyas well as
distinctlyimperial one.
Constantine
perial
politically,
supplanted imperial Rome
by imConstantinople.
Ecclesiastical and secular work.
Byzantine architecture was
but this generalization
often be
must
primarily ecclesiastical,
such as
qualified. During the reigns of important emperors,
Constantine
(323-337),Justinian(527-565),and Basil I. (867887), civil architecture played an extremely important part.
The churches
exercised a greater influence on other stylesthan
civil buildings,and were
often preserved when
the civil buildings
were
destroyed, but this fact should not blind us to the
importance of the non-ecclesiastical work.
Roman,

84
Lack

whole

OF

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

-consciousness
of self
of the style. Whether
however, Byzantine architecture
unselfconscious.

in church

Lavish

the

as

lay

or

clesiastica
ec-

the

on

was

decoration

might

be

palace, the important consideration was

always a
the
satisfactorysolving of structural needs, and this became
of Byzantine esthetic
real, if unconscious, canon
theory.
dividual
Moreover, the style tended to be corporate rather than inthe
as
though not to nearly so complete an extent
medieval
Europe.
Especiallyin the earlier
stylesof western
the works, but later
period individuals were
apt to dominate
and
obscure
architects were
craftsmen
given very free rein,
and

in the

even

voice

or

of the

than
which
chain
was

repetitionsuntil the fifteenth. The art

always conscious of and taught by its past, but it never
of monotonous

The

and

Brick

expressive of

but

used

ideals
the

bricks

bonded.

material.

style. By
got his

Concrete

was

of the

Romans

homogeneous

like

marble, the

latter

sometimes
relief,

decoration
enriched

in brick
with

with

an

cut

sometimes

applied as
became

carved
veneer.

common,

infinityof patterns
stone.

The

absence

and
in

the

cores,

disappeared.
as

adjunct

an
was

outside
Byzantine architecture
Armenia.
restricted regions, notably Greece
and
of decoration
the Byzantine architects used
purposes
and

to

for

of ashlar

use

of

striking

used

in

unknown

and

means

most

nearly always

less

architecture

commonest

were

the

the

none

frequently increased

vaults
rigid concrete
but
used
stone
was
freely,

other

of

was

Byzantine

architect

the

Cut

in

mortar

joints were

mortar

of the

development

and

the

material

light, porous
effects,and

to

materials

varied.

very

width

its teacher.

development. Byzantine art has generally

considered
It was,
in truth, conservative,
rigidlyconservative.
sistent
inconnot
was
yet only in so far as conservatism
with development. Nothing could be more
mistaken
the too common
conception of the Byzantine style as one
a
as
crystallizedin the sixth century and continued

Materials.

most

than

the

as

appears

and

slavishlycopied its past,

steady for being slow.
were

individual

the

civilization rather

Conservatism
been

earliest times

tically
prac-

of

tain
cer-

For
mosaic

in

flat,tapestry-

In

the

wall

later

surfaces

brick, or

brick

of formulated

style
were

nating
alter-

esthetic

BYZANTINE
criteria gave
the

full

ARCHITECTURE

play

to

the

185

invention

and

good

taste

of

designers.

Structure.

of the Byzantine
originalityand fertility
architect never
shows
more
happily than in the solving of
The
vaulted
a
style was
problems of structure.
essentially
the most
and
the dome.
important form of vault was
one,
Wood
being scarce, the problem of centeringwas serious,and
the architects,taking their cues
from
Anatolia and Persia,
learned to construct
soon
important vaults without centering.

FIG.

76

RAVENNA.

The

SAN

VITALE.

EXAMPLES

OF

BYZANTINE

CAPITALS

and most
durable materials,
they developed the lightest
bound
joints. Then
by
by thick, adhesive mortar
completing the vaults in successive,concentric,self-sustaining
so
as to requirelittle or no
rings,by slantingbrick courses
port
supfrom below, and by the invention
of ingeniousdevices for
the definition of vault surfaces during the process of construction,
the architects succeeded
almost
entirelyin eliminating
the necessityfor centering. Moreover, the stabilityof the
further insured by an
finished structure
was
equilibrium of
and
thrusts.
Domes
vaults
were
grouped compactly and
their thrusts opposing one
another, and the thrusts
logically,
of a great central dome
neutralized
and carried off by a
were

To

that end

86

number

HISTORY

OF

of subordinate

domes

had, especiallyin

thus

of that

ARCHITECTURE

grouped

the

period,a

later

logic which

structural

it.

round

large

associates

one

The

style

measure

with

Gothic

architecture.
The

Supports.
of

same

supports. The

was

inherited

use

from

logicwas shown
of squinches for

the

East

and

admirably
the

in the

use

support of domes

continued

with

variations

throughout the entire development of the style. Far more

the use
of the
important in the history of architecture was
pendentive. To the Byzantines belongs the credit of recognizing
the full possibilities
of the pendentive, and the use
of
these members
augurat
inwas
as
a support for a superimposed dome
in Byzantium (Fig.64).
not
Capitals. Moreover, the logic of the architects was
confined solelyto the immediate
The
supports of the dome.
of an
capitals,which carried the weight of the vault, were
and logicaldesign. Unlike the Roman
ture
entablaentirelynew
with its merely crushingweight, the mass
which
the Byzantine
capitalhad to carry was heterogeneous and exercised
in many
directions.
this mass
To meet
a variety of thrusts
the architects first designed a sturdier Corinthian
capital,
Next they added
with a wider abacus.
a heavy thrust
block,
like an inverted, truncated
the transition
pyramid, to make
from
the capitalto the mass
above.
Capitals of this sort
may

be

impost
current

San

in the

seen

from

came

Eski-djouma in Salonica.

Syria,where

Vitale

(Fig.76),when

Ravenna

at

capitalwas
richly ornamented

almost

impost

block.

broad

at the

slender

top and

shaft.

the three

It was,
the

Greek
moreover,
stern

on

The

slender

form

thus

at

the

classic forms, and

cistern of Bin-bir-direk

to the

was

having probably
taken

was

it

in

acter
char-

base

on

broad, thin

high, convex

where

it meets

combines

is both

was

apt and

elements

bell,
the
of

beautiful.

capable of infinite variety,

the rudimentary capitalsin the
rich profusionof the melon, bird

flexible,and

simplicityof

members

shaped
Finally,at Hagia
all Byzantine
which

to

invented

idea of the

Corinthian

carried

the load is transmitted

abacus, whence

the

abandoned, and

Sophia at Salonica, the form appears

based, an impost block,
capitalswere

from

of such

use

in the fifth century, the Syrians in turn

it from
Persia.
A further step
received
of the

like

the

The

BYZANTINE
and

ARCHITECTURE

wind-blown

basket, and

acanthus

187
capitalsof

the

fully

developed style.
clesiastical
Types of ecclesiastical buildings. Since the Byzantine ecall other
sorts in importance,
buildings surpass
devote
of our
must
The
most
we
study to them.
types
created were
diverse.
In the earlier period the type developed
from

the domed

Anatolia
the

basilica of
the

was

favorite,

famous

example
being Hagia Sophia at
Constantinople. In the
called second
so
golden
most

in the

age,

ninth, tenth,

and

eleventh

the

Greek-cross

came
plan befashion, although

the
both

types existed in both

Sometimes

periods.
plan was

that

the
square,
in the actual

cross

the

Greek

within

marked

cross

buildingonly
clerestory. At

the

other

In

of

inscribed

cross

by

centuries,

times
was

the

Greek

true

designed on plan.
beginning the so-

called

triconch

shell"

plan,with

IbMlr,

"three-

or

trefoil

FIG.

77

"

SERGIUS

division

of

the

CONSTANTINOPLE.
AND

BACCHUS.

SAINTS
PLAN

apsidal

popular,and this
with modifications,throughout the history of
type persisted,
gotten,
the style. The
true basilican plan, though not
wholly forwas
never
popular. Circular and polygonal buildings
ing
also designed, but by far the most
were
popular form of buildend,

was

of the central

type

was

the Greek

cross.

though
Hagia Sophia of Constantinople. Altion
Hagia Sophia may be regarded almost as the proclamaof
number
of Byzantine architecture,it was
preceded by a
buildings outside of as well as within Constantinople that
have
heralded
the approaching style. We
already noted
Churches

earlier than

Similarly the

basilica, built in Constantinople in

Stoudion

463, although it conforms

the

might well be called Byzantine.

buildings which

Ravennate

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

to

the Hellenistic

type and

retains

and
lintel system, is Byzantine in spirit,
Byzantine church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus

the

post and

purely

in

Hagia Sophia.
Constantinople (Fig. 77) slightlyantedates
This buildingrecalls the churches
of Ezra
and Bosra
(Figs.63 and
64) in Asia Minor, but is more
skilfully
planned and executed.
Saint Irene,Constantinople.In
532 Justiniancaused the building
of another

church, Saint Irene,in

Constantinople (Fig. 78), which

the fullbrings us still nearer
fledged Byzantine style. The
architect of Saint Irene was
ably
probinspiredby the church of
ing
Hagia Sophia at Salonica,a buildwhich
probably antedates
somewhat

its great namesake

Constantinople.
Irene
and
Hagia
Salonica
Anatolian

Both

Sophia

domed

by barrel
78

FIG.

them

CONSTANTINOPLE.

"

IRENE.

SAINT

PLAN

vaults

the

basilica.

In

are

shape of a
possiblethat we

seems

the germ

abutted
about

grouped

in the

and it

cross,

have

here

of the Greek-cross

Hagia Sophia. All these buildings appear

at

of

Saint Irene the domes

"

Saint

variants

are

in

form.

insignificant,

of the
Church," the church
however, beside the "Great
Divine Wisdom, Hagia Sophia at Constantinople. This building
embodies

more

fully than any

the first golden age.

Byzantine styleof
532, to replacea Constant
had
been
destroyed in
Tralles

and

Anatolian

dedicated

Isidorus

origin.
with

the

Nika

of Miletus

The

the

inian church

church

most

were

other

the

full-fledged
Justinianbegan it in

of the

same

sedition.
the

name

which

Anthemius

architects,both

of
of

completed in five years and

and
amid
impressive ceremonies
was

DjAMi

MANASSIA

CONSTANTINOPLE:

SAN

ViTALL

TlAVENNA

UTTLEMLTnOPOUS
Arntws

XtWCHVBCH

or

BASIL

HAGIA

MX

LA

SOPHIA

CoN5TANTiNOPLt

tTSCHMlADZIN

CHAPLLLt

FIG.

79

"

PLANS

OF

BYZANTINE

CHURCHES

BYZANTINE

ARCHITECTURE
December

general thanksgiving

but
fell,

558 the central dome

accordingto

reconsecrated

was

and

Plan

and
galleries,

reared

carried

on

square

about

measures

FIG.

the

construction.

occupies a great
narthex,

by

8l

an

"

atrium

dome

four tremendous
in turn

to

In

rebuilt it

design,and

HAGIA

the church

EXTERIOR

SOPHIA.

pendentives, 107
huge piers,25 feet square, and

building. Abutment
domes

of Anthemius

on

by two half-domes
(Fig. 80). These

west

by Justinian.

537,

Emperor in 562.
In plan (Fig. 79) Hagia Sophia
which, excluding the apse and the
narthex,
250 by 240 feet. A double
In
the
the
is
center
nave.
precede

CONSTANTINOPLE.

great dome
four

nephew

less ambitious

somewhat

27,

191

of the
mark
the

buttresses

abutted

same

the
north

feet in diameter,
abutted

diameter

east

the

as

and

central

longitudinalaxis of the
and south is suppliedby

of marble-faced

rubble.

The

half-

at the

springingby paired smaller

half-domes, and thus, partlyby opposing thrust to thrust and
ing
partlyby carryingoff the thrust of the great dome in descendure
stages to the outer wall and the ground, the whole structis

are

admirablystabilized.

At

the east end

salient apse,

92

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

polygonal on the exterior,opens into the eastern half-dome.

and its half -domes
Right and left of the central dome
are
which
aisles,groinvaulted, and surmounted
are
by galleries
covered

with

domical

At present four minarets

vaults.

incongruous Turkish design stand

the building.
Exterior.
Although the apex of
the

pavement,

FIG.

82

"

the

external

CONSTANTINOPLE.

free at the

the dome

appearance

HAGIA
TOWARD

SOPHIA.

THE

four

of

corners

an

of

is 180 feet above

of

the

building is

INTERIOR

LOOKING

APSE

squat (Fig.81). The

Byzantine architect of the first golden

of properlyabutting a lofty
age fullyappreciatedthe difficulty
dome, and seldom sought to make the dome a strikingfeature
externally. The dome of Hagia Sophia,less than a semicircle
in cross-section,
is in height from
but 47
springingto crown
feet.

The

effect,however, is none
combining monumentality with compactness
external

feelingfor the esthetic value

of

the

less fine,

and

sturdy,frankly

strong

safe

struction.
con-

BYZANTINE

interior,on

The

Interior.

ARCHITECTURE
the

other

193

hand, gives a strong

impression of height (Fig.82). The ring of small openings

piercingthe base of the dome
lightensthe whole structure,
almost miraculouslysuspended over
that the dome
so
appears
the

void.

great central

the

Moreover,

columns

of various

proportionsin ground story and galleries

give a much-needed
scale,which permits the eye easilyto grasp the monumental
proportionsof the building.
A domed basilica. Although Hagia Sophia is roughly square,
it is not properlyof the central type, but is planned with reference
to a longitudinal
axis, and therefore fulfils the liturgical
ideal of the

early Christian

the supreme

basilica.

It may
be regarded as
of the Anatolian domed

Byzantine development

basilica.
first

ideals of the
brilliant

on

decoration

The

Decoration.

the

golden

age,

interior.

The

of

Hagia Sophia, true

is drab

the

on

exterior

is

to

the

exterior,but

painted

now

in

black bands, but in the originaldesign there was

no
attempt at enliveningthe wall surfaces with colors or even
The
the other
interior, on
patterns in the material used.
horizontal

hand,

was

gorgeously decorated

with

marbles

veneered

and

The
thin, was
marble, sawn
glass mosaic.
highly polished
and skilfully
placed so that reversed patterns from the veining
of a singleblock were
juxtaposed. Above the ground story
crusted with gold-backed,glassmosaic, now
the interior was
The
unfortunatelywhitewashed
by the Turks.
capitalsand
of the surfaces were
with crispcarving in flat
decorated
some
relief,
suggestingthe art of Syria. Occasionallythe interstices
of the carving were
filledwith black marble, further accenting
the alreadysharp impressionof lightand shade.
The Holy Apostles,
Constantinople.Although Hagia Sophia
the greatest and most
was
typicalbuildingof the first golden
other buildingswere
constructed
during this period,
age, many
of them
of the greatest importance historically.The
some
another
most
significantbuilding after Hagia Sophia was
and
work
of Anthemius
of the Holy
Isidorus, the church
Apostlesin Constantinople (Figs.83 and 84),destroyedby the
Turks

to

make

building, known

for the mosque

way
to

us

illumination (Fig.83),was

of Mohammed

by descriptionsand
in the form

of

Greek

II.
a

This

manuscript

cross

obtained

i94

HISTORY

by the intersection
(Fig. 84). Over
windows, and
The

ARCHITECTURE

OF
of two
the

over

basilican naves,

crossing was

each

another

arm

vaulted

and

aisled

dome

pierced with
dome, probably blind.

received with much

suggested was never
first golden age, but it unquestionablyformed
the

type thus

in the

for

favor
basis

numerous

which

churches

in

erected

were

Byzantine

later

architecture.
Saint

Mark's

Venice

is but

in
a

velopmen
de-

of the
lost church

of the

Holy Apostles.
tinian'
Building ojJusage outside

of Constantinople.
The
important
of

architecture

Justinian's time

not, however,
stantinopl
confined to Conwas

or

to

even

At

the

East.

in

Parenzo

Bishop Euphrasiusraised an
important church
in the beginning
Istria

FIG.

83

"

CHURCH

THE

ROME.

ILLUMINATION

SHOWING
OF

THE

HOLY

VATICAN.
THE

MANUSCRIPT
INTERIOR

APOSTLES

AT

OF

THE

TINOPLE.
CONSTAN-

(DIEHL)

of

the

sixth

tury,
cen-

basilican

form, but Byzantine in spiritand

in

decoration.

Italyplayed a
this period, and the buildings
beauty and creative genius to

still more

important role in
at Ravenna
scarcelyyield in
those of Constantinople.
the
Two
Buildings at Ravenna.
buildings in Ravenna,
churches
of Sant' Apollinare in Classe and Sant' Apollinare
Nuovo
(Fig.69), are of basilican plan and Byzantine detail
and decoration,

The

latter

was

commenced

under

Theodoric

BYZANTINE

(493-526),but
former

ARCHITECTURE
decorated

was

consecrated

was

church

Ravennate

in

of the

by Byzantine
By far the
549.
period, however,

workmen.

The

important

most

San

was

Vitale

(Figs.79 and 80),begun between

526 and 534 and finished in
and destined to exercise
547, a buildingshowing great originality
It is in the
strong influence on subsequent architecture.
form

of

octagon crowned

an

with

dome

on

drum,

carried

by eight stout pillars.

These pillars
are bound
to another
one
by an
ingenious system of
exedrae similar to those
of Saints

Sergius and

B acchus

dimi nish

To
.

the

thrust, the

is constructed

as

of Gal la

tomb

dome
in the

Placidia,

of

long terra cotta

amphorae, fitted one?
into

another.

pier

is bound
wall

external

arch, and

each

Each
to

the

by

an
FIG.

salient

84

"

CONSTANTINOPLE.

APOSTLES.

angle
with

PLAN,

THE

HOLY

RESTORED

is

strengthened
pier buttress.

Later

of the firstgolden

architecture

age.

The

death

of

Justiniandid not interruptthe architectural activitywhich

both vitality
art continued
to show
his reign initiated. The
of Kalenderand originality.At Constantinople the mosque
the
Diaconessa, built by the
hane-djami, probably once
Emperor Maurice, dates at the latest from the seventh century,
and

shows

basilican type.
From
of Saint Andrew
the ancient church

reversion

to the domed

the

now
period comes
with a great central
the mosque
of Hodja-Moustapha-pasha
dome, abutted like Hagia Sophia'sby half domes.
Outside of Constantinople the
Development in Armenia.
showed
art flourished in this period,and especially
originality
in Armenia.
The cathedral of Etschmiadzin
(Fig.79), with
same

"

"

its Greek
terminated

cross

inscribed

by salient

in

apses,

square

and

the

certainlyinfluenced

four
the

arms

tenth

i96

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Athos, and appears to be imitated

century churches of Mount
in the ninth century French
church of Germigny-les-Pres. In
its present form
The

seventh

that
vitality

FIG.

85

"

Etschmiadzin

there

is little doubt

Iconoclastic

that

CHARLEMAGNE'S

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.

well

as

it

showed

century.
much

so

stronglyinfluenced

CHAPEL.

INTERIOR

Byzantine architecture

side
out-

controversy. Diffusion of the Byzantine

726 the development of Byzantine art

impeded, though not arrested,by the beginning of the

stylein Europe.
was

the seventh

century architecture of Armenia

as
Constantinople itself,
of the central city.

The

dates from

In

Iconoclastic controversy.

Though

Leo

the Isaurian's

decree

ARCHITECTURE

BYZANTINE
was

directed

architecture

197

affected,and
against images, all the arts were
in Constantinoplewent
through a period of semi-

stagnationwhich was not relieved until Theodora's restoration

until the
of image worship in 842, and not
reallyremoved
accession of the Macedonian
dynasty in 867. Nothing better
than
its
illustrates the vitalityof Byzantine architecture
of the art
diffusion in this dark period. The very throttling
tended
what
nople
Constantito spread it abroad, and
at home
lost the Occident of the Carolingian Renaissance
gained.
magne's
From
the very beginning of the ninth century dates Charlefine chapel at Aix-la-Chapelle
(Figs.79, 80, and 85),a
of San Vitale.
later Germignydirect imitation
Somewhat
les-Pres was
planned on lines suggested,as we have seen, by
the Armenian
architecture of the seventh century.
Byzantine
architecture
therefore,not arrested,but merely temporarily
was,
ceased to center in Constantinople.
With
the accession of the MaceThe second golden age.
donian
her sway,
and there
dynasty Constantinopleresumed
the second
as
began what is generallyknown
golden age of
to the empire,
once
more
Byzantine art. Prosperity came
Fresh Oriental influence vivified
to the rulinghouse.
power
the art, and architects sought inspiration
in the monuments
of
the
far removed
from
however,
past. Inspiration was,
imitation.
The architecture
of the second golden age differs
the
widely from that of the first,and ably demonstrates
dynamic power of the 'art.
Changes in plan. In the second golden age the basilican
plan entirelydisappeared. The octagon went with it,and the
triconch
type occurred
only in a radicallymodified form.
Even
basilican type became
the domed
very rare, although the
ninth
(now the Gulcentury church of Saint Theodosius
djami) at Constantinopleshows it.
The Greek cross
plan of the second golden age. By far the
the Greek cross, but this differed essentially
favorite plan was
from

the earlier Greek

Placidia

form
and

the

and

the

arms

subordinate

cross

church

of the

seen

of the

cross

domes

as

appear

in the mausoleum

Holy Apostles. In
in the contours

of Galla
the older

of the
of the

plan,

cross.
placed on each arm
In the latter,
the re-entrant
anglesare filled on plan,the ground
story plan being square and the cross appearing only in the
are

98

stories.

upper

vaults, and
between

within

hidden,
and

with

plan

tend
of

thrusts

placed

are

is thus

central

Greek

dome

thrusts

and

of the

neutralize

to

the

covered

are

cross

domes

angles. The

vaults

the

central

in

with

barrel

the

angles

inscribed

cross

four

often

domes,

subordinate

domes

another, and

one

dome.

Thus

the

all

whole

of the
organic that one is reminded
The
of
organic systems of Romanesque architecture.
germ
the typicalGreek
cross
buildingof the second golden age is to

system

is

The

arms.

the

at

of the

arms

subordinate

square,

barrel

oppose

The

the

the

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

logicaland

so

found, therefore,not in the classic example of the Greek

of the first golden age, the church of the Holy Apostles,
cross
in such a buildingas
but in the domed
basilica,and especially
be

Saint Irene

Constantinople (Fig.78).
Changes in expression. Along with this change in plan there
a
came
change in architectural expression. The vertical line
accented.
The height of the buildingbecame
was
greater in
Domes
were
proportionto its breadth.
constantlyraised upon
drums, and became
strikingfeatures externally. The logical
reflected in the lines of the
was
spiritof the construction
exterior.
Thus
vault in the interior was
a curved
represented
the exterior not by a gable,but by a curved
line. As the
on
construction
became
more
daring the scale decreased, and the
buildings of the second golden age were, in general,much
exterior
smaller than those of the first. Finally,the whole
was
regarded as suitable for decoration, polychromy was
appliedto it,and the texture of the wall received especialcare.
Bricks of various shapes and colors were
used and ingenious
at

patterns devised,

Byzantine

church

that

so

bears

the

but

exterior

of

twelfth

slightresemblance

to

that

century
of

one

of the sixth.

(Fig. 79),the "new church" of Basil I.

(d.886),was to the second golden age what Hagia Sophia was
to the first. Unfortunately it has been destroyed, but we
its plan from
in the form
know
of a
descriptions.It was
La

Nea.

La

Nea

Greek

cross,

with

in the

angles between

this building set

that followed.
Evolution

of

central

the

the

dome

arms

and
of the

four smaller
cross.

domes

set

Unquestionably

type for the majority of the churches

the type.

The

evolution

of the

type

can

be

BYZANTINE
traced

in extant

in

form

subordinate
shows

It appears
in a rudimentary
at Skripou in Bceotia,dated
874, which lacks

domes, and

the Greek

be

seen

FIG.

86

"

199

monuments.

church

ARCHITECTURE

is

heavy

in

construction,but which

It may
plan with barrel-vaulted arms.
in
the
fully developed
Kilisse-djami(formerlythe
cross

CONSTANTINOPLE.

THE

VIEW

KILISSEDJAMI.

FROM

THE

EAST.

(EBERSOLT)

Theotokos) in Constantinople(Figs.79 and 86),dating from

the first half of the tenth

vaulted

and

arms

favorite
Comnenian
Saint

the

Luke
second

and

of brick and

Examples.

The

Here
The

angle domes.

harmoniouslycurved,
bands

century.

Greek

appear

both

exterior

finelytreated

the surfaces

barrel-

lines

are

in alternate

ashlar.
cross

within

square continued
Macedonian
the
a

the

and
plan throughout
dynasties. One sees it in the small church of
at Stiris in Phocis
(Figs.84 and 87),dating from

church

half of the

eleventh

century, and

later, in the

epoch of the Comnenes, it appears finelydeveloped in the triple

church of the Pantocrator, built about 1124 in Constantinople

200

HISTORY
of

by Irene, empress

church

central

Variations.
favorite

type

period.

The

FIG.

87

THE

EAST

four

"

has but

It must

Of the three
the north

on

plan

two

was

and

of the second

THE

golden age.

be

MONASTERY

churches

are

the

was

OF

and

(SCHULTZ

some

of

of this form.

the

most

twelfth

Athens.

All

of

later
of the

FROM

BARNSLEY)

beautiful

these

date

the

better

Metropolis
the

from

century.

variation in the churches

squinch group. Another
In these
period might be called the squinch group.

The
this

the

finelycomposed

The

well as
Moni
at Nauplia is of this type, as
known
and the Little
churches
of Saint Theodore
at

the

VIEW
AND

Nea

80)

that

omission

LUKE.

SAINT

CHURCHES.

TWO

domes,

subordinate

and

south, are

domes.

variation

(PHOCIS),

SHOWING

(Figs. 79

buildings

supposed, however,
slavishlycopied everywhere in
not

commonest

STIRIS

Byzantine

two, those

of the classic

perfectexamples
The

Comnenus.

John

this work

form

which

ARCHITECTURE

OF

dome

is broader

drum,
churches

and

the

of the

in diameter

and

is carried

on

proportions are squatter than

period. To this genre belong

of
the

sixteen-sided
in the

other

the monastery

BYZANTINE
of Saint Luke

with

(Fig.87), the Nea Moni

Daphni, near Athens.

at

Athos.

at

The

their semicircular

the cross,
deserves

2OI

at Stiris

the fine church

Churches

ARCHITECTURE

form

churches

specialmention.

88

FIG.

"

It is

VENICE.

lateral

One, the catholicon

group.

three-aisled

SAINT

MARK.

Chios, and

and the vicinity,

terminating the

apses

another

of Athos

of

arms

of

of

Lavra,

building,the

PLAN

three-fold division being indicated on the exterior by arcades,

the types of the Greek
and it thus appears
to combine
cross
and the domed
basilican churches.
Saint
of

Mark's, Venice.

variation from

occurs

in the

By

the favorite

famous

church

important example

far the most

plan

of the second

golden age
(Fig.

in Venice

of Saint Mark

88),begun in 1063. This building is a frank reversion to the

nople.
plan of Anthemius' church of the Holy Apostles at Constantidefined on the ground
The plan is that of a Greek cross
story, with
smaller

dome

dome
on

on

pendentives

pendentives over

each

in
arm

the

center

of the

and

cross.

202

HISTORY

galleriednarthex
the

The

cross.

OF

embraces

ARCHITECTURE

three

great pierswhich

sides of the western

the dome

carry

give greater space in the ground story, and are

the width of the piers,
carried on marble
by galleries,
Light is admitted
through rings of openings round

89

FIG.

of

the

VENICE.

"

domes,

exterior

SAINT

which

(Fig.89)

MARK.

less than

are

the

domes

wood, lead covered, which

VIEW

are

THE

FROM

pierced

are

to

connected
columns.
the

by

bases

PIAZZA

semicircular.

masked

of

arm

On

the

false domes

of

strikingfeature of the church

from the Piazza.
Within
as
seen
(Fig.90),the decoration is
extremely rich,veneered marbles and preciousmosaics being
used as freelyas in Hagia Sophia at Constantinople. The
its clustered marble
exterior, with
columns, polychrome
marble
and flashing
mosaic, is as lavishlydecorated as
veneer,
the interior.
The buildingas it stands is by no means
geneous.
homoThere
some

from

of the
modern

are

mosaics

form

many

date

Gothic
from

details in the
the

Renaissance

facade, and
and

even

times.

Byzantine influencein Aquitaine. Saint

Mark's,

or

its

BYZANTINE

prototypes,

appears

architecture.

In

Front

FIG.

90

at

"

of Saint

ARCHITECTURE
have

strongly to

France

the twelfth

Pe"rigueux(Fig.99) repeats

VENICE.

SAINT

MARK.

INTERIOR

Mark's, though then

decoration

within

and

without

arthex
are

203

influenced Occidental

century church
almost

verbatim

LOOKING

and

TOWARD

all the

omitted.

of Saint
the

THE

plan

APSE

polychrome
other
Many

similarlyconstructed, so that the

buildingsof Aquitaine were
architecture of that regionmight be classified alike under
the
headings of Byzantine and French Romanesque.
Georgia and Armenia.
Among the most
originalbuildings

204

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

golden age are those of Georgia and Armenia.

of
early in date, for example the church
very
the Black
on
Sea, probably of the tenth century,
of Akthamar
Lake
Van
on
(Fig.91), surely of the

of the

second

Some

are

Pitzounda
and

that

tenth.

In

these
the

buildings
Greek

form

cross

used

was

most

freely, though
older

forms

the

as

domed

basilica
three

such

and

the

shell

type

survived.
other

In

respects,
these

however,

buildings showed
ity.
striking originalThe

central

dome, raised on a
lofty,ashlar-built,

many-sided drum,
almost

became

tower.

On

exterior

it often

appeared,

the

at

as

Akthamar,

as

sharply pointed
The

cone.

FIG.

91

"

SEEN

(LAKE VAN).

AKTHAMAR
THE

FROM

THE

often

CHURCH

ceased

but
cut

times
of

in the thickness

of the wall.

and
disappearedentirely,

homogeneous

material.

The

cut

stone,

exteriors,in

even
a

the

The

use

buildingswere
the

manner

to be

salient, and

(LYNCH)

SOUTHEAST.

apse

roof

tiles

hitherto

came
bea

angular
tri-

of brick at
constructed

being of this
unknown

in

decorated with crisp cut relief,

Byzantine architecture, were
the origisuggesting the earlier art of Syria. So great was
nality
of this Georgian and Armenian
architecture
that of late
that
a
theory has been advanced, not without
plausibility,

BYZANTINE
this region

from

The

under

golden age

fourth

crusade

diverted

was

into ruins.

to an

came

Not

controlled

of the second

golden age.
Byzantium's brilliant prosperity
and Comnene
and
the
dynasties
end in 1204, when
the disgraceful
to Constantinople and
the city

the Macedonian

second

205

creative genius which

the

came

Byzantine architecture
"Byzantine Renaissance."

all the

sank

ARCHITECTURE

this great disaster,however, could

even

utterly crush the Byzantine spiritor the vitalityof Byzantine

art.

Culture

later

thirteenth,the fourteenth,and

again

rose

the

on

period known
Constantinople,however, was
came

of letters

the

were

eminent, but

ashes

the

as

city and

in the

the

ries
early fifteenth centu"Byzantine Renaissance."

weak.
she

of the

Her

lacked

scientists and

men

for architectural

money

enterprises. Thus we find the more

the last Byzantine period outside

important buildings
of
of Constantinople, in
Greece, in the Balkan
states, in Asia Minor.
Divergences
in
these
caused
and
local
taste
occur
material,
buildings,
by
still
the
but
has strong unity. Moreover, the art
style
continued
sank to mere
to develop and
never
repetitionof
earlier works.
Plans.

The

the favorite.

Greek
At

the

cross

plan continued
time

to

be, on the whole,

frequent reversion
basilican type.
to the old domed
Especially at Trebizond,
in such churches
as
Hagia Sophia and the Chrysokephalos,
the western
of the cross
was
arm
lengthened,aisles were added,
and
the longitudinalaxis of the building emphasized. At
Athos
a
development suggesting the ancient Syrian threeshell

same

there

was

plan occurred.

Elevations.

elevation

the

of this last

churches

period
showed
strikingchanges. The vertical line was unsparingly
accented.
in Serbia (Figs. 79
Frequently, as at Manassia
made
and
divided
92), the ground story was
high, and subvery
by thin vertical engaged columns
suggesting narrow
pilasterstrips. The drum became
startlingly
elongated,and
Serbian
the dome, for safety'ssake, made
smaller.
In some
for example Ravanitsa
92),
(Fig.80),Manassia
(Fig.
buildings,
and the church of the ArchangelsnearUskub. the dome
is almost
invisible and
In other

cases

In

the drum

has the appearance

of a slender tower.
is lowered, the diameter
the drum
of the dome

widened, and the whole surmounted

with

cone.

The

massy

206

OP

ARCHITECTURE

of this

appearance

makes

HISTORY

it stilla

form, as at Hagia Sophia

striking almost donjon-like
"

Trebizond,

at

feature

"

of the

exterior.
Decoration

Decoration.

Mosaic, being very

as

costly,was

well
less

underwent

change.
cheaper

freelyused, and

the

medium

of fresco
into

came

vogue.

the

great

Some

of

frescoes, for

example those at
Mistra (thePeribparison
leptos)bear com,

with those
of

contemporary

terior
Italy. On the expolychrome

marble

almost

was

doned,
aban-

completely

give

to

place to the richest

decoration

in multicolored
and

terned
pat-

brick
the

that

style ever

vented.
in-

At times

glazed tiles
intermingled

even
were

with
and

FIG.

92

"

MANASSIA

(SERBIA). (POKRYCHKIN)

the

of

such

as

Saint

Arta

example

of the

artist could

beautiful

get by the

effects which

the

refined

and

color

the

is

later

brick,
exterior

church

Basil's at
a

brilliant

Byzantine

texture

of

his

surfaces.
been
Inspiration. Of late years several theories have
advanced
of this extraordinary last
to explainthe inspiration
burst of activityin Byzantine art.
By far the most plausible
is that western
Europe at last paid off a part of its heavy debt,
to
and returned
Byzantium something in the way of in-

BYZANTINE

spiration. The
Byzantium, the
the resort

ARCHITECTURE

prevalence
almost

Gothic

fresco such

to

which
to

bound

emphasis

on

the

building
vertical

in

line,

and

On

fifteenth

the other

century Constantinople

hand

it is

reasonable

as

to

that the creative

suppose

showed

art

three-aisled

as
was
common
Italy,all support
the close political
and
cultural ties

fourteenth

Europe.

western

the

in

theory suggested by

of

207

in its first

third, and

remained

when

weakened

the

surrendered

to

which
genius and vitality
Byzantine
also
two
produced the
great periods

at work

down

to

city, abandoned

the fateful year

by Christian

of 1453,

Europe,

the Turk.

building. The early palace. Albeit the historical

importance of Byzantine architecture lies primarily in the
ecclesiastical buildings,the style also showed
great originality
and activity
in its secular works.
The buildingof great palaces
Constantine
accompanied the building of great churches.
set the example by raisinga magnificent palace in the new
have
there is no
must
city,of which now
trace, but which
followed the generallines laid down
by Diocletian at Spalato.
We
know
the appearance
of an
early Byzantine palace from
the mosaic in Sant' ApollinareNuovo
at Ravenna,
representing
the
mosaic
of
This
Theodoric,
now
destroyed.
palace
shows us a long,arcaded
structure
composed of a central porch
with a gable and two
two-storied,
wings. The
wings are
with square windows
in the second
Apparently
story arcade.
exigenciesof space suppressed the Syrian court, and the
colonnade
opened directlyon the street.
Secular building in Justinian'stime.
Shortly afterward,
the reignof Justinian produced a great burst of secular building
Secular

in

Constantinople. At

white

marble, the baths

this time
of

the

and

raised

Roman
The

cistern.

The

under

was

apparently

the forum

baths

splendidlydecorated

of Arcadius

which

built, all in

was

restored,

were

rivaled

those

of

the

produced a unique
Constantinople: the cistern. The

need for storingwater

type of civil building in

earliest

Senate

Zeuxippus were

in marble

polychrome,
aqueducts were
Campagna.

the

in 407.

the

Cisterna

Maxima,

constructed

As the size of these cisterns increased

they became
really important monuments
daring in plan and delicate in detail.

of
The

architecture,
cistern called

208

HISTORY

OP

Pulcheria, built in
and

metres

the

In less than

had

421,

vault

ARCHITECTURE
surface

carried

was

of

over

produced such tremendous

direk (the thousand
and

works

The

metres.

the

as

columns)

one

idea

square

thirtygranitecolumns.

on

century, however, the ambitions

1000

of the architects

cistern

with

of these

of Bin-bir-

surface

of

colossal works

over

3500

square

from

Alexandria, but their development in Constantinoplewas

absolutelyunprecedented. They
of the Byzantines to have been no

the

prove

whit

came

engineeringgenius

inferior to that

of the

Romans.
Palaces

of the second golden age. In the second golden age

the activityin secular building was
as
great as in the first.
in the age by building a new
Basil I. ushered
palace, the
writers have
Cenourgion, to the splendor of which
many
testified. To this he added
buildings,the Pentacoumany
bouclon, the so-called Pavilion of the Eagle, the treasury,and
Later
raised the Boucoleon
others.
on
Nicephoras Phocas
the shore of the Sea of Marmora.
Starting with a small
buildingalready on the site,this Emperor produced a palace
lavish in its appointments and
at
once
donjon-like in its
strength. Each generation added something to the Sacred
Palace or other imperial residences.
In the twelfth century
the Sacred Palace was
somewhat
neglected,and the Comnenes
Blachernae, a palace

built the

Enthusiastic

accounts

building,and
the

Turks

in

the

of crusaders

call the Tekfour-Serai

churches
The

of this
Sacred

appearance
are

in brick

texture

of the Golden
the

attest

graceful architectural

part of the original. This

surface

at the end

ruin
and

beauty of this
fragment which

probably

we

shows

ashlar

Horn.

have

refined

similar

to

an

extant

pattern and
that

of

the

period.

Palace.

of the

Much

Sacred

still disputing as

to

has

Palace
its

plan.

written

about

the

(Fig.93), yet archeologists

Indeed

the

term

"Sacred

singlebuilding,is confusing.
The work
astical,
was
a conglomeration of buildings,
lay and ecclesiheterogeneous in plan, dimensions, and date, covering
total area, roughly triangularin shape, of over
a
400,000
One
side
bounded
the
Sea
of
was
Marmora,
by
yards.
square
and one
the
feet
by
Hippodrome, a giganticstructure
1400
The
in length, easily capable of holding 80,000 persons.
Palace," indicatingas

it does

been

ARCHITECTURE

BYZANTINE

209

third side faced the city,but was

protected from
and gardens. Within
were
quarters by terraces

fora, schools,council chambers, gardens, and

FIG.

93

"

CONSTANTINOPLE.

PLAN

OF

THE

SACRED

even

PALACE,

the

poorer

churches,
a

private

RESTORED.

(EBERSOLT)

hippodrome. The general effect must, therefore,have been

bewilderinglycomplicated,and not wholly unlike that of the
Kremlin
to-day. Both to the complication of the plan and
the unbelievable
richness of the decoration numerous
descrip-

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

tions of visitors testify. The complexity of the plan served

of the site.
to exaggerate the tremendousness
Recognizing
have

visitingambassadors
led through hall and
luxury succeeded
court, where
luxury
richness
and
surpassed richness, until they finallyreached
in the Chrysotriclinium,an
the royal presence
octagonal
domed
if
of
accounts
hall, decorated,
eye-witnessescan be
believed, in gold, enamel, and precious stones
beyond the
and One Nights.
wildest dreams
of the Thousand
Later palace building. After the sack of the city in 1204
its pristinesplendor.
the
Palace
recovered
Sacred
never
At the same
Palace buildingreceived a fatal set-back.
time
Prankish
chateaux
numerous
sprang
up in Byzantine territory
The
and
influenced
latest
Byzantine civil architecture.
of the fortification
Byzantine palacespartake,therefore,more
than of the palace proper.
be supposed, however, that
It must
not
Fortifications.
warlike architecture
had been neglected in the earlier periods
of the Byzantine style. The
willingness of the Byzantine
this the

architect
favor

emperors

to

of the

wont

were

suppress,

for

to

of

reasons

defense, the graceful in

strong is well proved by the great enceinte

of

dates back
of which
to the reign of
Constantinople,much
Theodosius
II. (408-450). Africa especiallyretains monuments
which
of early Byzantine military architecture
were,
in their day, absolutelyimpregnable. Of such a type are
the citadels of Lemsa
in Tunisia, and of Haidra
(Fig.94). In
the second
works
of Manuel
golden age the still extant
Comnenus
the same
of military
at Constantinopleshow
power
design at home.
The ensemble.
In the period of Constantine
and Justinian
the general appearance
of Constantinople must
have
been,
aside from topographicalvariations,not unlike that of Rome.
The

Roman

constructive

sense

and

broad

grasp

of the

tials
essen-

inherited by the Byzantines.

In
cityplanning were
the later period, however, the city must
have
assumed
an
of inchoate
complexity. Within the inclosure of
appearance
the Sacred Palace, building after buildingwas
added, until
all semblance
of a synthetic plan was
lost. Without, the
lack of a logical
scheme
ences
same
prevailedand, except for differin architectural detail and material, the Constantinople
of

ARCHITECTURE

BYZANTINE
have

of Basil II.must

looked

211

like the Stamboul

much

of

to-day.

houses
crowded,
irregular,
and the broad planning of classical antiquityhad given way
to the apparently thoughtless and illogical
grouping of houses
of the buildingof the Middle
characteristicof so much
Ages.
No examples of the less palatial
The dwellings of the rich.
Byzantine habitations remain, but illuminated manuscripts

had

Streets

FIG.

94

"

become

narrow

HAIDRA.

THE

and

idea of the appearance

give us some
wealthy. They were
apparently not
found in the "dead
cities" of Syria.
or

From

stories,the

three

the ninth

building.

small

materials

were

of combined

towers

other material.

The

small

of
and

brick and

of the
unlike
The

houses

of two

were

with

porticoes.
century open loggiasdecorated
lateral pavilionsoften flanked
the street, and
projectedover

marble.

marble,

in

doors

were

were

grilles.The

The
and

terraced,and

Windows

domes.

glass set

outer

of the

houses

those stillto be

ornamented

steep,sometimes

with

squares
brick

or

Balconies

sometimes

were

ornamented

with

the twelfth

stories and

the upper
the main
the roofs

to

facades

(DIEHL)

RESTORED.

FORTIFICATIONS,

facades

the

were

floors of

times
some-

square,

prevailing
generally
one

of nail-studded

or

the

iron;

212

the inner
The

HISTORY
of

better

OP

ARCHITECTURE

wood, carved, paneled and inset with plaques.

an:l
dwellings were, therefore, both luxurious

graceful.
poorer quarters. If,however, the public buildingsand
habitations of the rich were
splendid,the dwellings of the
The

were

poor
common

and the parts of the cityused by the

citizens ill built,vilelyplanned, and worse
kept. If
of the meanest,

believe contemporary
accounts, such
de Deuil, who visited the cityin 1147, in the
we

the

housetops

often

themselves

were

by pools

of mud

The

odors

met

above

the

noisome, and

and

men

the

quarters

common

streets, and

indescribablyfilthy,at
in which

that of Eudes

as

may

times

beasts

were

the
even

streets

barred
drowned.

unlighted at night,
to sunup
sundown
so that from
they were wholly given over to
thieves,cutthroats, and yammering scavenger
dogs like those
infest Constantinopleto-day. If the reader could, by
which
of present
strained flightof fancy,imagine a combination
some
region in Rome, and the
day Stamboul, the Campo Marzo
Tatar cityin Pekin, he would
probably have a not inaccurate
of twelfth century Constantinople.
idea of the ensemble
The influence
ofByzantinearchitecture. No discussion of the
Byzantine stylewould be complete without a word about the
powerful influence which the art exerted on contemporaneous
At times, as in Aix-la-Chapelle
and subsequent architecture.
as in Saint Front
(Figs.79, 80 and 85) and Germigny-les-Pres,
of Norman
de Perigueux (Fig.99) and many
of the churches
itself as little more
than imitation.
this influence showed
Sicily,.
A subtler influence is recorded in the acceptance by the
which underlay both the
West of the unformulated
principles
of the Byzantine
forms- of detail and the constructive
scheme
building. The Byzantine architect,rejectingall singleforms
of all
of the classic capital,
evolved by a gradual combination
form suited to new
the elements
of the classic capitala new
of the
needs.
The
Gothic
capital is but a refinement
Byzantine,or rather a further development along the lines laid
Gothic
down
and
by the Byzantine. The
Romanesque
development of the vault,too, was made possibleby the flexible
of the vault inauguratedby the Byzantines. Even
treatment
the basic Gothic principle,
the stabilizing
of a complex vaulted
of an equilibrium
of opposingthrusts, finds
system by means
were

streets

BYZANTINE
its

antecedent, as

of the second

have

we

in the

seen,

Byzantine architecture

later

styles. Moreover, Byzantine influence on

confined to the contemporary
Middle
not

styleswas

and
Ages. We shall see that Renaissance
to
are
Byzantium.
largely indebted

southern
the

213

golden age.

Influence on
other

ARCHITECTURE

Russia, and
to

recurrence

in

Greece, where

it has been

modern
In

architecture

Balkans, in
the stylewas
native,

constant, and

the

such

buildingas

Metropolis at Athens, though a debased imitation of

older work, has the merit of being a wholly natural reversion
Saracenic
architecture
art.
must
to a native
Finally,even
acknowledge a great debt to Byzantine.
Significanceof Byzantine architecture. The importance of
It may
be
Byzantine architecture is, therefore, threefold.
the Roman
and
regarded as an important link between
in contemporary
of inspiration
as
a source
Romanesque styles,
and
subsequent architecture,and finallyas a powerful and
the New

self-sufficient art in itself.

On

the

whole, writers have tended

pointsof view at the expense of the

of
The
result has been a stressing
third.
of the architecture
the development of the great
the first golden age before
medieval
Europe, and a neglectof the equally
stylesof western
clastic
important Byzantine architecture which postdates the Iconodynamic quality of the art has
controversy. The
largelybeen overlooked, and the styleinvested with a false
which
writers on
conservatism
recent
Byzantine architecture
are
only beginning to dispel. It is well, therefore,especially
in a generalhistoryof architecture,to emphasize the fact that
of transition,
the Byzantine stylewas
not only an architecture
but especially
an
independent,self-sufficient art which showed
in the
new
ever
vitalityfrom the age of the first Constantino
to

emphasize

fourth
sense,

the first two

century
shows

it

to

that

even

of the

last in the

fifteenth,and, in

to-day.

CHRONOLOGICAL

LIST

Early Period,to
Palace
Constantinople,

Constantinople, Senate.
Cisterna
Constantinople,

OF

the Accession

of Constantine.
"

of Justinian
"

323-337.

Maxima.

"

MONUMENTS

407.

323-337.

in 527

2i4

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Constantinople,Cisterna Pulcheria.
421.
W
alls
of
Theodosius.
First half of fifth century.
Constantinople,
Eski-djouma. First half of fifth century.
Constantinople,
Stoudion
basilica. 463.
Constantinople,
Ravenna, Sant' Apollinarein Classe.
Begun before 526.
Palace
of Theodoric.
Ravenna,
Begun before 526.
"

"

"

"

"

"

First Golden

Age, Inauguratedby Justinian,527"726

Bin-bir-direk
Constantinople,

cistern.

528.

"

Ravenna, San Vitale. 526 or 534-547.

Salonica,Hagia Sophia. C. 530.
"

"

Constantinople,Saint Irene.
Constantinople,Hagia Sophia
"

532.

532-562.
(Dalmatia). 540.
Constantinople,Holy Apostles. 536^546.
Ravenna, Sant' Apollinare Nuovo.
549.
"

Cathedral

of Parenzo

"

"

"

Saints
Constantinople,

Bacchus.

Sergius and

"

First

half of sixth

century.

Constantinople,Baths of Zeuxippus. First half of sixth century.

Lemsa
(Africa),Fortifications. Sixth century.
Haidra
(Africa),Fortifications. Sixth century.
Saint Gregory, near
Etschmiadzin
(Armenia). 640-666.
of Emperor
Constantinople,Kalender-hane-djami(the Diaconessa
Maurice?). Seventh century.
Constantinople, Hodja moustapha pasha (Saint Andrew's).
"

"

"

"

"

"

Seventh
Cathedral

century.
of

in seventh

Etschmiadzin

(Armenia).

"

in

Begun

fifth,restored

century.

Age of Iconodasm, 726"842

Charlemagne's Chapel. 796-804.
Aix-la-Chapelle,
Germigny-les-Pres(France). Ninth century.
"

"

Second

Golden

Age, Inauguratedby Basil /.,867-1204

(Basil I.)."Before 886.

Constantinople,"La Nea"
Cenourgion (BasilI.). Before 886.
Constantinople,
(Basil I.). Before 886.
Constantinople,Pentacoubouclon
Constantinople,Gul-djami (Saint Theodosius). Second
"

"

"

ninth

half

of

century.

Skripou (Bceotia). 874.

"

Constantinople,Boucolcon

(Nicephorus Phocas, Emperor). 963"

969.

Akthamar,
Pitzounda

(Armenia). Tenth
(Armenia). Tenth century.?
Lake

Van

"

"

century.

BYZANTINE

ARCHITECTURE

215

End
of tenth or beginningof eleventh
Lavra, Catholicon.
century.
Stiris (Phocis),Great Church
of Saint Luke.
Beginning of eleventh
"

"

century.
Mid-eleventh
Chios, Nea Moni.
century.
Mark's.
Saint
Venice,
Begun 1063.
Stiris (Phocis),Theotokos
of Saint
(Small Church
"

"

half of eleventh

Luke).
"

Second

century.

Constantinople,Kilisse-djami. Second
Daphni. End of eleventh century.
"

half of eleventh

century.

"

Perigueux (France), Saint Front." 1120.

n
Constantinople,Pantocrator.
24.
Moni.
Nea
Nauplia,
1144.
Mid-twelfth
Athens, Saint Theodore.
century.
Athens, Little Metropolis. Mid-twelfth
century.
Constantinople,Palace of the Blachernae (Manuel
"

"

"

"

after 1143.
Walls
Constantinople,

Comnenus).

"

Soon

of Manuel

Comnenus.

"

Soon

after 1143.

Byzantine Renaissance,mid-thirteenth century

"

Arta, Saint Basil. Thirteenth century.

Trebizond, Hagia Sophia. Thirteenth century.
Trebizond, Chrysokephalos. Thirteenth
century.
Ravanitsa
(Serbia). 1381.
of the Archangels. Fourteenth
Uskub
(Serbia),Church
End
of the fourteenth
Mistra, Peribleptos.
century.
Manassia
(Serbia). 1407.

1453

"

"

"

"

"

century.

"

"

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

NOTE

del'art,1905, vol. i, pt. i, contains a brilliant

C.
of the history of Byzantine art, by Gabriel Millet.
summary
Texier and
R. P. Pullan's Byzantine Architecture,
mental
1864, is a monugraphic
out of date, with excellent text and superb lithowork, now
of
details.
and
platesof a wide range
Byzantine monuments
A. Choisy'sL'art de bdtir chez les Byzantins,1883, is an old but authoritative
illustrated
for
well
and
tine
Byzanwork,
especially
important
construction.
J. Stryzgowski'sKleinasien, 1003, and Byzantinische Denkmaler
are
important recent
publicationsof research,
already noted, emphasizing the Eastern origin of Byzantine art.
d'art byzantin,1910, an authoritative,
C. Diehl's Manuel
scholarly,
the
of
modern
embodies
results
ancient
and
up-to-date handbook,
research in the Byzantine field. T. G. Jackson's Byzantine and
up-to-date,scholarly,and
Romanesque Architecture,1913, is.an
A. Michel's

Histoire

is

188*

handbook

ofdate.
G.

out

though

for

than
vol

Irtfrom

in

discusses
in

character

tnMrvon

but

*"

authoritative

and

reaSe,

the

work

stanTnople
de
L

5^"

in

an

E.

subject.

the

on

Tpopular
readable
and

is

X9-,

illustrated
a

useful

ground

for

for

those
a

an

need

who

study

of

Uon

with

on

the

of

^
to

acquire

Byzantine

art.

J.

and

B.

the

1900

of

the

proper

Walls

oj
weU

^descnp^

Bur ^
Bury

history

The

Barkers

history

city.

the^

^^^f^ff

G.

monuments.

interesting

not

ac-

on

Constant^nople

city, with

the

important

most

perhaps

but

last

bwamso

mentioned

here

period, is

Grosvenor's

A.

Empire,
mre,

Roman

an

ot

1902,

H.

the

on

defenses

the

of

the

of

accounts

mterestine

book

monograph

is the

It

inclosure.

the

in

buildings

city

and

Lethaby

R.

W.

^1894,exhaustive
Tan Sophfa
earlier
Byzantine
f the
to

tinople;
Constan-

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interesting

well-illustrated volume

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in

original

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Italian

taly.

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architecture

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Storia
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well-illustrated volume
and
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1902,
centuries, publishing much
the sixth to the eleventh

material

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noted, is

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and

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Le

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ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

2i6

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A^mstory

empire

historical

will
1

oj

be

CHAPTER

ROMANESQUE

VIII

ARCHITECTURE

of
discussion
architecture
Definition. A
Romanesque
inevitablybegins with a definition of the term Romanesque.
The name,
though an accepted one, and apt when understood,
is nevertheless
confusing to the beginner. Comprehension
ure
architectmost quickly when
we
comes
Romanesque
compare
to the Romance
languages. After the break-up of the
Roman
a
period of cultural confusion.
Empire there ensued
From
this confusion homogeneous nationalities slowlyemerged.
Based
Latin
civilization,quickened by northern
on
energy,
from
modified
and
conditions
differentiated one
another
by
These
nations
nations
of race
and geography,
arose.
possessed
the
Latin yet differingfrom
each a speech also based
upon
Thus
the Romance
speech of other nations similarlybased.
of Rome,
and national
languages, reminiscent
yet individual
into being. Preciselythe same
in character, came
phenomena
Roman
in architecture, based
as
a
point of
upon
appear
departure, but differingfrom it,each school being individual
which
and expressive of the peculiar genius of the race
duced
prothus
included
and
all
root
bound
it,yet
by a common
classification: Romanesque.
in a common
difficultiesbegin. From
This much
Date.
understood, new
civilization in the fifth century to the
the break-up of Roman
there occurred
clearlydefined rise of the nations about 1000
formative
more
frequent than
period in which chaos was
a
spoken and written,
order, yet in this period language was
magne
At times, as during the reign of Charlebuildings erected.
(the Carolingian Renaissance), civilization in this
Should
call the speech of this
brilliant.
one
even
period was
In very
its architecture
Romanesque?
period Romance;

218

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

general classifications all west-European architecture,outside

of mere
Byzantine imitation,roughly from 500 to 1 1 50, is called
The field may
then be subdivided, the period
Romanesque.
of later development from
to 1150
and
1000
placed by itself,
the

earlier architecture

classified

Carolingian,Carolingian
and Ottonian, or even
pre-Romanesque. Once the distinction
is comprehended the danger disappears.
Relation of Romanesque to Gothic.
The comprehension and
architecture
has
been
more
appreciation of Romanesque
albeit
hindered,
innocently,by writers on Gothic architecture
than by anything else. One of the most
brilliant,
Quicherat,
summed
up the style in the clever yet misleading definition
that has appeared in every
subsequent book on the subject.
According to the French
archeologist,Romanesque is an
architecture that, retainingelements
of Roman, has ceased to
be Roman,
and
anticipatingelements of Gothic, is not yet
Gothic.
Every phrase of this definition is true, yet its total
is pernicious,
the self-sufficiency
of the Romanesque
as it overlooks
ure
architectstyleand relegatesit to the positionof a mere
of transition.
Nothing more
clearlyshows its weakness
than its over-emphasis of organicRomanesque styles,
such as
Lombard, which led up to Gothic, and its utter inapplicability
of the most
to some
monumental, if inorganic,stylessuch as
as

the Tuscan.

Organic and inorganicarchitecture. The distinction between

what is called an organicand an inorganicstyleof architecture
An organic architecture is a vaulted
here.
well be made
may
the vaults supported by ribs,buttresses, and piers,and
one,
the latter deliberately
arranged with sole reference to the needs
Such
of supporting the vault and opposing its thrusts.
an
architectural system, so often compared to the bony structure
of a living organism, deserves
the
adjectiveorganic. An
architectural system may, however, be more
or less convincingly
structural ribs in a
organic. The omission of one or more
more
or
vault, the' maladjustment of one
supports to the
the organic
thrusts which
they are designed to meet, may mar
feelingof the system but not destroy it. On the other hand
a very
splendidbuilding may be completelyinorganic,like the
cathedral
on

of

Pisa, which

simplewall.

is covered

Romanesque

with

timber

roof carried

architecture must, therefore,

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
be studied for itself alone
before

or

as

National

as

is

much

of these variations

from
were,

In the

of
the

result of what

coming

feeling. This pointmust

strongly,since so
Romanesque comes

to

not

for what

excuse

an

and

the

219

after.

be insisted upon
charm
of the

varietyof

has gone

the

the

more

study

style. The

of

causes

of course, historical and geographical.

often called pre-Romanesque, from 500

early period,so
European architecture
1000,

showed

considerable

geneity,
homo-

naturally with the growth of separate nations

came
a growth of national
styles;and within the nations,
into districts which
often sharply divided
themselves
were
regna in regno, there grew up local stylesof great individuality
Thus
and charm.
Romanesque is,outside of France where
national
organicGothic developed,perhaps the most distinctly
of each country'sarchitectural styles.
is much
Ecclesiastical interest. The study of Romanesque
Gothic, is
simplified
by one fact. In no other style,not even
but

the interest
is this that

so

confined to ecclesiastical architecture.

in

brief discussion

of medieval

So true

architecture,

profitablystudied in its Gothic

aspects, leavingthe student free in the Romanesque period to
the vastlymore
concentrate
on
important church and monastic
buildings.
and
not only a natural
Corporatequality. The style was
ideals
it was
an
religious
expression,
expressionof the common
of the whole
it was
distinctly
people. In other words
corporate. A magisteroperariusdirected the works, but great
freedom
of assisting
The
craftsmen.
allowed his swarms
was
result was
variation and inequalityof workmanship, but for
that very
reason
a freshness
an
lamentably lackingin many
work.
otherwise impeccable modern
to
Architectural refinement. This freshness, which
seems
invest Romanesque, and indeed
all medieval
buildings,may
well
from
the
come
assymmetricalqualityof the work.
partlyas
Whether
in plan,in the heightsof columns
or not the variations
be observed
in practiand of arches and the like,which may
cally
allmedieval
is the result of inaccurate measurements,
buildings,
settlingof members, or deliberate design after the
secular

manner

architecture

of Greek

livingquality,a

is most

architectural
sense

of movement

refinements, the result is

and

picturesquenessthat

220

HISTORY
all

banishes

monotony

when
interesting
dry as dust.

more

and

keeps
painstakingand

characteristics. Though

General

the

building vitally

the

elaborate

plans

widely diverse (Fig.99),all are

with
specialreference to
arrangement

churches
the

ARCHITECTURE

OF

are

in

embodied

the

Christian-Roman

buildings of

the

central

and

and

when

tombs,

type

Romanesque
development of
needs
liturgical

confined
of

this

seem

of

basilica.

were

churches

works

In

general,

baptistries
they
type occur,
arch, as opposed
to

represent Byzantine influence. The round

the
Gothic
to
pointed arch, is a general characteristic
of Romanesque,
though many
examples of pointed arches
in the

style.
Although
Classification.

occur

have
at

the

been

classifications of

many

offered,the main

divisions

esque
Roman-

of the movement

of its great development in the eleventh

centuries are fairly
clear.
Italyhad a styleof her

period

twelfth

subdivided

roughly

into the

northern, central,and

and
own,

southern.

Germany, too, had an individual style,on the whole semiFrance

organic in the Rhine Valley and inorganicelsewhere.
with no
offers the most
complicated problem of classification,
In the
less than six main subdivisions in her Romanesque art.
find a distinct Provencal
south
we
style,highly classic in
feeling. Farther north we find the Auvergnat, most precocious
of the

French

schools, which

may

be

classified with

that

of

Languedoc, the artistic center of the latter being at Toulouse.

In Aquitaine another school grew up, showing marked
tine
Byzanmodern
writers have urged an
affiliations,
although some
Still
autochthonous
growth for the Aquitanian churches.
subdivision
be made
another
of Burgundyj with its
may
In the north two
emphasis on monastic architecture.
highly
organic styles developed, the most
precocious being the
Norman,

the most

called the

He

de

finished
France.

that

of the district

around

Paris

geneous
England afforded a very homobe regarded as
type of Romanesque, which may
offshoot
of Norman, and
an
Spain had an individual style
largelyimported from Languedoc, though influenced,especially
in the south, by Eastern
architecture.
of the style
Carolingianarchitecture. A closer examination
in its various manifestations must
with the
begin of course

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
art

which

we

have

called Carolingianor

might perhaps better

the
less descriptiveterm
it takes
though occasionally
which

"

be called
art

pre-Romanesque,

by

of the

221

dark

neutral

more

ages.

This

or

and

art,

something of a national aspect,

architecture of England, was
as in the Saxon
European rather
of the
national.
than
most
Moreover,
some
important
of the style,like Charlemagne's chapel at Aix-lamonuments
Chapelle (Figs.79 and 85) or the church of Germigny-les-Pres,
we
over
lightly,since they only emphasize how
pass
may
closelyat times Byzantine architecture was copied.
New
developments. There was, on the other hand, much
The basilican
buildingin the periodwhich strikes a new note.
often
plan was not merely used, it was developed. Apses were
added
turrets
at the west
or
were
end, free-standingtowers
included, and often the bema
was
exaggerated to produce
in German
architecture of the
the T form of plan so common
Frankfort). With the
Carolingianepoch (Salvatorskapelle,
accumulation

of

relics,the need

of chapels,in
multiplication
these

radiated

on

from

for

the form

the rounded

altar space led to

Sometimes
of absidioles.

more

east

end

of the church

(Saint

place in the
With
the
elaboration
of the
T-shaped bema.
liturgy,
ceremonial demanded
an
ambulatory for processionsround the
The
included.
was
apsidalend, and this important member
diaconicon
and
prothesisof the early Christian basilica soon
and vestry of the later works.
became
the sacristy
Saint Gall. By far the most
illuminatingexample of
Carolingian architecture is the ninth century monastery of
Saint Gall (Switzerland)known
to us
by a manuscript plan
This
shows
the
main
characteristics of
(Fig. 95).
drawing
the projectedmonastic church and the subordinate
buildings
about it. The church
itself is of the modified
basilican plan,
with three aisles,
and a western
eastern
an
apse, two flanking
western
towers, an exaggerated bema, ambulatory about the
The
eastern
room.
apse, and flankingvestry and secretary's
complicated plan of Saint Gall is useful,too, in emphasizing
the importance of the monastery
and, indeed, the strengthof
the monastic
system in this period. The church is but the
it
host of others.
About
most
a
prominent building among
are
packed separate structures, shops,baths, kitchens,stables,
Martin, Tours), sometimes

they

were

given

222

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

servants' and guests'quarters,vegetableand flower

hospitals,
gardens, in fact everything which could contribute to make
the monastery
a
self-sufficient,
self-sustaining
community.

Existingmonuments.
plans for

Many

our

extant

We

knowledge of
monuments,

are

not, however,

the architecture

though

confined

of the dark

usually damaged

to

ages.

and

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
by alteration,remain

marred
work

like.

was

ceuvre

is

of the

dark

one

In

France

though

the

show

us

Beauvais

at

of the best known

ages,

to

223
what

the

examples of
buildingis so

the

so-called
the

original
Basse-

architecture
in

severe

design,

plain walls and timber roof, that it aids little in the

highly
study of Carolingian buildings. Perhaps the most
developed type of Carolingian
its

with

church

is that

of Montier-en-

Der

(Upper Marne), where a

large proportion of the tenth
century building is preserved
for the student.
Among the
German

many

examples of this

most
perhaps the one
worth
emphasizing is Lorsch
(Rhine Valley, near
Worms,
Fig. 96). Here the facade of
art

the basilican

gate is preserved

in its original
form.

Carolingian decoration.
These fragments show us other
innovations
made

and

contributions

architecture

by this
strikingbeing

to

style,the most
the triangulardecoration, an
easilyrecognizedcharacteristic
of

architecture

the

all

over

Europe Windows were framed

in triangles,
gular
gable-like triandecoration
lief
applied in re.

to

the

themselves

walls,and

FIG.

96

"

THE

LORSCH.
BASILICAN

ONE

BAY

OF

GATE

the walls

composed of lozenges,sometimes vari-hued, with

the emphasis on triangularform.
The important billet mold
appeared for the first time, and the window
design of two
and embraced
lights,separated by a column
by an arch, is
reiterated and handed
and Gothic.
This
to Romanesque
on
form may
well have originatedin the campanili of Carolingian
Italy.
of
Pre-Romanesque architecture of England. On account
geographicalconditions,the pre-Romanesque architecture of

224

HISTORY

England shows
as

on

were

an

Earl's Barton
Roman

OP

ARCHITECTURE

individualistictendency. Such monuments

(Fig.97)

are

not

be

to

confused

with

temporary
con-

continental monuments,
though they were founded
modified
traditions,
by barbarian ideas. Towers

frequent,the angles re-enforced by

the very

Saxon

characteristic

long-and-shortwork,

of stone

slabs embedded

ternate
al-

horizontallyand
vertically.Walls

were

decorated

strongly

with

also

salient

stripsof stone, some

and running
placed vertically
from

the

ground

to the summit,

banded

some

round

the

tally
horizon-

building.
by

Openings were
clumsy wall shafts, almost
barrel-shaped and strongly
forms.
suggesting wooden
The
handling in
masonry
the Saxon
tremely
exbuildingswas
but
the style
rude,
was
sturdy and might well
have developed into one
of
great beauty had its evolution not
been
arrested by
divided

IIG.

97"

EARL'S

BARTON.

THE

TOWER

the Norman

conquest.

Pre-Romanesque architecture ofSpain. Geography affected

the Carolingianarchitecture of Spain as well.
The peninsula,
like the island of Sicily,
was
always a battle-groundbetween
and
and
Oriental
which
races
a
civilizations,
bridge over
influence entered Europe. The
Spanish architecture of the
dark
like that of the north, developed the basilican
ages,
in
plan, but showed
decidedly individualistic tendencies
Barbaric
in decoration.
arrangement of detail and especially
elements
with the Visigothicoccupation,and to them
came
added
Oriental influence, especiallyin
were
soon
a decided
decoration.
as

easilyas

Sassanian
Tarik

ideas crossed

himself.

As

the
result

straits of Gibraltar
we

find horseshoe

arches, fluted scallop

shells,and other details which

give the

ROMANESQUE
architecture
of

church

semi-exotic character.

the

Santullano

Oviedo), and
Miguel.

225

Extant

monuments

are

be named
the
interestingmay
(Oviedo), San Miguel de Linio (near
Maria
de Naranco
San
(Fig. 98), near

Among

abundant.

ARCHITECTURE

Santa

most

A.D.
activityabout 1000
Although undue
importance has been given to the effect on buildingof the safe

Architectural

FIG.

passage
passage
at

98

SANTA

MARIA

beginning
an

is,in round

NARANCO.

numbers,

of

architecture
Romanesque
extraordinaryimpetus about

be accounted

for in many
of the individual nations and

may

DE

PLAN

of the year 1000,

when
so
people,relyingon
many
in the Apocalypse, believed the end of the world was

hand, the date

received

"

good

one

for the

Building

proper.

that time.

The

fact

by the growth
ways, but chiefly
the economic
prosperitywhich

comparatively orderly governments insured.

Priority. In this later Romanesque, Italy,Germany, and
France
each claims priorityfor its own
versy
style,and the controis complicatedby the fact that almost all the monuments
have suffered from repair,
restoration,addition,and alteration
be dated by
less complete. The
more
or
majority cannot
documents
and the minority which
have suffered
can
may
from a subsequent,undated
alteration. In general Brutail's
be earlier
rule is excellent:
documented
a
building cannot

their

than

the date of its

document, but may

be, and

generallyis,

HISTORY

226
later.

critic must

The

far

as

ARCHITECTURE

proceed with

against internal

documentary
avoiding

OP

ideas,

evidence,

possiblethe mistakes

as

and

above

all

caution, checking

extreme

and

which

vice

come

versa,

from

conceived
pre-

steelinghimself against the

bias.
patriotic
Lombard
Romanesque. On weighing the evidence, the
oldest theory seems
not
but the
convenient
only the most
and we
most
the priorityof Lombard
assume
plausible,
may
Romanesque and begin our discussion with that style. This
givesthe credit of creative genius to Italy,but insists upon the
(Lombard) blood to quicken this genius.
necessityof Germanic
Opponents of the theory call attention to the fact that Lombard
architecture
as
designed in the eleventh century is highly
lost this organicquality,that the
organic,that the stylesoon
died prematurely,and that Italian architecture has
movement
always been distinguishedfrom northern by its fondness for
be explained
inorganic forms, but all these phenomena may
stock and the commercial
by the weakening of the Lombard
decline of Lombardy
coincident
with
the struggle between
the empire and the papacy.

appeals of

Characteristics.
characteristics

The ribbed vault.

What

of this architecture?

Since

of course,
vaulted, the favorite
groin vault. This form we have seen

was,

architecture,as in the vaults

from

the

heavy

concrete

over

then

the

it

were
was

the main

organic it

form

being the domical

developed in Byzantine
aisles of Hagia Sophia,

vaults of the Romans.

To

the

simple

architecture
added
groin vault the Lombard
strongly salient
ribs,reinforcingthe groin angles and binding the vault sides.

They
wall

thus

created

ribs;

two

set

transverse

of six ribs in all: two

longitudinalor
crossed the nave
at right
which
the building; and two diagonal or

angles to the long axis of

groin ribs,which met in the center of the vault and divided
it into four cells. The advantage of these ribs can hardly be
exaggerated. They could be built separately and act as
pendent
indecenteringfor the construction of the web.
They were
rested largelyupon
of the latter,which
them, and
thus

the web

could

be thinned

and

the vault

shell made

much

lighter. They concentrated the vault thrusts at, or near, the

springingof the ribs,where the architects contrived to meet
them with salient pier buttresses,and they divided the whole

MONF.EALE

MORJENVAU
MAINZ

FIG.

99

"

PLANS

OF

ROMANESQUE

CHURCHES

228
vault
that

of
a

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

building into separate compartments

crack or fault in one
liable
not
bay was
a

or

to

bays, so
spread to

another.

Compound
modified

supports.
support. An

Such

modified

aggregate

of

ribs

vault
of

demanded

different

sizes,

springing in different directions, could be gathered only

a
or
clumsily on a round column
pier. A compound
square
pierwas needed and produced. In Sant' Ambrogio at Milan
(Fig.101),for example, we find a pier compounded with an
side to bear the transverse
rib,
engaged pilasteron the nave
flanked by two engaged shafts to carry the diagonalribs.
On
the northern
and southern
faces an
engaged pilastercarries
the longitudinal
bears
rib, and againstit an engaged column
the arches of the ground story archivolt.
On the aisle side
and shaft carry respectively
the transverse
an
engaged pilaster
and diagonal ribs of the aisle vaults.
The
capitalsof these
shafts face in the direction in which the ribs spring,hence the
of the shafts which carry the diagonalsare set obliquely
capitals
axis of the building. In short, logicappears
in
to the main
member, and structural logic,a term we shall often be
every
forced to use, is emphasized.
The alternate system. The
structural logicinspired
same
another

characteristic

of Lombard

architecture,destined

to

far-reachinginfluence on later styles: the alternate

On plan the naves
were
roughly twice the width of
system.
the aisles. It occurred
logicallyto the architects that by
having two bays in the aisles to balance one in the nave
they
could
make
their vaults square
(Sant' Ambrogio, Fig. 99).
This necessitated,however, an intermediate
pier to carry the
their springing did not meet
ribs of the aisle vaults where
those of the nave
vaults.
pier
Obviously this intermediate
did not need the complicatedform or the robustness of the main
between
piers,hence smaller and simpler piers alternated
complicated ones, and the alternate system
largerand more
used with
This system was
of vaults and pierswas
created.
in Romanesque and Gothic architecture when two
great success
bays of the aisle balanced one bay of the nave.
structural system required new
The pilaster
strip. A new
against a pier
members, therefore the pilasterstrip,whether
of the vaulting system, or appearing on
to receive a member
have

the

HISTORY

230

exterior

as

OP

ARCHITECTURE

buttress, received

unprecedented development.

the

fundamentally organicqualityof
istic,
the Lombard
building,which is its most important characterthe style developed a very
originaldecorative scheme.
corbel tables were
used
Corbels were
unsparingly. Arched
and followingthe rake of the pitchedgable
under the eaves
run
of arcades, someattained by means
Decoration
roofs.
was
Aside from

Decoration.

times open,

Doors

but

enriched

were

covered

often blind.

more

with

porches,
gables supportedby

with

columns, which

were

carried

backs

the

on

lions.
of

themselves
of

ured
sculpt-

Sculpture,
rude

very

times
some-

sort,

times
some-

with

Byzantine refinement,
played a
unimportant part,
it was
but
chieflyconfined to
and the
portals,lintels,
capitals,
not

like.

On

exterior

the

generallyeschewed.
effect

builders

For

the

on

relied

"

tion
differentia-

IOI

MILAN.

"

BROGCO.
BAY

SHOWING

VAULT

AM-

"

Mosaic

ment
arrange-

and

ONE

mtenors,

RIBS

AND

with
gonG)

excluded

were
.

OF

(MOORE)

SUPPORTS.

have

SANT

DRAWING

in the

marble

Co.

veneer
FIG.

the

fairly monochromatic

material.
Copyright by Macmillan

tive
decora-

architectural

detail,carving, and
of

was

exterior

on

of textures

color

from

but these

enlivened

were

painting,now
whkh

the

,.

almost

must" ifl^

wholly

original"

been

of the interior was

garish. Further enlivenment
of carved
by rich church
furniture, sometimes
backed
with
of exquisitely
marble, or
ivory, sometimes
obtained

modeled

stucco, and

gold,and

enamel.

San?

Ambrogio

which

exhibit

the

perfectexample in
(Figs.99, 100, 101,

at

at

times

Milan.

style,we
Milan
102,

and

incrusted

even

Turning
find

in the

the

best

church

103).

to

This

with

silver,

the

monuments

known

and

of Sant'

most

Ambrogio

buildinghas

of late

ROMANESQUE

ARCHITECTURE

231

figured largelyin archeologicaldispute. It, and

neighboring and equallytypicalSan Michele of Pavia,

the

years

considered

long

modern

but

I O2

FIG.

"

to

date

from

archeology tends

MILAN.

SANT

from

thus

would

for the form

time

the

vaults

of

TOWARD

LOOKING

INTERIOR

monuments

this.

Sant'

APSE

by Romanesque
point is not as important as
would

of the vaults

reveal

century,

twelfth.

second

the first tier of stones

themselves

date

antedated

The

Normandy.

mid-eleventh

quarter of the

the

be

to

AMBROGIO.
THE

Ambrogio

the

were

in the

have

been

pierswas

Moreover, such

They
of

at first appears,

determined

placed.

by the

piers

The

finished monuments

spring spontaneously into being,but would imply

a
long development of experimental building before them,
and modern
research
has revealed
of examples of
number
a
ribbed
vaults of the eleventh
century in Lombardy, some
could

of

not

them

century.
9

even

constructed

in

the

second

quarter

of

the

HISTORY

232

OF

ARCHITECTURE

plan (Fig. 99) Sant' Ambrogio is

basilican,with three groinvaulted bays in the nave, a crossing
with an
octagonal lantern, and a short choir of half a bay.
The
Two
bays in the aisles correspond to one in the nave.
eastern
termination has a great semicircular apse, flanked by
two smaller apses of the same
shape, on the axis of the aisles.
Plan

and

elevation.

FIG.

IO3

"

In

MILAN.

SANT

EXTERIOR

AMBROGIO.

form, typicallyCarolingian,surely belongs to the ninth

is no
clerestory,the space being
century building. There
occupied by a large triforium gallery, the vaults of which

This

receive

the

thrusts

of the

nave

vaults

and

transmit

them

to

pier buttresses attached to the walls. The nave

vaults
(Fig. 100), very domical, have a full complement of
transverse
longitudinaland diagonal ribs. The aisle vaults
are
groined without diagonalribs. The facade shows an open
narthex, with an open galleryabove it. The first story is
with an
divided from the second by a horizontal string-course,
the

salient

ROMANESQUE
arched
rake

table, and

corbel
of the

engaged

ARCHITECTURE

gable.

shafts

five sections.

The

and
galleries,

Pilaster

the

to

similar

corbel

233

roof, divide the facade

octagonal lantern
attached

verticallyinto
with

is decorated

to the church

the

first story, and

the

stripsto

follows

table

two

is a square

campanile
divided horizontally
reinforced at the anglesby pilaster
strips,
with corbel tables,and vertically
by string-courses
by engaged
open

FIG.

columns.

which

104

The

prevents

"

VERONA.

church
a

SAN

has

an

distant view

ZENO.

atrium

San

Michele

of

with

vaulted

portico

of the facade.

Architecture outside of Milan.

The
from Milan the less organic Lombard
become.

VIEW

GENERAL

Pavia,

to

farther

removed

architecture
be

sure,

it

tended
exhibits

was

to
an

organic feelingfullythe equal of Sant' Ambrogio. Perhaps

the most
originalchurch after these two was Sant' Abondio at
Como, which affords one of the most pleasingand monumental
designs of the style. This building has a fivefold vertical
division of the fagade,correspondingto the five aisles of the

334

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

and fine twin campanili

interior,
a well-proportioned
clerestory,
symmetrically arranged. It is,however, unvaulted.
The
Maestri
Comacini.
One
might expect monumental
architecture at Como
and, indeed, throughout Lombardy, on
of the Maestri
account
Comacini, a famous band of workmen
first mentioned

King Rotari (636-652),the

of which
name
suggests an origin on a little island, "Isola
in Lake
Como.
The
Comacina,
importance of this mysterious
band
has probably been exaggerated,but there seems
little doubt that it was
largelyinfluential both in the creation
and in the spreading abroad
of the Lombard
style.
Reversion to inorganic type. Throughout
northern
Italy
the Lombard
held
into
west
Piedmont
style
stretching
sway,
by

the

Lombard

"

and

east

into Emilia

however,

as

well

reversion

to

an

tended

cathedral

the

in those

Veneto.

distant

inorganictype.

become

to

as

and

more

(1117),with

At

In later monuments,

from
the

monumental,

Milan, there
same

more

was

time the works

Parma

showy.

its

with
lofty if inept vaults bound
tie-rods,its broad facade, its soaringcampanile,has, at least,
a
superficial
impressivenessthat is denied the more
organic
but less obtrusive Sant' Ambrogio.
crated
(conseSimilarlyModena
of
facade
and
1184), on account
well-proportioned
in effect than
the
monumental
profuse sculpture,is more
Milanese
building.
San
Zeno, Verona.
pleasing and the
Perhaps the most
least organic of all Lombard
Romanesque buildings is San
Zeno
at Verona
(consecrated 1138, Fig. 104). This church
has probably the most
proportionsof any building
satisfactory
of its class.
Its portal is ennobled
by a gabled porch of the
type popular in this style,and quite probably invented in
Verona.
The exterior is further enhanced
by a free-standing
zontal
with vertical pilasterstripsand horicampanile, decorated
The
strips of alternating red and white marble.
interior with its great height and raised crypt is impressive,
but the inorganicquality of the building is revealed by its
timber roof, trussed after the manner
of the frame of a ship,
of its original painted
and
still retaining faint traces

decorations.
Tuscan

Romanesque.

architecture

of central

Farther

south

Italy which,

for

we

next

to

come

convenience,

we

the
may

236

HISTORY

though it overstepped the limits of what

call Tuscan,
the Tuscan

province. The
inorganic quality of

the

often

vaulted

the

time

is

be struck

style. The plans

strongly preferredthe

are

now

with

chiefly

timber

roof

the

buildings were
in size and strikingin decoration.

extremely monumental

same

In lieu of
a

once

the

At

structure.

will at

student

basilican,and the architects

to

ARCHITECTURE

OF

the
organic originality
in strikingcontrast
gorgeousness

Tuscan
to

the

Romanesque offered
comparatively drab

of the art of the north.

appearance

Decoration, general character.

This

effect

obtained

was

polished marble panels, and a profusion

The
of arcades, blind and open, appliedto the exterior.
exterior of such a buildingas the cathedral
of Pisa is covered
principallyby

of

means

:
:^-^m-~m-.:~lt~m"::-""~-H

"":' X

':"-:y

.;X;""t-^X ::"-

FIG.

106

"

'"

""'

"
*:

"

PISA.

the material

with arcades, and

PLAN

CATHEDRAL.

used

in panels,squares,
lozenges, and
to
brilliant in color as literally
so

is colored

all

Interiors
horizontal
were

marble

applied
of pure
manner
design,
be dazzling (Fig. 105).

generally basilican,the walls enlivened with

Domes
the crossing
over
stripsof lightand dark.

were

common,

certain amount

but

nave

of Lombard

vaults

rare.

At

times

influence in central

one

feels

Italy,as

at

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
Toscanella
very

and

Montefiascone, but

in

237

general the style id

individual.

The

at

group

departure for

study

The

IO7

"

PISA.

CATHEDRAL.

offer

the

cathedral
exterior
almost

the
most

THE

The

best

point of

is,
Romanesque monuments
Pisa (Figs.100, 105, 106, and

OF

THE

INTERIOR

LOOKING

APSE

cathedral, the leaning tower and

baptistry
resplendent examples of the style. The

is five aisled
arcades

at

VIEW

TOWARD

107), where

cathedral.

of Tuscan

the cathedral group

of course,

FIG.

Pisa.

vary

basilican

slightlyin

and
(Figs. 100
106). Its
height and spacing,looking

drawn
and constructed
free-hand.
though they were
The
the crossing is an
building is wooden-roofed, but over
The
egg-shaped dome
curiouslysmall for so large a nave.
wide
The
effect of the
transepts, afford a strikingfeature.
exterior (Fig.105) is one
of rich color and interesting
design.
The interior (Fig.107),however, is decorated with the typical
as

238
bands

of

marble, the

being so strong

contrasts

the eye rather than pleaseit.

The
decorative
same
Lean-ing Tower.

The

with

arcades

ringsto the

colored

settlingof

the

is little doubt

foundation

that

there is stilldispute
is caused

monument

in the

the better
chose

to

The

other

baptistryis

two

Gothic

of

one

Italy's

famous

freak.

important

of the

monuments

sign,
originalde-

attested,and there

make

so

by

for

our

since

group,

it

peculiarshape of
the roof is caused by a unique system of doming, the building
of masonry,
exertingslight
being first covered with a cone
attained by
effect of a dome
thrust, and then the superficial
springinga segment of an annular vault over the aisle,from
two-thirds
to a point about
the cornice,or upper
string-course,
belongs partly

to

the

not

open

applied in concentric

included

was

system,

into architecture's most

towers

the

as

or

builders

the

Baptistry.

study

veneer,

explanationseems

beautiful

The

is

of this famous

the lean

the latter

most

marble

campanile (Fig.105). Though

whether

to

as

dark

shock

to

as

lightand

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

the masonry
Buildings at Florence.

the way

up

style,the

of the

period.

The

cone.

Florence

affords

local variation

example being the church of San Miniato

This buildingfollows the general scheme
of decoration

al Monte.

best

style,with a variant in the emphasis on

design. It also emphasizes another element

of the
in pure
in Tuscan
Some

Romanesque:
and

of the columns

the

imitation

follow
pilasters

of
the

the square
noticeable

classical
Corinthian

form.

order

pilferedfragments of
understand
ancient
we
can
structures, and
why the term
"proto-Renaissance" has been applied to the age which produced
in
the
such works.
In another
Florentine
building,
same
style,the baptistryof San Giovanni, this classic feeling

so

closelythat

they

is still stronger, and

the reconstruction

supposed, and
back
the

to

the dome

the

almost

has led

of about
to

some
1 200

that

argue

the late classical

building,with

between

look

its double

cathedral

authorities
less

even

important

the

period.

The

shell and

ribs, influenced

of the

like

present

consider

to

than

is generally

structure

dates

ingenious doming

of

stiffeningbarrel vaults

Brunelleschi

in

his design for

of Florence.

South Italian Romanesque.

Finally,in the third subdivision
of Italian Romanesque, that of southern Italyand Sicily,
or

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
of the Two

plays

an

239

the regionis generallycalled,geography

as
Sicilies,
Since
the beginning
important part.
history this region has been fought over

of Mediterranean

by

flicting
con-

Here

barbarian, Greek, Phoenician, Roman,

Norman
Goth, Byzantine, Italian, Moslem, and
battled,
prevailed,succumbed, and disappeared. The result was
a
races.

FIG.

lawless

1 08

and

"

CEFALU.

confused

CATHEDRAL.

VIEW

OF

THE

WEST

END

society, and an art that combined

Oriental and Occidental ideas. Although a hybrid,it actually
succeeded
in blending harmoniously the ideals of a halfdozen
find in a singlebuildingLombard
and we
races,
may
corbel tables, Norman
interlacingarches, classic capitals,
If one's idea of
Byzantine mosaics, and Saracenic domes.
Italian Romanesque is confused, it is a correct one.
The style
in Sicily. In generalthe admixture
of stylesshows
more
clearlyin Sicilythan in southern Italy. At Cefalu
(Fig. 1 08), for example, we find the Norman
flankingtowers

240

embracing
Moslem
its

HISTORY
the

OF

facade, the Norman

One

dome.

ARCHITECTURE

need

suburb, Monreale,

to

arches, and
interlacing

the

not, however, leave Palermo, and

study Sicilian Romanesque in its

The
typical form.
cathedral, to be sure, is almost
wholly spoiledby baroque alteration,but in the Cappella
Palatina in the royal palace south Italian Romanesque appears
in its most
blend.
The
harmonious
plan of this chapel is
most

FIG.

IO9

"

MONREALE.

CATHEDRAL.
TOWARD

VIEW
THE

OF

THE

INTERIOR

its pavement is of marble

inlay,and its
basilican,
The
covered
with
precious Byzantine mosaics.
Corinthian

columns

which

divide

LOOKING

APSE

the

nave

from

walls

are

modified
the

aisles

low, the archivolts which

they support are lofty with
pointed arches, here surelyof Saracenic origin. The interior,
and
mosaic, gives an
completely incrusted with marble
are

impressionof unsparing
Monreale.
is the

Probably
cathedral

richness.
ever,
example of the style,howMonreale
(Figs.99, 109, and no),

the finest
of

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE

241

Palermo, founded in 1176. This church

is of Latin cross
is
The
roofed.
plan and wooden
pavement
marble, the dadoes are marble veneered, and the upper walls are
five miles

some

incrusted
are

FIG.

much

IIO

"

with

from

mosaic.

stilted and

The

arches

pointed.

EXTERIOR

The

OF

THE

the

exterior

SYSTEM

CATHEDRAL.

MONREALE.

of

OF

THE

main
shows

NAVE

archivolts
Norman

AND

THE

CHOIR

interlacing,Saracenic decoration and

with a portico
construction.
Adjoining the church is a cloister,
series of paired columns
carried on
a
richly carved in shaft
with
and
glass and marble mosaic.
capital,and adorned
south
Such cloisters form specially
charming features in many
Italian Romanesque
churches, though they are to be found
in Romanesque work.
elsewhere

facade

towers

and

242

HISTORY

German

OF

ARCHITECTURE

The

Romanesque.

of Germany
Romanesque
is,
the
much
on
more
whole,
homogeneous than Italian,and the
national of the country'sstyles. The Romanmost
esque
distinctly
and lingeredlonger
stylethere was exceedinglyprolific,

FIG.

than

Ill

in any

"

COLOGNE.

other

SAINT

MARY

OF

THE

CAPITOL.

PLAN

be
unity and strength may
of Germany
explained by the unity and politicalpower
and
beginning in 919 with the reign of Henry the Fowler
lastingthrough the period of the Ottos and the later Henrys.

country.

FIG.

In

studying it

112

"

Its

PAULINZELLE.

distinguishthe Germanic
from
elements
those which
side.
represent importation from outThe
former
from
came
a
development of the native
we

must

seek

PLAN

to

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE

243

Carolingianstyle;the latter appear in the increasingtendency

structural system, and in a certain
to use
an
organicLombard
The last was
not
of Byzantine imitation.
amount
nearly so
in the later Romanesque as in the Carolingianepoch,
common
though certain buildings,especiallythose at Cologne, with

I
Paulinzelle
FIG.

113

"

Saint
SYSTEMS

OF

GERMAN

Michael, Hildesheim

ROMANESQUE

CHURCHES

apse-liketransepts recallingthe triconch churches of

Syria and Egypt, seem
surelyto represent Oriental influences.
General
characteristics. The
most
strikingand typically
German
characteristic of the style is its complexity and
of architectural
picturesqueness,
acquired by a multiplication
members.
Apses were
placed at the west as well as the east.
Lanterns
not
placed at
only covered the crossing,but were
the west end of the building. Towers, and especially
turrets,
their

at both
are

of

ends

were

common.

Carolingianderivation.

reflect most

These
Even

elements, as
the churches

we

have

which

seen,
seem

ties
clearlyOriental influence develop the complexiof
themselves
were
Carolingian prototypes, which
influenced by the East.
Thus
the Holy Apostles at Cologne
to

of

ARCHITECTURE

Mary of the Capitol (Fig.in),

combines Germanic
complexity with the main dispositions
earliest German
Oriental
Romanesque
an
plan. The
buildingsare generallybasilican

is but
and

OF

HISTORY

244
a

development

of Saint

and

tended

retain the timber

to

roof; the later

partiallyor
erally,
completelyorganic. Genhowever, the organism
church
is marred
by the

even

of

omission

of

are

one

or

members.

ural
struct-

more

This

organic

quality,appearing late as
be explained as
does, may
imitation
In

of

Lombard

general the

well

as

churches

the

to

an

work.

organic as

more

monumental

more

are

it

be found

in the

valley of the Rhine.

Basilican
first to
we

-7 lH.tr.

FIG.
ONE

114

"

BAY,

triforium
the

DRUBECK.

DRAWING
THE

SHOWING

and

SYSTEM

uniform

from

the

OF

find

churches.

the

basilican

them

Turning
churches

all alike in this

lack of

fering
organic feeling,but difwidely in the disposition
of detail.
Thus
the Collegiate
Church
of Paulinzelle
(Figs.
and
blind
a
112
113) shows

system

of massive

columns

ing
divid-

aisles. The

Collegiateof Gernrode
has a triforium gallery,reduced
clerestorywindows, and an
with a square pierin the ground story
alternation of a column
Further
arcade.
varietyis offered by Saint Michael, Hildesheim
(Figs.99 and 113), which reverts to the blind triforium,
columns between
the square
but places two
piersin the main
At Driibeck
tion
arcade.
(Fig.114) we note the simpler alternaand pier,but the arches from pier to"
of single column
embraced
column
are
by great blind arches of double width
and
spring from pier to pier. Variation is,
height which
nave

therefore,almost
the heaviness
and

in their

infinite in these churches, but all are

of their systems, the massiveness

simple wooden

roofs

supported on

alike in

of their walls,
trussed

timbers.

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
The

organic architecture of

basilican churches
of the

one

the Rhine.

turn

may

to the

245
As

foil to

great vaulted

these

churches

These
Valley: Speyer, Worms, and Mainz.
combine
vaulted
most
happily the Lombard
system with
German
picturesqueness. Speyer (Figs. 100, 115, 116, and
117) has an organic vaulted system, complete but for the
two
missingdiagonalribs. It has a lantern over the crossing,
square

Rhine

towers

transept

and

at the east
a

western

FIG.

end,

two

more

"

west,

western

Despite its complexity the

lantern.

115

at the

SPEYER.

PLAN

in effect.
building is compactly arranged and monumental
Worms
(Fig.116) shows as great complexity as Speyer, and
moreover

has

alternate

system,

full

complement

the

of ribs.

intermediate

Both

piers on

the

exhibit
nave

the
side

having engaged shafts which support an archivolt embracing

windows.
Later than either of the preceding,
the clerestory
and perhaps most
imposing of all,is the cathedral of Mainz
(Figs.99, 116, and 118). Here the arches are freelypointed,
and complexityis carried to the extreme, the church having its
full complement of turrets, western
lantern, western
apse,
adds
but
and the like. The
western
picturesqueness,
apse
the design of the t'agade,
the flankingdoors are mere
as
mars
inlets for worshippers as compared to the welcoming
insignificant
portalsof French churches.
German
Summary
Romanesque. To understand
of German
above
all keep in mind
the
Romanesque, therefore, one must
divisions of elements:
those developed from the Carotwo

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE

247

be suband those which are imported; the latter may

divided
lingian,
At times all
roughly into Byzantine and Lombard.
in a singlebuilding,
combine
in the church
of the
three may
as
find a semi-organic
we
Holy Apostles at Cologne, where
system, native picturesqueness,and a three shell east end
which
suggests Syria, but by keeping the main divisions in
mind
we
analyze and
may
the
host of
comprehend
Romanesque monuments
which Germany offers.
Approach to the study of
French Romanesque. As we
approach the discussion of
ness
French Romanesque, clearsuggests that we begin

stylesand

with the southern

work

toward

the

This

will,at

times, falsify

northern.

chronology, but the provincial

stylesof France are
so
nearly contemporaneous
fault is not

that the

and

one,

the

examining
stylesfirst are
and

southern
have

southern
The

great.
central

styles

important

one

characteristic:
for the

ous
seri-

advantages

the

of

mon
com-

lection FIG.
predi-

barrel vault

and

OF

consequentlyinorganic
feeling.
One

Provence.
as

the most
in

the Baths

THE

117
THE

"

SPEYER.

CATHEDRAL.

INTERIOR

LOOKING

VIEW
TOWARD

APSE

characterize

Provencal

classic of all

Romanesque

Romanesque
evitable
instyles. It was

district which

stillpreserves

the

of Diana

may

at

Pont-du-Gard,
Nimes, the amphitheater at Aries, the

of
triumphal arch at Orange, and countless other monuments
Roman
antiquity,that architects should be influenced strongly
The result was
by the examples constantlybefore their eyes.
not
only a predilectionfor the barrel vault, especiallythe

barrel vault

supported on

transverse

semicircular

arches,

as

"VI
m

FIG.

FIG.

Il8

IIQ

MAIN7.

"

"

ARLES.

CATHEDRAL.

SAINT

VIEW

TROPHIME.

TfiE

FROM

THE

MAIN

"t

NORTH

PORTAL

11;
m

'

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
of Diana, but

in the Baths
in

also for detail

strongly classical

feeling.

this fact.

of the monuments

of Saint

facade

The

capitalswhich

has

examination

An

Monuments.

almost

are

Trophime

is

The

pointed in
fagade similar

boasts

but

Trophime,
Here

emphasizes
(Fig. 119)
suggestion

classic Roman.

arches, but the

Saint

Gilles

(Gard)

Saint

to

elaborate.

more

the masonry
and the main

recalls classic

even

portalis flanked
pilastersof almost

Rome,

by channeled
deceptivelyclassic character.
of the Corinthian

only

appear

classic edifice.

These
the

examples, and
reiterate

obscure

the

same

word

"Romanesque"
sense
applies more
Provencal
style than

The

effects.

entasis

to

well-known

more

Some

columns, too, need

delicate

stolen from
are

and

transverse

section.

cross

Aries

debased,

not

is

vault

barrel

at

Corinthian

true

modified,
interior is barrel vaulted, with
that

of entablature

its literal

in

aptly to
to

249

the

other.

any

and

north

Farther

Auvergne.

different

development
taking place
was
Auvergne
find the same
we
predilectionfor
barrel vaults, but new
dispositions
in plan. The Auvergnat churches,

west

somewhat

In

as

expect in the earliest

would

one

of the

French

Romanesque styles, TRANSVERSE

snowSECTION,
BARREL
VAULT
HALF
ING
and
affiliation
have
a
Carolingian
THE
AISLE
OVER
something of the picturesqueness
of the Rhine.
of the Romanesque
Apses are provided with ambulatories and radiatingabsidioles,
-

and

absidioles

transepts. At
with
barrel

more

the

The

vaults

the

added
time

same

freedom.

vault, but

half -barrel

often

are

which

the

nave

aisles

the

to

are

thrust

eastern

barrel

walls

vault

of the

is treated

usually covered with a

often
provided with but

is

inward

and

counteract

250
the

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

thrust of the vault

of the

evitabl
(seeFig. 120). An inwas
inadequate lighting.
ground story windows,

nave

of this arrangement
admitted
through the

result

Light was
and through windows
barrel vaults, but by
much

was

in the triforium
the time

weakened, and

gallerybeneath

it had

the half-

filtered into the

Auvergnat churches

most

the

sensation

give one

of

cloud overhanging the

effect

an

which,

is at

least

it

nave

if not

black
nave,

ful,
cheer-

impressive.

individual members

The

and

general construction of the

Auvergnat church, according
with

its

early date,

very

are

erally
gen-

massive, another

the
again makes
if somechurches impressive,
times
The
terior
exungraceful.
is lightened by the
absidioles,stepped lanterns,
arcades,and generalmultiplication
of members, which give
the
building picturesquefact which

ness.
FIG.

121

DAME

CLERMONT-FERRAND.

"

PORT.

DU

churches

is Notre

THE

Dame

EAST

du

The

Monuments.

NOTRE
OF

VIEW

END

best

and

most
historically
interestingof Auvergnat

known

Port

at

Clermont-Ferrand

(Figs.

but
121). It is a heavy, barrel-vaulted,ill-lighted
of absidioles and the
impressivechurch, with a multiplication
general picturesquenesswhich well typifiesthe style. Other
as
monuments,
illuminatingif less famous, are numerous.
Saint Saturnin, and Orcival
mention
Among them we must
(Puy-de-D6me).
Languedoc. Closelyallied to the styleof Auvergne is that
120

which

and

we

may

call,for

want

of

better

name,

the

school

of

embraces
vast
a
Languedoc, though the district involved
styles of
territoryfrom Auvergne to the Pyrenees. The
been classified
Auvergne and Languedoc have often with reason
monumental
together,but the latter tends to a more

scale,and
detail.

greater delicacy in singlemembers

The

and

sculptured

prominent example of this styleis,of course,

Saint Sernin at Toulouse
and
(Figs. 100
122), a five aisled,
barrel-vaulted
with a loftyand very
structure
graceful lantern
the crossing. The building is on so elaborate
over
a scale, and
exhibits so great delicacy of material and detail,that one
does
first identifyit as a
at
not
close relative of the buildings
of neighboring Auvergne, yet
it is.

such

most

The

architectural

of
Lansculptures alone
differentiate
guedoc would
the buildings of that district
from those of Auvergne.
Aquitaine.
Byzantine
character
of the building.
North

of

and

Languedoc

of

Auvergne we find a
vigorous and distinct
very
school
flourishing in Aquitaine.
The
Aquitanian
buildings have generallybeen
west

characterized

Byzantine

the

as

of

most

French

manesque
Ro-

Saint

churches.

P6rigueux (Figs.99
and 123)has repeatedly been
Front

at

called

churches

122

THE

INTERIOR

of Saint Mark's

direct copy

other

FIG.

of the

at

with
district,

TOULOUSE.

"

SEEN

SAINT
FROM

SERNIN.
THE

Venice, and the

their domes

on

WEST

ous
numer-

penden-

unique in French Romanesque, have been said to be

To this theory a reaction has lately
inspiredby Saint Front.
of the buildings in the
Saint Front
set in.
postdates many
and there are great
characteristics,
neighborhood with the same
differences
the so-called Byzantine details of these
between
buildings and the details of the real Byzantine buildings
These
whence
facts have led
they are supposed to be derived.
tives

so

certain

scholars

Aquitaine
of the rest
firstseem,

to

conclude

that

the

domed

churches

of

Byzantium than the Romanesque

of France, but convincing as these arguments
at
they can be overthrown
by the juxtapositionof the
owe

no

more

to

Saint

plans of
We

HISTORY

252

note

Front

(Figs.88 and

the four subordinate

of the

Such

cross.

Saint

however, the

"

Saint

pendentives,and

arms

123

and

cross,

on

FIG.

Mark's

the salient Greek

dome

Probably

ARCHITECTURE

OF

Front

two

are

PERIGUEUX.

the barrel vaults, the central

similarities

is not

copy

inspiredby

SAINT

FRONT.

99).

are

not

domes

on

the

coincidences.

of Saint

Mark's; surely,
Byzantine original,
quite

GENERAL

VIEW

FROM

THE

SOUTHEAST

possiblythe church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople.

the Romanesque of Aquitaine
Certainlyit is correct to classify
as most
Byzantine in character.
Originality
of Aquitanian architecture. Not all the churches
of Aquitaine,however, have the Greek
the
cross
plan or even
domes
on
pendentives which mark the styleas Byzantine in
character.
In the cathedral of Angouleme, for example (Fig.
99),the dome vaults are arranged in the form of a Latin cross,
and at Notre Dame
la Grande
at Poitiers (Fig.124) the dome
in favor of the barrel vault.
on
pendentives is abandoned
The

churches

of the

region

are,

nevertheless,bound

into

one

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE

253

cone-shaped turrets
mingling
and
a
unique interwith
scale-like tiles,bossy masonry,
of architectural and
figuresculpture as ornament
over
portalsand windows.
Burgundy. We may conclude our examination of southern
the system

styleby

and

French

central

of decoration, curious

with

Romanesque

of the

brief review

Burgundian style.
As
pected
might be exfrom

graphical
geo-

erations,
considthis style
the

is

most

ganic
or-

of the southern-central
group,

therefore

and
makes

good

transition to

the

study of the
of Normandy

art

and

the

He de France.

The

tics
characteris-

worthy
of emphasis are its
most

accent

on

tic
monas-

architecture,
its

increasingly

volving
organicqualityinfrequent
of the
use
groin FIG.
its
vault,
originalling
ity in the handof

the

barrel

124

POITIERS.

"

VIEW

vault, and

NOTRE
OF

THE

LA

DAME
WEST

its vigorous,racy

decorations,especially
as
applied in the vestibule
a

feature which

hands

GRANDE.

END

sculptured
or

narthex,

unprecedented development

received

at

the

of the

Burgundian architects.
Cluny. The
abbey of Cluny (Figs. 99 and 100) was,
It was
perhaps, the most
typical Burgundian church.
founded
in 1089, destroyed in 1125,
and rebuilt in 1130.

Unfortunatelyit was
we

know

it

razed

by drawings

during the French

and

Revolution, but
descriptions.It was five-aisled,

254

the,nave

HISTORY

covered

with

barrel vault

vaults.
than

Its transepts were

those to the west,

cross

form

the

so

and

double, those

the aisles with

to the

five

were

absidioles,and

by

FIG.

faces of the transepts. The nave

elaborate
narthex
of five bays. There

an

125

"

VEZELAY.

CHURCH

OF

FROM

over

the

towers
crossing,

placed at
have

been

the west

and, indeed,
urged.
Extant
many

The

impression of

of

was

lantern

INTERIOR

transepts, and

Rhenish

between

monuments.

monuments

preceded

was

THE

the

connection

extant

MADELEINE.

added

were

SEEN

VESTIBULE

over

that

Burgundian

THE

THE

end.

unlike

not

smaller

east

others

the eastern

on

groin

giving the plan the archiepiscopalin English Gothic

buildings. Round

common

ambulatory

ARCHITECTURE

OF

the

church

the

two

Burgundy
in which

the

towers

were

buildingmust
of the

has

period,

often

possesses,

style may

been

ever,
howbe

judged. The cathedral of Autun, for example, exhibits an

in the form of a
narthex, and a nave
elaboratelyornamented
pointed barrel vault. An ingeniousvariant in the treatment
of the barrel vault may
be seen
at Saint Philibert at Tournus.
barrel vault over
The gravest fault of the longitudinal
a nave

ROMANESQUE
is its tendency to

ARCHITECTURE

255

usually entirely,the

suppress,

window

openings in the clerestory.In Saint Philibert this difficulty

is avoided by roofingthe nave
with a series of sections of barrel
vaults, placed at rightangles to the long axis of the building.
sections mutually abut
These
one
another, and their wall
arches
leave ample room
for clerestoryopenings, but the
esthetic effect of the series of transverse
arches is unhappy,
and the experiment was
not copied in other buildings.
torically
and the most
Ve^elay. The best known
interestinghisof the Burgundian buildingsis the abbey church
of

FIG.

126

ORNAMENT

ROMANESQUE

"

Vczelay (Fig.125). Here we find the Burgundian narthex,

with its richlysculptured decoration, but the barrel vault
the great bays of the nave
disappears entirely,even
being
The groins lack ribs,so that the
covered with groin vaults.
system is only partiallyorganic,but despitethe lack we feel
increase in organic interest which
an
signalsthe approach of
the northern
styles.
have
As we
Northern
French
Romanesque. Normandy.
northern
French
Romanesque falls naturally into two
seen,
divisions,the Norman

and

that

of the

He

de

France.

shall
of
of

examined, except the Lombard,

strongly by the former, and it seems
architecture exercised
of

characteristics

The most marked

begin with the former.
fullydeveloped Norman
Romanesque are
No
structural logicand its inventiveness.

have

Normandy.

Those

strong influence

who

urge

an

has

its strong sense

stylewhich we
marked

been

clear
on

We

that

the

autochthonous

so

Lombard

Romanesque
growth for

256

Norman

the

OF

HISTORY

stylerun

history. Lanfranc,

ARCHITECTURE

for

what

to

counter

example,

know

we

of the

one

of Norman
famous

most

of

at Bee, Caen, and

Lombards, established himself successively
Avranches, and, after the Conquest, became
archbishop of
followed in the same
places by Anselm
Canterbury. He was
of Aosta, afterward
canonized.

Unquestionably such
carried

Lombard

Normandy,
should

as

these

influence

into

men

this

though
blind

not

and

the

to

us

fact

inventiveness

cocity
pre-

of the

Norman

style.
originality.Ribbed
vaulting, the alternate system,
features comare
mon
compound piers,
Norman

both

the

To

belongs the
the

to

and

man.
Nor-

latter, however,

credit of

inventinga
form, specially
adapted

vault

new

Lombard

to

alternate

system.

In the

of the

Abbaye-aux-Hommes
(Saint Etienne) at Caen (Figs.99,
128, and 130),it occurred to the

nave

builders

to throw

rib

transverse

intermediate

an

from

the

pier,dividing the
FIG.

127

"

ABBEY

JUMIEGES.
THE

CHURCH.

surface

SYSTEM

into

mediate
intervault

six cells instead

four.

In this system
of the lateral cells run

the

of

crowns

obliquely,

instead of at right angles to the

somewhat
vault
surfaces are
The

long axis of the building.

dow
distorted, but the winthe aptitude of the form
to

enlarged,and
space was
is attested by the
the alternate system
buildingsin which the two are combined
cathedral, Fig. 139). Normandy
decorative

The

motives.

Carolingianarchitecture,and
arcade
zigzag,and interlacing
techniqueof stone cuttingand
in

Normandy

than

in

also

forms

of Gothic

(see plan of Paris

of
developed a number

billet mold
new

number

was

such

(Fig.126). Thestone fitting,

notablyfiner
too,was
contemporary schools of Romanesque,
were

invented

as

adopted from
the dog-tooth,

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
Jumieges.

important
abbey church

earliest

The

is the

Romanesque

257

man
example of NorJumieges (Fig.127).

extant

of

a
ruin, we find the alternate
system.
building,now
for
timber
pound
roof, a coma
designed
Although the church was
from
the main
piers,through the
engaged shaft runs
of the roof.
It is
beams
to the level of the cross
clerestory,

In

this

Abbaye-aux-Hommes

Abbaye-aux-Dames
FIG.

128

CAEN.

"

THE

ABBEY

have

probable

that

Lombard

wooden-roofed
at

least

we

CHURCHES.

here

OF

reminiscence

church

by
partially,

SYSTEM

in which

stone

arches

the

THE

of
roof

thrown

INTERIORS

the
was
across

early
ported,
sup-

the

nave.

Sexpartttevaults. At
Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen.
Caen
the so-called Abbaye-aux-Hommes
(Figs.99, 128, and
the
129), built and dedicated to Saint Stephen by William
Conqueror, gives us the most complete example of the style.
Though the church was founded in the eleventh century, the
The

258
vaults
The

are

HISTORY

OF

reconstruction

originalbuildingwas

ARCHITECTURE
of the

first half

wooden-roofed

of the

but

had

twelfth.

the

mediate
inter-

in Lombardy, and there

engaged shaft,which occurs
supports only the corbel table of the triforium string. It is

reasonable

to

suppose

that

the

presence

of the

intermediate

shaft

suggested
intermediate

the

rib,and

man
Nor-

the

invention

of

sexpartite
vault
(Figs. 99,
128, and 129) was
the

the result.

Abbaye

In the

there

Hommes
are

aux-

also

numerous

in

passageways
thickness
the
the

walls, which

give

access

to the

dows
win-

clerestory
and

lantern

open

These

INTERIOR

The

CAEN.

SAINT
LOOKING

ETIENNE.
TOWARD

VIEW
THE

OF

APSE

THE

are

an
over

crossing.

the

"

the

and

church,

129

other

of

parts

FIG.

of

features

almost

Norman

surely
tions.
innova-

tresses.
Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen.
Rudimentary flying butAs a pendant to the Abbaye-aux-Hommes,
William's
of the Trinity, called the
wife, Matilda, built the church
Abbaye-aux-Dames (Figs.100 and 128). This church, on a
smaller scale than Saint Etienne, is more
compactly composed
and more
The
tects
archiprofusely and delicatelyornamented.
of La Trinite invented
feature of the greatest signifione
cance.
In the Abbaye-aux-Hommes
tried
the builders had
to abut the thrust of the nave
vaults by a half-barrel vault
the triforium galleries,
have already
over
a system which
we

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE

259

du Port,
Languedoc (Notre Dame
Auvergne and
Clermont-Ferrand; Saint Sernin, Toulouse).The thrust of such
the conhalf-barrel vault, being continuous, well meets
tinuous
a
noted

in

of the barrel vault

thrust
of

of the

groin vault, like that

continuous.
They are

not

but

the thrusts

Abbaye-aux-Hommes,

concentrated

at

the

are

intersection

ribs,and the half -barrel

is, therefore, useless,

of the
vault

and

at

except

points

near

tion
the intersec-

coincidingwith
of the ribs.
this

of the nave,

Recognizing

fact,the builders of the

Abbaye-aux-Dames omitted
all portionsof the half-barrel
vault where

abut

to

itwas

the

thrusts
The

vault.

nave

not

needed

of the

result

was

under

arches, hidden
the lean-to aisle roof,

which

carried

series of

the

pier
the

vaults

nave

buttresses

outer

walls

(Fig.100).

to

over

set

these

the

against

of the

Hidden

as

of

the thrusts

and

aisles
mentary
rudi-

members

nevertheless
they are
embryonic flyingbuttresses,
are,

and

to

Norman

Romanesque

belongs the credit of inventing this important feature.

KG.

130"
VIEW

IFFLEY.
OF

PARISH
THE

WEST

CHURCH.
END

Romanesque architecture of England. English originality.

Before passing on to the architecture of the He de France we
the Romanesque
architecture
of England.
to note
must
pause
The transition is wholly logical,
for, although England and
esque
divided,during the later RomanNormandy are now politically
one.
period they were
Naturally the architects of
William the Conqueror created buildings of the same
stylein
mandy
England a few years after the Conquest as they had in Norbefore.
It must
not be supposed, however,
a few years
that Norman
in
modifications
no
Romanesque underwent

26o

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

slavishly
England. England often borrowed, but seldom
in England
became
more
Romanesque
copied. Norman
it
which
architecture
massive, as though the heavy Saxon
this massiveness
superseded had influenced it. Sometimes
of decoration,
bareness
and absence
was
emphasized by extreme
of London; sometimes
as in Saint John's chapel in the Tower
disguisedby a luxuriant profusionof Norman
it,was

FIG.

131

decorative motives,
In

"

as

DURHAM.

in the

generalthe styletended

Normandy
Durham

and

to

revert

(Figs.131 and

CATHEDRAL.

PLAN

parishchurch
to

abandon

to wooden

132),the

of

Iffley(Fig.130).

the structural
roofs.

finest and

Even
most

logic of

in vaulted

homogeneous

Anglo-Norman cathedrals, the alternate system was

if ingenious,vault system.
No transused with an illogical,
verse
thrown
from
the intermediate
ribs are
piers and the
latter have
no
engaged shafts. Extra diagonals,however,
spring from corbels above the intermediate piers,and the
result is what
one
might call either two imperfect quadripartite
vaults or a singleseptapartiteone.
The
transverse
arches of Durham
are
pointed,a phenomenon quite common
churches.
in later Anglo-Norman
English Romanesque does,
despiteits close relation to Norman.
therefore,show originality,
Romanesque of the lie de France.
Returning to France, we
take up the most
esque
now
completely organic of all Romanmay
One
think of
styles: that of the He de France.
may
it as the most, or the least,finished of styles,according to
thinks of it as completed Romanesque
whether
mentary
rudior
one
The problem is greatlycomplicated by the
Gothic.
of the

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
fact that in this

region Gothic

architecture

261

developed,and

the

it sprang
were
buildings from which
usually
either altered during the later Gothic
period or modified by

Romanesque
the

architectural

of which
finished
experiments by means
reached.
Much
that might otherwise come
Gothic was
under
the head of Romanesque architecture of the He de France must
be discussed
in connection
with developing Gothic, and may,

FIG.

132

"

DURHAM.

therefore, be
monuments

CATHEDRAL.

omitted

of the

esthetic effect.

To

GENERAL

here.

region are
an

even

VIEW

FROM

THE

SOUTHEAST

In

general the Romanesque

not
large in scale or strikingin
ings
greater degree than in the build-

of

in the
Lombardy their greatest interest is historical,
lightthey shed on future organic styles,and this impression
is greatlyexaggerated by the destruction and alteration of so
of the finest buildings.
many
Earlier and
later buildings. The
of the
earlier buildings'
lie de France
not
were
organic,and inorganicbuildingswere
erected even
contemporaneously with those of the budding
Gothic
style. Such a church as Vignory, for example, is
timber-roofed,with massive piers,plain walls,and no organic
structure

whatever.

In the

second

half

of

the

eleventh

262

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

highly organic styleappeared. The idea

from
of organic vaulting,with logicalpiers,probably came
alternate system
not
was
Normandy, though the Norman
century, however,

taken
Gothic

does

and

over

period.

decoration

and

not

of

Ideas

de France

He

till the

plan, notably in the ambulatories,

borrowed

were

in the

appear

the south.

from

Development of the style. The development of the stylewas

of increasingdelicacyand nicety of adjustment of load to
one
At times, as at Saint-Loup-de-Naud, the vaults and
shaft.
piersare massive and clumsy
but
in appearance,
always
in
exactinglylogical arrangement.
In finished examples,
Saint

at

as

shafts

are

cut, and

Remi, Reims, the

slender,delicately

delicatelyadjusted
they bear.
development. Saint

to the load

Full

Remi, however, like most

examples of the style,is not
fine
The
homogeneous.
Romanesque shafts and piers
not
Romanesque but
carry

vaults, which

Gothic

emphasize
good taste
well

Copyright by Macmillan
FIG.

133
ITS

AND

Gothic

Co.

ONE

OF

THE

vaults.

however,

AISLE

The

point which
The

like

of

Saint

side

"*

the

aisles

structural

of the

former,

two

harmonize.

the

the

manner

so

church

Etienne, Beauvais,
the

Romanesque
the ^^

elegance of

especiallythe

Morienval.

VAULTS

(FROM MOORE)

SUPPORTS.

In

"ne

ETIENNE.

SAINT

BEAUVAIS.

"

OF

DRAWING

"

do

the

really

tamOUS

^LOSt

of

monuments

{" finished

Romanesque

(Fig.133),shows

with

portions,
the

stylereached in the district.

beginnings of Gothic. One of the

vanced
ad-

the

best

examples of the style is the little church of Morienval

with an early Gothic
is covered
vault,
(Fig.99). The nave
vault,
but the north aisle (Fig.134) retains its Romanesque
lackingdiagonal ribs,though the diagonalsare supported by

known

"

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE

pilasterstripin the pier. In

tendency to stiltthe transverse

a
a

the level of the

nearer

aisle

same

one

vault, a tendency which

in the aisle vaults

of Saint Etienne

reach
limbo
in
a
(Fig. 133). Here we
organicRomanesque and the most rudimentary Gothic
Beauvais

at

If

from

the

aisle of Morienval

to

but

we

north

walked

note

may

rib in order to raise its crown

of the

crown

noted

also have

might

we

the

263

which
meet.

apsidal ambulatory of
that church we
might see a
arch
not
transverse
only
the

stilted that

its

the

approach

crown

may

of the

crown

vault, but also for the

pointed.

reason

observation

however,
of

pass,

the consideration

Romanesque

of Gothic

this

With

should

we

from

same

to that

architecture.

Spanish Romanesque.
Before
bringing to a close
the discussion
of

of the schools
ure,
architect-

Romanesque
word

is

necessary

with

regard to Spain. In
esque
general Spanish Romanrepresents an importation of the styles of Auand

vergne

The
at

134"

MORIENVAL.
VIEW

OF

PARISH
THE

NORTH

AISLE

Languedoc.

Spanish churches, that of Santiago

Compostela (Fig.135),strikinglyresembles Saint Sernin
most

famous

of Toulouse.

the

of the

Just

as

Spanish modified

it with
roofs

their

became

own

as

136).

in

Forms

English modified

the
the

southern

nationality.

flatter,so

that

at

French,
In

times

the

Norman,

and

impressed

temperate
the

triforium

climate
space

and

used, and above

Visigothichorseshoe arch, were
profuse. Undercutting
sculptured decoration became

so-called
10

so

into windows,
its openings made
the Colegiata of San Isidore at Leon
(Fig.
speciallycharacteristic of Spain, such as the

eliminated
practically

was

FIG.
CHURCH'

all
was

264

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

tion
deepened, edges sharpened, forms crowded, until the decoraso
attained that sparkling character
typicallySpanish.
tion
The common
phenomenon, therefore, of Spanish naturalizaof immigrant forms never
more
strikinglythan
appears
in the

so

case

of

architecture.

Romanesque

features. Obviously in an architecture

Development ofsingle
heterogeneous as Romanesque it is impossibleto trace a
strictlychronological
of
development
single feature,

of

group

or

features.

Nevertheless,
risk

any

the

at

repetition,it

of

will be

well

note

to

made
the progress
by
opment
the stylein the develand

tion
adapta-

of certain details
or

features of

churchly

architecture.

of the
be

sion
discus-

The

Plans.

plan

dismissed
with
that

may

marily
sum-

the statement
the

style

material

offered

for

subsequent
church plans.

all

almost

types of
The
prototype of the
French

finished
3"m-

building,with
its
complicated
chevet, ambulatory,
Gothic

FIG.

135

COMPOSTELA.

"

SANTIAGO.

PLAN

and radial chapels,is to be found

just as
is to be found

Vaults.
Besides

The

favorite

in

Burgundy.

innovations

and

French

esque,
Roman-

plan
English archiepiscopal-cross

the

progress

in southern

in

vault

forms

modifications

was

as

marked.

of barrel vault

forms,

pointed barrel vaults and cross barrel vaults, we find

and Normandy
developing the Byzantine domed
Lombardy
such

as

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE

265

organic,domical groin vault of quadripartite

or
sexpartiteform, and handing on to Gothic the ideas necessary
for its future development. Ingenuity and
originality
shown
in the trussed wooden
were
even
roof,and it was given
and interesting
new
forms, as at San Zeno in Verona.
Supports. Corresponding to the ribbed vaults, we find the
for a compound
supports developing,with compound members
vault

into the

136

FIG.

rib

"

We

system.

into accord

to

with

LEON.

SAN

sm.

oil}*

20 n\-

ISIDORO.

find the Lombard

PLAN

AND

alternate

SYSTEM

system

the

brought
capitals

sexpartitevault, and the shaft

logically
signalingthe direction of the springingof the ribs. Chrononote
we
a
steady refiningof the proportionsof
may
the supports, suggestingapproaching Gothic, which culminates
in the delicate proportions of the best Romanesque
of the
He

de France.

Buttresses.
remarkable.

The

progress

Lombardy

of

the

buttress

was

no

less

supplied the pilasterstripagainst

266
the

HISTORY

OF

wall, used

outer

as

ARCHITECTURE

buttress,which

the

was

of all

germ

future

development. This pilaster or pier buttress was

time
steadily deepened and strengthened. At the same
solutions of the problem of carrying the thrusts of
numerous
the

nave

made.

Lombardy this was

carrying the thrusts of the

and

vaults

the

to

aisle walls
done

In

vaults, and
the

thence

the

buttresses

by omitting the
vaults

nave

the outer

to

and

wall.

In

triforium

to the

over

Auvergne

were

gallery

and

where
else-

solved

by barrel vaults and halfbarrel vaults over

triforium
a
gallery,binding in the great
vault of the nave.
Finally,at the Abbaye-aux-Dames, the
continuous
half-barrel vault, illogical
for the abutment
of a
into sections, and
these
cut
sections, or
groin vault, was
rudimentary flying buttresses, were
placed under the aisle
roofs
the

to

problem

same

neutralize

groin vaults

Construction.
details went

parts became
This

and

of the
With

was

carry

concentrated

thrusts

of

development

of

nave.

the

lighteningof
more

off the

refinement
the

and

buildingas

slender, the

whole

whole.

became

As

the

less massy.

development did not proceed equally in all regions,nor

did it even
proceed chronologically.There were, as we have
inert buildings in the
He
de France.
The
seen,
massy,
tendency was, however, to convert the heavy early type into
a
lighterone presaging the Gothic building.
Facades. The design of the facade progressednotably in
this period. In spiteof their organic structure, the Lombard
masked
behind
and
often unsightly
buildings were
illogical
of the later Lombard
churches, like San
fagades,though some
Zeno, have well-proportionedfacades which reveal the inner
of the
structure
ceived
building. Logical facade composition reits fullest Romanesque
development in Normandy
the vertical divisions
where, as in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes,
the
marked
the exterior by pilasters,
of the interior are
on
horizontal by rows
of windows, the pitched roof revealed by a
All
towers.
gable,and the whole flanked by two monumental
the germs
here which
are
were
developed into the complete
lacked
Gothic
time
facades which
fagade. At the same
organic expressiveness and logic,but added other beauties,
the
Thus
were
being designed in other stylesof Romanesque.
with
Tuscans
designed rich polychromatic facades, adorned

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
arcades, and

the

Germans

Lanterns
devoted
latter

and

Meanwhile

towers.

and

to lanterns

In

the

lavish

profusion

invention

to bell towers.
especially

constructed

were

with

picturesqueones

the like.

and

of turrets, apses,

267

north

at

very

these

early date

turret-like

In

round

was

Italythe
and

members,

standing.
free-

even

in

incorporated with the building.

Carolingian times, were
the favorite,
Eventually the square or angular tower became
and infinite variations were
played on it. At times the tower
and
was
merely carried up in a series of stepped squares
Again it was
topped by a pyramid as at Morienval.
square,
but its pointed roof polygonal, the angles being filled with
covered
with
little polygonal members,
themselves
peaked
roofs,

polygon,
the

and

variant

of

this

type

square

the square
is surmounted
tower
by
Sometimes
tapering roof springsfrom that.

the

round

arcades, is used
above

Beaulieu-les-Loches.

Auxerre, where

at

appears
a

at

as

tower,

ornamented

with

blind

and

open

in France
and

the round turret

(Uzes); sometimes
crowned
with a cone
(Saint Front,
appears

elaborate
examples stepped square
Perigueux). In the most
is placed on square,
stepped polygon on polygon, until as at
Jumieges, the towers produce an aspiringeffect very suggestive

of Gothic.
of

Openings. In openings we
the splayingcharacteristic

the latter

splay

of

note

constant

elaboration

Carolingianarchitecture.

aid in the distribution

to

of

lightwas

In
duced
intro-

In later Romanesque
simple chamfer.
the
obtained
deepened, and was
frequently in
window
and door by means
of multiple orders.
It was
thus
given architectural dignity as well as utility. Compound
of two
evolved, sometimes
times
openings, too, were
lights,someof two
embraced
blind
and
in
variants
arch,
lights
by a
of this motive.
At the same
time portalswere
ennobled
by
elaborate
porches, the finest being those of Lombardy and
Burgundy.
Decoration.
New
also came
decorative schemes
into being.
Figure and foliate sculpture was
applied to the exterior,at
times haphazardly as in Lombardy, at times
with
dinary
extraorto
subservience
vence
architectural expression,as in Proin pure
and Languedoc.
In addition, new
motives

by means
splay was

of

must

268

HISTORY

OF

design,like the Norman

the exterior and

to

ARCHITECTURE

zigzag and

the interior.

applied
ured
sculpt-

dog-tooth,were

For

the interior

new

of them
modified
classic or
invented, some
capitalswere
in original
of
foliate designs,and many
more
Byzantine, some
the purpose
the "storied capital" type in which
didactic
was
and the sculpturesrepresentedecclesiastical,
as well as decorative
of the greatest
mythological, and unidentifiable scenes
in the
obtained
raciness and originality.Polychromy
was
varied
interiors by means
of paint. On the exterior its use
architects
Tuscan
with the style. The
got fine exterior
of polychromatic marble
Outside
effects by the use
veneer.
of Tuscany polychromy played a less important part on
the
obtained
exterior,though fine effects were
by the use of several
sorts of stones
(Sicily),
by patterned brick (Languedoc) and
the like.
Secular

architecture.

omit

may

almost

architecture

and

The

few, and

nearly all
differ slightly,
except in
are

in

ensemble

In the first place the extant

several

consideration

entirelyany
the

For

ensemble.
the

altered.

In

of the

the

secular

period.

Romanesque

Romanesque

we

reasons

secular monuments
second

place they

applicationof detail, from the

much
Gothic
more
numerous
buildings of the same
type.
which
This does not mean
monuments
that there are no
by
One needs
we
judge Romanesque secular architecture.
may
but look at the enceinte
of Avila
(Castile,Fig. 137) to see
secular
idea of the
building, and
Romanesque
get an
The
of a Romanesque
city seen from without.
appearance
impressionwill,however, be very much like that obtained from
similar town, say Carcassonne
a
(Fig. 178), of the Gothic
in whole
in part,
or
period. Single secular monuments,
notably castles such as the Wart burg at Eisenach, exist
for

the

archeologist, and

especiallyin
sensible

more

civil and

the

the
to

domestic

court

discuss

show

and

court

the

architecture

distinctive

whole

arrangements
it

facades, but

question

in connection

with

of

seems

medieval

the Gothic

period.
Finally,something should
the influence of Romanesque
architecture
be said about
on
subsequent styles. The influence of organic Romanesque on
organicFrench Gothic has, of course, alwaysbeen emphasized,
The

influenceof Romanesque.

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE
but

other

equallysignificant
examples

architecture

on

later art

have

been

269

of the influence
Few

overlooked.

of this

people,

they admire the gorgeouslypolychromatic Gothic cathedrals

their striped interiors,realize that these
of Tuscany with
buildingsare comparativelyslightmodifications of the Tuscan
Norman
conRomanesque style. In England the massive
as

FIG.

137

struction

was

"

AVILA.

handed

disguised by what
detail.
of

In

French

GENERAL

was,

German

work,

down

VIEW

OF

to the Gothic

after all,but

Gothic, where
we

note

THE

the

an

FORTIFICATIONS

style,though it was
applique"of pointed

it is not

mere

imitation

picturesquenessof Rhenish

Romanesque.
Self-sufficiency
of the style. Although at the conclusion of
led inevitablyto assert the influence of
our
are
study we
Romanesque on later architecture,we should be at the greatest
of thinkingof the architecture
error
pains to avoid the common
merely as one of transition. It was a heterogeneous art, and
consequently well able aptly to express the genius of not one
but many
its subdivisions,
races.
Nevertheless, whatever
.

7o

it

was

OF

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

primarilya self-sufficient,
independent style.
in
other
is
it
light wholly to miss its meaning.
any
CHRONOLOGICAL

For

convenience

together,with

of

monuments

the

exception
When
Germany.

under

placed

LIST

it refers to the
qualification,

of

OF

Saint
date

To

gard
re-

MONUMENTS

single country
Gall
is

beginningof

are

grouped

which
(Switzerland),

given exactly and

is

without

the

portion of the building

referred to in the text.
Often
round
numbers, half centuries or
centuries,are all that are possibleor necessary, and at times, when a
in the period under discussion,
several
building has been remodeled
dates are given. In generalit will be Well to call to mind
again that
in
tends
it
to give
an
error
tiquity
dating a monument
usually
greater anit deserves.

than

ITALY

San

Milan,

Satiro.

Eighth century.

"

C. 1035-95.
Como, Sant' Abondio.
Toscanella,San Pietro.
1039"93.
Begun 1063.
Pisa, Cathedral.
Sant'
Ambrogio.
1098 to mid-twelfth
Milan,
Modena.
Begun 1099; consecrated 1184.
and later.
Florence, San Miniato.
1013
"

"

"

"

century.

"

"

Parma.

"

1117.

Pavia, San Michele.

1127 (?).
Before
Palermo, Cappella Palatina.
San
Zeno.
Verona,
Begun 1138.
"

"

1132.

"

Cefalu.

"

1145.

Pisa,Baptistry. 1153-78.
Pisa, Campanile. Begun 1174.
"

"

Monreale.

74789.
Florence, Baptistry.
1 1

"

"

c.

Founded

seventh

or

eighth century;

modeled
re-

1 200.

GERMANY

Lorsch

(porch). 774.
(Charlemagne's chapel). 796-804.
Aix-la-Chapelle
"

"

Frankfort, Salvatorskapelle. 852.

Saint Gall (Switzerland). Ninth
century.
Cologne,Saint Mary of the Capitol. After
"

"

"

Cologne, the Holy Apostles.

"

Eleventh

to

(Founded 700.)
thirteenth century.

1000.

ARCHITECTURE

ROMANESQUE

271

remodeled
Eisenach, Wartburg. Built 1067; rebuilt 1130-50;
1190.
Built 1001-33;
remodeled
1186.
Hildesheim, Saint Michael.
remodeled
twelfth century.
Speyer. Founded
1030;
Driibeck.
Early twelfth century.
"

"

"

"

Gernrode.

ninth

century; rebuilt twelfth

Twelfth
Paulinzelle.
century.
Worms.
Twelfth
w orms.
1 weirtn
century
century.
Mainz.
Begun 978; largely thirteenth century.
Founded

"

century.

"

TTT

ifji

rr\^

"

"

FRANCE

Eighth century (?).

Beauvais,Basse-CEuvre.
80
1-806
Germigny-les-Pres.
"

"

Montier-en-Der.

Vignory.

960-998.

"

1050-52.

"

Jumieges. Begun 1040;

Clermont-Ferrand, Notre
Toulouse, Saint Sernin.

consecrated

"

du

Dame

Port.

"

Mid-eleventh

1080; worked

Begun

"

1067.
on

century.

in twelfth

and

centuries.

thirteenth

Cluny. 1089.
Notre Dame
la Grande.
End eleventh century.
Poitiers,
Tournus, Saint Philibert. Eleventh and twelfth centuries.
"

"

"

Beaulieu-les-Loches.

Eleventh

"

and

twelfth

centuries.

Angouleme.
1 105-28.
C. 1120.
Perigueux, Saint Front.
Rebuilt
Vezelay.
1132.
Saint
Etienne.
Caen,
Begun 1064; vaults c. 1135.
Caen, La Trinite.
Begun 1062; remodeled c. 1140.
Reims, Saint Remi.
Romanesque parts mo.
Morienval.
Older part c. 1080; later 1122.
Auxerre, Saint Germain.
Tower, early twelfth century.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Autun.

"

First half of the

Beauvais, Saint
Saint Gilles.
"

Saint
Uzes.

Etienne.

Late

Saturnin.

"

"

twelfth
Vaults

twelfth

Twelfth

century.
180, but buildingplanned earlier.

century.

century.

Tower, twelfth century.

Aries, Saint Trophime.
Nave, first half of the eleventh
porch second half of the twelfth.
"

"

century;

ENGLAND

Earl's Barton.

London,

The

century.

"

Early

Tower,

eleventh
Saint

century {?).

John's Chapel.
"

End

of

the

eleventh

272
Durham.

HISTORY
C.

"

Iffley. Late
"

ARCHITECTURE

OF

1006-1133.
twelfth

century.
SPAIN

Santullano.
San
Santa

Ninth

"

century.

Miguel de Linio.
Maria

de

Ninth

"

Naranco.

Avila, the Walls.

"

century.

Late

ninth

Compostela, Santiago. Begun

1075;

"

Isidorp. End

Leon, San

century.

1090-99.

"

"

of the

finished

1128.

eleventh,beginning of

the

twelfth

century.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

NOTE

VArt, vol. i, pt. 2, 1905, contains a brilliant

authoritative
and
by Camille Enlart, of Romanesque
summary,
Reber's
architecture.
F. von
History of Medieval Art, 1886, is a
out-of-date,but still useful, and especially
general history, now
architecture.
E. E. Yiollet-le-Duc's
medieval
German
good on
de V architecture,
Dictionnaire raisonne
1884-88, although in dictionary
trated,
volumes, profuselyillusform, is a history of architecture in many
and representing probably the most
monumental
piece of
and
G. von
the
in
field
of
medieval
G.
Dehio
research
archeology.
Kirchliche
Baukunst
Bezold's
des Abcndlandes, 1892-1901, is a
scholarlyand comprehensive work, with many
platesuseful for the
architect and student.
J. A. Brutail's Uarcheologie du moyen
age,
study in medieval archeology,tending
1900, is a cautious and shrewd
A. Michel's

to correct

the

works.

Histoire de

mistakes
A.

and

of
exaggerations

Marignan's

Les

methodes

earlier and
du

more

mental
monu-

passe dans Varcheiconoclastic book

ologiefravqaise,1911, on the other hand, is an

school of medieval
attacking the so-called orthodox
archeology in
France.
It is interestingas representinga healthy reaction against
dogmatism, but not convincing. J. Quicherat's Melanges d'archevol. 2, Moyen dge, 1886, is one
of the earlier syntheticbooks
ologie,
medieval
on
architecture,important at the time of publicationand
not to be neglectedto-day. Anthyme Saint-Paul's
Les ecoles romanes
(Annuaire d'archeolo^ie
francaise,1878) is a similar early work of
brilliant of the French
research,by one of the most
archeologists.
L. Courajod'sOrigines de I'art romane
el gothique,1889, a scholarly
work, is more
important for Gothic than for Romanesque art, but
valuable for the study of either. T. G. Jackson's Byzantine and
Rominssque Architecture,
space to
1913, already cited,devotes more

Romanesque

than

to

Byzantine architecture.

F. M.

Simpson's A

ROMANESQUE

ARCHITECTURE

273

History of Architectural Development,vol. 2, Medieval, 1909, presents

clear in the study of
of medieval
a summary
architecture,
especially
The
of
details.
C.
H.
Moore's
Character
and
the
development
1906, is a powerful study in Gothic
Development ofGothic Architecture,
in the early
of Romanesque
treatment
architecture,with some
in two
large
chapters. A. K. Porter's Medieval Architecture,
1909,
in
the
volumes, lavishlyillustrated,
represents painstakingresearch
field. It is important, however, only for organic architecture.
Uarchitettura in Italia dal secolo VI. al mille circa,
R. Cattaneo's
1889, is a profound pieceof research in the field of Italian medieval
F. de
Romanesque.
architecture,
especiallyimportant for Lombard
Dartein's L1 architecture lombarde, 1865-82, is an early but profound
G.
Rivoira's
architecture.
T.
study of Lombard
Romanesque
Le originidella architettura Lombarda, 1901-7,
already cited,is of
A.
Romanesque.
great importance for the study of Lombard
K. Porter's four-volume
Architecture,
work, Lombard
1917, including
is the most
modern
exhaustive portfolioof splendid illustrations,
an
work on the subject,and by a scholar of universallyrecognized authority.
vols. 2 and 3, 1902 and
A. Venturi's Storia delVarte Italiana,
subdivisions of an encyclopedic
1 904, are
historyof Italian art,already
and
material
profuse
cited,important for the publicationof new
L'art dans
I'ltalie mfridionale, 1904,
illustrations. E. Bertaux's
presents

exhaustive

an

Italian medieval

publicationof

architecture.

It

was

research
followed

in the field of south

in 191 1 by A. Avena's
of
all the monuments

meridionale,covering
tions,
important,both in text and superb illustraespecially
C. A. Cummings's A History
for Romanesque
architecture.
trated
of Architecture in Italy,1901, is a popular,accurate, and well-illusThere
architecture.
two
work on Italian medieval
are
volumes,
the firstimportantfor Romanesque architecture.
H. Otte's Geschichte der romanischen
Baukunst, 1874, though old,
tecture.
is an exhaustive
and scholarlywork on German
Romanesque archider Volkder Germanen
A. von
von
Haupt's Die Baukunst
work
is
modern
by a
a
erwanderung bis zu Karl dem Grossen, 1909,
Monumenti

the

deWItalia

but
district,

profound

student

of the

architecture

of the" dark

ages,

using

the

ure
the architectdiscussing
R. Adamy's Die frankischeThorhalle zu
throughout Europe.
is here
Lorsch, 1891, an exhaustive work on a singlemonument,
ment
the whole movementioned
of the lightit throws
on
account
on

term

in the broadest

"German"

of the
Bur gen,

1901,

architecture
is

an

sense, and

of the dark

ages.
illuminatingwork on

B. Ebhardt's
the

German

Deutsche

medieval

castle.
C. Enlart's

study

tive
en
France, 1902, is an exhausreligieuse
church
medieval
architecture,really carrying

U architecture

of French

274
the

on

HISTORY

work

of

civile et militaire
secular

Vepoque

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Viollet-le-Duc.

The

France,

is

en

architecture.

R.

1904,

author's

same
a

similar

Lasteyrie's U

de

is the

U architecture

work

and

medieval

on

architecture

religieusea

authoritative

up-to-date
architecture,devoted
principallyto the style
Romanesque Architecture in France, 191 2, presents
collection of excellent reproductions of French
a
Romanesque
buildings,with an introduction (translated)by Dr. Julius Baum.
L' architecture byzantine en France, 1851, gives the
F. de Verneihl's
old point of view of Aquitanian architecture
in a scholarly way.
H. Revoil's L' architecture romane
dans le midi de la France, 1873, is
old but exhaustive
work on the Romanesque
architecture of southern
an
work

romane,

1912,

most

Romanesque
in France.
J. Baum's
on

France.

V.

Mortet's

Recueil

de textes

a
relatif

I'
'architecture

en

collection of

originaldocuments, relatingto
nating
illumiof France, in an
century
V. Ruprich-Robert's L' architecture normande, 1884-89,
way.
French
is a monumental
book of research on
and English Norman
Romanesque architecture,lavishlyillustrated.
An Attempt to Discriminate
the StylesofArchitecture in
T. Rickman's
of date and
out
more
England, 1881, a work now
important for
Gothic
than for Romanesque
is
architecture, significantas a step in
the analysis of English church
architecture.
Similarly,E. Sharpe's
elaborate
The Seven Periods
of English Architecture,1871, a more
classification of English medieval
architecture,is more
important
for Gothic
than
for Romanesque.
G. G. Scott's English Church
Architecture,1881, is a synthetic work by a learned author, devoted
C. H.
primarily to Gothic architecture,but treatingRomanesque.
Architecture
Moore's
The
Medieval
Church
of England, 1912, is a
broad
elaboration
of the point of view
toward
English medieval
France, 1911, presents

the

nth

and

architecture

i2th

architecture

revealed

in the

author's

Gothic

Architecture.

It is

F. Bond's
up-to-date and scholarly book.
An
Introduction to English Church Architecture,
1913, is an exhaustive,
on
English church
scholarly,and up-to-datework, lavishlyillustrated,
architecture
from
the eleventh
to the sixteenth
J. D.
century.
The
Mackenzie's
Castles of England, 1887, an exhaustive,elaborate,
and richlyillustrated volume, is excellent for the study of the English

somewhat

medieval

biased

but

castle.

Arquiteciura Cristiana Estive

Media, 1909, is by far the most originaland exhausA. G. B. Schayes's
work
medieval
on
Spanish architecture.
of several
Histoire de I1architecture en
Belgique, 1850-60, a work
the
of date, is still the important authority on
out
volumes, now
V.

Lamperez
panola en la Edad

medieval

Romea's

architecture

Historia

of Flanders.

de la

IX

CHAPTER

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC

well

strikingas

architecture
be

art

called "Gothic"

this

that

sense

Le
.

Moliere

fade

Ces

gout des

Que

de la barbaric

ont

for

at

the

nineteenth

barbaric.

The

most

of medieval
these

"barbaric."

to

came

It is in

of

monuments

gothiques

des

ignorants

siecles

vomis

.1

les torrents.
.

Bruyere, Rousseau, attacked Gothic

bitter and illuminating. By the
once

Boileau, La
violence

in

monuments

synonym

odieux

applied to art,
the beginning of

pointed style,and

speaks

monstres

as

numerous

of the

as

From

revival

regarded

was

those

were

"Gothic,"

romantic

the most

as

word

opprobrium.

the

to

medieval

century

of

term

Renaissance

the

The

the term.

Origin of
originatedas

art

time

with

taste

which
the
fixed.
Now
oblivion
was
changed the word
is perhaps the best
generally shrouds the origin of the name
proof of the vindication of the art.
At
the period of its development,
Priority of France.
Gothic
architecture
work"
was
generally called "French
(opusJrancigenum) and the priorityof France in the style is
thus attested.
For this reason
writers have urged that
some
the style be called not
Such
Gothic, but French.
a
change
would
be, however, not only impracticalbut misleading. As
it has been suggested that the
variant of this classification,
a
word
Gothic
be retained, but that it be applied only to the
1

The
These
Which

rank

taste

odious

of Gothic

monsters

the torrents

monuments,

of the

ignorant centuries,
spewed forth.

of barbarism

FLOR.ENCE
FIG.

138

"

COMPARATIVE

SALISBURY
PLANS

GERMANY,

OF
ITALY

GOTHIC
AND

CATHEDRALS
ENGLAND

IN

FRANCE,

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC

architecture of the lie de France, and

stylesoutside
In
that

be called

of France

support of

277
that

merely

this attitude

the contemporary
ure."
"pointed architect-

it has

fundamentally organic architecture

been

was

pointed
developed in

out

the

stylesof other countries

either consisted of imitation of this or of a superficial
tion
applicaof pointed or Gothic detail to buildingswhich
were
structed
conaccording to Romanesque principles.
however, grave
Definitionof organic Gothic. There
are,
view.
this
of
from the
Regarded strictly
point
objectionsto
point of view of organicstructure, Gothic is a system of vaults,
supports, and buttresses,the supports being strong enough to
bear the crushingweight of the vaults only, and the stability
maintained
of the structure
chieflyby an equilibrium of
Such a system is to be found perfectedonly
counterthrusts.
He de France, and

in the

lie de

the so-called Gothic

France

or

in imitations

of the

architecture of

however,
buildings of the same
age,
though they lack the complete organism of the French, display
the same
characteristics,
especiallythe consistent use Of the
pointed arch. In France the systematic use of the pointed
In other countries
arch became
generalfor structural reasons.
used unstructurally,
that member
was
apparently for esthetic
the argument, which so often
but this does not justify
reasons,
of the pointed arch outside of
in books, that the use
appears
the He de France represents but a superficial
applicationof
French
detail to Romanesque
buildingby architects who did
the structural reasons
which
not understand
underlay the use
As we
have seen, the pointed arch
of this detail in France.
used in the Romanesque
was
period,and its use for esthetic
in England developed synchronously with
its use
purposes
that

district.

for structural
French

Many

reasons

in France.

the great organicGothic,but not the

the term.
We
must, therefore,avoid

only Gothic style.

the mistake
of
of
Gothic
callingGothic architecture solelyFrench, or French
Aside from
the futility
of tilting
the only Gothic.
at firmly
established
terms, a broader
applicationof the term is more
We may
consider Gothic architecture that style,
convenient.
marked
specially
by the general use of the pointed arch, which
the Romanesque
in all European countries succeeded
style,
in turn superseded by the styleof
and flourished until it was
Use

S.EU5ABETH

AURBTOO

CHATEAU

DE

COUCY

SEVlLLt

FIG.

139

"

PLANS

OF

GOTHIC

BUILDINGS

GOTHIC
Renaissance.

the

ARCHITECTURE

We

then

may

the characteristics

examine

279
the

subdivide

of the

art

in any

field and

region.

one

In

ural
inevitablyemphasize the structdoing, however, we must
superiorityand priorityof the organic architecture of

so

the He de France.
Esthetic

of the

Gothic
the

revealed structure.

effect
of

lie de

France

that

is this of the

So true

the

chief esthetic

effect of

buildings of that district is felt in the logicalexpression

of the

Outside

structure.

in works
Lack

clearlyunder

this is not

of France

French

true, except

influence.

Whether

of self-consciousness.

governed by structural
esthetic considerations,the Gothic
or
style was
developed
inarticulately.Its architects did not seek to formulate, at
least in

ideas

writing,the
Though the pointed

arch

round

no

one,

there

was

which
almost

audible

their

buildings expressed.
completely superseded the

of the past, as the Gothic

in the period of the Renaissance.

art

art

Socialistic
caused

by

character.

the

This

esque
of the Roman-

condemnation

naivete

later condemned

was

well

may

have

been

corporate quality of the work, for the Gothic

cathedral, like the

expression not of
It is signifian
architect,or a patron, but of a community.
cant
that, though archeology has often published the names
of the architects,or magistrioperarii,of the great Gothic
almost
cathedrals, these names
are
universallyunfamiliar
and

unnoted.

well known
would
would

The
as

not

blank

Jean-le-Loup.
Ecclesiastical

cathedrals

those

be ashamed
look

Romanesque,

at

In

and

of Amiens

of Florence
to know

and

Rome,

Reims

as

yet people who

Brunelleschi

of Robert

are

de

or

Bramante

Luzarches

or

is stronglysocialistic.
interest. Although the main

Gothic

secular

and

about

the mention
sense

the

was

art

period is in ecclesiastical building,it is

not
so
completely so as in the Romanesque period preceding
it. Especiallyin late Gothic times civil and militarybuildings
scholar
attained
therefore,
must,
great importance. The
examine
and monasteries, but town
not
and
only churches
well
farms, city houses, and even
guild halls,castles,manors,
heads and gibbets to gain anything like a complete acquaintance
with the style. Moreover
that
be assumed
it must
not
the craftsmen
the churches in the Gothic
on
employed even
interest in the Gothic

PAMi

_"tO

to

go

gy

FLOREVCE

SALISBURY

FIG.

140"

SECTIONS

AND

SYSTEMS

OF

AMTEMS

GOTHIC

BUILDINGS

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

ecclesiastics. Great

period were

281

bands

lay builders, like

the maestri comacini, traveled
from
place to place as they
were
on
employed successively
one
great buildingafter another.
the frequent presence
This fact, and
of blasphemous and
obscene carvingsin Gothic churches, has given rise to a theory
that Gothic
architecture is essentially
tion,
a
style of lay construcand

sents
repre-

revolt

againstthe

ish
monk-

domination

earlier

an

The

of
age.

facts do

bear

of

not

such

out

does

theory, nor
the profoundly
religious expression
of

the

ished
fin-

building.
Gradual

phasis
em-

revealed

on

Though

structure.

in France

the most

important

sion
expres-

oped
devel-

of the

cathedral
in the

lay

tion
self-revela-

of its structure,
the

tion
realiza-

of the esthetic

importance

of

vealed
re-

structure

did
the

not

141

AMIENS.

"

FRONT

WEST

OF

THE

CATHEDRAL

to

come

builders

FIG.

mediately.
imIn the

beginning

such

essential structural

flyingbuttresses, which later came

most
important features externally,were
from Romanesque
of Gothic
evolution
may
of
structure
revealed
gradual acceptance
as

aid to

esthetic

Aspiring quality. The

to

be

one

bers
mem-

of

concealed.
be traced
as

the

the
The

by

most

the
portant
im-

effect.

aspiringqualityof

the art has often

282
been

HISTORY

noted.

The

ARCHITECTURE

OF

emphasis

on

the

vertical

line,the soaring

expressionof the architecture,inevitablysuggest all that was

finest in the religiousideals of the Middle
Ages. To see,
however, in the vertical lines and branching ribs of the Gothic
church
reflection of the poetic sylvan setting of primitive
a
ceremonies
in the realms
of pure fancy.
is to wander
pagan
the source
Aside from
of inspiration,
however, the Gothic
architect was
clever at gaining the effects he sought.
very
his naves
and tapered
Desiringheight,above all,he narrowed
his piers to exaggerate this effect. The
desired impression
of size he got "by including and multiplying small members
admirably adapted to give scale.
Date.
In date the Gothic
period extended
roughly from
Certain
indications
of the approaching style
to
1150
1550.
do, of course, antedate the mid-twelfth
century, justas certain
isolated structures
in the Flamboyant Gothic
style postdate
the mid-sixteenth, but in generalthe four centuries indicated
the style.
compass
geneity
Homogeneity. Gothic architecture had a national homomuch
Though there are
greater than Romanesque.
local schools
another

of Gothic

markedly

so

This

numerous.

expect. In
more
become
to

in

France, they do not

did the Romanesque,

as

from

they

are

as

preciselywhat historywould lead us

had
the later Middle
Ages nations themselves
Central
authority became
homogeneous.

nationality. In

felt and

was
as

own

nor

one

fact is

stronger, language purer, and

their

differ

where

individuals

districts where

national

consciousness

conscious

more

less federal
less

was

of

authority
awakened,

that local schools

France, it is significant
differed especially
from the national style. As

in southwestern

of architecture

always,

find

we

impressing architecture.
General
development.
it will be well to
the

styleas

whole.

the transitional

recording history,and

architecture

Before

say

Our

attempting

even

history

tion,
classifica-

development of
clearlybe
point of departure must

architecture

word

of the

about

the

lie de France.

Although
early use

English writers have called attention to the

of the pointed arch in England, the English buildings can,
nevertheless,be regarded as Romanesque and not transitional
Gothic.
Subsequent variations of the stylesometimes neglectmany

FIG.

142

"

AMIENS.

THE

VIEW

CATHEDRAL.
INTO

THE

APSE

OF

THE

INTERIOR,

LOOKING

284
ed

HISTORY

organic structure,
a

ARCHITECTURE

OF
but

rdle in the art

organic structure

that

plays

so

mental
funda-

the country which developed

The late twelfth century and

to

it

belongs priorityin the style.

the early thirteenth
the transition and
saw
development of
the organic Gothic style in the He de France.
(the
By 1220
date of the foundation
of Amiens
cathedral)the stylewas well
century is the age of early but

understood, and the thirteenth

ment
Building in this style,with refinefullydeveloped Gothic.
and superficial
modification,continued in France through
the fourteenth
the close of the period a
century, but toward
radical change came
the art.
over
Flamboyant architecture
was
developed, having been introduced from England.
Development in England. Origin of continental Flamboyant
used
the pointed
have
architecture. England, as we
seen,
arch at an earlyperiod,but the first truly Gothic buildingson
British
soil represent French
influence.
The
early style,
called earlyEnglish,or Lancet, coincided with the thirteenth
The form of English Gothic, however, soon
changed.
century.
in the late Middle
The Englishmen in power
Ages were scarcely
than
naturalized
Frenchmen
and inevitablyborrowed
more
France.
from
Quite as inevitably,however, they changed
and impressed it with their own
what
they borrowed
genius.
In the fourteenth
century, therefore,the English Gothic style
assumed
into
a new
expression,and the Decorated
stylecame
details
the end of the century Decorated
being. Toward
were
copied in France, and the fifteenth century Flamboyant
(orflaming) stylewas
developed along lines suggestedby the
boyant
Curvilinear
late Decorated
or
stylein England. This Flamstylespread from France all over the continent, and
is characteristic of fifteenth and

sixteenth

century architecture

more
England. England, once
originality,
developed in the fifteenth century
style which flourished there until the

outside

of

asserting her
the Perpendicular
advent

of the

Renaissance.

France.
Classification.

mind,
various

we

may

attempt

period. France we
have
give priority
put at the head, and in France we must
to the He de France.
Normandy nearly kept pace with the
He de France in creative activity,
and Picardy and Artois can
centers

of

this generaldevelopment in
the
fuller classification,
and number
With

activityin

the

Gothic

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC

285

these two.
classified apart from
Together these
of developingorganicGothic.
Other
districts formed the home
be

scarce

divisions

are

less important.

Burgundy

had

styleof its own,

ures
retaining the porches,often the square ends, and other featAnother
sion
divireminiscent of Burgundian Romanesque.
of Champagne, midway
gundy
Burbetween
might be made
and the lie de France, though approaching so close to
that the subdivision is hardly necesthe latter architecturally
sary.
the
so-called
ished
A very originalstyle,
Plantagenet,flourmarked
in southwestern
France, and was
by the use of
aisles the height of the nave,
vaults, and
by unusual domed
other
peculiar features, showing strong English affinities.
Still another
styledeveloped in the south, bare in decoration
and

characterized

by

might be made

free

use

of terra

Further

cotta.

sions
divi-

of

well as
as
Brittany,architecturally
geographicallyclose to Normandy, and central France, where
flourished a hybrid partaking of the characteristics of many
tecture
styles. We must, therefore,note that, though Gothic archinational homogeneity in France
had more
than Romanesque
it did vary decidedlyaccording to the district,
and
since we
insisted upon,
the point must
be more
must
trate
concenattention
architecture
the structurally
of
on
important
the north and are in danger of forgettingthe divergencesof
the stylein other parts of the country.
England, Germany, Italy,and Spain. Outside of France
the problem is simpler and the stylevaried with the period
rather than the district. In England, for example, though
the Perpendicularstylediffered widely from the Lancet, each
is found throughout the country during its period. In Germany
imitation
of French
find generally an
At
work.
we

slavish,as in the cathedral of

Cologne; at times it is very free,as in the so-called HallenOne may,
kirchen.
therefore,subdivide the German
buildings
the one
the
other
into two groups,
with
imitative,
a strongly

times

native

this imitation

flavor.

importation of
immediately
Italians.

In
the

is almost

Italy Gothic
French

modified

Here

to

architecture

Cistercian
suit the

began

style,but

was

esthetic demands

as

an

almost
of

the

geography played some

part, as in Tuscany,
where the Tuscan
Romanesque so stamped the Gothic art of
the chief variation was
the district,but
caused
by the

OF

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

inspirationand by date. In Spain the

stylewas generallyhomogeneous. In the beginning it was an
modified,
importation from Languedoc and Auvergne, soon
detail and
especiallyin the south, however, by Moorish
Spanish taste.
individual

of

source

Gothic in other countries.

In the Low

Countries

Gothic

was

originality
except in
secular
The
halls and
town
architecture.
guild halls of
which givesthe district
Flanders, however, show an originality
be called to the
real importance. Finally, attention must
imported

from

DOMICAL

France

RIBBED

FIG.

and

shows

VAULT

143

"

DEVELOPED
EXAMPLES

OF

important architecture which was

still remains, in the Holy Land,
and
we

little

MEDIEVAL

in

course,

to

thank

VAULT

VAULTS

built,and

other islands of the Mediterranean.

have, of

GOTHIC

much

of which

Cyprus, Rhodes,

Crete,

For these monuments

the crusaders.

Importance of the developmentof details. Unfortunately for

the logicalstudent, one
of buildings
select a number
cannot
which exhibit in chronologicalorder the steps in the development
of organicGothic architecture.
Progress was so rapidand
vance
buildings so seldom homogeneously completed that the adof the stylemay
best be illustrated by selecting
or
one
details from
then arrange
more
buildings. One may
many
these details to show
the steps in the development of organic
be
not
Gothic, even
necessarily
though the arrangement
the
to
chronological.Archeologistsmay
locality
dispute as
and date of the first singleflyingbuttress,but for us it will be

287
recognizethat the singleflyingbuttress, occurring
it does in many
as
buildings,represents a structural step
the hidden
between
flying buttress and the double one.
With
of the development of the important Gothic
a
grasp
enough

to

features,
then

in

are

we

position

reconstruct

to

fully developed
organic Gothic
building,or, if we
prefer

concrete

examples, to
why
of

naves

derstand
un-

the

Amiens

(Figs. 138 and

142)and of Reims
(Fig. 144) have
_

considered

been

perfect examples
of the fullydeveloped
earlystyle.
The vault.

The

important

most

of

single feature
the

Gothic

ing
build-

is, of

course,

the vault.

Indeed

the whole

study of

Gothic

ure
architect-

hinges
the
the

upon

and

vault

FIG.

of

treatment

144

THE

1914,

its

have

with
more

crowns

THE

LEVEL

CATHEDRAL.
FIRST

VIEW

OF

BOMBARDMENT

CROWNS

OF

IN

DEVELOPED

VAULTS

In

connection
the

THE

AFTER

SHOWING

GOTHIC

abutment.

THE

REIMS.

"

VAULTS

with
architecture

Romanesque
seen

level

that

architects

crowns

could

flexibly than
of

raise the

the
crowns

vault

the

to

came

be

made

domical

level

of the

of

it

was

transverse

the

He

de

realize that

lighterand
vault.

To

France
the

we

vault

constructed
make

the

obviously to
necessary
and longitudinalarches.

288

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

either by stiltingor by pointing these

When
the pointed arch
arches
was
or
by doing both.
used for the first time transitional Gothic
thus structurally
could be

This

began.

Just

done

where

can

be

the process

That

to say.

proved by

this first occurred

just when

or

many

and

slow

was

experimental

like the

monuments,

it is impossible

churches

of

Creil, Langres, and Morienthe

transverse
val, where
arches

sufficiently
pieced out

not

are

pointed,and are
by flat walls built
them, which

raise the

of the arches

above
crowns

point level,
with the point
or nearlylevel,
of intersection of the diagonal
to

ribs or, in other

words, the

of the vault.

crown

plan

tried and

was

crowned

realized

this

found

cessful,
suc-

advantages of

the
level

Once

and

vault
the

the

were

of this

use

graceful,essentiallyGothic
the rule (Figs.
form became
144).
140,
143, and
The
copyright by Macmiiian
FIG.
ING

145"

SECTION

OF

OF

Co.

THE

THRUSTS

THE
AND

VAULT-

form

of

the

loftier
lighter,

^t

came

mQre

DIREC.

searching study

THEIR

ment.

ABUTMENTS

flying buttress

With

abutment.

creation

GOTHIC

SHOWING

CONOID,

TIONS

"

used

Even

ot

when

its

the

abut-

den
hid-

in Norman

Romanesque the
thrusts
of the vault
but partiallyconcentrated
were
on
and
much
of
the
resistance to them
it,
was
supplied by a
sturdy wall. The Gothic architect was slowlyfeelinghis way
toward
of the wall, the place of which
a complete elimination
was
ultimatelyto be taken by stained glass,and his greatest
the concentration
of the vault thrust on
the
problem was
buttress which

was

was

to oppose

it.

Stilting
of the longitudinalrib. The solution of the problem
in the stilting
of the longitudinal
ribs.
In Romanesque
came
architecture all ribs sprang

from

the

same

level.

A horizontal

GOTHIC
of

section

the

springing,at
spread, would

vault

face

from
at

broad

as

289

its infilling
feet above the
some
a
point where the ribs had had a chance to
be square.
exerted a thrust
The whole mass

outward, however,
a

ARCHITECTURE

that

so

as

and

one

buttress

it had

to oppose

side of the square,

or

as

to have

the distance

diagonal
given level

one

the

to the other at the

level.

same

By

the

of
stilting
longitudinal

this

all

the
rib

was

changed. While
the diagonal ribs
began to spread
at

main

the

the two

post
im-

itudinals
longup

ran

vertically some
distance

before

springing, thus
pinching in the
vault

the wall

on

side.

cross-

section

of the

vault and

its infilling,

vaulting

or

conoid
call

as

it,at

we
a

may

point

above

the

the

conoid

thrusts

of the

thrust

the

SAINT

LEU

SHOWING

WINDOWS,

THE

VIEW

ESSERENT.

THE

VAULTS

FLYING

OF

THE

THROUGH

AND,

BUTTRESSES

square,

but

rib, and

all these

angle
triangular,one
touching the wall (Fig. 145). The oblique
diagonal ribs thus met and pushed out at right
long axis of the buildingin the direction of the
be

not

of the transverse
on

of

"

main

impost, would

angles to

146

INTERIOR,
THE

distance

some

of

FIG.

narrow

"

were

centrated
con-

face
againstwhich the narrow
could be placed. The
stiltingof
the architect
accomplished what

surface

opposing buttress
the longitudinalrib thus
most
desired
a
perfect concentration
an

thrusts

of the

vault

thrusts

29o

HISTORY

OF

surface.

ARCHITECTURE

against a

narrow

the vault

web, and its surface

form, difficult if
but

which

remarkable

Flying
thrusts

FIG.

skill

147"

form
took

now

the

on

soon

warping of
share
peculiar,plowa

describe

learned

While

the

vault

to

with

being evolved, architects

DE

FLY

ARRANGEMENT
OF

involved

cally,
geometriwith

construct

(Figs.142 and 146).

"GEKMEII

DEVELOPMENT

impossibleto

not

builders

buttresses.

was

5-AMBRoGio

the

Such

OF
THE

5 GERMAIN

DES

AND

no

less

AND

THE

busy

in

REIMS

Pnts

MONUMENTS

BUTTRESS

were

its concentrated

DETAILS

TO

DEVELOPMENT

ILLUSTRATE
OF

THE

THE

FACADE

developing buttress forms to stabilize it. The hidden flying

the aisle roofs to
buttress,designed to carry the thrust over
in Norman
to hand
pier buttresses on the outer wall, was
Romanesque, and though this type was wofullyinadequate,it
was
adopted in a modified and refined form in the transitional
church
of Saint Germer-de-Fly. Obviously such buttresses
touched
the wall at a point too low properlyto meet
the thrusts
of the

nave

vault, and

the aisle roof,as

at

the architects

soon

raised

them

Saint Germain-des-Pres, Paris,where

above

they

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

the exterior

291

A virtue
genuine flyingbuttresses.
then made
of necessity,and the flyingbuttresses
was
were
of the most
soon
urally
one
expressive as well as structesthetically
important features of the building.
Their development. Structural
ment.
logic ruled their developArchitects,knowing that the chief points of thrust of
on

appear

arch

an

vault

or

springing and
with

arch

to

vault

tress,
singlebutsingle arch, and

double

haunch,

with

one,

oppose

the thrust

the

springing and

at

for
When

the

the

its

composed

that

the

the

at

were

at

abandoned

soon

as

an

of the
other
an-

the

haunch.

buttresses

sprang

at

singleaisle this form was

adequate; when the aisles were
double the first pair of arches
over

to

came

inner

end

an

and

between

aisles,where

outer

placed,and
arches, repeating the

pier was
carried
wall.
be

the
The

seen

two

to

former

system

more

the

of

nave

first two,

thrusts

in the

the

outer

may

Amiens,

the latter in the

apsidal end of
there
(Fig. 147). When

Reims

aisles,as in the Sainte

tress
Chapelle in Paris, the pier butwere

no

148

FIG.

adequate and was

(Figs.139 and 148).
Their form and decoration.
was

the

buttresses
and

channels, the

extremity
the

face

were

which

water

of the

of the

made

wall

from

to

decorated

with

buttresses,to which

regularpitch was
of
carry, by means
the

this water
the

gargoyles,grotesquely carved.
were

CUT

time the forms

same

on

mouths
The

crockets, and
the arches

SAINTE

TRANSVERSE

Their

gathered

buttresses

THE

PARIS.

"

CHAPELLE.

At the

refined.

were

they

tained
re-

nave

was

of
backs

roofs.
thrown

lished,
-estabcovered
At the
clear of

widely projecting
of the

buttresses

the tops of the great

sprang,

were

of

pier-

weighted with

292

HISTORY
The

pinnacles.

OF

off the vault thrusts

The

and

vault

FIG.

149

"

PLANS

one

resist the

OF

THE

needs

has

the

EAST

and

weather

ground.

grasped

that

of other

singleprincipleholds

THE

of structural

to

great piers was

easilyto the

abutment,

the

understand.

tended
more

After

apse.

side of these

outer

which
set-offs,

many

ARCHITECTURE

ENDS

OF

FIVE
OF

DEVELOPMENT

and

development

given
carry

of the

features

is easy
to
for all: the fulfilment

GOTHIC
THE

CHURCHES,

TRATING
ILLUS-

CHEVET

the

recognitionof the esthetic value

of such a fulfilment frankly revealed.
Let us
examine, for
example, the development of the apse.
Nothing is more
Gothic
than the tremendously complicated
characteristically
Gothic
chevet or east end of the French
building,yet it was
attained simply and logically
(Fig.149). The primitiveform
it in early Christian
of apse, as we
have
seen
times, was
a
At the period
semicircular wall covered with a half-dome.
of the

earliest transitional

Gothic, the form

of the half -dome

given cells resembling the gores of

carried on ribs in harmony with the other
were
a melon, which
Such
vaults.
a
form, though not
necessarilythe oldest
at Saint
Martin-des-Champs, Paris. The
example, appears
then became
one
merely of deepening the cells,or
process
the level
until eventually they reached
raising their crowns,
was

changed

of the
be

and

the vault

intersection of their ribs.

seen

Amiens..

An

intermediate

stage may

at Saint Germer-de-Fly, a fullydeveloped example at

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

293

Arrangement of the apsidalribs. At firstthe intersection

at a point touching the last transverse
the apsidalribs came
dangerous
arch
but

ways,

made

more

from

the

at Saint

choir, as

rib of the

of the

choir.

than

defect

semicircular,and

last choir

intersection.

The

imposts

All the ribs

to

where

in many

the

was

apse

ribs sprang
obliquely
the apsidalribs at their

two

meet

then

were

last transverse

remedied

was

at Amiens,
successfully

most

the ribs the

gave

thrustingagainst the

of all

appearance

This

Germer.

of

radii of

circle (Fig.149).

the
ambulatory and
apsidal chapels. Meanwhile
The vaults
ambulatory and apsidalchapels developed apace.
offered
of the former, being not rectangularbut trapezoidal,
at the
since the diagonal ribs would
not meet
some
difficulty,
This was
remedied
of the vault.
center
by breaking these
The

PARIS o1h PIER

PARIS 71h PIER

FIG.

ILLUSTRATING

150

"

PLANS

THE

ribs at the intersection and

vault

center.

similar

BEAUVALS

AMIENS
DEVELOPMENT

thus

OF

forcingthem

arrangement

THE

to

GOTHIC

meet

sufficed for the

PIER

at

the

ribs of

irregularly
shaped apsidalchapels(Fig.149).
of the Gothic
architect and
The pier. The
sense
common
show
his willingness
to compromise never
more
even
clearly
of the piers. The most
than in the treatment
logicalarrangement
in
the
each
member
vault
to
a
was
give
place in the
compound pier,and carry all to the ground. Such a cluster
the

floor space and obstructed

of supports, however, took up much
first
the view
of the worshipper. Accordingly the builder

ground story impost,and gave

his main
pier a semicircular form.
Feeling,however, that
more
needed, he firstadded (at the sixth pier of
support was
the nave
of Paris)a singleengaged shaft on the nave
side to

grouped

all his shafts at the

294

HISTORY

weight
pierof the

the

carry

seventh
shafts

of the

ARCHITECTURE
ribs to

nave

buildinghe
remaining sides

the

added

same

the three

on

OF

ground. At

three

engaged

more

of the round

the

pier,and

the

created
and
needed
fullydeveloped Gothic form was
only
refinement
The
old
(Fig.150).
Romanesque system of each
rib being represented to the ground in the pier recurred,

60)5

FIG.

151

AMIENS

SONS

"

DEVELOPMENT

THE

OF
PLATE

however,

in

French

AND

THE

WINDOW

BAR

OPENING.

EXAMPLES

OF

TRACERY

Flamboyant

Gothic

and

in

English

Perpendicular.
The

opening. Plate tracery. The

Gothic system of construction

inevitablytoward the suppression of the wall.

of thrust, the function of the
With the perfectconcentration
wall became
one
merely of excluding the weather, and this
Moreover
could be done as adequately by glass as by stone.
tended

the northern

builder

desired

and didactic
story-telling

glass,as the southern

purposes.

The

result

was

fresco, for
an

almost

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE
of stained

complete substitution
building became

it were

as

the

development
separated by a

of the

and

glassfor

vaulted

and

wall, and

stone

The

glasscage.

embraced

by

lights,

arch.

an

the

unit for

of two

the window

opening was

column

295

In

Byzantine, architecture the stone

above
the lightshad been
pierced with a third
tympanum
opening. In earlyGothic these openingsreceived complicated
geometric forms, and plate tracery, a tracery consistingof
openings in geometric design pierced in a thin plateof stone,
Romanesque,

in

even

the result.

was

Bar

While

tracery.

architecture

the

was

still

developing,
more
cated
compli-

however, architects graduallydiscovered that a

and beautiful tracery could be designed if the system
of merely piercinga stone
were
abandoned, and
tympanum
a new
on
tracery of thin stone bars, ingeniouslyinterlocking

principleof the arch, were

of bar for platetracery became
constant
period,and remained

substituted.

the

stone

bars, or mullions,were

merely

were

in the thirteenth

general in the later transitional

architecture.

in Gothic

cut

enframement

an

substitution

The

very

for the

and
thinlyand delicately,

bits of glass,

glass. The

century scarcelyever

six inches

than

more

bound
joined by leads which at once
long, were
suppliedmost of the drawing in the design. The
then

set in the

accepted is proved

was

of windows
in
only slightly
seen

at

The

tracery.

date.

and

them
whole

was

which

bar tracery
of Paris by the juxtaposition

bar tracery in bays differing

examples of platetracery may be

plateand

Good

Soissons, and

swiftness with

in the cathedral

with

The

of bar

tracery

at

and

Amiens

later

buildings(Fig.151).
Wheel
the

and

enormous

in the west

rose

wheel
end

windows.
or

rose

Bar

windows

of the churches

tracery also made

which

of the He

possible

commonly occurred
At first

de France.

severely geometric, but later,

designs for these were
freer and
in the Flamboyant period,the lines were
especially
bewilderinglycomplicated. Chartres and Reims afford good
be
examples of the early wheel window; the later rose may
As
the style
Amiens
at
(Fig. 141) and elsewhere.
seen
developed, the passion of the builders for lightness caused
the

them

to

fill

even

generallyblind
ii

on

the
account

triforium

with

of the lean-to

glass.
roof

over

This
the

space,

aisle,

296

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

gable instead of a
In fourteenth century buildings,as at Troyes, the
lean-to.
triforium is,therefore, lightedlike the clerestory.
The facade. The
development of the design of the west
of the building.
front kept pace with that of the other elements
a
preservation of the
Logic demanded
division of the facade,both horizontally
tripartite
terior
and vertically,
to indicate the in-

was

opened by covering the

aisle with

division

of the

and

nave

aisles and

Development was in the

direction of refinement
and expressiveness.
The splayingof the openings was
deepened,
and porches with a deep splay and covered
with
canopies were
placed in front of
enlarged until
portals. Openings were
all the space
tween
bethey took up practically
the three stories.

the

which

buttresses

marked

the

building. In time,
the bases
and later buildings,
at Reims
as
lost in the splayof these buttresses were
ing
of the porches,and the gables in the
increased in size and importance
porch roofs were
tectural
until they became
strikingarchitowers
features.
Flankingwestern
increased
in size, and were
bound
by a
the
revealed
stone
gallery,open, which
vertical division

of the

gable roof of the

the
needs

development
but examine

FIG.

152
SOUTHERN

CHARTRES.
SPIRE

of

the

west

understand

front, one

the fronts of the

Abbaye-

of
Caen,
in that
Senlis,Paris,Amiens, and Reims
Add
order.
later work, like the west
a
front of Abbeville, as an
example of the
aux-Hommes

THE

To

nave.

at

of the cathedrals

Flamboyant development, and the progression

will be self-revealed (Fig.147).
The spire. The
esque
Romanspiredeveloped in like manner.
architecture
had
shown
complicated forms of
many
the
spires. The Gothic
development was
merely toward
substitution of the pointed arch, with its vertical accent, for
the round one, and in generaltoward a more
skilful suppression

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC

of all horizontal lines which

297
from

the eye

might hamper

being

of the most
perfectexamples,
upward (Fig.152). In some
the square tower
at Senlis (Fig.153),the transition between
as
with great subtlety,
the angles
and the octagonal spireis made
and spires,
and the vertical
being filled with miniature towers
and carried up by gables set against
lines of these re-echoed
the faces of the slopingoctagonalspireabove.
Although the
spirechanged in detail,and in later works we find extreme
openwork
delicacy and
led

treatment, the ideal and

general tendency
the
the

remained

addition

In

same.

-like

spires,tower

lanterns

placed over
crossing,though this
is much
of

the

often

were

to

and

towers

western

the

detail

characteristic

more

than

England

In France

the

wood

lead.

of France.

crossingwas
often marked
more
by a
slender flecheof stone, or of
and

tion.
Capitalsand their decoraThe
development of
other details in the building
with

harmonized
those which
New

loads

and
capitals,

we

that

FIG.

studied.

have

demanded
forms

of

were

153

"

SENLIS.

THE

SPIRE

new

based essentially
on
developed,
Byzantine

the less original. The capitalwas

given
types, but none
and
breadth
slenderness
below,
greater
greater height,greater
above.

It

was

decorated

with

foliate and

generallythe former, carefullystudied

the earlywork, unfolding,bud-like forms were

more

animal
from

sculpture,
nature.

In

and we
preferred,
find the young
water-cress
or unfoldingfern carryingthe four
As the styleprogressed the sculpture
angles of the abacus.
less expressivefunctionally.
became
naturalistic and
more
Still later the forms became
brittle,
suggestiveof the withered
leaf, but at all times the carving was
crisp and delicate.
Estheticallythe foliate work gave infinite life and vitalityto

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

298

have
been
but
might otherwise
logically
style which
satisfactory.
The use
of sculpture. The didactic as well as the esthetic
value of sculpture was
fullyrecognizedand, as a result,carving
all
the building. It is not mere
rhetoric
over
was
profuse
cathedral summed
to say that the Gothic
up all the learning,
all the science,of the Middle
Ages. The decorative purpose
lost. With
all the
of the sculpture was,
however, never
of singledetails the whole, whether
and naturalism
freedom
on
designed with strict reference
porch, gallery,or roof, was
a

to

esthetic effect.

lost,and

been

have

At
we

times
find

all didactic

is never
As

Moldings.
system

Since

architect

studied

moldings

which

shade.

one

The
within

of

one

of architecture

moldings.

curves

empty,

he
and

gave

vegetable forms

calix.

would

free

play of the carver's

give the impression

works

of them

account

expect, such

exhibited

by

system

of

precedent,

the

new

nature,

masterly

most

and

effects of

created

lightand

that of the inclosure of

was

such

the Gothic

completely new

completely

conventionalized

ones,

bound

not

was

general system
concave

dead.

never

the

to

appears

sculptures,like the grotesques and

gargoyles,which are the result of

These
fancy and joy of creation.
of a building always peopled. On
cathedral

purpose

and
as

convex

the resultant
fruits in

remind
profiles
pod, or buds in

molding appeared, of course, on the

exterior as well as on the interior.
evolved, to
Parapets were
the crowning function of the classic cornice,and pinnacles
serve
were
applied to many
parts of the building,especiallythe
buttress piers. The latter were
decorated
with bud-like forms
called crockets,and were
topped with ornate finials.
Polychromy and stained glass. Polychromy played a much
more
important part than is generallyrecognized in Gothic
architecture.
the most
Of course,
polychromatic
gorgeous
effects were
obtained
of window
by a complete infilling
space
with rich stained glass. An infinityof subjects was
sented,
reprebut representationwas
to pure
always subordinated
design. Some of the most masterly of the world's designsin
color may
sometimes

Sculpture and

stillbe

seen

in the interior of Chartres.

flaming,sometimes
religious
imagination. How

The

hushed, played vividlyupon

much

is lost with

color,
the

the destruction

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

299

gauged by comparing the interior of

the glass is largely preserved, with
that of
Chartres, where
Amiens.
Although the latter is probably the more
perfect
its effect,as the cold lightstreams
in
buildingarchitecturally,
from the white glass of the windows, is vastly less impressive
The
rich polychromy of the stained
than that of Chartres.
fortified by painting the stone
members
of the
glass was
all traces of the original
interior.
Almost
paintingof medieval
of stained

be

glassmay

interiors is

lost,and

Sainte

Chapelle
displeasing.

modern

Paris, have

at

to

attempts

restore

in the

it,as

generally been

gaudy

and

By the end of the

century Gothic -in France.
thirteenth century, with the raising of such structures
as
ure
Amiens
an,d Reims
(Figs.141, 142, and 154),Gothic architectFourteenth

in France
of the

attained

succeeding century
of

and

tracery became

so

and

be sketched

may

was

and

Vaults

change.
sculptureunfolded

The

development.

century in France

fourteenth
than

full

further

refinement

ribs became

frail that

long

rather

lighter, foliate
vertical

the

bars

The

summarily.

period of

accented

architecture

tendency,

made

were

lithic
mono-

for

In some
churches, as at Chartres
safety'ssake.
(Fig. 155), the chapel of the Virgin at the end of the
took
almost
chevet
on
especial importance and became
the plan
In general, however,
a
separate little church.
decided
and
of the buildings remained
the same,
no
change
until

occurred
the

later art,

the

we

fifteenth
take

must

Before

century.
up

the

Gothic

we

examine

architecture

of

England.
ure
English Gothic. General characteristics. Gothic architectbe subdivided
into three styles,correin England may
sponding
thirteenth,fourteenth,and fifteenth centuries.
of these, howexamine
ever,
individuallyany one

to the

Before

we

it will be well to
the
even

art

as

at

First and

an

whole.

note

These

certain main
will show

how

early period,English Gothic

foremost

one

must

notice

characteristics of

widely divergent,
was

difference

from

French.

in structural

principle. Organic Gothic, in the sense that we have studied

not
it in France, was
developed in England. There is,for
example, hardly a fullydeveloped flyingbuttress system on
the island. To the end the Englishmen depended on Roman-

GOTHIC
sturdiness

ARCHITECTURE

301

for structural

safety,and this inevitablygave

a different expression to the
building.
The plan. In the plan the English building was
long, or
rather appears
to be long on
of its narrowness
account
(Fig.
157). Though Salisbury and Amiens are approximately the
in length,the former appears
much
same
longer. The English
building was
given boldly projecting transepts, and the
generally doubled, the shorter east of the
transepts were
form which
longer,giving the church the archiepiscopal-cross
esque

FIG.

CHARTRES.

155

CATHEDRAL.

PLAN

The east end of

Burgundian Romanesque.
almost
the English church was
invariably square, and this,
like the archiepiscopalcross,
seems
surely to represent a
The same
Cistercian influence.
phenomenon may be observed
In elevation
earlier in English Romanesque, as at Durham.
lower than the French
much
the English building was
(Fig.
which
increased the impression
narrowness
140), though the same
the impression of height. The
of length increased
English works abounded in towers, and a very strikingfeature
of a great square
stone
lantern above
the
was
early made
crossing.
The vaultingsystem. Facades. The Englishvaultingsystem,
ganic,
complicated,if less orexcept in a few early instances,was more

we

have

met

than

the French.

for decorative

the

in

than

point of view

Ribs

soon

for structural

of pure

came

to be used

purposes

design. Facades

and
became

even

more

applied from
decorative

HISTORY

302

OF

ARCHITECTURE

revealingthe arrangement behind

them.
extremely effective,these facades
to comparatively
suffered as entrances, and portals shrank
of ingressrather than portals.
possibilities
tiny openings,mere
with sculptadorned
ures,
Although occasionallythe facades were
at
as
Wells, in general sculpture played a far less
hiding rather than
Though sometimes

screens,

FIG.

156

"

SALISBURY.

important part

THE

in

interiors

sculpture

bareness

and

The

site.

less
To

England

in

scant, and

was

vitalitythan

make

than

FROM

SEEN

CATHEDRAL,

France.

the

result

in French

work.

for this the

THE

NORTHEAST

in the

Even
was

certain

English buildingwas, on
of its complicated plan, extremely picturesque,and
account
almost invariablyplaced on
cared
was
was
a fine site,which
for at the time the buildingwas
erected and has been cared for
since.
for by the
be accounted
Whether
not this may
ever
or
of monastic
fact that so many
of the English churches
were
foundation is unimportant. To any one who has seen the finest
which
buildingsof France masked
by the unsightlystructures
are
permitted to crowd about them, the beautiful placing of
the Englishbuildingswill come
as a great relief.
up

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC

303

Early English style. French influence. We may now

As we
have
take up the various stylesof English Gothic.
importationplays an important
seen, in the beginning French
removed.
Thus
part, though at times it is,so to speak, once
the dependence of English Gothic on EnglishRomanesque
even
Norman
In
is ultimately a dependence on
Romanesque.
other cases, as at Canterbury, the influence is much
more
The

FIG.

157

"

SALISBURY.

OF

INTERIOR
THE

EAST

THE

CATHEDRAL,

LOOKING

TOWARD

END

his name
as
Sens, a Frenchman
called to build the church, and on his death an
reveals,was
The building
Englishman, taught by him, took up the work.
of Lincoln was
ordered by Bishop Hugh, a Frenchman, and the
concrete.

architect

Here

William

of

his
Geoffrey de Noyers, whose name
proves
extraction,even
though he may have been born in England.
In short we
may
say that in originthe Early English styleis
of French
and Anglo-Norman influences.
a combination
Character of Early English architecture. The most
striking
characteristic of the style is its simplicity. Sculpture is
scant, decoration restrained,and the effect of the building
depends on fine proportionand severe
dignity. The openings
was

3o4

HISTORY

OF

generallyhigh and

ARCHITECTURE

lancet-shaped,and are so
characteristic that the style is frequently called the Lancet
style. The construction is very sturdy. Frequently shafts
not
to the main
were
even
brought down
impost. The
massiveness of the round pierswas
however,
frequentlydisguised,
by clusters of shafts, engaged or free, about them.
are

or

narrow,

shafts

These

of the

made

dark

which

marble

often

were

Purbeck
the

was

light
de-

of the

English builder.
Early English style

The

be studied

may

in the

important parts

of Canterbury,

Lincoln, and
and

in

other

Wells,

monuments.

which

Salisbury,however,
begun in

was

the year

1220,

of the foundation

and

more

of Amiens,

finished
practically

was

by 1258,

is the most

geneous
homo-

building in the style

(Figs.138, 140, 156,and 157).
The
the
158

FIG.

"

THE

LINCOLN.
ANGEL

THE

CATHEDRAL

Decorated

end

of the

Early

English style

abandoned

called

the

later aspect, the

Curvilinear,took

by

of

profusion

liernes and

thirteenth

century the severityof the

CHOIR

style,sometimes

style. By

its place. It

tiercerons,or intermediate

the

orated
Dec-

Geometric, and, in its

Ribs

ornament.

and

was

marked

was

multiplied,and

were

ribs,were

from

run

rib

impost. Arches received many

orders,
and were
enriched with complicated moldings. Above
all,
openingswere
enlargedand fitted with elaborate tracery design.
This tracery, profuse as it was,
at first followed severe
metric
geo-

to

rib, or from

rib to

patterns, but later it grew

curves

introduced.

were

became

the

became

common.

orderly than

rule, and

time

interlaced

The
that

In

of the

riotous,and

more

the

wavy-lined tracery

arcades

general effect

eccentric

was

with

ogee

richer

Early English style. There

curves

and
are

less
no

305

homogeneous

Decorated

buildings,like

the

the

of Lincoln, and

nave

of York

the

choir

(Fig.159) and

west

front

Minster, exhibit the style.

Perpendicularstyle. Despite its richness the

The

destined

style was
the

famous

cathedrals, but large portions of

angel choir of Lincoln (Fig. 158),

to

be driven

Perpendicular,the

in the fifteenth century

out

in

last,and

Decorated

by

some

of the English
original,
respects the most
styles. In this styleunsparing emphasis
laid

was

the vertical line.

on

brought direct

Ribs

were

the pavement.

'Openings
tremendously enlarged, and
tracery composed of vertical

were

filled with

bars, which

to

from

ran

intervals

joined at
members.

The

was

bottom,

horizontal

shorter

by

effect

to

top

emphasize

to

angle.
only the perpendicularbut the rectRectangular panelling became
general, and walls and vault surfaces
were
given an all-over pattern of similar
design.
not

supports.

Vaults

received

complicated

treatment

in the

Vaults and
the

most

Liernes and tiercerons

historyof Gothic.
almost
were
multiplied until it became
impossible to distinguishthe functional

ribs from

the

scarcely were
vaults

with
the

were

an

decorative.

Indeed

ribs, for the

practicallyhomogeneous,
functional

ribs.

applique of decorative
time the "fan

same

there

At

"IV

(Fig.161)

vault"

vault
developed the most famous
of the style. The
is both
form
name
descriptiveand misleading. In a fan

was

vault

the

ribs radiate

vaulting conoid
branch
cone.

to

The

follow

fanwise

from

is, however,

roughly the

effect from

below

foliageof a tree, and

in English Gothic.

With

SYSTEM

main

the

lines

form
the

of

an

THE

YORK.

"

OF

THE

impost.

nearly circular, so

is very

the

159

FIG.

"

the

inverted

CHOIR

The

ribs

concave

ing
like that of the branchis

one

of the

most

complication of

the

tiful
beau-

ribs

3o6

HISTORY

further

came

OF

ramifications.

ARCHITECTURE

Keystones,

for

example,

were

designed as large pendent stones, safe, since monolithic.

of vault and
came
Openwork, too, in the members
support, becommon.

Arches.
struck

Arches

from

were

given new

several centers

and

forms.

They

sometimes

The

flattened

depressed ogee.

flattened, so-called

"Tudor"

arch

became

favorite

great

At

date.
the

to

came

point like

flattened,

were

the

with

later

time

same

ends

east

square

finished

at

were

tremendous

windows, filled with Perpendicular

tracery.

Examples. Examples of
the Perpendicularstyle are
more

of the
the

than

numerous

Decorated.

best

is

Henry

those
One

of

VI I.'s

(Fig.
chapel, Westminster
and
1 60),
an
equally fine
and
consistent specimen is
Saint
George's
chapel,
Windsor.
est
Perhaps the finof
where
FIG.

6O

ABBEY.

offer

some

"

LONDON.
HENRY

of the

WESTMINSTER
VII.

's

most

CHAPEL

is

Gloucester,
transept, choir, and t

cloisters
the

all

(Fig. 161) are

Perpendicular

style. The
perfectspecimens of

last
the

in

named

fan vault

in

England.
in France.
Flamboyant Gothic. The style
Turning to France
tive
construcwe
now
study the Flamboyant style. No new
may
principleis here involved, the style being one merely of
a
new
arbitrarydecorative system, the basis of which is an
of French
All the germs
to counter-curve.
oppositionof curve
French,
Flamboyant are to be found in English Curvilinear.
duced,
vaults became
complicated. Liernes and tiercerons were introalthough the tendency was to joinrib to rib,rather than--/

GOTHIC
rib to

The

common.

had

Above

impost.
an

all,the lines

were

307

and

concave

and

wavy

in
pointed arch, especially

alternate

whether

ARCHITECTURE

the interlaced

porch gable,spire,or abutment,

and
extraordinary lace-like effects were
of delicacy rather than
one
expressionwas

FIG.

l6l

became
the

same

France.

restlessness

nervous

"

GLOUCESTER.

THE

is added.

common.

Local

Flamboyant

style was

very

It

was

unified

The

INTERIOR

CATHEDRAL.

applied
which

became

arcade,

common,

obtained.

The

strength,and
flattened

OF

broke

differences

France

arch

profile. Openwork,

convex

in

certain

the ogee

THE

arch

CLOISTERS

down,

and

in all localities of

saw

the

elements

of

styleand accepted them from England.

Examples. The first clearlyFlamboyant buildingin France
is the chapel of Saint John in Amiens cathedral,built from 1337
Thence
the style spread abroad, good examples
to
1375.
being the cathedrals of Quimper, Nantes, and Chambe'ry,
Saint Ouen
at Rouen
(Fig. 162), and the church of Saint
Vulfram, AbbeVille (Fig.163). These are all of the fifteenth
century, but the stylecontinued vigorous until long into the
sixteenth.
Saint Maclou
of the
at Rouen
(Fig. 164), one
finest of French Flamboyant buildings,
not completed until
was
the

1541,

from

HISTORY

3o8

OF

ARCHITECTURE

the Flamboyant south transept of Beauvais

dates
1548. The dates of these later buildingsare especially
and

since they coincide with what

interesting,
the Renaissance

is generally considered

in France.

German

Gothic.

qualities.When
of German

Originaland
we
approach

Gothic

we

imitative
the

ject
sub-

find that

ferent
dif-

conditions

sults.
produced different reThe
Germans
accepted Gothic
with reluctance.
They already had a
vigorous,highly originalstyle in their
tional
Romanesque, which expressedtheir nain
genius. The Gothic movement
Germany was, therefore,a late one, and
the period of transition,when
Gothic
many
was
being accepted, was
long. Gerher
Gothic
to
generally owed

France, and
German

genum"
does

ul
FIG.

162
OUEN.

'

"

ROUEN.
SYSTEM

for
as

are

even

indebted

the

phrase "opus
of Gothic.
description

mean,

however, that

to

franciThis

the

man
Ger-

and
styledoes not show originality,
frequentlydiffer widely from the French.
For purposes
of classification,
as
already
divide the German
suggested,one may
Gothic buildingsinto two classes,
original
and
imitative,according to the degree
of originality
in the work.
As one would expect,
Early monuments.
the early German
Gothic buildings
showed
a
high degree of originality.
man
They represent a reminiscence of GerRomanesque with a free applica-

t 1

not

we

SAINT

tion

of French

Gothic

detail.

Such

(Fig. 165), for

tween
example, shows a clear compromise bethe Gothic
character
architectural styles,
two
showing
in the
in
the
and
arches
and
vaults
only
consistentlypointed
isolated example.
an
moldings. Nor is Bamberg
Many
them
other churches
of approximately the same
date, among
cathedral

as

Bamberg

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC

and

the cathedrals of Naumburg

the

compromise between
Romanesque, though they differ
buildingsdiffer one from
the
tendency to
same

imitate

French

forms

became

309

(Fig.166),exhibit

Munster
French
in

Gothic

and

detail,as German

another.

As

time

German
esque
Romanwent

on

marked.

more

Imitative

the

far

By

works.
best

of the

known

so-

imitative

called
monuments

are

copies,

more

or

free, of the

less

churches

of northern

France.
has

What

often

called

been

the

first

purely

Gothic

church

of

many
Gerbuilt

was

between
1243,

in

and

1227
at

Treves,

fairly faithful

imitation
church
Yved
The

of
of

at

the

Saint

Braisne.

minsters

FIG.

163

"

ABBEVILLE.

of

WEST

SAINT

VULFRAM.

PORTALS

and
Strasburg
followed it, the latter
Freiburg (Figs. 167 and 168) soon
largelydependent on the former, but both harking back to
the abbey of Saint Denis
as
a prototype, though in neither
meet
mere
building do we
copyism. Perhaps the most
imitative of all the German
cathedrals
is Cologne (Fig.138),
with
reproducing the system of Amiens
great fidelityand
This cathedral has,
possibly even
begun by a Frenchman.
however, more
homogeneity than Amiens, and divergesfrom
it in many

minor

details.

The Hallenkirchen.

Probably

the least imitative and

most

Gothic

native

OF
of

churches

churches.

hall

or

HISTORY

3io

These

vaults, the aisle

domical
nave,

and

hall.

It

ARCHITECTURE

Germany

the

were

three-aisled

were

Hallenkirchen,

buildings,with

being as high as those of the

of a great
the buildingthus having the appearance
is probable that they were
originally
inspiredby the
of much

churches

the

vaults

sort

same

characteristic of southwestern
France.

be, the

However

this may
Hallenkirchen
were

developed

in

Germany and
increased in popularityfrom
the earlyGothic through the
came
Flamboyant period,and bethe

most

German
Gothic

types.

frankly Gothic
have

istically
characterof all the

first

The

example
been

the

seems

to

church

of Saint Elizabeth

at

Marburg (Figs.139, 169, and

170),erected between
1235
and 1283. Here, as though
man
to emphasize the native Gerqualityof the type, the
three shelled,
plan is made
with
a
polygonal apse the
FIG.
VIEW

164
OF

ROUEN.

"

THE

SAINT

WEST

FRONT

breadth

MACLOU.
AND

SPIRE

and

size

of the aisleless choir,

transepts of the
with

polygonal

same

ends.

extensivelyfollowed, as in the Wiesenkirche at Soest, and the church of Saint George at Nordlingen
(Fig.170),and on account of its simplicityit found particular

This

type

later

was

brick

favor in districts where

Fourteenth

century

century Gothic

Gothic

art,

so

was

the chief

building material.

in

Germany. In the fourteenth

reluctantly accepted in Germany,

Gothic
expanded prodigiously.Fourteenth
century German
did not, however, show great originality.The period was
one
As in France, progress was
of expansion rather than progress.
almost
and forms at times became
in the direction of lightness,
emaciated.
mode,
Sculpture aped the prevailing French
exaggerating the French grimace, and foliate carving flung

GOTHIC
off all restraint.

ARCHITECTURE

On

the

simple and the Hallenkirche

of
most
originalmonuments
cathedral

century Hallenkirchen

we

the

the

period may

may

As

165

Holy

Cross

BAM

"

at

BERG.

mention

CATHEDRAL.

Gmiind,

and

PLAN

that

kept

were

Among

be mentioned

the

the

types of the fourteenth

01

FIG.

plans

great favorite.

was

built in 1377.

of Ulm,

hand

other

of

the

"

church

AND

Saint

of

the

SYSTEM

Lawrence

at

Nurnberg.

Fifteenthcentury Gothic in Germany. The fifteenth century

boyant
FlamGothic of Germany, except for the importationof some
French
details,developed from that of the fourteenth.
The
able to
independent,and was
stylewas in largemeasure
influence even
nation
Italyand France. In generalth" art was a culmiof the lightnessaimed
at in the fourteenth century.
Columns
to the point of nudity^forms thinned,
were
simplified
but combinations
Thus

without

character

example,

of
were

of members

direct

became

imitation

the

extraordinarily
complex.
style approached the

English Perpendicular Gothic, Vaults, for

at
often merely barrel vaults interpenetrated

312

rightanglesby
surfaces of both

time

other barrel vaults of less

covered

with

decorative

network

height,and

the inner

of decorative

ribs.

At

of

lozenge-likepaneling
was
developed which
analogy to the English
Perpendicular paneling. The Hallenkirche, always popular,
time
received its greatest development. At the same
now
became
the technique of the builders and carvers
very skilful,
and
they were
generally
in
other
tries
counregarded
the equals if not
as
the
superiors of the
the

same

system

bears the closest

French.
The

fifteenth
century

Hallenkirche.

As

amples
ex-

of the Hallenkirche
in

fifteenth century

the

one

cite

may

the

five-

aisled Liebfrauenkirche

of

Mulhausen, the cathedral

of
and
Munich,
many

others.

Even

where

clerestory is
however,

the

preserved,

the

fifteenth

century building appears

scarcelyless distinctively
German,

mistake

never

I66-MUNSTER.

FIG.

CATHEDRAL.

SYSTEM

of gaints

or

those

with

of

the

church

members

their thinned

thing but German.

Spanish Gothic
analogous to trut
France.

There

detail,the

sane

The
of the

occurred

and

style in

modification

needs, climate, and

national

importation from France and

Languedoc was very marked,
all

over

France.

would

the

vaults

and

Halle

the

other

Gothic
countries

paul

(1423-97)
(1535-54),

Mary
lozenge decoration, for
at

history of
the

one

peter

Gorlitz

at

of Saint

and

in

any-'

Spain is

outside

of

importation of French
of the art according to local
In the
taste.
beginning the
especiallyfrom Auvergne and
same

but

soon

came
inspiration

from

GOTHIC
General

ARCHITECTURE

313

characteristics.

however,
Many specialcharacteristics,
differentiated the Spanish church
from its French
model,
it originality.Exigencies of climate as well as the
and gave
abundance
of classical monuments
suggested a flatteningof
roofs and an accentingof the horizontal.
Large window space
needed

not

was

in

climate, and

sunny

almost
as

disappeared. The triforium

suggested by the almost

flat aisle roofs.

accent

on

line and

With

the

the

wall

of

surfaces,which

diminishingof
classic repose

frequentlysuppressed,

was

inevitably
feeling

edifice. There
and

clerestory

the

contraction

increased the classic

of the

the

horizontal

openings, came
broad

often

Gothic

is

lessness
rest-

increase of

an

in the

Spanish

Decoration,
other hand, took on

work.

on

the
char-

acteristically
Spanish
sparkle. Undercutting was
deep, edges crisp,contrast
strong, and broad

contrasts

arranged between

profusely
decorated and wholly bare
THE
FIG.
167 FREIBURG.
MINSTER,
surfaces.
Carving became
SEEN
THE
SOUTHEAST
FROM
especiallyexuberant during
the Flamboyant period,and
a steadily
increasingSaracenic influence tended to exaggerate
the already exotic qualityof the forms.
The
interior.
interior of the
The
was
Spanish church
Piers were
generally dark and roomy.
widely spaced and
"

massy,

vaults

lower

than

in France.

Peculiarities

of the

The
and the coro.
the capillamayor
Spanish buildingswere
the apsidalchapel, bounded
former was
by: the ambulatory,
The
almost completely screened from the rest of the church.
latter was
an
equally screened choir, arranged west of the
crossing. These features tended to break up "the. interior and
render its size more
difficult to appreciate(Fi^.^'Vii).

3i4

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Twelfth cvntury Spanish Gothic. As one might expect, the

chaotic.
In
twelfth century Spanish buildingsare somewhat
Catalonia, for example, the abbeys of Poblet and Santa Creus
from near
founded
Narbonne, and show the
were
by monks
influence of the architecture
doc.

On

the other

churches

of

of

Langue-

hand, the Cistercian

Alcobaza

(Portugal) and
Burgos, displaythe

Las

Huelgas, near
stronglydomical vaults and nave
aisles of equal height which
France

and
western
south-

alike to them

gave

and

Germany.

to

century Spanish Gothic.

the thirteenth
century inspiration
from northern
France, and Spanish

Thirteenth
In
came

architecture,without

identity,rivaled
known

and

the

are

French.

cathedrals

north

each

last from

in the

in

have

cathedral

any
FIG.
THE

168

"

I B

MINSTERS

seems

does

not

SYSTEM

to

slightlyearlier
Fourteenth

spring,as

the

Bourges;
buildings farther

France

and

Toledo

pagne.
Cham-

resemble
former

The

architects

same

worked
is

both.

was

upon

Burgos

the

than

more

may

Leon

eclectic than

more

Chartres

other

however,
and

from

Toledo, though it shows

of

period

1226, the latter somewhat

later, and

or

lie de

Burgos and
other closely.

founded

well

came

of the

Burgos, Toledo
The inspiration

Leon.

for the first two

of the

of

own

best

The

finest works

(Fig.171),and
that

losingits

ence
influ-

that

of

building. It
dry eclecticism,

single French
suggest any
but

has

rather

the

taneity
spon-

of its great French

prototypes,
they do, from fine models
only

in date.

Spanish Gothic.
century Gothic of Spain there appeared
in France, although refinement
as
never
century

In
the

the

tendencies

same

went

fourteenth

so

far in the

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC
former

country

France

weakened

cathedral

in the

as

and

somewhat,

of Gerona,

begun

architecture of southern

The

latter.

in

we

influence of northern

find such

works

1316, inspiredonce

the

as

by the

more

France.

Fifteenthcentury Spanish Gothic. The prosperityof Spain

during the fifteenth century favored architectural development.
As in Germany,

feel

we

originality

much
in the

later work.

This is attained
an

the

by

emphasis on
which
qualities

we

have

called

characteristically
Flat
Spanish.
roofs became

more

carving
more
sparkling,
more
buildings
The
spacious.
common,

octagonal lantern
be

to

came

very

prominent feature,
as

at

Barcelona

and

Valencia.

The

openwork

detail

of

French

was
Flamboyant
speciallysuited to
Spanish taste, and
was

known
1442,

very

169

FIG.

"

MARBURG.

SAINT

LOOKING

INTERIOR,

ELIZABETH.

TOWARD

characteristic of late Spanish Gothic.

examples
imitated

are

not

the

from

THE

THE

APSE

best

The

openwork spiresof Burgos, begun

a

French

work

but

German

one,

in

the

ambitious
cathedral of Cologne. The most
church of fifteenth
century Spain,the cathedral of Seville (Figs.139, 140, and 172),
in 1401.
Here the warm
climate of Andalusia and
the Moorish
influence of a country long under Moslem
tion
dominaexaggerated the typicallySpanish characteristics of the

was

begun

architecture.

Roofs

are

never

so

flat,-piersnever

so

widely

316

HISTORY

OF

spaced, interiors never

has a speciallyMoorish
combined

Moorish

so

and

buildings like the famous

ARCHITECTURE

gloomy, as at Seville. The detail

eccentricity.Indeed the Spaniards
Christian detail so
skilfullythat
Sevillan Giralda
(Fig.172) present

I i.1 i

Marburg,

Saint

Elizabeth

FIG.

I7O

Nordlingen,
"

SYSTEMS

OF

r
"

rut

Saint

George

HALLENKIRCHEN

actually constructed in several

different and seemingly antagonisticperiods.
the
Origin of the Gothic stylein Italy. In no country were
fundamentals
of the Gothic structural systems as completely
disregardedas in Italy,nevertheless the style attained there
of great charm.
a strong positionand
produced monuments
the home
It was, however, purely adventitious.
Italy was
of classical Roman
architecture.
It received
Romanesque
readily,but gave it so strong a flavor of classic art that the
a

harmonious

style,as

we

whole

have

seen,

when

has often been

called that of the proto-

GOTHIC
Renaissance.

revivals,and

ARCHITECTURE

classic
to
Italy had
always been
prone
in the Romanesque period showed
signsof being

all the Renaissance

when
ready for the greatest of them
overwhelmed
of Gothic fashion,
the peninsulawas
by the wave
centuries the pointed style was
It
and for two
supreme.
however, an imported,
was,
foreign fashion, just as
"

fashion in dress at the

time

imported

was

It arrived

Paris.

same

from

in almost
the

purity, at
complete
hands
principally of

and

in Latium

va

thence

mari

spread

in

Galgano

1217),and

These

monks

but

other

Casa-

(soon
sites.

built Cistercian
of

churches

monumental

roused

to

Tuscany

after

Gothic

(1187),

San
(1217),

Rome

near

the

settled at

Cistercians,who
Fossano

"

the

an

early

sort, and

Italian

for

taste

the

but Italian
pointed style,
taste promptly modified the
styleimported.
General character of Italian

Gothic.

The
had

Italian
little

in

Gothic

the

sense

went

that

which

FIG.

171

VIEW

OF

TOWARD

TOLEDO.

"

THE
THE

CATHEDRAL.
LOOKING

INTERIOR,
APSE

vaults, and

systems, tied
all

thus

buttress

meager

lacked

of

sense

logicalstructure, and
produced buildings
included

tects
archi-

the

considered

French

most

important

style. Along with this lack of structural

disguised but recognizable classical feeling.

and
but classical arrangements
detail gave
way,
The
retained.
horizontal line, as in Spain,
emphasis were
Classical

was
a

emphasized.

Intercolumniations

Wall

consequent loss of scale.

small, and

interiors gave

an

spaces

were
were

impressionof

broadened, with
broad, openings
roominess

which

HISTORY

3i8

frequently went

OF

ARCHITECTURE

into

over

bareness.

classical reminiscence, played

Since

small and

openings
was
neglected. Its place was
by fresco,or painting in water
were

began as

FIG.

172

"

cheap substitute

SEVILLE.

THE

often
screens,

behind

substituted

for the

richlydecorated
which

the

church

as

in these

large rdle

well

as

changes.

wall spaces broad, stained glass

taken by mosaic, and especially
color

AND

plaster,which

wet

on

for mosaic.

CATHEDRAL

THE

Climate,

The

GIRALDA

timber

TOWER,

roof

SEEN

was

FROM

SOUTHWEST

vault.

Facades

in carved

marble

often

seemed

became

and

gorgeous

glass mosaic,

vainly to attempt to
conceal itself. The Italian Gothic stylevaried geographically,
being simpler in the north, and emphasizing polychromy in
find very
central Italy. It also varied chronologically.We
simple buildings in the early Cistercian period, and very
ramified ones
into vogue.
when
Flamboyant Gothic came
Early Gothic architecture in Italy. Perhaps the best example
of the early Cistercian buildingin Italy is the church of San
Martino, near
Viterbo, built in the mid-thirteenth century.

GOTHIC
the

About

ARCHITECTURE

time

same

the

church

of Saint

Francis

built

was

of French
(Fig. 173), and the Italian modification
structure
began. In proportion and general external effect
this buildingmight be Romanesque.
In the second half of
Gothic
the century many
raised, the most
buildingswere
of which is the cathedral
of Siena.
Here one
sees
interesting
Assisi

at

FIG.

173

ASSISI.

"

SAN

FRANCESCO.

PLAN

of the Italian screen-like

in
fagade,decorated
carved marble and polychromy, and the stripedmarble interior
architecture.
characteristic of Tuscan
Many minor churches
constructed in imitation of the cathedral buildings. In
were
the north an architecture with
more
organic feeling was
where
the
church
of Saint Francis
at
Bologna,
developed
a

good example

(1236-40) shows
Cistercian ideas

real

buttress

system.

In

the

south

mingling with architectural ideas from

the Latin Orient, and, as always in southern
Italy,the result
an
was
interestingarchitectural hybrid.
Fourteenth

were

century

Italian

Gothic.

Fourteenth

in Italy,as elsewhere, developed chieflyfrom

In Florence
architecture of the preceding century.
Gothic
the

cathedral

toward

wide

(1296-1367)exaggerating the
intercolumniations,bare

century
the local
we

Italian

interiors,and

find
trend

the

320

HISTORY

Tuscan

violent

ARCHITECTURE

OF

polychromy applied

the

to

fagade (Figs.

omitted, the
189). The triforium was
in
clerestoryreduced, and the openings greatly diminished
manic
size. The plan was
given a trefoil shape which reveals Gerand
influence (compare Figs, in
138). The free
standing clock tower, Giotto's "Lily Campanile," is one of
the most
graceful
examples of the
Italian polychromatic
pointed
style. In Umbria
138,

140,

174,

and

the

of

cathedral

Orvieto

(Fig.
175),dating from

the

of

end

the

thirteenth

and

the

beginning

the

fourteenth

century, shows
imitation

an

of Siena.

wooden

The

of

roof

frankly used

was

here, however,
the

and

contrast

of interior
is

in

than
The

OF

174
THE

"

FLORENCE.

INTERIOR,

THE
LOOKING

CATHEDRAL.
TOWARD

is

of the
trusive,
unob-

the facade

VIEW
THE

Srena.

body

church
FIG.

stripes

violent

less

APSE

of

one

the

most

and

gorgeous

least
the

spoiled by

two

restoration.

modern

is marred

by

inevitable

important Gothic work was

Saints John and Paul, and

done

combination

The

incongruity.
in

In

Venice, in the

in other towns.

the

At

the

north

church

the very
of Pavia was

of

end

of
of

begun,
century the gracefulCarthusian abbey
which
with its triconch ending,lanterns,and exterior galleries,
reveal

the influence

Fifteenthcentury

of

Germany

Italian

once

Gothic.

more.

This

influence

becomes

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

in the

fifteenth

321

Important secular
in many
in Flamboyant Italyis seen
architecture
buildings,
but the ecclesiastical architecture of the period is best summed
(Fig.176). In this work Italian,
up in the cathedral of Milan
influences mingle. The
Italian lofty
French, and German
retained.
were
ground story and wide intercolumniation
reduced.
The triforium disappeared and the clerestorywas
used to hold in
Windows
were
kept small and tie-rods were
important

most

ship
workman-

The

the vaults.

the

is German,
detail

boyant
Flam-

fied
French, modi-

On

Germans.

by

century.

the

exterior the vertical line was

unsparinglyemphasized, as
in English Perpendicular,
man
though the detail is GerPitched

in character.
roofs

in

abandoned

were

of flat ones, but the

consequent horizontal lines
favor

tude
disguisedby a multiof
pinnacles. The

were

material

fine

was

throughout,and
so

was

marble

the

ing
carv-

and

delicate

nacle,FIG.
profuse in figurework, pindetail that

and

before

at

Milanese

that

late

date.

so

Gothic
are

many

time
and
be

completion

the

CATHEDRAL

THE

SOUTHWEST

at

architecture

least to

we

we

have

elsewhere.

shall have

to

thus

the credit of

stylewhich

call attention
was

There

have

we

had

classification,
omit.

to

the

produced

elsewhere.

sance
Renais-

harmoniously

so

our

of real interest

the

it is to

with

Scandinavia, Switzerland, and

that

cathedral

Orient and

in connection

of which

discussion

keen
especially

THE

FROM

structure

of the Gothic

mention

well, however,

Gothic

of the Latin

subdivisions
to

of Milan

they finished

architecture

merely

SEEN

FRONT,

in Florence, and

in full sway

was

the

the

very

ORVIETO.

"

obtained.

lace-like effect was

Long

175

The

summarily to

It will
fact that

in

Austria,

regret is
dismiss

the

322

HISTORY

OF

Gothic

architecture

carried

their builders
nearer

Gothic

monuments,

of

with

Latin

them,

the

FIG.

176

"

Orient.
set

result

and

out, they carried

OF

crusaders

civilization

series of

imposing

secular, in Palestine

Occidental

EXTERIOR

The

Western
a

islands.

the

MILAN.

up

was

ecclesiastical and

in the Mediterranean

conquest turned

driven

the

East, and

in the

Syria and

of

ARCHITECTURE

THE

Even

when

invaders

were

and

the tide

being

CATHEDRAL

their

building operations,as at
Gaza, until the last days of their occupation. The turning
of this tide meant, however, that Gothic
to be
buildingswere
in Palestine and on the mainland, and frequent and more
rare
the Occidentals
held longer
complete on the islands where
on

sway.

Secular architecture.
architecture

Gothic

period,but
medieval

At

times

the

is

As
more

always in the
important

Middle
than

astical
Ages, ecclesisecular

in

the

this very fact has caused

writers to overemphasize
ecclesiatical art at the expense
of secular.

secular

monuments

rival

the

ecclesiastical in

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

323

In every
of the secular

period,of course, the character of the

detail
buildingscorresponded to that of the
ecclesiastical buildings. Quite as obviously the progression
from early to late date was
from comparative simplicity
one
to
greater complication. Different sorts of secular works
received greater emphasis according to the period. In the
Romanesque and early Gothic periodsinterest centers almost
entirelyon buildings,
publicor private,of a militarycharacter.
in the latest Flamboyant, when
In the later periods,especially
importance.

civic order

the rule and

was

secure,

largely lost their militarycharacter, and

lay monuments
finds

felt himself

the individual

one

and
town
greatest development of the medieval
fortified palace of the petty noble
guild hall, and the slightly
the

to build

prince. The powerful nobles continued

well-nighimpregnable castles until the centralization
or

merchant

in the

king forbade
give only the main
with

monument,

such

We

monuments.

characteristics

the

mention

of

of each
few

point out roughly the periodsin which

its greatest importance.
The fortified
The most
town.
imposing
of

course

the

among

fortifications of
that the whole

town

became

are
earliest,

were

so

type

distinctive
each

and

and

of power
shall be able to
of

examples,

type attained

secular monuments,

the fortified towns.

composed

secular

with

view

unit, and it is not fanciful

The

to defense
to think

of

that of
principlewas
with walls, especiallystrong wherever
surrounding the town
the town
was
unprotected by natural defenses such as cliffs
and of fortifying
or rivers,
angles of the walls by salient towers
which
provided for enfiladingfire on besiegersattacking the
We
curtain wall between
the towers.
have
already noted
such
a
period, and
system at Avila, in the Romanesque
variations
infinite. Secondary walls of defense
were
were
built outside the stronger inner walls.
Beyond the outer walls
Access to
moats
were
dug, and frequentlyfilled with water.
the space between
the inner and outer walls was
provided by
and
drawbridges, ramps,
tripleor quadruple gates, covered
with
stone
galleries,
pierced with openings, through which
missiles might be dropped on the heads of invaders.
Once an
the

town

entrance

found

as

had

singlemonument.

been

himself in

forced

within

The

the outer

cul-de-sac,
exposed

to

wall, the invader

the fire of the inner

HISTORY

324

ARCHITECTURE

OF

defenders until such time

piercethe vastly stronger

inner fortifications.
If at last he succeeded
in winning the
inner works he might take the town, but had yet to besiegethe
citadel,a strong fortress placed in the strongest positionin
the town, into which
the defendingmilitaryretreated.
fortified
Carcassonne.
of
Aigues-Mortes and
Examples
in most
towns
to be found
are
European countries,though the

FIG.

177

"

AIGUES-MORTES.

finest and
far

the

Carcassonne.

he could

GENERAL

complete

most

surpass

as

others:

The

former

VIEW

OF

in France.

THE

CITY

Here

some

but
may
The

FICATIONS
FORTI-

examples
the towns
of Aigues-Mortes and
in 1246 by
(Fig. 177), founded

are

Saint Louis, presents fortifications in the form

roughly 600 by

AND

two

of

rectangle

yards,with twenty well-preservedtowers,

and some
round.
The
has disappeared,
moat
square
the machicolations
and inner galleries
for defensive fire
150

stillbe studied, as well

the defenses

of the ten

gates.

resque
regularityof the plan shows that the pictuof
medieval
most
secular
building was the
irregularity
of the architect's adapting himself to eccentricities in

monotonous

result

as

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

325

site or warping his buildingto take militaryadvantage of such

the site is a plain,architectural irregueccentricities. Where
larities

disappear.
need.

our

picturesque and
Carcassonne
(Fig. 178) will

Visigothicperiod in

fifth century
teenth
up to the four-

reconstructed

restored
skilfully
nineteenth

the

to

part

frequently

were

were

in the mid-

by

century

Viollet-le-Duc.

and

the

They

century.

in

fortifications date

the

Here

of the

example

an

site,the Cite of

irregulartown
serve

For

site was

The

sible,
loftyand inaccesand
man
exaggerated
this inaccessibility
to a pictdegree. No one
uresque

by

nature

part of the fortification reother

part.
peats
any

curtain-wall,turret,

Ramp,

cul-de-sac

and
so

all conform

skilfullyto

the

of

the

advantages
that

part

of

pears
ap-

bed-rock,

The

structure.

is
in

outer

1600

circumference, and
are

The
with

those

the

The

dominated

whole
work

centuries.

dates

The

respects the

some

of the

examples one
the
fortifying
and
galleries,
town

in

the

of the Gothic
castle.

FORTIFICATIONS

THE

fortified by

thirteenth

monument

OF

CITE.

LA

CARCASSONNE.

"

1200.

fiftyround towers and

The
major portion of
imposing,and

178

FIG.

VIEW

than

more

walls

the

ceinte
en-

than

more

inner
the',

and

or

part of the human

bed-rock

The

terrain

handiwork

human

yards

natural

from

the

has

finds the

In

and

the

most

secular
interesting,

most

come

chief characteristics of the

fortified town.

citadel.

late twelfth

affords

whole

period which

the

by

the

down

to

us.

castle coincide

fully developed

inner

walls, the towers

wall angles,the moats, machicolations, corbelled
ramps,

outer

such

as

the

citadel is reflected in the

towns

afforded.

Even

donjon. This, however,

the
was

326

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

placed either at the least accessible part of the site or at the

weakest, the idea in the latter case being further to strengthen
the weakest part. Not all castles have this completeness. In
the Romanesque periodcastles were
simplerthan in the Gothic,
and
before the Romanesque
even
castleperiod there were

FIG.

179

"

COUCY.
THE

GENERAL

DONJON

like defenses, mounds

VIEW
BEFORE

OF
ITS

THE

CASTLE

DESTRUCTION

GROUNDS,
IN

SHOWING

1917

protected by earthworks, ditches,and

and ditches often became

palisades. These mounds
part of the
the
system of defenses of castles subsequently raised upon
retained the square
sites. Some
castles lacked donjons ; some
In the earlier castles the
keep in preferenceto the round.
concentric.
single; later they became
systems of defense were
the
characteristics were
Diversitywas great, but fundamental
.

same.

Examples of Gothic castles. Coucy. Many countries exhibit

tle.
important and well-preservedexamples of the medieval casand
In England there are
both of the Norman
many,
of later periods,among
which we
emphasize the castle
may

GOTHIC
of the most

of Harlech, one

medieval

Ages. The
building in

the

of the

some

As

ARCHITECTURE

327

stupendous fortresses

builders

learned

crusades, and

the

impressive remains
frequently in medieval

so

offers

perhaps the finest monuments

examples being the castles
of Pierrefonds
and
Coucy
(Figs.139 and 179). Pierre
fonds has been restored by
Viollet-le-Duc, and, though
in

sense

false

presents

the

profound medievalist, of

castle.

fortress

Orient

contains

ure.
militaryarchitect-

architecture, France
of all,especially
good

struction,
recon-

part of

on

Gothic

of

of

document,

vivid

most

much

Latin

most

of the Middle

The

more

blown

impressiveCoucy,
up
by Mazarin, is in ruins. Its
donjon, 210 feet in height,
with walls in
feet

places 34

some

thick,stillstands.1

Such

building,before the days

of gunpowder, was
literally
impregnable,and Coucy was
a

never

the

taken.

To understand

spiritwhich

the medieval

consequent

dominated

I8""

FIG-

MEDIEVAL

TOWN

HOUSE.

the

castle,and
architectural

pression
ex-

it attained,one
needs but read the motto
of
the Sieurs de Coucy: "Roi
ne
prince,ne due, ne
suys, ne
comte
aussi; je suys le Sire de Coucy."1
which

So superbly insolent
of such

As

of their

appearance
to

motto

was

justified
by

the

time

went

on

the

nobles

lightened the
somewhat, though

dwellingsand sacrificed
dangerous extent, the defensive character

1It is

reported (April,1917) that the retreatingGermans

completely this famous monument.
2 1
not king, nor
am
prince,nor duke, nor even
count; I
of

Coucy.
12

lordship

building.

Later castles.

never

of the

have

am

razed

the Lord

HISTORY

328

ARCHITECTURE

OF

castle of Jean-de-Berry at Mehuntion,

to us
sur-Yevre, built in 1386 and known
by an illuminain combining late Gothic
succeeded
delicacy with
work.

For

adequate

instance

the

Defense

defense.

was,

however, still the underlying

idea.
The

town

house.

need

The

all civil architecture.

athwart

of defense
The

town

lay like a shadow

house (Fig.180)was
fense,
arranged for denot
against
soldiers but against
and

roisterers

ruffians.

The

raised

was

above

well

the

and

street

stairs

along
the

trance
en-

the

arranged
the flank

wall.

of

Before

form
reaching the platwhich

on

door

l8l

FIG.

"

THE

COUNTRY

DWELLING

OF

the

blocked

by an open grille,
a
through which
be
could
pike
thrust to repelundesirables.

EVAL
MEDI-

(VIOLLET-LE-DUC)

PEASANT.

opened,
was

way

the

In the

of
carried

on

space

beams

caused
or

scheme

was

followed

expand, and,

to

story

upper

corbels,to overhang the

already noted

manner

the

in

medieval

whether

the

gencies
exi-

house

town

street

in the

Constantinople.
house

were

of

stone

This
or

of wood.
The

peasant'shouse. The country peasant's house (Fig.

raised doorway, flankingstairway,
181) commonly had the same
and platform for defense as the city house.
There
was
the
the upper
generally.no connection between
story and
The walls
ground story, the latter being used for the animals.
and

gable ends

often of monumental

cut

usually steeplypitched and thatched.

Such

were

stone;

the roofs

peasant houses

GOTHIC
had
in

all the charm

ARCHITECTURE

picturesqueness,
honesty, and directness

of

architectural
fulfilling
The fortified
manor.

defenses

the

were

ground
a

moat,

draw.

may

be

carried

or

and

the

needs.
Of

turrets

was

an

at

the

The

open

dimensions
These

manors.

reaching to

corners,

manor

to the small

approach

Within

fortified

corbels.

on

ambitious

more

country

with

generally square,

329

surrounded

was

gate made
Such

court.

by

and
were

the

by

means

of

type of dwelling

at Saint Medard-

seen

en-Jalle (Fig. 182), near

Camarsac
at
Landes, and

(Gironde).
Municipal and corporation
halls. Especially
in the later
Middle
Ages the municipal
and
tained
corporation halls atgreat importance.
The

and

Hotel

de Ville of France

Flanders, the

Pubblico

Palazzo

of

Rathaus

of

Italy,
Germany,

monumental
Of the
the

were

all

survived

were
munistic
comFIG.

in free towns

Europe,

in

Flanders.
or

resist assault
more

sort

same

character,which

common
over

ceived
re-

ment.
treat-

guild halls, semi

in

the

but

fell with

SAINT

"

OF

SKETCH

ally
especi-

The

182

THE

MEDARD-EN-JALLE.
MANOR.

(VIOLLET-

LE-DUC)

hall
the

if the town

were

town,

and

was

not

intended

to

taken, consequentlyplans were

regular,esthetic considerations

were

more

emphasized.

of fortified

works,
frowning character
more
were
delicate,more
profusely ornamented, and better
mirrored the contemporary
style. This is especiallytrue in
the buildingsof late date, and the finest belong to the Flamboyant
period.
The town
The town
and guildhalls of Flanders.
halls were
usually
generallyof fairlyregular plan. The lower story was
the record office. In Flanders a beffroi,
a
or clock tower, with
bell for summoning the citizens,
was
a common
adjunct. The
The

buildingslacked

the

330

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

stories in height,with the

buildingswere
usuallytwo or more
central portion carried up as a tower
which started square
and
became
were
octagonal. Roofs
generally
steep, and
very
with
dormers.
fine
Flemish
picturesque
supplied
Among the
halls we
mention
those of Ghent
(1481),Brussels (1401may

FIG.

183

"

YPRES.

THE

CLOTH

HALL

AS
OF

55), and

Louvain.

The

trade

IT

APPEARED

BEFORE

THE

BARDMENT
BOM-

1914

and

guild

halls

of

Flanders

usually differed only in interior arrangement from the town

hall,and were
frequentlytaken over at a later date, and used
halls.
the
The finest of all the Belgian trade halls was
as town
the
so-called Cloth
Hall of Ypres (Fig. 183), dating from
thirteenth century, but almost
wholly destroyed by shell
fire in 1914.
Halls and

In France we find the same

of France.
especially
important in the Flamboyant
types of monuments,
erected as town
halls, as trade
period. These buildingswere
halls,or often merely as privateresidences of the very wealthy
mansions

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC

of the

private mansion

The

bourgeois.

hall,otherwise

town

the

331

usually lacked the beffroi

similar. The
buildingswere

stories.
Tiers of
bay of two or more
divided by buttresses with Flamboyant detail,
windows
were
eccentric
delicate and
the Flamboyant arch, with
curves,
form
window
the
The
favorite
of
used
was
throughout.
being
transom
or
cross
window, the lightbeing divided by an upright
main

unit

was

mullion

FIG.

the

in the

184

"

center, and

BOURGES.

third of the distance

cross-bar

MAISON

DE

JACQUES

of stone

COEUR

Each
'the top.
window
Roofs
reproduction of the one below.
from

rhythmic
steeplypitched, and

with

dormers

one-

was
were

thus

very

which

repeated
provided
below
them.
In the
perpendicularly
Plan
courtyard the ground story arcade was
usually open.
and
broken
skyline were
by pavilions,and by elaborate
whole
effect was
delicate, orderly, yet
chimneys. The
picturesque. Good
examples of this Flamboyant French
the motifs

of the windows

secular architecture

may

be

seen

at Paris in the H6tel

Cluny,

332

in the

Rouen

at

Maison

de

Domestic
domestic

HISTORY

OF

Palais de

Jacques

Cceur

architecture in

architecture
were

side of the square

came

introduced.

FIG.

The

185

"

Justice,and at Bourges in the

(Fig.184).
England. In England, as in France,

followed

first the mansions

soon

ARCHITECTURE

civil architecture in detail.

built around
to

trend

FLORENCE.

be
was

court, but

At

the entrance

omitted, and
toward

THE

irregularities
were
picturesqueness,
irregu-

PALAZZO

VECCHIO

and small scale,so that the Tudor

houses give a greater
larity,
The
impressionof intimacy than any works on the continent.
Middle
Ages thus prepared the way for later English domestic
work, and such a building as Compton
Wynyates, though
in spirit.
medieval
in detail,is Renaissance
Secular architecture in Italy. Municipal individuality.In
little difference
Italy,as in Flanders and France, there was
between
the town
hall,the ducal palace,and
architecturally
the same
the private residence of the wealthy citizen,and
Differfunctions.
two
or
more
building often combined

GOTHIC
ences

from

came

ARCHITECTURE

date, and

333

above

all from

geography.

Nothing more
clearly shows
independence and selfof the Italian medieval civic spirit
than the way
in
sufficiency
which each cityarrogated to itself a peculiartype of secular
the

architecture,a fact which

together and

in constant

all Italian

ways

They

true

when

towns

communication.

near

were

In certain

general

medieval

resembled

mansions

held

one

other.
an-

usually

were

regular in plan, built round

court, and

provided with
a campanile incorporatedor
free standing. Divergence
occurred
principallyin the
a

of details in

arrangements

bay, in

the treatment

and

of detail,

in the

pression
general exbuilding.
architecture
of

of the
Domestic

Florence and Siena.

as

we

or

by the
(Fig. 185)

see

may

Vecchio

Palazzo

In Florence,

the

Bargello,the appearance
of the buildingwas
bidding.
forThere
of the

bays,

and

was

dark

had

two

was

exterior

the

stone

vision
di-

no

1 86

FIG.

PUBBLICO

used

The characteristic window

roughly rusticated.
lights,
separated by a mullion and embraced
by
and

pointed arch, the

but wider

intrados

and extrados

apart at the

crown

than

of which

hand, the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena

the Sienese architect,like the Sienese

graceful and

more

received

finer

campanile
form

was

arches
arch

and

with

sought

was

less

forbidding

finish,and the
made

design of

more

use

slender

three lancet-like

centric
con-

springing. On
(Fig.186) shows
painter,sought

forms.

of brick
and

not

were

at the

the other
that

PALAZZO

THE

SIENA.

"

into

was

material

The

The

common.

loftier.

The

window

with very pointed

lights,
by a singlehighly pointed

delicate cusps, embraced

concentric intrados and extrados.

Each

native

opening,for

of window
form, especially

town

thus

its

HISTORY

334
and

own,

ARCHITECTURE

OF

is always found except where

originality

another.
able to force its ideas upon
The most
Secular buildingsof Venice.
the most

ways

of the Middle

and

charming
those
Ages were

citywas

one

famous, and in

originalItalian secular
of Venice.

many

buildings

These, like

so

much

secular work, attained greatest

period,and

the

FIG.

sion

as

well

as

invariablyleft
became

less

secular

187

"

heightsduring the Flamboyant

in general expresnew
buildingswere

VENICE.

detail.
open,

broken,
Rich

but

as

that

the reflection of the canals

architecture.

PALAZZO

DUCALE

Ground

and,
so

THE

almost
story arcades were
the eye ascended, the building

the

effect

the most

harmonious

reduplicateby
complicated parts of the
polychromy was used to
was

to

with
exteriors were
veneered
fortifycrispcarving. Sometimes
polishedmarble, sometimes terra cotta, or smaller stones in
colors giving the impression of terra cotta, were
used.
two
sinuous
The most
used for
and gracefulof ogee curves
was

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

335

counterpoisedby delicate
openings and arches, the curves
Such
cusps, givingthe actual opening a pointed trefoil form.
arches were
commonly interlaced,and the consequent quatrefoils between
them
were
cusped and given round or slender
Roofs, like all Italian palace roofs,were
pointed form.
kept
flat.

In lieu of cornices

conventionalized

wood, which

decorated
edges were
spiny battlements, of colored stone or

with
even

piquancy of the effect. In a sense

medieval
offshoots
of the
all the Venetian
palaces were
Palazzo Ducale
of secular
(Fig.187). This most monumental
followed with
buildingsin Venice set the fashion which was
other buildings,
delicate variation and refinement
in many
and
contado.
from Venice the stylespread over
the Venetian
Other Gothic monuments.
here bring to a
Though we must

close

added

the roof

discussion

our

the

to

of

medieval

secular

architecture,it is

monuments
point out the existence of numerous
of medieval
prehension
art, usuallywholly forgotten,which aid in a comof the style. Bridges,such as that at Avignon or
the Pont Valentre
(Fig.188) at Cahors, are often reallygreat
of Gothic
monuments
architecture,combining the needs of
with
and
fine proportions.
defense
logical construction
be learned from
can
Similarlymuch
boundary monuments,
lanternes des marts
of
(monuments to signalizethe presence
latrines.
In
a
cemetery), well heads, dove-cotes, and even
short the mass
of material is enormous,
and a little explored
to

necessary

field is open to the student

The medieval ensemble.
would

one

for

as

case
a

expect, the

of medieval

secular architecture.

and
Picturesqueness

ensemble

in medieval

its

cause.

times

As

is noteworthy

its irregularityand

picturesqueness. Buildings
not planned in an
were
orderlyway, except in the
group
of buildingsfor defense, when
everything gave way to

definite scheme.

Even

here, as

we

have

seen,

the result

was

lutely
absogenerallyasymmetrical, except where the terrain was
without variety. The picturesquenessof the medieval
ensemble
was
not, however, the result of mere
haphazard
grouping. It came
principallyfrom a logicalconformity to
the peculiarities
of the site,and is allied to the structural logic
which
produced the Gothic cathedral. For example, if a
Gothic architect were
designinga bridge he would not design
a

symmetricalone

with

an

even

rise and

fall,and

force

his

workmen

to

OP

place it across

ARCHITECTURE
river of any

of bottom.

sort

consider firstthe river bottom, discover

would

the

HISTORY

336

channel, and

longest
bank,

as

span

then

design

the

over

the

If this

channel.

it frequently was,

bridge

the

result

88

"

CAHORS.

PONT

THE

positionof

with

the

were

toward

arch

asymmetry

was

but picturesquenesscreated
picturesqueness,

FIG.

the

and

He

of
one

and

governed by

VALENTRE

picturesquenessof the ensemble

was
similarlygoverned. Those who regard the medieval town
plan as merely haphazard have as their ideal a construction
of leveling,
grading,and difficult engineering,
which, by means
oftentimes
destroysthe local flavor of the site in order to prepare
for an artificialgrouping. The medieval
architect,from
whatever
motive, preferred to harmonize
buildings to site
structural good

rather
more

vice versa,
frequentlylooks
than

country than

The

sense.

and
as

the ensemble

as

result the medieval

though
at

an

it

ensemble

belonged properly to

earlier

or

later date.

the

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

influenceof Gothic

The

of Gothic
The

sorts.

influence

structural

architecture

on

principles.

later

subtlest,and perhaps the

of Gothic

337

most

The

fluence
in-

of many
important,was the

styleswas

structural

principles.These, once learned,

could never
at a period when
wholly be forgotten. Even
Gothic itself was
despised,Gothic structural designs lived,
often
be confessed, were
were
freelyapplied,and, it must
the Gothic
Even
details,moldings,
wofully misunderstood.
carvingand the like,left their impresson later detail,especially
in the

early Renaissance.

Influenceof Flamboyant Gothic in France. Turning to more

concrete
examples of Gothic influence,the importance of the
Flamboyant stylein the history of architecture has never
the
properly been emphasized. Outside of Italy, where
Renaissance
classical revival, Flamboyant
natural
was
a
the most
Gothic determined
significant
expression of later
but
the system was
In the early Renaissance
architecture.
of a superficial
one
applicationof imported Italian Renaissance
detail to a structure
motifs
fundamentally and in significant
need
the Hdtel
One
only compare
Flamboyant Gothic.
de Chenonceau
this. Even
to prove
Cluny with the Chateau
much

later,when

the

Renaissance

in France

became

more

If we
Flamboyant Gothic remained.
selves
analyze,say the formal portionsof the Louvre, and ask ourflavor
what
gives the building its peculiarlyFrench
despiteits classic detail,we shall be forced to reply the steep
roofs,the dormers, the broken skyline,the pavilions. All of
and withstood the
these are of native medieval French origin,

formal, essentials

assaults

of

of Italian classicism.

is true
Influenceoffifteenth
century Gothic elsewhere. What
house
in France
The PerpendicularTudor
is true elsewhere.
ing.
dwellthe form of the Early English Renaissance
determined
the small scale
The
picturesqueness,the irregularity,
associate with English domestic architecture,is of
which we
and the modern
medieval origin,
Englishman reverts to it as his
national style.In Germany and the Low Countries the stepped
but
gables and picturesquenessof medieval architecture were
In Spain the Plateresquestyle
overlaid with classical detail.
it fit the lines
the freest warping of classic detail to make
was
of Flamboyant
Flamboyant Gothic was,
Spanish Gothic.

HISTORY

338

of the most

therefore,one
its power

is by

influential of the world's styles,

and

spent.

means

no

ARCHITECTURE

OF

CHRONOLOGICAL

LIST

FRANCE

Morienval.
Saint

Senlis.

c.

c.

1120.

"

des

Champs.

c.

"

1136.

1140.

c.

"

FLANDERS

parts c. 1080; later

de Fly. 1130-60.

Paris,Saint Martin
"

MONUMENTS

Earlier

"

Germer

Creil.

AND

OF

1155-91.

Paris,Saint

Germain

des

Pres.

"

Dedicated

1163;

some

parts

siderably
con-

earlier.

Paris,Cathedral.
1163-1235.
Avignon, Pont Saint Benezet.
1177-85.
Langres. Twelfth century.
Carcassonne, Fortifications. -Chiefly late twelfth
"

"

"

"

and

thirteenth

centuries.
Soissons."
c.

Choir

finished

1212;

rest

mid-thirteenth

century; spire

1160.

Chartres.

later

1250;

Reims.

-Facade

"

1 2 1

"

Amiens.

1 2

"

c.

1145;

rest

chiefly1194-1260;

earlier

spire c.

spire 1507-14.

1-90.

20-88.

Coucy. Early thirteenth century.

founded
Aigues-Mortes. Town
1246; fortifications begun 1^72.
Paris, Sainte Chapelle. Dedicated
1248.
Saint Medard-en-Jalle. First half of the thirteenth century.
Ypres, Cloth Hall." Thirteenth
century.
Camarsac.
Late thirteenth or early fourteenth
century.
Saint
Ouen.
and
later.
Rouen,
1318-39
Amiens
Cathedral, Chapel of Saint John. 1373-75.
Mehun
sur
Yevre, Castle of Jean de Berry. 1386.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Pierrefonds.

"

c.

1390.

Fourteenth
Cahors, Pont Valentre.
century.
Brussels,Hotel de Ville. 1401-55.
Louvain, Hotel de Ville. 1448-59.
Abbeville,Saint Vulfram.
Begun 1480.
Ghent, Hotel de Ville. 1481.
Paris,Hotel Cluny. 1490.
Quimper. Chiefly fifteenth century.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Nantes.

"

Chieflyfifteenth century.

ARCHITECTURE

GOTHIC

339

Chiefly fifteenth century.

End of the fifteenth century.
Bourges, Maison de Jacques Cceur.
Finished
Rouen, Saint Maclou.
1541.
Beauvais
Cathedral, Flamboyant transept. 1548.
Troyes. Sixteenth century.

Chambery.

"

"

"

"

"

ENGLAND

Canterbury. Begun

1175.

"

Lincoln.

Early English Work.

Salisbury. 1220-58.
"

1185-1200.

"

"

Wells.

Dedicated

"

1239.

Lincoln

Cathedral, Angel Choir.

1255-80
choir
and
front.
west
York,
1261-1324.
"

"

Harlech

Castle.

Gloucester.

c.

"

1300.

transepts and choir 1331-37;

"

cloisters 1351-1412.

Windsor, Saint George's Chapel. 1481-1537.

London, Westminster
Abbey, Henry VII. 's Chapel.
"

"

Compton Wynyates.

1500-12.

1520.

"

GERMANY

Bamberg.
Miinster.

1185-1274.
1225-61.

"

"

Marburg, Saint Elizabeth.

1235-83.
before
choir 1250-1330.
Nave
Naumburg.
1249;
Cologne. Begun 1248; choir consecrated 1322; much
facade 1275-1318.
Strasburg. 1250-75;
Freiburg. Nave 1260; choir 1354.
"

"

"

work

modern.

"

"

Treves.

Remodeled

"

thirteenth

century.

Founded
Soest,Wiesenkirche.
1314.
Ulm.
Begun 1377; finished sixteenth century.
Fourteenth
Gmund, The Holy Cross.
century.
"

"

"

Liebfrauenkirche.

Mulhausen,

Nurnberg, Saint Lawrence.

nave

choir

1403-45;

"

Fourteenth

"

Begun end

1445-72.

Gorlitz,Saints Peter and Paul.

1423-97.
Nordlingen, Saint George. 1427-1505.
1468-88.
Munich, Frauenkirche.
Halle, Saint Mary. 1535-54.
"

"

"

"

ITALY

Fossanova

"

Casamari.
San

"

1187.
1217.

Galgano.
"

c.

1220.

and

of the

fifteenth centuries.
thirteenth

century;

HISTORY

340

ARCHITECTURE

OF

Assisi,Saint Francis.
1228-53.
Venice, Santi Giovanni e Paolo.
"

Bologna, Saint
Siena.

1234.

1236-40.

"

1245-84.

c.

"

Francis.

Begun

"

Viterbo, San

Martino.

Mid-thirteenth

"

century.

Florence,Bargello. Begun 1255.

Siena, Palazzo Pubblico.
1289-1309.
Florence,Cathedral.
1296-1367.
"

"

"

Orvieto.

End

"

of the thirteenth

and

beginning of

the

fourteenth

centuries.

Florence,Giotto's Campanile. Designed 1334-36.

Founded
walls rebuilt
Venice, Palazzo Ducale.
814; outer
facade early fifteenth century.
west
"

"

Milan.

1340;

Founded

1386; finished sixteenth century.

Pa via,Abbey Church.
Begun 1396; finished in the Renaissance.
"

"

SPAIN

Alcobaza
Santa

PORTUGAL

AND

(Portugal). 1148-1222.
"

Creus.

1157.

"

Seville,Giralda.
1184-96; remodeled
Las Huelgas.en Burgos. 1187-1214.
"

1568.

"

Poblet.

Second

"

Burgos.

Founded

Toledo.

c.

"

"

Barcelona.
Leon.

c.

"

Gerona.

"

Seville.
"

"

half of the twelfth

century.

1226.

1236.
1

298-1420.

1300.

1316.

Begun

1401.

Burgos Cathedral,spires. Begun

"

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

1442.

NOTE

In A. Michel's

Histoire de I'Art, vol. 2, pts. i and 2, and

vol. 3,
of the developmen
pt. i, 1906-07, are excellent and authoritative accounts
of Gothic
architecture,and of the character of the art
in the thirteenth
The

and fourteenth

bibliographiesare

Dictionnaire

raisonnS

centuries and

especiallyvaluable.

the
E.

Flamboyant period.
E.

Viollet-le-Duc's

de V

ers
1884-88, already quoted, covarchitecture,
much
than Gothic,but, in dictionary
more
form, is one of the most
monumental
As an
originalsource
piecesof research in Gothic.
Villard de Honnecourt's
Album, 1906, and earlier editions (writtenin

the thirteenth

century),is

the most

and important.
interesting

K.

GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE

Geschichte der bildenden

Schnaase's

341

Kunst, 1866-76, presents two

umes
vol-

out of date but important. One of the

architecture,
most
illuminatingand best illustrated generalworks, G. Dehio and
des Abendlandes, 1884-99, has
G. von
Bezold's Kirchliche Baukunst
already been quoted. SimilarlyB. and B. F. Fletcher's History of
useful for English
Architecture,
1905, has been quoted, and is specially
Gothic. F. von Reber's HistoryofMedieval Art, 1886, covers
the whole
architecture. F. M. Simpson'sHistoryof
field but emphasizes German
vol.
Architectural Development,
2, 1909, is useful for the study of details
Gothic Architecture,
C. H. Moore's
of structure.
1906, is one of the
most
important and profound works on the subject,tending,however,
and unsympathetic
to over-emphasize structural logic,and
cursory
on

in the

medieval

of the

treatment

A. K.

of

outside

art

France.
thirteenth-century

Porter's Medieval

the
Architecture,
1912, already cited,treats
of
view
and
is
monumental
a
point
of
and
J.
Quicherat's
scholarship.
Melanges
up-to-date piece
of the most
vol. 2, Moyen-dge, 1886, is one
important
d'archeologie,
earlystudies of the Romanesque and Gothic styles. It was followed
et gothique,1889, a shrewd
by L. Courajod's Originesde I'art roman
of
the
ont-of-date
originof the styles. Both works
analysis
though
L. Gonse's L'art gothique,1890, is a
emphasize the art in France.
monumental
volume
covering all Gothic art, but speciallyuseful
Gothic.
for the study of French
J. A. Brutails' L'archeologiedu
moyen-dge, 1900, has already been quoted as a clever study of the
of medieval
methods
archaeology,as well as A. Marignan's Les

the structural

subjectfranklyfrom

methodes

though
E.

du passe dans I'archeologiefran^aise,

1911, the most
discredited work on the subject.
somewhat

Corroyer'sArchitecture gothique,1891,

compact
France

and

interestinglittle volume
Flanders.

and

Gothic, architecture
especially

in France

an

Gothic

on

best modern

The

is

out-of-date
architecture

histories of

but
in

medieval, and

C. Enlart's

are

extreme

Architecture

religieuseen France, 1902, and Architecture civile et militaire en

worthy
France, 1903, encyclopedic works of research which are
successors

to

of
publications

the

century E. Male's

France

For

the thirteenth

is
siecle,
1902,
Plantagcnet,
of
affords
a
an
interestingstudy
speciallysignificantlocal
1897,
variety of the style. G. H. West's Gothic Architecture in England
and fair-minded
and France, 1911, is a small but well-arranged
study
fine.
especially

L'art

Viollet-le-Duc.

The

of-the architecture

religieuxen

Abbe

Bosseboeuf's

of Great Britain, 1836,

XIII.

countries.

in both

Although wofullyout

au

L' Architecture

of

date,J. Britton's The Cathedral Antiquities

is

five-volume

work

of real value

for the

E. Sharpe's The Seven Periods of English

study of English Gothic.
An Attempt to Discriminate the
Architecture,1871, and T. Rickman's

342

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

England, 1881, cited

under

Romanesque, are
important works of research in the stylesof English
immensely more
Gothic.
G. G. Scott's English Church Architecture,
1881, despiteits
date,is a valuable work on the English style. E. S. Prior's A History
synthetic
of Gothic Art in England, 1900, is a valuable and modern
An AnalysisofGothic Architecture,
work.
R. and J.A. Brandon's
1903,
useful for the study of detail.
is a profuselyillustrated work, especially
of the most
F. Bond's
Gothic Architecture in England, 1905, is one
books on the style,and it was
succeeded by
scholarlyof the modern
the author's English Church Architecture,
and
modern
1913, the most
tecture.
probably the most valuable work to-day on English medieval archiMedieval
C. H. Moore's
Church
Architecture of England,
the
is
book
Gothic
scholar amplifyingand
an
by
important
great
1912,
the author's views on English Gothic expressed
modifying somewhat
in earlier publications. G. H. Polley " Co.'s English Gothic Architecture
and Ornament, 1897, presents a valuable collection of plates
tecture
for the study of the style. G. T. Clark's Medieval Military Archiin Great Britain,1884, though out of date,is a scholarlywork
in a specialfield. Bell's Cathedral Series will be found
useful as
presentinga long series of monographs on singlebuildings.
W. Lubke's
Geschichte der deutschen Kunst, 1880, is a monumental
of German
work, out of date but authoritative in the treatment
Gothic.
H. Otte's Handbuch
der kirchlichen Kunst-Archdologiedes
deutschen Mittelalters,
1883, though very general and old-fashioned,
is still useful for the student.
KunstalH. Bergner's Kirchliche
in
work
is
and
modern
tertumer
an
Deutschland, 1905,
encyclopedic
field of ecclesiastical architecture.
covering the German
Btirgerliche Kunstaltertumer
in Deutschland, 1906, by the same
author,
in

Stylesof Architecture

discusses

the

secular

art.

C.

Schaefer

and

O.

Stiehl's Die

muster

Deutschland,1901, is a superbly
illustrated folio. An equally valuable folio is H. Hartung's Motive
der mittelalterlichen Baukunst
B. Ebhardt's
in Deutschland, 1904.
is
the
Deutsche
useful
for
study of
Burgen, 1901, already cited,
Kirchbauten
giltigen

des Mittelalters in

castellan architecture.
C. E. Street's Gothic Architecture in

Spain, 1865, is one of the first

V. Lamperez y Romea's
great works of research in Spanish Gothic.
ArquitecturaCristiana en la Edad Media, 1909, alreadycited as the
tative
is as authorimost
valuable work on Spanish medieval
architecture,
on

Gothic

as

on

the earlier

styles.

C. E. Boito's A.rchittetura
del media
and

limited but stilluseful work

on

evo

in

Italia,1880, is an ancient

the Italian medieval

field.

C. C.

History of Architecture in Italy,1901, treats the Gothic

architecture
in as popular and able a way
the earlier styles.
as
C. Enlart's Originesfranqaises
de I'architecture gothique
en Italic,
1894,

Cumming's

GOTHIC

is

still

the

Italian
is

with
La

au

presents

an

A.

already
in
work
East

Flanders.

and

is
C.

by

the

crusaders.

as

the

value

study

art

on

Ages,
of

de

the

in

of

Bertaux's
of

on

author's

building

the

monuments

work

Building
of

account

E.

Fleury's

folio

Church

of

Italy,

L'art

the
dans

Italy

southern

way.

de

L'art

Norton's

Florence.

covers

great

Enlart's

illuminating

and

Histoire
of

E.
of

Middle

R.

illustrated

superbly

description

scholarly

Schayes's

quoted,

G.

of

origins

architecture

styles.

C.

Siena,
1904,

work

interesting

Venice,

interesting
B.

is

the

in

medieval

the

on

Marble

northern

1873,

itself

1902,

meridionale,

G.

the

age,

an

of

V Italic

of

book

and

the

on

architecture.

Ages,

cathedrals

Brick

volume

moyen

Tuscan

Middle

style,

Street's

discussion

Toscane

the

E.

interesting

an

some

medieval

in

G.

343

illuminating

and

important

most

Gothic.

1874,

ARCHITECTURE

V architecture
for

gothique
of

the

study

the

en

Gothic

en

of

Chypre,

Belgique,
Gothic

1899,

architecture

1850-60,
architecture

is

scholarly

built

in

the

CHAPTER

RENAISSANCE

architecture

The
in

greater

of the

forms

feudal

system and

ARCHITECTURE

of

the

than

measure

period of
any

other

the

art,

Renaissance

was,

veritablya rebirth

of classical

antiquity. This involved, however,

neither a sharp interruptionof the developments of the Middle
and modernity.
Most
of the
Ages nor a negation of originality
forces which tended
in Europe were
to bring about
the new
era
thus not
already at work in the later Middle Ages and were
primarily results of the revival of classical learning. The
decay of the medieval church and empire, the decline of the
the rise of nationalities

and

languages, were

which

appeared everywhere in the fourteenth and

fifteenth centuries, along with a more
and
human
more
a
view
of
life.
naturalistic
The growing tendency nowadays to
of
regard Dante, Giotto, and the sculptorsPisani as true men
the Middle
at one
with the poets of Provence,
Ages essentially
the painters of Burgundy, and the carvers
of the portals at
Reims
with
emphasizes the continuity of the Renaissance
medievalism.
In many
of these men
there mingled with the
movements

"

"

Christian

and

northern

other

tendencies

which

steady undercurrent
throughout the Middle Ages. It needed merely a change in
the relative strength of these tendencies to bring the classical
to the surface.
current
By the early years of the fifteenth
accomplished in Italy,and art and
century this change was
literature alike were
The
humanists,
profoundly influenced.
who
tried to reconstitute a free and natural life by the aid of

were

pagan

Greek

and

tendencies

classical,forming

their
literature, had
counterparts in
Brunelleschi,Donatello, and Masaccio, who enriched the arts

not

and

Roman

only by observation

of ancient

Rome.

of nature

but

by study of

the works

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

345

and original
elements.
traditional,
Retrospective,
resulted

there

an

imitation of the

Roman

In architecture

vocabulary

of

forms, employed in part for the translation of

ideas fundamentally medieval, in part for the expression of
architectural

ideas

details of the classic

characteristic

are

work

orders,medieval

Renaissance

of much

that is earlyor removed

from

characteristic,
however,

more

of classical motives

applicationand variation

in the

dispositionsclothed in
craftsmanshipexercised

Medieval

essentiallynovel.

ment,
orna-

work, especially

the center
the

are

of

new

of

origin. Even
conceptions in the

modeling of surface, which

embodied
both in some
of the earliest productions and in
are
These
mature
ones.
conceptions,although likewise
many
themselves
realized in forms inspiredby antiquity,were
quite
modern.
of detail, supposedly classical,
Even
the forms
differed inevitablyin a hundred
respects from those which
furnished their ideals. The uses
to which
buildingsand forms
likewise different in many
necessarily
correspond were
respects
from those of preceding periods. The relative importance of
the various types of buildings was
radicallychanged, the
church, though stillof great importance, being rivaled by the
luxurious private dwellingsof merchant
princes,churchmen,
and nobles.
Thus, in spite of retrospectiveand traditional
the novel elements
which predominated in
elements, it was
the new
architectural synthesis.
Contrasts with medieval
with the
architecture. Compared
medieval architecture which
tecture
archipreceded it,Renaissance
less concerned
with problems of structure
and
was
composition of

space

and

in the

"

of pure
form.
As in the case
of Roman
of detail were
sometimes
used
architecture, the forms

with

more

those

trophiesof classical culture, with

The
structural functions.
original
in

relative indifference to their

forms

themselves, however, but means

of space, more
complex and

ancient
between
which

or

medieval

the
has

times

Middle

often

been

designer to

his work.

the modern

sense,

the Middle

had

more

merely ends
vision
rhythmical subdi-

varied
A

known.

not

than

further

either

contrast

architect,in the ancient and

reappeared.

Ages and

for

were

Ages and the Renaissance, though

exaggerated,lay in the relation of
The

as

We

the Renaissance

realize that

now

the

one

the
in

in both

generaldesign was

HISTORY

346

ARCHITECTURE

OF

by a singlemind, and
sculptured details of which

that

controlled
were

initiative of individual

work

his

than

measure

Renaissance

scaffold,whereas

the

on

design

sculptors. Unlike

the

builder, however,

the

in both

did

predecessors,the

left to

was

the medieval

architect
he

periods there

did

form

master-

himself

not

dictate, in

the

greater

of many

uniform

details.

Centers and diffusion. The

Italy,where

the

the

antiquity. During

Florence

fourteenth

the intellectual

was

of the greatest commercial

in Florence that the Renaissance
as

one

and

it

down

the

was

Florentine

the year

to

papal Rome,

century

had
with

the

the popes
and the schism
which
it retained
to

of the
the

had

beginning of

of the

well

It

was

its

birth,

the

style

the sixteenth
the

from

exile of

the leadership

church, assumed

end

centuries

dominated

fully recovered

now

heritage

Europe.

in architecture

the

the

peninsula,as

in

which

was

their effect

fifteenth

powers

school
With

1500.

and

capitalof

movement

new

everywhere at work
less richlyendowed

in countries

earlier than
of

forces

of the

center

Renaissance

period.

time
the new
architectural
forms
had
been
By the same
adopted, with characteristic local modifications, throughout
Italy, and had begun to penetrate France, Germany, and
tion
Spain. In these countries and in England, where the introducstill later,it

came

from

medieval

Renaissance

forms

mingle
these

with

those

of
of

and

reasons,

differences,the

revival

of the

ancient

in the
stone

could

forms

effected.

before
Thus

in different lands

of

countries

Italy was

the transition
the

do

of later

truly Renaissance
because

in

years

Italy,forms

several

successively.
Italy. The soil

many

was

architecture

time, and, outside

was

not

of

coincide

in

origin sometimes

character.

strongly marked
may

phases

best

be

Both

national

considered

particularlyfavorable

of classic architecture.

The

for

for

remains

of

pleteness
buildingsexisted on every hand, in far greater comthan they do to-day. They still served,as they had

time
and
be

of

which
from
not
Constantine, as sources
only
lime but also columns, entablatures, and archivolts

obtained

Partly for these reasons,

partly because of racial inheritance,the feelingfor classical
architecture had never
wholly died out in Italy,and Gothic
ready

made.

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

347

had been employed only with radical modifications

forms

spirit. All this was

in Florence, which
scent
prided itself on direct defrom Etruria and Rome.
The buildingsof the eleventh
twelfth
centuries
the Baptistry, San
Miniato
so
are

brought them
especiallytrue
and

the

which

to

nearer

classic

"

"

classical in their
details as to have
described

been

"proto-

as

Renaissance."

during the
Gothic period
Even

"

"

in the cathedral
the

and

Loggia

Lanzi

dei
there

"

geness
lar-

was

of scale
of interior

and

which

space

is

classic

more

medieval.

than
The

round

arch

and

other

sical
clas-

details and
forms

of

ment
orna-

still persisted.
The

naissance.
earlyReBru-

nelleschi'sdome.
It

189

FIG.

"

CATHEDRAL

FLORENCE.

FROM

THE

SOUTHEAST

involved

no

with

break
Florentine

medieval

(1379-1446)
central

made

octagon

builders

of

traditions

when

his

proposal,

in

the

cathedral

of

Filippo Brunelleschi
1406,

to

vault

Florence, which

the
the

long feared to attempt.

Although he had
astonished his contemporaries by studying and drawing the
littlein his solution which
ancient buildingsof Rome, there was
in inspiration,
of span
not medieval
was
except the boldness
which

had

he had observed

in the Pantheon.

His direct prototype

348
was

with

the

HISTORY

dome

oft

he

between

them.

baptistry of Florence,

ribs

intermediate
He

ARCHITECTURE

OF

each

on

proposed

face
a

dome

and
in

also

octagonal,
spanning

arches

with

shells

two

segmental arches in each of the eightfaces, and ribs with iron

supporting the

anchors

inner

shell.

By giving a steep
dome

he

enabled

to

the

to
was

curve

it,

construct

as

Byzantine vaults
had

been

structed,
con-

without

centering.
whole
on

raised

was

drum

high

with

The

circular

windows,

and

surmounted

by

lantern

ures
feat-

"

in

selves
them-

not

but
on

new,

carried
a

and

out

larger scale
with

what
some-

more

cal
classi-

details

(Fig.

189).
Brunelleschi's
other works.
first true
FIG.

IQO

"

FLORENCE.

INTERIOR"

OF

SAN

LORENZO

mentS

The
monu-

of the Re-

naissance
the
dome

other

works

which

Brunelleschi

while

the

beginning, with
no
period of transition or hesitancy,appeared the classical
forms
of columns, pilasters,
entablatures, all very
clearly
used
with
freedom
like
that
of
late
understood, though
a
Roman
In front of the Spedale degliInnocenti,
architecture.
the foundlinghospital,
he constructed
in 1421
a
porticowith
circular archivolts
descending on the heads of Corinthian
The
end
columns.
bays are enframed
by pilastersin the
was

progressing.

In

undertook

were

these

from

the

ARCHITECTURE

RENAISSANCE
manner

of the Roman

arch

order,and the windows

story, in the axis of each bay, have

of classical form.

FIG.

In the church

191.

"

349

FLORENCE.

architraves

of San

PAZZI

Lorenzo

of the upper

and

pediments
(begun about

CHAPEL

1425) Brunelleschi reverted to the type of the early Christian

basilica,
using a wealth of classical detail (Fig.190). The aisle
walls and chapelopenings are treated with an arch order; the
arches descend
which
nave
spond
reon
fragments of entablature
to

the entablature

in the aisle.

The

aisles are

covered

HISTORY

350

with domical
tives.

The

vaults
Pazzi

OF
and

ARCHITECTURE

the crossingwith

chapel

at

the

church

dome

penden-

on

of Santa

Croce, like

(both from about 1429), has a

sacristyof San Lorenzo
and entablatures (Fig.191).
membering of the wall by pilasters
They carry pendentives and a dome, which, however, is
the

constructed
like the

apse

vaults

of

Gothic

church.

In

the

portico

before

the

chapel

pears
reap-

for the
first time

the
with

colonnade

horizontal

entablature.
Another

of

Brunelleschi's

designs,Santa
Maria
degli
Angeli (1434),
is

the

first
of

building

tecture
archi-

modern

to

the
of

192

"

FLORENCE.

PALAZZO

mode

composition

about
FIG.

low
fol-

central

vertical

axis,so

MEDICI-RICCARDI

in late

common

and

Roman

times (Fig.207). It initiates the long series

early medieval
of experiments in the combination
terior
of different forms of inrestrictions.
practicalor liturgical
space, free from
Palace designs. Brunelleschi's palace designsare relatively
less

classical,
except in their strict balance

alignment
of vast
The

of their windows.

rusticated

arches

typicalpalace

His

reminiscent

of the

time

Palazzo

and

the

Pitti has

of the Roman

is the Palazzo

vertical
a

range

aqueducts.
(now

Medici

Palazzo

rusticated

Its unbroken

colonnettes

resting on
whereas

the

details

of

emphasis

with

wall

laid

on

FIG.

193

medieval

derivation,

windows

features

are

of

(Fig. 192).
paired arches

of

the horizontal

1444

divisions

and

the

the
and

colonnettes
the

in

Riccardi) by Michelozzo, begun

cornice

are

inspired by

tiquity.
an-

Albert*.

strictly

more

classical

dency

duced
intro-

was

by Leon
Alberti

Battista

(1404-72),

tine
gifted Floren-

humanist,

long in exile. In
his paganization
of the
San

church

of

Francesco

at Rimini

he

(1447)
adopted, for

the

flank,a

sive
mas-

of

range

classic

piers and

arches, for

the

"^
'
.

motive

of

Roman

"

FLORENCE.

PALAZZO

RUCELLAI

umphal
tri-

broken
lature.
entaband
a
engaged columns
for the building,
He
also projected, as a termination
of the
circular
domed
a
room
proportions of the
he later emphasized in the church
Pantheon, a form which
of the Annunziata
in Florence
(1451). For the facade of the
in Florence
Rucellai
for the
Palazzo
(1451-55) he imitated
first time the superposed engaged orders of the Tabularium
and
the
Roman
amphitheaters (Fig. 193). Pilasters and
arch

entablatures

with

were

applied to

the

typicalrusticated

wall with

HISTORY

352

OF

ARCHITECTURE

The
main
cornice was
still strongly
grouped windows.
emphasized in relation to those between the stories. Another
time-honored

scheme

plan, with

which

Alberti

revived

was

the

Greek-

four

equal arms, in the church of San Sebastiano at Mantua

(1459). In Sant' Andrea at Mantua, begun in
of the triumphal arch motive, not
use
1472, he again made
only in the porch, but also on the interior walls of the nave,
cross

FIG.

where
narrow

For

194

barrel

in

vault.

in

Renaissance

classical manner,
First in modern

writingson architecture,which
both theory and practiceeven
Other Florentines.
in Florence

da

San

ANDREA.

SANT

INTERIOR

rhythmic alternation of broad arched chapels and

introduced
was
(Fig.194).
bays bordered by pilasters

the first time

vaulted

MANTUA.

"

"

Gallo

Simone
and

The

church
with
times

an

the

nave

unbroken

also

were

itself was
coffered

Alberti's

fundamentally influenced
the present day.

have
to

followers

of Brunelleschi and Alberti

Pollaiuolo,called Cronaca, Giuliano

others
his brother Antonio, with many
del

"

RENAISSANCE

employed

the

classical forms

new

which

elements

many

occupied

ARCHITECTURE

rather

with

making

353

expertly,but without
were
new.
They

were

with

combinations

new

tributing
con-

the

in the octagonal sacristyof

Thus
already created.
Spirito in Florence, by Giuliano da San Gallo and

elements
Santo

195

FIG.

"

THE

CERTOSA

NEAR

PAVIA..

FACADE

Cronaca

(1489-96),a rhythmical grouping is introduced in a

buildingof the centrallybalanced type, by an alternation of
niches
the

and

shallow

monumental

(1485), with
novel
came

the

feature

recesses.

Giuliano

country villas,the
great barrel-vaulted

in domestic

created

Villa
On

at

was

Cajano
then

the exterior this

expressionthrough a pedimented portico imitating

classic temple front,though not projectingbefore the plane
to

of the wall.

In Cronaca's

church

of San

Francesco

in Florence
to

Poggio

hall which

architecture.

the first of

an

al Monte

(1487) the tendency to rhythmical grouping led

alternation of triangularand segmental pediments in

the enframements

windows.
of the clerestory

354
Other
isolated

HISTORY

schools.
works

only adopted

Lombardy.
of the

more

Italy,smallness

of

proportionsof

the

are

Florentine

remained

Outside

Florentine

the

of

lapseof

VENICE.

"

PALAZZO

some

new

forms

for

were

time, and then

VENDRAMINI

outstandingfeatures.

details

for the most

first found

In

wide

Lombardy, where
application,they

part, throughout the fifteenth century,

dispositions.In the facade of

the Certosa at Pavia, begun probably in 1493, the details are
of a lavishness and multiplicity
elsewhere
ing
unequaled, smotherthe architectonic outlines (Fig.195). About
began
1490
Bramante
a
change, under the leadershipof Donate
(1444and Alberti,
1514). Inspired by the works of Brunelleschi
he took up the main thread of development. In the sacristy
a

mere

clothingfor

Tuscany, except

school, the

decorative qualities.In north

superficial
scale, freedom in modifying the forms and
orders, and richness of sculptured orna-

196

FIG.

the

ARCHITECTURE

graduallyafter the

often for their

mentation

OF

medieval

RENAISSANCE
Maria

he made

important

near

ancient

exedra.

for the

first

Satire

San

of Santa

composed about a
he prefixedto the

ARCHITECTURE
in Milan

contributions
central

church

It

was

axis.

and

At

other

churches

problem of buildings

the

to

355

Abbiate

Grasso

(1497)
a great arched
porch, recallingan
supported on pilasterswhich here,

time,

coupled or
grouped in pairs.
were

Venice

Venice.

scarcely
the

took

when

1470,

the

up

fore
be-

forms

new

of

family

architects

called

Lombardi

began

work

their
In

there.
their

general
is

work

tion
transla-

of

the

local
and

Byzantine
Gothic
into

motives

pseudo-classic

forms, carried
with

rich

out

marble

incrustation.

The

Vendra-

Palazzo

mmi'(i48i)

is perhaps

its best repre-

sentative

(Fig.

196). As

in the

facade

the

FIG.

197

"

ROME.

Ruccllai,

Palazzo

LOGGIA
SAN

OF

THE

CHURCH

OF

MARCO

orated
is dec-

with

superposed orders; but here engaged columns,

elements
of closer
are
restingon pedestalsin the lower stories,
the arches
to ancient examples. On the other hand
similarity
subdivided
medieval
in
are
by tracery, which is essentially
spite of its classic details. As usual in Venice, the retention
of

threefold

subdivision

of

the

width

results

in

plicated
com-

rhythmical grouping of the supports.

Rome
Rome.
first experienced an artistic revival during

Copyright
FIG.

198"

ROME.

by the American

"TEMPIETTO"

Architect
AT

and

Building

SAN

PIETRO

News
IN

Co.
MONTORIO

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

of the humanist, Nicholas

the papacy

V.

357

(1447-55). He began

rebuilding of the Vatican and proposed to replace the

ments
crumbling basilica of Saint Peter by a new edifice. The monu-

which
vestibule

followed, such

of the church

retain medieval
of the

FIG.

as

of San

elements,

the

Marco

include

Palazzo

"

ROME.

SAINT

PETER

and

the

(Fig.197),although they

also the most

antique yet attempted.

199

Venezia

S.

Their

literal reproductions

superposed

INTERIOR

arch order successfullyimitate

porticoes in the Roman
ing
Roman
examples in their proportionsas well as in their breakand pedestalsat each engaged column.
of the entablatures
In the Palazzo Cancelleria (1486-95),where
the system of the
Palazzo Rucellai,with its slighter
was
relief,
followed,elements
of novelty were
introduced.
A continuous alternation of wide
and
the pilasters the "rhythmical
narrow
spaces between
"

HISTORY

358

OF

Albert! had

bay" which

ARCHITECTURE

employed in

an

interior
"

was

ployed
em-

of slightprojection,
fagade,and terminal masses
"end
pavilions,"appear for the first time.
The second, mature
The "High Renaissance."
Bramante.
it is
as
period of the Renaissance, the "High Renaissance"
the

on

termed, began

sometimes
II.

(1503-13) and

FIG.

200

"

Leo

X.

PALACE

ROME.

OF

the papacy
of Julius
(1513-21). Their lavish court and

at

Rome

and

BY

HOFFMANN)

city the finest talent of

da Vinci,
Italy,including Bramante, Raphael, Leonardo
the moving spiritin the
was
Michelangelo. Bramante

creation of the
chi had

been

Roman

new

of the

designin Rome,
Bramante

of San

church
tall

school

Florentine

Bramante'

the two

most

of

architecture,as Brunelles-

school.

In his first attested

place of Saint Peter's dom,

martyrall his predecessorsin classical ardor,

the shrine at the

outvied

Pietro

drum, and

colonnaded

the

to

of a
by adopting the scheme
its peristyle(Fig. 198). This

(RESTORED

RAPHAEL.

great undertakings attracted

all

with

was

circular temple with

Roman

"Tempietto," at the
in Montorio, is surmounted
by a dome on
intended to be surrounded
by a circular
so-called

court.
s

later works.

ambitious

Bramante

schemes

of

was

soon

Julius,the

intrusted with
extension

of the

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

359

Vatican and the rebuildingof Saint Peter's,so long proposed.

he designed a court
To unite the Vatican with the Belvedere
almost

thousand

gallerieswith
terminated
by

length,surrounded
by superposed
rhythmical triumphal-arch motive, and

vast

semicircular

niche

like those

of the

thermae

Roman

(Fig.222).
of

rise

the

court

given

The

within

ground
the

the

feet in

was

novel

by

treatment

high

terrace

walls and balusof

traded flights

steps.

In

Saint

new

the
ter's
Pe-

Bramante

thought less of
tional
meeting tradiliturgical
requirements
than of creating
a

monument

the

to

glory

of

God, the foundand

er,

church.

the
For

he
this purpose
ite
chose his favor-

FIG.

2OI"

ROME.

LOGGIA

OF

THE

VILLA

MADAMA.

INTERIOR

form

of the

centrallycomposed building,
magnifiedand elaborated. He
proposed, in the words of his own
metaphor, to raise the
above the vaults of the Basilica of Maxentius
Pantheon
(Fig.
His
solutions
of
for
studies
the
involved
new
199).
building
of current
a great number
problems, and were a school for the
the end of
whole younger
generationof architects. Toward
his life he also gave new
suggestionsfor palace design in the
with its
projected building for the papal courts of justice,
giganticrusticated blocks in the ground story.
'3

360

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Raphael and Peruzzi. The principalfollowers of Bramante,

although stronglyinfluenced,likewise made new contributions
to the
general development. Raphael (1483-1520), Braof Bramante's
mante's
some
nephew and protege, embodied

2O2

FIG.

"

PALAZZO

ROME.

DELL1

AQUILA.

(RESTORED

BY

GEYMULLER)

ideas for Saint Peter's in the littleChigichapel at the church of

Santa
with

Maria

Popolo. His

own

palace (Fig.200),executed

aid, had the ground story treated as a heavy

basement, and the principalstory the piano nobile

Bramante's

rusticated
"

del

emphasized by coupled engaged columns.

"

On

Bramante's

in 1514

death

In

ship.
Raphael succeeded to the architectural dictatorat
executing the loggiasof the Court of San Damaso

Vatican, he revived the stuccoed

interiors,then recently discovered.

decorations

compositions of

small

the

by

the

In
a

his

leafage,figures,and
the

pupils at
Palazzo

dell'

facade, in which

and

Thus

Villa

Aquila

there

was

similar
also

medallions

decorations
a

the

arose

(Fig. 201)

Madama

of the Roman

and

graceful
imitated

elsewhere.

applied to

were

rich alternation

of niches

(Fig. 202). The large engaged

column, there restricted to the shop fronts of the basement
story, disappears entirelyin Raphael's design for the Palazzo
Pandolfini
in Florence.
relieved against
With
its tabernacles
stuccoed
wall having angle quoins, this was
the model
for
a
later Roman
palaces. The Villa Madama,
begun from
many
Raphael's designs and left unfinished, had for the first time an
intimate
architectural
connection
between
house
and gardens.
This was
achieved
not
only by elaborate axial relationships,
but by terraces, stairs,and niches recalling
the Villa of Hadrian
outlived
at Tivoli.
the youthful Raphael by
Peruzzi, who
the development in the direction of
sixteen years, continued
in plan and in facade.
The
Villa Farnesina,
greater freedom
which
seems
probably to be his design, has end pavilions
suggested by those of the Cancelleria,but projectingtwo bays,
His plan for the
two
court.
to inclose a U-shaped
as
so
in Rome
(1529), on an irregularsite,
palaces for the Massimi
shows
remarkable
a
facilityin the adaptation of classical
elements
(Fig.203). In one the facade is curved to follow the
pedimented

tabernacles

line of the street, and

ment

of windows
lines

tendencies

find

and
of

multitude

doors

earlier

their

of consoles

begin

to

relieve

architectural

strongest

in the
the

forms.

enframe-

strictlygeometrical
All

these

expression in Michelangelo,

tectural
his earliest archion
depend, in large measure,
designs,which had been for the facade of San Lorenzo
in Florence
(1514) and for the Medici chapel there (1521-29,
Fig. 204). These, however, with his other buildings, form
the point of departure of the following phase of style,the
be discussed later.
baroque, and thus must
Other schools.
sance
The architects of the High RenaisVenetia.
in the rest of Italy took their inspirationfrom
Rome, as
those of the early Renaissance
had
from
The
Florence.
and

doubtless

362

HISTORY

OP

grammar

of classical forms

and

local differences

thus

schools
of

nevertheless

was
are

existed.

by two
(1484-1559) and

followed the

FIG.

more

2O3

"

robust

ROME.

everywhere understood,
less marked, but characteristic
now

Most

Venetia, headed

Sanmicheli
men

ARCHITECTURE

notable

of these

was

that

other

disciplesof Bramante,
Sansovino
(1486-1570). These
use

MASSIMI

of the orders

PALACES.

PLAN

in the work

of

RENAISSANCE
and

Bramante

pei in
Ca'

Raphael.
(1530) and

Verona

Grande

Raphael's
designs of
gates for

FIG.

ARCHITECTURE

in Venice

Thus

363

in Sanmicheli's

Sansovino's

(1530), we

Palazzo
have

palace. Sanmicheli initiated

still more
a
rugged character by
Verona
(1533ff.),with rusticated
own

204

"

FLORENCE.

MEDICI

CHAPEL

Palazzo

AT

SAN

Pom-

Cornaro

della

reminiscence
a

of

long series of

his notable
columns

city
which

LORENZO

military strength. In the Palazzo

Grimani
at Venice
(Fig.205) he restudied the scheme of the
earlier Palazzo
vivals
surVcndramini, eliminating the medieval
and endowing all the forms with a truly classical spirit.
of the Capitol in Rome
Sansovino
took the Tabularium
as
his model for the Library of Saint Mark
(Fig.206),which gives
the effect of an open
arcade in two stories. The employment
of subordinate
engaged columns to support the impostsof the
are

the

embodiment

of

364

HISTORY

story, and

upper

features

of

OF

the

this

wealth

ARCHITECTURE
of

ornamental

yet characteristic

extreme

sculpture, are

product

of

the

Renaissance.
The longitudinal
Types of buildings. Churches.
type. As
in the general tendency in matters
strands
of style ran
the
individual developments of singletypes of buildings,which

FIG.

205

"

VENICE.

PALAZZO

GRIMANI

points of importance. The churches here

fall into two
those composed about
a
longitudinal
groups,
It was
axis.
the
and
those
about
central
axis
a
composed
of
of these groups
which
former
representedthe continuance
offer

some

medieval

further

tradition and

chi contributed
Constantino's

addition

thus offered less of

novelty.

Brunelles-

it by reviving the basilican scheme

and
day, with a flat ceilingin the nave
to

of domical

vaults

over

the aisle

bays. Although

of
the
in

RENAISSANCE
San

ARCHITECTURE

365

Lorenzo

(1425) the T-shaped plan of the first basilicas

adhered to, in Santo Spirito(1435) the full Latin cross
was
of the Middle
Ages was adopted, with square ends to the arms
and the aisles carried completely around
A vaulting
them.
of the

nave

with

FIG.

2O6

"

barrel vault, then

VENICE.

LIBRARY

OF

considered

SAINT

the

most

MARK

possibleonly with suppressionof the aisles. A

walls and a richer spatialeffect was
membering of the nave
furnished in such cases
by lateral chapels. This was the case
in Brunelleschi's church
of the Badia
at Fiesole,completed in
all alike,and in Alberti's Sant'
1463, where the chapels were
initiated the rhythmical system of
Andrea
at Mantua, which
piers. In San Salvatore in Venice (1506) this rhythmical
scheme
was
applied to a three-aisled church by the employment
of the vaulting
scheme of Saint Mark's.
Already in these
classical,
was

OF

HISTORY

366

ARCHITECTURE

churches

appeared the characteristic tendency of the later

This was
toward
a
long-naved churches.
development of
the crossing,
choir,and transepts on the lines of a buildingof
central type with equal arms.
Basilican facades. The
facades of the basilican churches
of the earliest architects
also presented a problem. Those
brickwork
in crude
ambitious comremained
pletion.
awaiting some
Alberti

the

was

who

one

established

order
or
superposed orders, with
type: an
windowis in the intervals.
Usually there was
often

aisles with

the

oppositethe

great volutes

were
tl^ere

clerestory. In

the

the

the

general

doors

and

pediment and
aisle roofs,uniting

some

cases

arcaded

an

arch order.
prefixed,with the inevitable Roman
church
Churches of the central type. The
composed on a
characteristic problem of
central axis was
perhaps the most
based
the Italian Renaissance
(Fig.207). The solutions were

porticowas

either

on

vault, or

on

octagon with

central
a

"

themselves

They
which

have

connected

are

elder

Gallo

cloister

elements

of

pendentives.
degliAngeli
equal importance.

in the form

of niches,

by unimportant doors.

Similar

subordinate

the

by Bramante,

in the

subordinate

Alberti's

with

however,

San

tend

churches

sacristies

to

of

Sebastiano

there is usually an

which

spaces,

the

in their

churches

expressionin

Beginning

and

are

spaces

their ultimate

Gallo.

San

are

spaces

type, beginning with

cross

(1459) .and finding

the

minor

of the

co-ordination
Greek

"

eight subordinate

the

(1434)

or

central space with a dome

on
Brunelleschi's
Santa
Maria

square

In the first example

octagonal dome

an

become

by

by
San

tion
alternamore

elaborate,but in generalhave no connection with one another

An intermediate
between
except through the central space.
created by Bramante's
the square and octagonal schemes
was

cutting off the

of Saint
somewhat
he

Peter's.
in

attempted
of

corners

His

below
further

manuscript
to

domes

canvass

and

the

pendentives in

innovations

studies

of Leonardo

the

crossing
anticipated

were

da

Vinci, where

tions
systematicallyall possiblecombinasubordinate

spaces.

Here

Leonardo

progressed to centrally composed buildings of the second

are
degree,that is,to groups in which the subordinate
spaces
themselves
composed of minor features about a central axis.
It was
elaborate composition of this sort which
stillmore
a

ROME

STPETB"

BRAMANTE"

FIRST
STUDY

FIG

207"

THE

DEVELOPMENT
CENTRAL

OF

RENAISSANCE
TYPE

CHURCHES

OF

great Greek

ARCHITECTURE

OF

in Saint Peter's.

undertook

Bramante
of

HISTORY

68

Between

the four

arms

he

placed four smaller Greek crosses

of the largerone, and having themselves
opening into the arms
of niches.
of circulation
minor
zone
a
Although a means
about
the central space was
incidentally
provided, it was not
in an aisle of co-ordinated
gence
bays, but involved periodicemerinto the arms
of the great cross.
The varietyof spatial
thus greatly increased,while each portion of the
effects was
retained a strong individual unity.
church
The characteristic problem of the Renaissance
in
Palaces.
domestic
architecture
the town
was
palace of the merchant
prince,the petty tyrant, or the dignitaryof the church. Such a
buildinghad to rise in several stories on a limited site,bounded
and usually by party walls,and had to
streets
by one or more
offer securityagainstthe turbulent factions of the city. Like
its predecessorsof the medieval
towns, it had thus to open
In the typical
about a court, and to be closed on the exterior.
plan the court was
rectangular, with surrounding arcades
a

which

covered

gave

cross

communication

least between

at

the

ground story. In general,no one of the rooms

greatlysurpassed the others in size and importance,although
toward
the end of the period there was
a tendency to introduce
then took no
a
principalhall or gallery. The facade even
cognizance of the internal divisions but retained a uniform
All these qualities
summarized
in the
are
spacing of the axes.
largestof the Roman
palaces,the Palazzo Farnese by Antonio
da San Gallo the younger
(c.1520-80). Without
embodying
of the

rooms

radical innovations, it had

any

(Figs.208, 209). It

of the type
passages

to the

having

one

court

wide

court

at

itself has

stands

the center

barrel vault

with

the scheme

influence in the diffusion

free

of each

colonnaded

on

all

sides,with

face, the principal

aisles.

of the Colosseum

The

in three

square

stories,

Doric, Ionic,and Corinthian, the two lower ones with the arch
and pedimented windows.
order, the upper one with pilasters
On

the facade

adopted, but
on

the scheme
with

the central

Bramante

the

recognitionin
servants

was

an

axis.

of

Raphael's Palazzo

additional story and

was

strong emphasis

palacesfrom the time of

importance began to secure

In the Roman

stories of minor
the

Pandolfini

facade.

given

small

low

windows

uppermost
beneath

story for the

the

entablature

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

369

of the upper
order, as in the Cancelleria,or in the frieze of
In stories of which
the main
cornice, as in the Farnesina.
the

full

became

needed

height was
them

securingover

mezzanines,

of such

was

Instead
room

"

ROME.

PALAZZO

palaces of Raphael, tended

In

type

half story or mezzanine.

which
first appear,
much

208

FIG.

in the

halve

to

customary

it
only for certain largerrooms,
the height for the smaller rooms,

in

the

building. At
division

as

exception to

an

of

Venice,

we

center

the

of

sides

the

seen,

were

there

inherited

palace

prevailedelsewhere.

large principal
front, extending deep into the

court

the

subordinated,

pendence.
attain increasinginde-

the rule which

monumental

windows

FARNESE

to

have

The

minor

was

suites,and

the

threefold

characteristically
expressed on the facade.
Villas.
The increasingsecurityof the country permitted,
in the earlydays of the Renaissance, the erection of villas
even
outside the city walls.
Florence,
The earliest of these, near
the Villa Carregi by Michelozzo, is stillsomewhat
irregular
was

370

HISTORY

in plan, but

ARCHITECTURE

OF

has

projectingloggiaswhich are suggestiveof

later developments in the union of house and garden. Such
however, were
projections,
relatively
infrequent. The house
tended
to remain
a
unity by itself,as at Cajano, and the
laid out without much
reference to the axis of
gardens were
the building. Only at the end of the period, in the Villa
Madama,

does

the

also in the

garden, in

architectural
the

scheme

manner

so

tend

to

characteristic

assert

itself

of the

later,

baroque villas.
PMic
the
buildings. Some further important types were
municipal palaces and the public hospitals. An open loggia
the exterior,as in Brunelleschi's
on
Spedale degli Innocenti,
the
that
such
was
buildingsbelonged to the public. An
symbol
early Renaissance example outside of Florence is the Loggia
del Consiglioat Verona, attributed
to Fra Giocondo
(1476).
It has arches
descending on small columns, and an upper
Italian richness
of detail.
In the
story of typical north
Palazzo
more

Comunale

at

Brescia

classical forms, the

below,

columns

like window

second

arcaded.

arch

order

story with

enframements.

libraryin Venice

similar scheme

The

(Fig.206), where

A final solution,in which

completely surround
Vicenza
(Fig.225)
period (1549)Town
planning.
"

the

"

stands

with

projecting halfand tabernaclepilasters

series really includes the
the
open

building

upper

story is also

loggiasin

Palladio's

the threshold

at

is realized with

of

stories

two

"Basilica"
the

at

following

planning of the Renaissance was

limited for the most
of
part to the levelingand straightening
of booths and
streets in existing
towns, with the sweeping away
minor
encumbered
the surroundings of
constructions which
churches and publicbuildings. Open squares before important
new
buildings,which would permit an appreciationof their
obtained
in few
were
early desired, but were
symmetry,
bordered
instances.
Where
a square
was
by porticoesthese
been
not continuous
as they had
were
kept distinct,and were
in Hellenistic and late Roman
times.
selves
The buildingsthemThe

town

formed
cases

where

the unities,and
new

towns

regularityand symmetry
at Pienza (1460-63) is the

or

not

the square.

quarters

were

most

were

to

preferred. The

In

the

rare

be

laid out,
civic group

notable of the schemes

which

ARCHITECTURE

RENAISSANCE
to execution.

came

of

the

Piccolomini

which
piazza.,
in

as

has

episcopalpalace and the palace

the

balance

on

either

side of the

its sides

converging toward
famous
of the baroque

of the most

some

Individual

the

cathedral

spectator,

squares.

architecture
forms. The forms of Renaissance
211), although inspiredby those of Rome, were

(Figs.210,
no

Here

371

literal

more

imitations of them
than

the

forms

Roman

themselves

had

been

tions
imita-

of
forms.

Greek

cause
Partlybeof medieval

survivals, partly
of inadequate

because

knowledge
of
antiquity,
in
partly even
criticism

of the

tects
antique,the archiof

the

naissance
Re-

modified
the classical forms

they are
unmistakably
theirs. In simpler
buildings, to be
so

that

there

sure,

sometimes
a

was

ly
scarce-

detail which

would

betray the
dependence of the
period on Rome.
The

facade

Palazzo

some

nuance,

209

"

ROME.

PALAZZO

FARNESE.

PLAN

of the

Pitti

function.

FIG.

In

might

seem

later and
even

suggested merely by material and

richer buildingsthere is still always

aside from

the fresh

combinations, in which

of the Renaissance.
is visible the originality
Walls.
The continuous
wall received much

characteristic

HISTORY

372

During

the

early and
the usual

earlyphase

leaving the

stones

dressed.

the

Palazzo

the

stones

In

projectionof
reaching in
the

of

High Renaissance.

is

practice of
merely the joints
a
gradation in the

stories,the lower

rough

of

in the

ones

feet.

two

over

In

pronounced

more

lower

Roman

some

of rustication

medieval

the

in successive

blocks

that

was

projectionof
(Riccardi)there is a

grooving, like that

story, rectangular

examples,

in the

mediate
inter-

ashlar in the upper

story, and smooth
story (Fig.
system considerably imitated in later Florentine

"

method

Pitti there

cases

Medici

gradation,with

in the

quarry-faced, with

extreme

Palazzo

192)

ARCHITECTURE

artistic modification

an

"

in the

both

treatment

OF

The

of irreguhave courses
buildingsmentioned
lar
of
height and stones
differing
lengths. Not until toward
and other buildingsof the time, was
1500, in the Cancelleria
a
perfectlyuniform system of jointingadopted. Meanwhile
another
had been gaining
system of exterior wall treatment
ground, the use of stucco for the main surface,as it had been
the beginning in interiors. Against this stuccoed
used from
contrasted
surface was
the stonework
about the openings,and,
later,tiers of rusticated blocks or quoins at the angles of the
building. In the Palazzo Pandolfini and the Palazzo Farnese
made
of alternatinglengths,bonding into
angle quoins were
In late works
of Raphael and his school the stucco
the wall.
structures.

however,
of the

horizontal
cornices

the window
in Roman
well

wall, as

moldings.

of the Middle

molding,

corona,

as

enframements.

architecture, the foot and

minor
marked
divisions,were

The

machicolated

Ages

gave

and

cyma

the stories

on

place

and

Corinthian

by

battlemented

cornices with

to

the

lines

bed

(Fig.211).

were

increasingapproximation to
Thus, whereas
Palazzo

the

Palazzo

the full

membering^ofthe

Medici

has

Strozzi (1489-1507) has also

buildings,even
entablature

customary
and

nate,
medallions, stillsubordi-

and

likewise made
carried string-courses,
there was
of classical elements.
As time went
on
an

Between
up

to

As

Moldings.
crown

into festoons

modeled

itselfwas

without

columns

or

cornice

frieze,and

orders.

only, the
later

many

pilasters,have

full

classic type.
In the same
it became
way
to employ in the arch order, in tabernacle
windows,
of

elsewhere,a pedestalwith its own

cap

and

base

moldings,

FIG.

210

"

EARLY

RENAISSANCE

DETAILS.

(AFTER GROMORT)

of the Palazzo
Medici
(Riccardi), Florence.
3. Cornice
from
medallion
by Delia Robbia.
4. Flagstaff bracket
the porch of the Cathedral
at Spoleto.
5, 6. Capitals from
8. Capital
from a tomb
from the Palazzo
and
entablature
Strozzi, Florence.
7. Lantern
in the Badia, Florence.
Window
from
the Palazzo
Cornice of
10.
9.
Strozzi,Florence,
the Palazzo
Pitti, Florence.
I.

Cornice

of

the

Palazzo

Strozzi, Florence.
3. Faience
Palazzo
del Magninco,
Siena.

HISTORY

374

OF

in the upper

like those

ARCHITECTURE

stories of the Colosseum.

The

profiles

moldings increase in delicacyof line and truth

of Raphael and
to
antique principlesuntil in the works
Peruzzi there is a refinement
suggestiveof Greek models.
openings at first were
predominantly
Openings. The
Medieval
traditions preserved a strong influence in
arched.
the retention of a ring of deep voussoirs, the sinking of the
of a central colonnette
in the wall, and the persistence
profile
In walls of stucco
arches (Fig.210).
with tracery-like
and
in interiors,
however, the projectingclassical architrave early
of individual

asserted

and
itself,

without

subdivisions

rectangular and
made

treatment, which
of

enframement
This had

the

and

was

sacristyof

San

Lorenzo.

Pandolfini
on

and

cornice in doors

and

Peruzzi.
orders.

The

its

use

and

The

windows
of

men

Etruscan

or

the
vague

"Tuscan"

smaller

than

those

capitalsin
of the

Middle

this

pediment.
baptistry

window

of
or

in the Palazzo

with

use

to

of

ears

support

Michelangelo

Renaissance

distinguished
suggestionsof Vitruvius
and a composite order.

favorite order of the earlyRenaissance

The

the

was

Pantheon, with

followed

came

rate
elabo-

in the doors

about

interior of the

in the

Brunelleschi

the model

five orders, elaborating the

regardingan

normal,

of its type (Fig.211). The

began with Raphael, and consoles

the

The

Ages

windows

more

others

architrave

an

For

of the

order, often with

employed by

pedestal,gave

common

an

during the Middle

niche, the tabernacles

their

their appearance.
destined to become

openings by

revived

been

of Florence

was

circular-headed

was

order, although

the Corinthian.
more

classical

still greatly modified

Ages, were
in comparison with ancient
examples. Especiallyfrequent
with
but
of leaves, often with
was
a
a
singlerow
capital
In a
dolphins or other fantastic substitutes for the volutes.
series of such capitals
each one was
often individually
designed,
in medieval
a
as
composition (Fig.210). With Alberti came
wider use
of the other orders, due to their superpositionas in
the amphitheaters, although the strict sequence
of Doric,
From
the
not
Ionic, and Corinthian was
always followed.
and
time of Bramante
the Doric order obtained the preference,
the forms of all the orders became
more
strictlyclassical.
There was
also a tendency to increase the scale of the orders

ARCHITECTURE

RENAISSANCE
and

to

order.

subsume

studies for Saint

Bramante's

singlestory
the

springof the vaults was

their vaulting shafts.

the

with

churches

interior of churches

In the

reachingto

than

more

375

in the

use

of

height of one
a
singleorder

legacyfrom medieval
It persistedwhen, in

Peter's,he introduced

subordi-

JJUUUIJUUUUUUUVIJI

FIG.

211

"

"HIGH

RENAISSANCE"

2.

Cornice
Window

3.

Corner

1.

DETAILS.

(AFTER GROMORT)

ot the Palazzo
Farnese, Rome.
Pandolfini. Florence.
of the Palazzo
Mark, Venice.
of the Library of Saint

376

OF

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

superposed ordeTs,and it appeared on the exterior as well.

In civil architecture,also,the employment of a singleinclusive
order was
approached, although during the Renaissance
there was
than a mezzanine
combined
scarcelymore
proper
with
from
the
the principalstory. At the other extreme

nate

from

employment
miniature

columns

the

In

villa at

colonnettes
balusters
have

"colossal"

these

the

was

of

use

the

to carry

coping of a parapet (Fig.210).

later buildings,however, these

and

Cajano

orders

as
replaced by the vase-like forms known
of
the
Renaissance, which
(cf.Fig. 211), creations
were

since retained

ever

their

and column.
Arch, lintel,

rarelymade

importance.

The

of the Renaissance

architects

of the free horizontal

lintel,
except in loggias
where
there was
no
vaulting or superincumbent wall. They
preferredat first to springarches from column to column, later
the arch by an
order with pilasters
to enframe
or
engaged
In this

columns.
in

use

Roman

they

reversed

architecture.

In

the sequence
the last years

however, the desire for richness

entablature

for the

column

below

motive"

of

it.

impost
Thus

square-headed bays,
and

found

to

in the arch order

and

restingon

development
the period,

substitute

place a

minor

of lateral

the entablatures

first appeared in the Pazzi

in Palladio's

use

an

the so-called "Palladian

devised

which

its definitive

of

them

was

central arch

led

of

Basilica

at

Chapel
Vicenza

(Fig. 225).
of columnar
forms
for the
Wall
membering. In the use
membering of a wall, the tendency of development was in the
direction as in Roman
architecture.
same
Whereas, beginning
with Alberti, a subdivision
and entablatures
was
by pilasters
usual, after
other

1500

orders

there

than

was

those

reversion

of the

to wall surfaces

window

Bramante's

palaces the order is omitted

which

more

once

Pandolfmi

and

has
many

without

enframements.

In

in the

ground story,
merely a frank rustication;and in the
later palaces the effect is dependent

entirelyon tabernacle-work, as it had been in the late Roman

palaces, to be sure,
stage backgrounds. In High Renaissance
but
the engaged column
often substituted for the pilaster,
was
this was
followed by the use
of columns
standingquite free of
the wall and thus clearlybetraying their decorative character.
The
scheme
of the arch of Domitian
(Constantine)was thus

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

377

in Sansovino's
repeated in a playful manner
Logetta in
Venice (1540).
Proportions. With the revival of classical forms came
a
revival of classical proportions,and still more
of the classical
the
system of proportions. Alberti and others inculcated
of integralratios,and the modular
use
system of Vitruvius
for determining the members
of the orders.
However
much
the architects of the period felt free to depart from
such
mathematical
proportionsin actual practice,there can be no
to
question that they gave
geometrical
great attention
and openings. There
similarityin the designing of masses
results in many
works a musical harmony of forms like that of
Periclean

architecture.

Ornament.

The

color,which

love of ornament,

characteristic

was

Ages, persistedin

the

of

both

in

sculpture and

Italythroughout the

Renaissance.

Classical

models

in

Middle
were

readilythan for the larger forms of

architecture.
Garlands, rosettes, arabesques,candelabra, and
acanthus
carved
with a knowledge and freedom
foliagewere
which showed
them
to have
become
true
possessionsof the
Renaissance
artist (Fig. 210). Notwithstanding their own
abilities as sculptorsand ornamentalists, the early Florentine
architects kept the carved detail strictly
subordinate
to the
architectural
forms.
In Lombardy
this was
less often the
There
the pilasteritself was
case.
even
paneled to receive
tectural
under
the abstract archiBramante
an
arabesque. In Rome
forms tended to supersedefloral ornament
altogether.
The Tempietto of Bramante
the exterior.
shows
not a leaf on
tive
Under Raphael and Michelangelo, on the other hand, decorahere

taken

up

features

even

once

more

more

reasserted

themselves

in the

facade

and of the
(Fig.202), and in the loggiasof the Villa Madama
Vatican
perhaps their highest development
they reached
(Fig.201).
Spatialforms. The same
preoccupation with proportions
which
itself in the
appeared in the study of facades showed
of the forms
of interior space.
determination
Except in
almost
the only ones
ployed.
emchurches, rectangular shapes were
for the
recommended
Simple integralratios were
In
relations of the length and height of rooms
to their width.
unit completely independent,
a
general each element formed

378
without

the

on

furnished

have

might

based

spiralstairs

experienceof

vast

Renaissance

classical

whether

feelingfor
the

was

Roman
"

as

of

From

plan.

of

one

or

They

as

dome

the

the

either

in

were

or

troubled

the

free to choose

were

which

comported

medieval

of Bramante's

problem
the

was

likewise

banded

was

with

narrow

of the

men

those

to

imitate

square

supported

the central

on

their

preferred

studies

dome

forms,

with

best

the

on

point

for Saint

pendentives
"

by short diagonal
widely adopted. The barrel
space

the

over

seldom

arms

given

cross-arches

Penetrations

fashion.

of

central

"

elsewhere,

vaults

pendentives at

pendentives was
frequentlyappeared

vault, which
but

on

time

enlargement of

an

faces below

and

were

vaulting, after

series of domical

Peter's his solution of the

with

stairs,

The one
most
composition of space.
dome.
Except in the attempts of Alberti
examples, this was
usually employed over

cross-arches
a

Ages

The

the

either

plan

Ages,

medieval,

or

connection,

difficulties of

Middle

the

little.

but

such

of the Middle

technical

The

Vaults.

others.

with

walls.

inclosed between

runs

ARCHITECTURE

spatial connection

any

which

OF

HISTORY

of the

of

cross-plans

its unbroken

at each

bay

tinuity
con-

after the

vaulting surface,which

as
rare
as
given lightdirectlyin the vault, were
in Roman
architecture.
The
little
groined vault, too, was
favored, appearing almost solelyin the interior arcades of

might

have

it

courts, where
which

might be

was

met

to have
thrust
a concentrated
necessary
by iron rods at each bay. On the other

hand

the cloister vault, a square

used, as well as the apse, which

or

octagonal dome,

might

be

was

widely

either semicircular

of vault forms with

semi-octagonal. A rich combination
in the
supporting members
perfectlyadapted to them occurs
loggia of the Villa Madama
(Fig.201),in which appears also
of arabesques in stucco.
a characteristic decoration
of the vaults
The only one
External treatment
of the dome.
which
above
the roofs, and thus required an
external
rose
the central dome, usuallyon pendentives. In
was
expression,
the cathedral of Florence
this already dominated
the exterior
or

in

way

which

set

of the
for all the great domes
buildingslike the Pazzi chapel the dome
the model

period. In minor
might still spring directlyfrom
in

conical roof, but

in

the
more

closed
pendentives and be inimportant examples a

ARCHITECTURE

RENAISSANCE
drum

introduced, lightingthe
unfailingly
raisingthe dome into prominence. The curve
was

then

shown

treated
and

the

on

below

space

and

of the dome

was

Bramante, in his Tempietto,

exterior.

with

pilaster-like
panels inclosingwindows
alternately.For Saint Peter's he placed around
full exterior peristyle.This rose above the center
and was
surmounted
by a pedestaland steps, so

the drum

niches

the drum

379

of the curve,
that the dome

has the saucer-effect

of the Pantheon

and

other

examples. This form, however, remained

rather to increase
imitators,for the tendency was

both

the

steepness of the

curve

Thus

the

model

San

without

Roman

made

its base

by

encircled

stories,and

was

whole

an

mass

The

and
Gallo

by

crowned
almost

the

for the dome

Roman
with

conical

roofs in

height of
arch
a

vast

the drum.
of Saint

Peter's

order

in two

lantern

which

had

receding
the

gave

aspect.

Italy had

little importance
Roofs.
relatively
in the composition of individual buildings,being either low
In
in pitch or else quite flat and bordered
with balustrades.
the general effect of town
and landscape,however, their red
tiles made
with the prevailingwhiteness
a strikingcontrast
of the walls.

General character

of Renaissance forms. Through the spatial

forms of the Renaissance, the massing, the forms of detail,
runs
a consistent character, which
might be expressed as the
internal unity of each element
and the unchangeableness of its
The
isolation of each spatial
impression on the observer.
element
by bounding arches, the preferencefor self-centered
domical
the selfforms and for centrallycomposed buildings,
enframeof each story and each bay, the unbroken
sufficiency
of openings and gables,the lack of projectingmasses
ment
which
transition between
a
might make
building and its
surroundings,and render its effect changeable with changing
of a definite
all these are
manifestations
points of view
sance
the Italian Renaisfeelingregardingform, which distinguishes
from both preceding and followingperiods.
earliest
France.
The country outside of Italy which was
France.
and
most
was
deeply affected by the Renaissance
in the population was
The Latin element
here predominant,
"

and

Latin

find

new

culture

home.

was

The

reassimilated with such

centralized power

readiness

of the

crown

as

to

gave

380

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OP

opportunity for undertakings on

outside

of

Rome,

first class.
the
or

At

and
the

for the

scale unrivaled

callingfrom

time

same

it determined

predominant architectural type,

the

Italyof

the

elsewhere

artists of the

the character

chateau

of the

of

king

noble.

court

It was
the
Development. Transitional period,1495-15/5.
claims of the French
kings to Italian territory,
leading to a
series of invasions by Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I.,
which revealed to them
the splendor and luxury of Italian art,
and

led to the successful

in France.

The

process

of twenty years from

During this time the
remained
Gothic

Gothic, but
forms

in

establishment
was

the

of Renaissance

forms

gradual one, occupying a period

return

of Charles

predominant

character

Renaissance

details

VIII.
of the

mingled

in

1495.

buildings
with

the

increasing proportions. An
early
is the wing built by Louis XII. in
instance of such a mixture
the chateau
of Blois (1503, Fig. 212). Here
the classical
in little else but the elliptical
influence appears
form
of the
arches and the delicate arabesque panels which
decorate
the
piers. At the chateau of Gaillon pilastersand entablatures
imitate the arch

ever

order

and

other

classical features.

Francis
I.
With
the reign
Early Renaissance, 1515-45.
of Francis I. (1515-47) coincides the early Renaissance, in
and dispositionof buildings
which, although the structure
stillfundamentally Gothic, they were
were
completely clothed
in a garb of pseudo-classical
forms.
The
irregularplans,
round towers, and high, steep roofs with dormers
persisted,
but the stories were
treated with superposed orders of delicate
and entablatures,the main
cornices were
pilasters
emphasized
with
The
of
center
an
aggregation of Italian elements.
in the royal residences of the Loire valley.
activityremained
The earliest phase of the styleis well illustrated in the wing of
Francis I. at Blois (1515-19),with the magnificentspiralstairway
in classical masquerade (Fig. 212). At the chateau
of
in 1526-44, the detail was
constructed
Chambord,
similar,
but the plan was
for the first time rigidly
symmetrical. In the
chateau

(1531-40), likwise symmetrical, square

towers
or
angle pavilionstook the place of round ones, and the
Madrid
Paris was
Chateau
lent a truly Italian air by its
near
like those of a
gracefulexterior arcades restingon columns
of

Ecouen

ARCHITECTURE

RENAISSANCE

Owing

Florentine court.
and

influence of

paneled pilastersand
the

are

north

which

Lombardy

it
'artists,

Italian

predominated

Satiro

San

at

the

was

in the detail.

The

Loire chateaux

of the

florid ornament

of those

descendants

by Francis

conquest of Milan

to the

of

his patronage

to

381

and

Certosa

the

(Fig.195).
The
Henry II. In the
High Renaissance, 1545-70.
of Francis and the followingreign of Henry II. came
years

212

FIG.

BLOIS.

"

COURT

LOUIS

change, due

to the

OF

THE

(AT BACK)

xii

FRANCIS

assimilation of the

WINGS

OF

(AT LEFT)

styleand
The

school of Bramante.

of the Roman

SHOWING

CHATEAU,

AND

last

to the influence

Italian masters

this

now

tradition
Serlio the
represented
brought to France
of Raphael.
pupilof Peruzzi, Primaticcio the pupil'ofa disciple
For

the first time,

in

the

Philibert
Bullant
them
Roman
Their

de
were

had

sense.

l'Orme, Jacques
not

been

masters;

Androuet

buildingsshow

of them
a

du

builders.

Italy and had

some

the r61e of architect

Jean Goujon, Pierre

master

mere

in

assumed

also,Frenchmen

modern

"

studied

held

mastery

high

of the

Cerceau,
Most, if not

Lescot,

and

the
court

grammar

Jean
all,of

designs of the
appointments.
of classical

3$2

HISTORY

OP

ARCHITECTURE

effects
new
abilityto use them freelyto secure
These
national.
which
were
characteristically
depended
which
climatic
conditions,
required lower
partly on differing
larger windows, and tall chimney stacks, and partly
rooms,
tradition,which still caused the retention of projecting
on
pavilionswith high individual roofs.
First designs. The earliest work to show the characteristics
is the Hotel de Ville in Paris,begun
of the High Renaissance
of Cortona
from a model by Domenico
(calledBoccador) in
The motive
was
suggested by Raphael's Palazzo dell'
1531.
arch order below
and niches between
Aquila, with a Roman
himself
of the main story. By 1535 a Frenchman
the windows
in his
had caught the spiritof classicism,as Goujon showed
de
Brez"
Rouen.
At
tomb
for Louis
at
Ancy-le-France
(1538-46) Primaticcio regularizedthe' scheme of the French
chateau, not only in the strictly
rectangular plan but in the
uniform
intercolumniations of the exterior and the rhythmical
time De l'Orme, in
of the court.
At the same
bay treatment
forms

and

Saint

Maur-les-Fosses, introduced

an

Sanmicheli.

At

in

Bournazel

the

the

rusticated

south, about

orders
1545,

of
the

of
stimulated a treatment
neighboring classical monuments
the triumphal arch motive with engaged columns, which
was
truly classical in its monumentality. The most characteristic
design of all was that for the rebuildingof the Louvre in Paris,
and Goujon (Fig.213). Here
there was
the work
of Lescot
the subtlest mingling of French
and Italian traditions. The
lower
stories
with
their superposed orders, their pedestals
and
and
recall Bramante
Raphael.
pedimented windows
the end bays and the
The
which mark
projectingmotives
"

"

center

suggest those of the Cancelleria,as well

as

the French

profilingrivals that of
Peruzzi.
The great size of the windows, the pediments which
while the emphasis
terminate the attic,are of northern origin,
of both
which
the use
results from
pilastersand engaged
columns
is a novel contribution by Lescot.
Later
advanced
developments,
developments. Still more
with contemporary
in Italy,were
the later
movements
parallel
designsof Primaticcio,Bullant, De l'Orme, and Du Cerceau.
In the chateau
of Monceaux
the Italian master
employed for
tower-pavilions. The

the first time

in France

delicacy

"

in the

of

same

year

that

Michelangelo

FIG.

213

"

PARIS.

COURT

OF
OF

THE

LESCOT

LOUVRE.
AND

(ORIGINAL

GOUJON)

CONSTRUCTIONS

384

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

designed his palaces on the Capitol (1547) the "colossal

order"
cornice.
A
risingthrough two stories to the main
similar use of free standing columns
in the monumental
occurs
erected by Bullant
at Ecouen
frontispiece
(about 1564) and
Domed
elsewhere.
built by De l'Orme
at Anet
chapels were
(1548) and by Primaticcio at Saint Denis (1559^.)- Finally
the vast symmetrical plans grouped about a multitude
came
of courts, designed by de 1'Orme
for the Tuileries (1564, Fig.
214),and by Du Cerceau for Charleval (1572),which surpassed
anything projectedin Italy.
The
Renaissance
chateau
Types of buildings. Chateaux.
fortified castle of
developed, as its name
implies,from-the
the Middle
Ages. Although no longer planned to withstand
stillmade
a siege,it was
secure
againstmarauders
by a moat
and gate-house,and preserved the arrangement
about a court
"

and

least

at

reminiscence

the

of the earlier fortified towers

angles. The
Middle
Ages, were

staircases,at first spirallike those

often

in its size and

later

of the

in

straightflights.Access
could usually be obtained
to individual
rooms
only by passing
air circulation provided by
the open
through others,for even
the arcades
of an
Italian courtyard was
A
usually absent.
provided,
principalhall or gallery for functions of state was
of

monumental

Henry

II. at Fontainebleau.

accommodated

City

the

hotels.

Although

by

officials and

Hdtel

d'Assezat

houses

which

at

treatment,
A

forecourt

like the
outside

gallery

the moat

service functions.

mostly in the country,

built

arranged

at

at

this time

town

houses

wealthy

some

merchants.

Toulouse,

faced directlyon

of

the

were

unlike

the street.

court

still resided

pretensionswere
These, such
the

They
facing on a

as

Italian
followed

the

town

the

in
houses
of France
which
court
largermedieval
wall with an arched
was
separated from the street by a screen
carriageentrance.
Churches.
ure
During the early Renaissance church architectremained
substitution
fundamentally Gothic, with a mere
of classical details,poorly understood.
Saint Eustache
in
Paris, a typicalexample, still has a plan like that of Notre
Dame, with groined vaults and flyingbuttresses.
Many of
these buildingsare not the less effective from their combination
of supposedly
The same
character
incongruous elements,

10

"jo

10

20

y"

40

50

100

-"METRES
FIG.

214"

PARIS.

THE

TUILERIES.

(DE L'ORME's

PLAN)

in
persists
few

designed by

Thus

the facade

niche

with

earliest in France,

than

Italian

most

again

the

For

cross.

Chapel

simple rectangular plan

attic.
De rOrme's
chapel

had

circular dome

with

three

free-standing
pedimented portico

"

advanced

more

designs.

circular central

great

in its

pilastersand

chapels and

semicircular
the

with

the

spirit.

new

Nizier at Lyons (1542) has

half-columns, and the Mausoleum

of Villers-Cotterets

park

in the

the

show

but

of Saint

massive

its front

and

architects

court

(1566) is classical both

Anet

at

the

High Renaissance,

of the

churches

most

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

386

His

of

Mausoleum

Chapel for Anet

Palace

but

space,

in classical character

with

the

the

Valois

of

arms

Greek

Saint

at

had

Denis,

adopted a plan like that of Brunelleschi's Santa

Maria degliAngeli,with six niched chapels and a galleryabout
The
architectural
central dome.
a
membering here, both
Primaticcio

inside and

out,

of the richest and

was

purest classical forms,

the most
important
buildingranks among
Renaissance.
the
of
centrallycomposed buildings
and

the

Details.

In

France

where

the

climate

of all the

scarcely permitted

with either
column
loggiasof Italy,the free-standing
So too, during the Renaissance,
arch was
very rare.
and
entablatures
the simple wall, for columns
were
was
of
The membering
the
indispensableelements of decoration.
with rustication,was
the major
wall, perhaps in combination
tion
problem of the time among
questionsof detail. In the soluthe open
lintel or

of

in

it,alternation

The

earlier chateaux, treated

one

another

Later

the true

adopted.
was

in

"French

by

order"

examples, some
of carved

one

rusticated
into

him

scheme

sixth

of the French
In

the

windows
the

over

next

in all its variants

introduced

order, which

Unlike

most

by
he
of

De

was

rOrme

called
the

bay.

the

Italian

of the greatest delicacy

thian
the Corinearly Renaissance

ones

the

favorite device.

had
pilasters,
blank panels in

column

(Fig. 215).

enrichment.

was

with

bay, then
rhythmical bay

The

exalted

form

some

are

preferencewhich it enjoyed in Italy;

later no
order was
The
low ceilings
one
speciallyfavored.
in France, with the prevailing secular character
of
usual
French architecture,gave little opportunity for a development
of vaulting. The
treated as in Italy with
flat ceilings
were
feature of contrast with Italian
elaborate coffering.A striking
order had

the

same

ARCHITECTURE

RENAISSANCE
architecture

the

was

387

roof with

high

its dormers, gables,and

treated firstwith pilasters
bearing

chimneys. The dormer was

pinnacles,and with elaborate gables and finials;later it was
The balustrade
given merely the form of a pedimented window.
above the cornice gave place to an ornamental
cresting.
A common
feature making transition between
the wall
which

pediments

below,

the

roof

crowned
in the

as

was

of

row

tives
repeating mo-

Louvre.

sufficient

were

endow

and

Such

ments
ele-

by themselves

to

French

how
buildings, no matter
classical in their ordonnance, with
strictly
national aspect.
characteristically
Spain. In Spain,as in France and other
countries
outside
of Italy,there was
a
ready
mingling of Italian forms with those altecture.
existingin the native medieval archia

however, the medieval

of
styleitself included a large admixture
Moorish
forms.
pulsion
Moriscoes, until their exHere,

in

remained

and
artificers,

among

on

Thus

1610,

arose

prominent
had

thus

the

Renaissance

the

Plateresqueor

style,so called from

their

forms

as

fluence
in-

well.

silversmith's

the intricate and

cate
deli-

abounding in it. This,

sance,
correspondswith the early Renais-

ornament

which

extended

from

about

to

1500

1560.

Hall at
example is the Town
Seville (Fig.216),built in 1527-32.
Here
there is an
applicationof engaged orders
notable

in two

stories which

window

enframements,

richest

arabesques and

characteristic in its mode

Universityat

but

and

great panel above

the

broad

surfaces

notable

features

has

panels

alike

"

THE

of the styleare

TUI-

(PLANAT)

LERIES.

columns,
pilasters,
with

covered

Even

forms.

which

contrasts

unbroken
open

masonry.

arcaded

the
more

of the

is massed

the ornament

opening,
of

TAIL
DE-

PARIS.

FROM

composition is the doorway

Here

Salamanca.

neighboring

which

candelabra-like
of

215

lines is

in its main

thoroughly grammatical,

FIG.

with

in

the
Other

loggiaswhich

388
often

HISTORY

terminate

OF

ARCHITECTURE

facade, as in the Casa de Monterey at

Salamanca
(1530), and the courts or patios surrounded
by
which
found
in all important buildings. Forms
are
galleries
like those of the High Renaissance
in Italy first appeared in
the palace begun for Charles
V. in the Alhambra
(1527),by
Pedro Machuca.
This buildingis square in plan with a circular
a

FIG.

colonnaded

2l6

"

SEVILLE.

TOWN

HALL

having superposed orders, Doric and Ionic

(Fig.217). In purity and classical qualitythe buildingholds
its own
with contemporary
of Italy. From
this
monuments
time occasional buildings continued
the
stricter classical
tendency, the most famous examples of which reallybelong to
the succeeding period.
Germany and the Low Countries. In Germany the multitude
of small states resulted in great varietyin the degree to which
Renaissance
assimilated,and in the stage of
principleswere
in different regions. The
advancement
built at
Belvedere
Prague about 1536 shows a full exterior peristylewith arches
descending on columns, all of Florentine aspect. Such designs
court

ARCHITECTURE

RENAISSANCE
but

were

In

isolated exceptions,however.

389
buildings

most

strongly modified, and the medieval

The
much
element
more
was
persistentthan in France.
(1556-59) in the
wing built by the Elector Otto Heinrich
derived
of elements
castle at Heidelberg shows a combination
Italian

the

FIG.

from

forms

2*7

Bramante

"

were

GRANADA.

and

PALACE

his

OF

school

with

COURT

V.

CHARLES

other

elements

from

Lombardy

(Fig.218). Three superposed orders,the two lower

with pilasters,
recall the Cancelleria,but every
second
ones
support is replacedby a corbel and a statued niche like those
introduced by Raphael. In the lower story the pilasters
are
rusticated,in the followingstory they have arabesque panels.
The

window

recall the
in most
to

be

with

enframements
Certosa

at

buildingsof
influenced by

Pavia.

their

similar character

the later sixteenth

the

baroque

candelabra

mullions

prevailed

century, which

movement

in

began

Italy. The

OP

HISTORY

as
baroque spirit,

we

ARCHITECTURE

shall see,

was

indeed

akin

to that of the

Renaissance

German

craftsmen, as their ready assimilation

of herms, "cartouches," and broken
pediments

forms

of the
reveals.

The

wing

(1601-07),where

FIG.

2l8

"

Heidelberg built by

at

such

features

HEIDELBERG.

WING

appear,

OF

OTTO

shows

HEINRICH

Friedrich
at

IV.

first glance

IN

THE

CASTLE

but

little difference from

predecessor.

The

Peller house

the
continued
(1625) shows
vitalityof the
Renaissance
as
applied to one of the most common
problems
in Germany,
the dwelling of the wealthy town
merchant
(Fig. 219). Its superposed orders, enframing the windows,
run
continuously into the great stepped and ornamented
up
gable,which still proclaims a descent from the Middle Ages.
In Flanders and Holland, except for the more
frequent use of
at

Nurnberg

its

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

brick, the general character

of

of the work

Germany.
England. Development. The

nations

to

feel the

effects of the

39i
is similar to

that

latest of the

great Western

Renaissance

in architecture

Italian
England, isolated and always conservative.
were
employed by Wolsey and Henry VIII., and their
sculptors
was

FIG.

influence made
in the

219

"

NURNBERG.

itself felt,as

carved

PELLER

at

details of many
Gothic.
Meanwhile
essentially
was

HOUSE

Hampton Court (1515-40),

buildings which remained
the

spiritof

appearing in the plans, and

classical metry
symshortly before the

accession of Elizabeth
to

be imitated

and

in 1558 the forms of the orders began

applied to the fagades of buildings. The

Italians had meanwhile

Germans
14

began

to

graduallydeparted,but Flemings and

take their places,and at least one English-

392

John Shute, went to Italyto study architecture (1550).

His First and Chief Grounds
of Architecture (1563) was based
Vitruvius
and gave
Sir Thomas
on
diagrams of the orders.
Gresham
secured
from
Flanders
the design of the
Royal
Exchange (1567-70),which had a court of Florentine aspect,
with arches restingon
columns
below, pilastersand statued
niches above.
In Longleat House
terior,
(1567-80) the whole exin three stories,
treated with superposed orders of
was
grammatical form and proportions,and many
porches and
doorways from less elaborate houses of just this period show

man,

that

the

classical

forms

understood.

well

were

It

is this

of

style,lastingbut a very few years, which really

in Italy and
France.
corresponds to the High Renaissance
The
tide of baroque ornament
which
was
already inundating
the Continent
either the
also
before
England
swept over
phase

medieval
The

or

the

architectural

Flemings
of

and

Renaissance
books

Germans

"

currents

De

of

Vries

full of the

new

had

spent their force.

(1559-77) and
and

tions
combina-

bizarre

classical elements, scrolls,cartouches, and

work," imitatingcut leather

"

were

other

"strap-

widely followed.

in its details the architecture

of Elizabeth
Types. While
and James I. thus passed from medieval
to post-Renaissance,
in its practicalproblems and types it forms
unmistakably a
itself the peunit, governed by the life of the Renaissance
riod
of Spenser, Shakespeare, and Raleigh. Although the
monarchy was
powerful enough to insure peace, the landed
of great wealth
and
aristocracyremained
importance. The
country houses of nobles and gentlemen, often on a vast scale,
the principalcreations of the period. These
men
were
were
than in mundane
less interested in religious
things,so that new
few and they remained
almost purely Gothic.
churches were
The
The house.
Elizabethan
and Jacobean houses
were
from
the
them
medieval fortifiedmanors
developed
by making
more
laying
symmetrical and more
open, and by ornamenting or overcertain
basic
portions with classical details. The
a square
court, on one side of which, opposite
arrangement was
the great hall,where master
the gate-house,was
and servants
end of the hall was
the entrance
ate and mingled. At one
or
"screens," at the other the dais for the high table,
passage
with its fireplace
and bay window.
Beyond, in either direc"

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

the kitchens

tion, were

and

393

the private apartments, respectively,

lodgingsreached
along the sides of the court were
only by passing through those intervening or through the
air. In the second
story, approached by the principal
open
staircase near
the dais,was
the long gallery,
a luxurious feature
and

first introduced

at

Court.

Hampton
often

This

length of

hundred

two

over

feet,with
of but

twenty

tained
at-

width

sixteen

to

five.

In

earlier

the

amples
ex-

there

was

to

attempt

no

formal

secure

either

symmetry

"

in plan or in elevation.
Sutton
At
Place
the

(1523-25)
court

made

time

was

for the first

rigidlysymmetrical,
and

this

later became
rule

also

external
so

far

be
any

The

the

for the

facades,

they could
appreciated in
single view.
as

gate

FIG.

house

and

"screens"

were

centered

I.

Hall.

dining-room.
Hall.

22O
2.

"

MONTACUTE

HOUSE.

Drawing-room.

5.%Smoke-room.
9.

Porch.

10.

3.
6.

(GOTCH)

Large dining-room.
Pantry.
7. Kitchen.

Garden

4. Small
8. Servants

house.

on

the main

axis,the bay window

the other

side of the court.

At

of the dais
Montacute

repeated on
(1580) and many
was

omitted
lodgings inclosingthe court were
and the house was
opened freelyin all directions. With the
porch and with projectionson the garden side the plan thus
E or H-shaped (Fig. 220). Medieval
elements
became
re-

later houses, the

HISTORY

394

ARCHITECTURE

OF

important in the aspect as well as in the plan, for a

of high roofs, gables, dormers, turrets, chimney
multitude
diversified the skylinesand the wall
stacks,and bay windows
classical of all the
at Longleat, the most
surfaces. Even
houses, the mullioned
bays stilltell more
powerfullythan the
mained

FIG.

engaged

orders.

Hatfield

House

others

In

and

new

of symmetry

HATFIELD

HOUSE

which

and

PERIODS

what

has

elements

transformed

characteristic is

typical,like

more

were

(1611, Fig. 221), the

purely medieval, and

something

221"

only

the
the

RENAISSANCE

Early Renaissance, c.

spirit

ARCHITECTURE

Centers

1420-1500.

school.

Filippo Brunelleschi,1379-1446.
Spedale degliInnocenti,1421.
San Lorenzo, begun about 1425.
Pazzi Chapel and Sacristyof San Lorenzo,
c.

into

whole

order.

OF

Florentine

almost

classical

IJALY
I.

are

1429.

Florence

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE
ITALY

395

(Continued)

"

Centers
Maria

degliAngeli, 1434.
Spirito,1435.
Palazzo Pitti,c. 1440 (?).
di Bartolornmeo, 1396-1472.
Michelozzo
Palazzo Medici
(Riccardi),begun 1444.
Leon Battista Alberti,1404-72.
San Francesco
at Rimini, 1447.
SS. Annunziata
at Florence,1451.
Palazzo Rucellai at Florence, 1451-55.
San Sebastiano
at Mantua, 1459.
Sant' Andrea
at Mantua, 1472.
Giuliano da San Gallo, 1445-1516.
Villa Poggio at Cajano, 1485.
Spirito at Florence
Sacristy of Santo
(with Cronaca), 1489-96.
Palazzo Strozzi at Florence (with others),
1489-1507.
Simone
del Pollajuolo (calledII Cronaca),
1457-1508.
San Francesco al Monte
at Florence,1487.
Antonio
Gallo
the
da San
elder, i46i(?)Santa

Santo

Florence
1534-

Biagio at Montepulciano, 1518-37.

Luciano
da Laurana, d. c. 1482.
Ducal Palace at Urbino, 1468-82.
San

Venetian

school.

Pietro

Lombardo, c. 1435-1512.
Vendramini, 1481.
dei Miracoli,1481-87.
Santa Maria
Palazzo

school.

Lombard
Fra

Giocondo,

1433-1515.

c.

(?)Loggiadel

Consiglioat Verona, begun

1476.
Giovanni
Facade

Amadeo,

Antonio
of the

Certosa

others),begun
Donate

B ramante
,

at

of Santa

Pavia

(with

San

Satiro,

1493.
1514.

444-

Sacristyof Santa Maria

Milan, 1489-98.
Choir

44 7- 1 5 2 2

Maria

near

delle

Grazie,Milan,

1492-99.

Santa

Maria

at

Abbiate

Grasso,

1497.

396

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

ITALY

(Continued)

"

Centers
Rome.
Church

and

Venezia

Palazzo

of

San
Florence.

II.

Marco, 1455-66.
Palazzo Cancelleria,1486-95.
"High Renaissance," c. 1500-40.
school.

Roman

(1444-1514),from

Bramante

Donato

of

Cloister

Santa

Maria

San

Pietro

della

1499.

Pace,

1504.

Tempietto

at

1500-02.
of the

Court

Belvedere

in

at

the

begun 1506.
Saint Peter's,
begun 1506.
Palazzo Caprini,
Raphael, 1483-1520.
Saint Peter's,1514-20.
Loggias of the Court of San

Vatican,

Damaso

at

Vatican.

the

dell' Aquila.

Palazzo
Villa

Montorio,

Madama,

begun

1520.

in

Pandolfini

Palazzo

Florence, begun

1520.

c.

Rome

Peruzzi,1481-1536.
Villa Farnesina in Rome, 1509-11.'
Palazzo
Albergati in Bologna, 1522.
Palazzi Massimi
at Rome,
1531.

Baldassare

Antonio

San

Gallo

Farnese

in

da

the

younger,

1482-

1546.
Palazzo
Venetian

Rome,

c.

1520-80.

school.

Sanmicheli,1484-1559.

Michele

of

Gates
Palazzo

Palazzo

Verona, 1533 Jff.

Pompei at Verona, 1530.
Grimani
at
Venice, completed

1539-

Jacopo Sansovino, 1486-1570.

Palazzo

Cornaro

della

Ca'

Grande

at

Venice, 1530.
Library of Saint Mark's at Venice, 1536.
Logetta of the Campanile at Venice,
1540.

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE
FRANCE

I.

Transitional

II.

Italy by Charles VIII., 149495, and by Louis XII., 1499-1504.

Wing of Louis XII. at Blois,1503.
Chateau
of Gaillon,1497-1510.
Early Renaissance,c. 1515-45 (FrancisI.,1515-

period,c.

Invasions

397
Centers

1495-1515.

of

Loire

47).

valley

Wing of Francis I. at Blois,1515-19.

Chateau
of Chambord, 1526-44.
Chateau
of Ecouen, 1531-40.
Chateau
Madrid
near
Paris,1528-0. 1565.
Saint Pierre at Caen, 1518-45.
Saint Eustache
at Paris,begun 1532.
III. "High Renaissance,"c. 1545-70.
Domenico
of Cortona
(Boccador), d. 1549.
Hotel de Ville at Paris,begun 1531.
Jean Goujon, d. between
1564 and 1568.
Tomb
of Louis de Breze at Rouen, 1535.
Pierre Lescot, 1510 (?)~78.
Court
of the
Louvre
(with Goujon),
1546-76.
Francesco
Primaticcio,1490-1570.
Chateau
of Ancy-le-France, 1538-46.
Chateau
of Monceaux
-en-Brie,1547-55.
Paris
Tomb
of the Valois at Saint Denis, 1559 jff.
and
Philibert de 1'Orme, b. between
1510
.

1515;

Chateau

d.

1570.

of Saint

Maur-les-Fosses,c. 1545.
Chateau
d'Anet, 1548-54.
Tuileries at Paris,begun 1564.
Jean Bullant,c. 1525 (?)~78.
Chateau
d'Ecouen, porticoes,c. 1564.
du Cerceau, b. c. 1510;
Jacques Androuet
d. after 1584.
Chateau
of Verneuil,1565^".
Chateau
of Charleval, 1572-74.
SPAIN

1.

"

Early Renaissance, Plateresque,"c. 1480-1530.

Enrique de Egas,
Portal

of the

Portal of the

c.

1455-1534.

Hospitalof Santa Cruz, before 1514.

Universityin Salamanca, 1515-30,

398

HISTORY

OF

SPAIN

Alonso

II.

"

ARCHITECTURE
(Continued)

de

Covarrubias, c. 1488-1564.
Archiepiscopal
palace in Alcala de Henares, 1534.
North
facade of the Alcazar
in Toledo, 1537.
Palacio Monterey in Salamanca.
Town
Hall in Seville,1546-64.
High Renaissance, c. 1530-70.
Diego de Siloe,c. 1500-63.
of Granada, 1528 Jf.
Cathedral
Pedro

Machuca.

Palace

of Charles

V. in

Granada, 1526-33.

GERMANY

I.

Early Renaissance, c.
Belvedere

II.

1520-50.

Prague, 1534 jf.

Palace at Landshut, 1536-43.
Portal of the Castle at Brieg, 1552.
High Renaissance, c. 1550-1600.
Otto Heinrichsbau
at Heidelberg,1556-63.
Portico of the Rathaus
in Cologne, 1569-71.
in Lubeck, 1570 Jf.
Rathaus
Rathaus
in Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber, 1572 Jff.
Friedrichsbau
at Heidelberg,1601-07. ] With
baroque featI ures.
in Nurnberg, 1605.
Peller House
at

ENGLAND

Henry

VIII.

Hampton

1509-47.

Isolated

examples

of

Italian ornament.

Court, 1515-40.
Palace of Nonesuch, c. 1537-50.
Screen in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 1532-36.
Elizabeth,1558-1603.
Burghley House, dormers, 1556 jf.
Royal Exchange in London, 1566-70.
Longleat, T 567-80.
Kirby Hall, 1570-1640.
Montacute
House, 1580-1610.
Wollaton, 1580-88.
James I.,1603-25.
\
Bramshill,1605.
Hatfield House, 1611.
f
( With baroque features.
Audley End, 1616.
BlicklingHall, 1619-20.7

RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

the individual

volumes

P. Franld's

are

NOTE

general. Aside

architecture in

Renaissance

399

listed below

series of which

from

there

be mentioned

may

Die

der

pecially
es-

Entwicklungsphasen
Baukunst,
of
C.
H.
and
Moore's
Character
(a
development),
study
of
1914
Renaissance
(an unsympathetic estimate).
Architecture,
1905
and
The
most
recent
authoritative
works
almost
are
clusively
exItaly.
in foreign languages. Scholarly general works
H.
are
der Renaissance
in Italien,1914
Willich's Baukunst
(Handbuch der
Geschichte der Renaissance
in
J. Burckhardt's
Kunstwissenschaft},
d
er
with
Italien (Geschichte
Baukunst}, 5th ed., 1912 (both
neueren
and
Baukuni't der Renaissance
on
J. Durm's
emphasis
development),
2d ed., 1914
in Italien (Handbuch der Architektur},
(with emphasis
technical analysis) A competent brief sketch of the development
on
in Italien,vol. i, 1912
is P. Frankl's Die Renaissance-Architektur
The Architecture
(Aus Natur und Geisteswelt} W. J. Anderson's
of the Renaissance in Italy,4th ed., 1909, and G. Gromort's Histoire
abrege de I1architecture de la renaissance en Italie,1913, are richly
illustrated works, which, however, repeat many
statements
now
considered
lustrate
ilmonumental
erroneous.
Among numerous
generally
neueren

folios

covering specialregions may

be

mentioned:

P.

Edificesde Rome moderne, 3 vols.,1868-74, the engravLetarouilly's

ings
of which
are
supplemented by photographs in H. St rack's
Baudenkmdler
Roms des XV. -XIX.
Jahrhunderts,1891; C. Stegmann
and

H.

vols., 1885-1908; and

ii

der

Geymuller's Architektur

von

Palast- Architektur

von

in

Renaissance

Toscana,

Reinhardt, Raschdorff, and

R.

Ober-Italien und
H.

Toscana
Strack's

vom

XV.

others'

bis XVII.

Central-und

Jahrhundert, 5 vols.,1886-1911.
Kuppdkirchen der Renaissance
in Italien,2 vols.,1882; W.
Limburger's
Die Gebdude von Florenz,1910, and B. Patzak's Die Renaissance-und
Barock-Villa in Italien,
vols. 2 and 3, 1908-12, are careful monographs.
France.

The

fundamental

works

are

W.

Lubke's

Geschichte

der

Frankreich, 2d ed., 1885 (Geschichte der neueren

der Renaissance
Baukunst}, and H. von
Geymuller's Die Baukunst
W. H.
in Frankreich
2 vols.,1898-1901.
(Handbuch der Architektur},
Ward's
the
The Architecture of
Renaissance
in France, 2 vols.,1911,
embodies
in
trations.
illusresearches
Geymuller's
English, with numerous
R. Blomfield's History of French Architecture,
1498-1661,
suffers from failure to employ the discussions in German.
2 vols.,1911,
Renaissance

C.

in

T.

Mathew's

The

Renaissance

stillvaluable

for its fine illustrations.

of measured

drawings

and

may

be

under

the Valois, 1893, is

collections
Among the many
mentioned
those of Berty, Rouyer

Darcel, Daly, and Sauvageot.

Large photographs are provided

466

HiS TORY

by C. Martin's

Renaissance

La

ARCHITECTURE

OF

and the
France, 2 vols.,1910-12,
relevant section of C. Gurlitt's Die Baukunst
Frankreichs,4 vols.,
works
in two
1896-1900. The chateaux are treated specifically
by
en

in H. Saint Saveur's Chateaux

de France
(lithographs),
for
the
in
smaller buildings,
L. C. Newhall's
and,
(photographs),
Houses
France
the
Chateaux and Manor
X V. and X VI.
The Minor
of
of
Urban
dwellings are covered by P. Vitry'sHotels
Century, 1914.
de la renaissance franqaise,
The
field
et maisons
2
vols.,1911-12.

Victor

Petit

of Berty (1860),
biography is particularlyrich, in the works
Bauchal
and
Vachon
Destailleur (1863),Lance (1872),
(1887),
(1910).
and
M.
A.
and
ure
ArchitectSpain
Portugal.
Byne
Stapley'sSpanish
the
Sixteenth
devoted
to the Plateresque,
chiefly
of
Century, 1917,
be supplemented by the sketch prefixedto O. Schubert's Geschichmay
in Spanien, 1908. Further
illustration is furnished by
te der Barock
Die
Baukunst
M. Junghandel's
Spaniens,3 vols.,1889-98; C. Uhde's
in Spanien und Portugal,2 vols.,
Baudenkmdler
1892; and A. Haupt's
der Renaissance
in Portugal, 2 vols.,1890-95. The
Die Baukunst
de Espana, 1859-81, is a vast series pubMonumentos
arquitectonicos
lished

of

at the expense

Germany.

The

of the state.
fundamental

two

schichte der Renaissance

26. ed., 2

accounts

vols.,1882, and

G.

W.

are

Liibke's

der
(Geschichte

Deutschland
von

Bezold's

in

Deutschland,Holland, Belgien und

der Architektur) 2d ed., 1908. Monumental

Renaissance
buck

in

Die

Gekunst),
Bau-

neueren

der

Baukunst

Ddnemark

(Hand-

folios of

trations
illus-

are

A.

Ortwein
K.

and

A.

Scheffer's Deutsche

E. O. Fritsch's Denkmaler

vols.,1871-88;
4 vols.,1891; and A. Lambert
des XVI., XVII.,
Architektur

Stahl's Motive

and

E.

und

XVIII.

der deutschen

Jahrhunderts, vol.

i,

und
Baukunst
J. Hoffman's
in Deutschland,1909.
For
the
Renaissance
the principalaccount
is
England.
proper
Architecture in England, 2d ed.,
J. A. Gotch's Early Renaissance
Architecture
R. Blomfield's History of Renaissance
in England,
1914.
1500-1800, 2 vols.,1897, includes a briefer discussion of the
period in question. An abridged edition in one volume was issued
in 1904.
Large photographs are furnished by Gotch's Architecture
the
in England, 2 vols.,1894; C. Uhde's Baudenkmdler
Renaissance
of
and A. Stratton's
in Gross Britanien,2 vols.,1894; and T. Garner
The
Domestic
Architecture of England During the Tudor
Period,
Other discussions of the domestic
architecture of
3 vols.,1908-11.
in England occur
the Renaissance
in Gotch's
The Growth
of the
H.
Muthesius's
and
Das
English House, 1909,
englische Haus,
is
vol. i, 1904.
The Renaissance
covered
garden
by H. I. Triggs's
Formal
Gardens
of England and Scotland,1902.
in briefer compass
dekorative Skulptur der Renaissance

1890.

work

is

Renaissance, 9
Renaissance,

deutscher

CHAPTER

XI

POST-RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

By the middle
of the

began

of the sixteenth century the spiritual

forces
Renaissance
in Italy were
forces
exhausted, and new

to determine

dreamed

of

confronted
of

revival

the

by
and

centralized

monarchs,

development.

Men

no

longer

literal resurrection

Reformation

the cultural

of

of pagan
Rome, but were
militant
Christianityin the

With

the counter-Reformation.

states

elaboration

of domestic

absolutism

came

on

of their courts, and

securityand

the

the

part

growth
of

the

ment
the final establish-

city and

of modern

country

life.

Architectural changes. Simultaneously with

of these cultural
which

were

not

changes,architecture
less fundamental.

still remained

elements

classical

stillremained

canons

of

the

the

also underwent

Classic

design, and

the ideal in

beginning
changes

forms, indeed,

conformity

to

quarters. The
classical character, however,
some

feelingas to what constitutes a

materials
which
could be
was
changed, the elements became
ferred
transrecombined
or
played with freely,and emphasis was
than purity of detail and geometrical
to other qualities
these qualitieswas
a
simplicity. First among
heightened
in
extension
of
the
of
and
unity
composition
singlebuildings,
the scope of the composition to include their surroundings,or
whole quarters or whole towns.
There was
a correspondeven
ing
of individual
decrease in the isolationand self-sufficiency
of interior space
parts of a composition: the subdivisions
tended
the lines of cornices and string-courses
to melt away;
were
interrupted,or architraves,pediments, and orders were
to a
broken
Facades
no
by rustic blocks.
longer conformed
singleplane,but had a boldness of reliefwhich resulted in an
Practiof the observer.
aspect varying with every movement

OF

HISTORY

402

requirements became

cal

began

rooms

specializedand

more

be differentiated

to

so

baroque tendencies.
fundamental
unity to

Sharing

and

Academic

give the

buildingsof

diverse

two

the

tendency,
for

Renaissance
On

the

theoretic

rules

elements

of

hand

other
was

unusual,

compromises
An

both

period.

The

were

the

use

of

indeed

other

hand

one

in
the

was

of proportion.

canons

so-called

forms

of the
Such

masses.

orders

as

tendencies

styleoffered nothing new

always present in greater or
a

sharpness of their antithesis

this did not

even

in individual

prevent

buildingsand

was

great variety
in the work

In

in German

as

other

Renaissance, have
which

each

English the designation

baroque has
appliedonly to the works of the freer tendency,

been

not,

time, are

schools.

inclusive term.

always
and

and

On

the

was

within

to freedom

principle,
having been
less measure.
Only the

of national

to

plasticmodeling

qualities,

baroque
disregard classical dispositionsand

to

in

of

organic

an

these

to

of mathematical

alike, and

strictness and

hitherto

of

perpetuated the strivingof the

reproduction of classical features

accurate

tendency, which

to

which

establishment

for the

and

in

styleof the

tendencies, opposed

their relations to classical architecture.

academic

stand

to

as

forms

the

their functions.

relation with

which

ARCHITECTURE

not

and

Italian,to all the works

works, considered
thus

too

often

as

been

only contemporary

of the

stillbelonging to the

separated from

with

them,

but

those
shared

of their fundamental

qualities.It has here

the historical unity of the
been
thought better to preserve
for it post-Renaissance which
period,and to adopt a name
merely its chronologicalposition and its artistic
expresses
patrimony.
Centers
and
diffusion. As in the Renaissance, the new
first acquiredform and momentum
in Italy. In
movements
with

them

most

"

"

northern

itself was
the Renaissance
associated
lands, where
with the Reformation, they scarcelyappeared until the time
of the wars
of religion. Unlike the Renaissance, however, they

produced results elsewhere

equal in importance to those in
become
Italy. Spain, France, and England had meanwhile
highly centralized nations, which successivelyattained world
while Italy and Germany
remained
torn by internal
power,

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE

403

struggles. During the central years of the period France

and European culture,and it was
dominated
European politics
the

thus

version

French

of

ideas

contemporary

later years, had the greatest influence.

origins. The germs
Italy. Academic

of both

which, in

academic

and

sance
baroque tendencies existed in Italy well within the RenaisAlberti
were
period. The forerunners of academicism
of Vitruvius.
and
the early editors and commentators
All
these were
concerned largelywith the fixingof normal forms
and proportionsfor individual architectural members.
After
the editions and
translations
of Vitruvius
multiplied
1500
rapidly,and belief in the infallible authority of the Roman

increased to

writer

fantastic extent

best

in passages
The rules were

seen

in

to
writingsof Serlio,appearing 1537-75.
when
in conflict with the teachings
be followed even
they were
of ancient
monuments.
By 1542 the adherents of formal
and self-conscious to found
numerous
sufficiently
theory were
a Vitruvian
academy in Rome.
dency
Baroque origins. Michelangelo. Against this academic tenthere
arose
a
powerful champion in Michelangelo.
He
boldly proclaimed his ambition "to burst the toils and

the

chains"

which

his intention

and

itself
suffered to be laid upon
himself bound
by no rule ancient

architecture had
to

hold

Already, in his designs for the fagade of San

Lorenzo
(1514) and for the interior of the Medici chapel in
freedom.
Florence
(1521-34,Fig. 204),he had shown a new
In one
and
the richer relief of free-standingcolumns
it was
here used for the first time as decorative forms in a
sculpture,
or

modern.

Renaissance
use

In the other

of classical details in the

framework.

omitted

at

of consoles
the

facade.

doors

the unconventional

was

of
filling

the main

architectural

broken, architraves and friezes

will,proportionswere
modified, and a multitude
Entablatures

were

were

introduced.

the inner

enframement

cornice and
In the

it

Within

the

tabernacles

penetrates

rises into the tympanum

sarcophagi of the Medici chapel

even

the

above

zontal
hori-

of the

pediment.
Michelangelo even
of a pediment,
cyma

suggestionfor breaking the upper

which he and others soon
proceeded to do. Similar liberties
of detail appear
in another of his designs at this period,not
the vestibule of the Laurentian
completed after his death

gave

"

"t*-I

'

Siar

Mjpcpr
^sdL.'^'mv

."""'.

"tiP^r^fef'
LW"8"

**""--"-,"

H----::I::I^

FIG.

222

"

ROME.

A.

Basilica

B.

Piazza
Court

C.

PLAN

OF

of Saint
Peter
of Saint
Peter
of the Belvedere

SAINT

PETER'S

AND
D.

E.

THE
Court

VATICAN.
of San
Damaso
of Raphael)

Loggias
Villa Pia

(GROMORT)
(with the

POST-RENAISSANCE

Libraryin

ARCHITECTURE
An

Florence.

even

more

405

strikinginnovation

here

placingof the stairs,free on all sides,in the center of a

which
room
rose
through two stories.
second and
Saint Peter's. The
Michelangelo'slater work.
more
important period of Michelangelo's architectural work
began on the death of Antonio da San Gallo (1546),when he
succeeded to the direction of Saint Peter's and the papal buildwas

the

FIG.

223

"

ROME.

SAINT

PETER

DOME

FROM

THE

EAST

already seventy-one years of age, yet

and
continued
to develop for eighteen years
he survived
In Saint Peter's (Fig.222) he reverted to the centrally
more.
which
had been modified
a
as
composed scheme of Bramante
result of liturgical
He
the
considerations
outer
omitted
aisles and chapels hitherto proposed and restored the single
colossal order on
the exterior. For the domes
proposed by
Bramante
and San Gallo he substituted one of his own
design,
followed
the
novel
It
features
embodying many
(Fig.223).
dome
of Brunelleschi in having more
than a single
shell and in

ings generally.

He

was

of the

give the exterior

he

and
and

each

drum

the

rib.

The

aspect, which

ribs

steeper pitch than

terior,
the in-

buttress-like

series of

FIG.

224.

result

was

has

dome

visible expressionboth inside

he placed
continuous exterior peristyle

the

gave

Instead of

but.

around

ARCHITECTURE

OF

angelo,
system of deep ribs with lighterfilling.Michelof shells
however, took advantage of the multiplicity

having
to

HISTORY

4o6

remained

ROME.

a
an

THE

dome

masses,

one

at

CAPITOL

of

almost

new

and

more

universal model

soaring
for the

followingcenturies.
The Capitol. Of scarcelyless influence was
Michelangelo's
work on the CapitolineHill in Rome
(begun 1546). Here on
the saddle
group

between

the two

hitherto unrivaled

summits
in its

he created

monumental

unity (Fig.224). Taking

suggestion,perhaps, from the square at Pienza, he made the

sides of his square
diverge toward the Palazzo del Senatore
which
formed
the background for a rich display of ancient
sculpture. To right and left were
palaces identical with

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE
with

other, harmonious

each

heightand

to it in

the

nated
yet subordi-

principalone,

these,for the first time in a

secular building of the Renaissance, the fagade was
conceived
as

in the

whole

columns, and
units

Roman

entablature.

In

building,with podium,

stories

The

superposed on one another, but are

of the largerunity. The horizontal

terruptedby

notable

emphasis

on

"

VICENZA.

feature

the central

relief,or

double

225

the continuous

Another

much

of

manner

FIG.

and

scale.

407

THE

are

created

dual

which

the

the

are

in-

given by features of greater size

by progressiveincrease in size. The great
axes

del Senatore

surrounded

tendencies

Although

the division

BASILICA

which

emphasis was itself novel and

Establishment of the tendencies.
Palladia.

the

by

subdivisions

this

generation

individual

vertical lines of the great pilasters.

of the whole
composition is the

stair of the Palazzo

to

not

free

of the

or

stricter

or

and

so

influential.
In the

younger

succeeded

day became
baroque tendency
academic

contributes

Michelangelo
firmly established.

had

tendency did

the
not

lowing,
greater fol-

yielduntil

HISTORY

408

its greatest master

influence. This

(1518-80).
the

He

OP
had

later had

Palladio

youth given to

of

the Roman

so

because

is

doubt

no

Vicenza
remains

far

226

"

VICENZA.

certain

VILLA

traditions

that

he

chose

this

of

the

ROTONDA

Renaissance, closelyapproximates a basilica of Roman

There

wide

attempted. His earliest

della Ragione, or Basilica,at Vicenza

study

building,the Palazzo
(Fig. 225), although continuing

FIG.

which

Andrea

was

in his

intensive

most

created models

master

had

ARCHITECTURE

as

his model

precisely
buildings. In his

identityin the uses of the

of
be traced
the influence
subsequent designs there can
Michelangelo as well as of the antique. In some
palaces he
employed the colossal order, in others, where he stillretained
order for each story, he omitted
the pedestalbetween
and
an
allowed
the lines of the balustrade
to be interruptedby the
columns.
In either case
he frequentlyadded
an
story,
upper
treated
He

of the

times.

as

an

attic like those

carried the

of the Roman

triumphal arches.

interruptionof the architectural lines

even

POST-RENAISSANCE
farther

than

story

upper

breaking

ARCHITECTURE

Michelangelo, permitting
to

the

into

penetrate

entablature

windows

the

main

the

409

of the

entablature, and

each

bay of the great order.

the independence of individual memWhile
he thus reduced
bers,
he tended to decrease the isolation of the whole building.
of the building he often
Instead of emphasizing the corner
the expressionthere, making the work
weakened
not
crocosm,
a milike the Renaissance
palaces, but a fragment of the
character
in Pallacosmos.
Something of the same
appears
and villas. In the villas,for indio's designs for churches
stance,
he treated the service buildingssurrounding the house
scape.
as
wide-flungcolonnaded wings which unite house and landIn both

ancient

to imitate the

Almerigo

or

churches

at

and

pedimented temple

Rotonda"

"Villa

porticoeswith a
villa,composed about

This

salon, served
Palladia's

as

villas Palladio

has

of six columns

central

axis,with

prototype for many

attempt

an

front.

Vicenza

near

front

made

The

Villa
standing
free-

even

(Fig. 226).
domed

central

others in northern

writings. Palladio's

influence

was

lands.

exercised

chieflythrough his Four Books on Architecture (1570). In

these he not only gave a codification of the orders which
was
furnished
the
first
considerable
body of
widely adopted, but
measured
drawings of ancient buildings,and instituted a new
works.
custom
by publishingengravings of his own
who
aided in the establishmen
Vignola, Vasari, Alessi. Other men
and diffusion of the new
tendencies
were
Vignola,
Vasari, and Alessi, all disciplesof Michelangelo. Vignola,
measured

who

ancient

academy, and

vian

freedom

of invention.
from

sided
Giulio

new

castle, with

(1550) he

in the church

of

methods
a

made

for his

buildingsmany

fortification

circular court.
rich

new

the

other, in

five-

Villa di

Papa

forms, and

he

the -officialsof

opened freelyat

contrast

the

of semicircular

use

Uffizi in Florence, built to house

was

In

build

to

dome.
employed an elliptical
biographiesof artists,also created
spatialeffects. His court of the

of Sant' Andrea

Vasari, best known

in his

fluenti
inpublished perhaps the most
in his buildingsgreat
orders, showed
At Caprarola (1547) he took a suggestion

who

of the

canon

fragments in the interest of the Vitru-

one

the ducal

end, and

to the inclosed courts

of

ministra
ad-

partiallyat
earlier palaces.

4io

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Alessi began the creation of modern

their arcaded
and
their
courts

Genoa

227

MARINO.

by his palaceswith
elaborate
stairways. His
Marino
in Milan
Palazzo
(Fig. 227), with its lavish use of
panels,masks, garlands,and consoles to organize and enliven
the widest influence on
the wall surfaces,had
Renaissance
architecture north of the Alps. In the works of these three

FIG.

men

window

rustication

"

MILAN.

PALAZZO

commenced

enframements.

to

It

broke

attack

COURT

the

orders

and

the

through the shafts and

architraves,which appeared only at the capitalsand bases,
in the corners, or between
the blocks.
Sculptured figures,or
herms with a sculptured bust and tapering shaft, began to
replace pilastersand enframements,
although geometrical
forms and classical dispositions
stilldominated.
The years from
Baroque supremacy.
1580 to 1730 in Italy

POST-RENAISSANCE
were

of

years

in which

ARCHITECTURE
for the

undisputed supremacy
classical forms

411

baroque.

ings
Build-

followed did indeed

strictly

were

even
the works of the great masters
occasionally,
among
of the free tendency, but they were
exceptional. In
in planning and in
assumed
general the greatest libertywas
which
This liberty,
has so often been conceived
mcmbering.
in a dissolution or degeneraas mere
capriceor license,
resulting
tion

appear

of Renaissance

forms,

positive,constructive
conscious

of its aims

extreme

It

process.

and

better

may

was

an

be

looked

on

as

effort',
thoroughly

studious

of its means,
to follow to
the search for those qualities
of molten

consequences
and
ideals of the period as
unity
varietyof aspect which were
In this striving,
a whole.
geometricalcomplexity took the

place of simplicity,
ever-varyingdiagonal views resulted from
in plan, ever- varying silhouettes resulted
from
curvatures
and

of
projectionsin elevation. The substitution
leather-like cartouches for simple shields and panels,
swelling,
the appearance
tectural
of twisted columns, the overflowingof archilines by sculpture,or the substitution of sculptural
curves

forms

for

the

richlyveined

architectural

and

frames

colored marbles

themselves, the

and of gildingare

use

of

but several

tendency. The aim of the

academists
and the achievement
to surprise;the aim
was
never
of the baroque masters
to surprisecontinually.
was
Delia Porta, Maderna.
Among the first constructions to
feel the new
those of the villa gardens,where long
spiritwere
manifestations

of

before

of the

its

the end

formality in

consistent

sixteenth century the architecture lost

riot of sculpture,artificialrock-work, and

penetrationof similar motives into

In the fagade of the
monumental
architecture soon
followed.
church of the Gesu in Rome, designedby Delia Porta (c.1573),
there are pediments one
ture.
entablawithin another on the same
In the terminal fountain of the Acqua Paola, notwithstandin
its severe
classical models, the outline is boldly
animated by consoles and finials. The facade of Saint Peter's
added
lief
(1606-26) has a graduated increase of reby Maderna
toward
the center and a complexity of rhythm in the setting
out and subdivision of its bays which defies any casual analysis.
Its skylinedissolves in balustrades, statuary, and cartouches.
broken

silhouettes.

Bernini, Borromini.

The

The

many-sided artistwho dominated

412

HISTORY

Gian Lorenzo
was
baroque movement
Equally distinguishedin sculptureand

the later years of the

Bernini (1598-1680).

broadened

in architecture, he
to

hitherto

range

altar of Saint

the

unknown.

of consoles

crown

scope

and

of architectural
The

(1624-33) with

Peter's

columns, its

ARCHITECTURE

OF

its bronze

the

over

canopy

its twisted

pression
ex-

floriated

and

hangings (Fig.

199),is at the oppositepole from his colonnades of the square

in their Doric simplicity. A
in front (1656-63),unrelieved
is present, however, in the conception of
common
qu'ality
part as a fragment, requiringthe others to complete it.
every
No part by itself is symmetrical. The twisted columns
turn
of the colonnades
mands
dein opposite directions,one
half-ellipse
the other (Fig.222). Rarely are
opposite sides of a
motive
in a singleplane or parallel. The colonnades
converge
toward

of Saint

the square

Ludovisi

Peter's,the faces of the Palazzo

(Montecitorio) recede

lines of the

equally

Regia of the Vatican

singlevanishing-point. Similar devices
Scala

of Bernini's

work

on

contemporary,

each

side, the
toward

converge

also

appear

Francesco

in

the

Borromini.

His

Rome
at
fagade for Sant' Agnese in the Piazza Navona
(1645-50) has all its lines curved in plan; his plan for Sant'
of trianglesand arcs
Ivo (1660) is a combination
which
tinually
conpresents something unexpected.
The baroque supremacy
outside of Rome.
Although Rome
of the baroque movement,
the center
itself was
other Italian
cities were
quick to feel its influence. The extent to which it
varied greatlywith the local traditions or lack
welcomed
was
of traditions.
where

Thus

school

the

the

in

of Bramante

baroque

of Guarino

the works

Piedmont, in Genoa, and in the south,

(1680) with

its double

In

Florence,

had

unrestrained.

was

Guarini, such
reverse

on

never

curve

as

become
In Turin

the Palazzo

tablished,
firmly esespecially
Carignano

in facade, went

to

tremes.
ex-

the other hand, the baroque scarcely

foothold, and in Venice the tradition of Sansovino

restricted it to a few examples.
The most
notable of these,
obtained

the

church

of Santa

Maria

della Salute

(1631-82) by

Lon-

positionat the head of the Grand Canal, has,

however, a high importance in the aspect of the city(Fig.228).
Eight-sided,with its central dome buttressed by great scrolls
carryingstatues, and with a second largedome over its choir,
ghena, by

its

POST-RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

413

it has

captivatedsuccessive generationsof artists by its everchanging perspectives.

Compromise: Juvara, Galilei,Vanvitelli. In the eighteenth
strengthened by
century the academic
tendency in Italy was
influences from
France
and from
return
England. A touch
in the work
of this appears
of FilippoJuvara (1685-1735),

FIG.

228

"

VENICE.

SANTA

MARIA

DELLA

SALUTE

buildingsin Turin include the great domed church of the

Superga (1706-20). Another of the leading Italian architects
of the eighteenthcentury was
Alessandro
Galilei (1691-1737),
who had worked
in England under
Vanbrugh and represented
the same
and
dencies.
academic
compromise between
baroque tenis
His fagade for the church
in Rome
of the Lateran
strict in its use
of classical elements
and in its geometrical
but has a free skylineand complicated grouping.
regularity,

whose

4U

HISTORY

OP

ARCHITECTURE

tempted Italian
notable of the resulting
try
counpalaces is that of Caserta near
Naples by Luigi Vanvitelli,
begun in 1 7 5 2 The plan of buildingand gardens embodies
French
elements, the membering of the long facades is dryly
Palladian.
The cyclethrough freedom back to strictness was
to be completed.
soon
Reformation
The
Counter
Types of buildings. Churches.
of a return
was
a period of feverish buildingof churches, and
to a more
inal
liturgical
conceptionin their design. The longitudmore
once
preferred,as in the Middle
type of plan was
added
Renaissance
churches
of
to some
Ages. Naves were
central type as ultimately to Saint Peter's itself (Fig.222).
The
pendence.
and transept tended
to lose its indecrossingof nave
In new
designsthe central type was rarelyadopted
except for votive churches like the Superga and the Salute.
In the Salute the radial chapels were
no
longer isolated,
but united to form a single
the first of its kind
aisle,
encircling
the selfsince Byzantine days. Throughout the churches
centered
domical
vaults gave
place to groined vaults with
their centrifugal
interruptedby
tendency, barrel vaults were
unite
the
t
ended
to
penetrations,galleries
bays at the aisles
and even
A broad nave
and shallow
to projectinto the nave.
transepts gave space for a congregationcorrespondingto the
increased importance of the sermon.
The whole plan tended
divided,
to a singlerectangle, usually subincreasinglyto conform
to be sure, but into parts having no
strong unity of
splendor of Versailles under
The most
princesto imitation.
The

Louis XIV.

their

The

own.

facades, too,

little preciserelation

Renaissance

scheme

with

consoles

sides

was

make

to

adhered

to

treated

as

using superposed orders

transition

in many

from

cases.

units, with

of the interior.

the subdivision

to

of

were

the lower
Even

The

in the center

order

at

the

istic,
character-

more

employment of a single order the

full height of the nave,
masking the unequal heights of nave
and aisles. The bell tower
no
was
longerdesignedas a separate
but
combined
with
the
facade and repeated on
unit,
was
however,

either side

facades and

as

was

the

in northern
stillmore

church

fronts.

of interiors there

In the treatment
was

often

of

lavishness

and
figuresculpture and of painting which was mundane
theatrical,perhaps, but remarkably facile and decorative
of

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE

(Fig.229).

The

who
Jesuits,

led in the

415

reactionaryreligious

in their churches
adhered
to florid Italian models
movement,
in other countries,and thus gave the baroque an international

the

"Jesuitstyle."
In the town
Palaces.
palaces the principalinnovations of
the post-Renaissanceperiod lay in planning. Vestibule,
character

FIG.

229

"

as

ROME.

SAN

CARLO

CATINARI.

CHAPEL

OF

SANTA

CECILIA'

(RICCl)

court, and
suite

which

stairs were
gave

in a
longer isolated,but combined
unity to the entire building. Genoese
notable.
University (1623),are the most
no

examples, like the

Many palaces,such as that of the Barberini in Rome, have
than a singlefile of rooms
in a block and a multitude
more
of
stairwayswhich permit independent access and privacy. The
stereotypedplan with a singlecentral court was
no
longer
followed
and the courts
no
exclusively,
were
longer always
side toward
either street or
inclosed,but opened on one

HISTORY

416

OP

ARCHITECTURE
for

instance,with the court of

in 1526.
the Palazzo Pitti in Florence,executed by Ammanati
Villas. The characteristic creation of the periodin domestic
the villa,in which house and garden were
architecture was
now
hillside
and
c
ombined.
with
Usually on
sites,
an
inextricably
of
the
included
villas
abundant
series of
a
water,
supply
terraces, steps, pools, and fountains, all highly organized in
garden. This

was

with

accordance

the case,

unified

axial system.

The

either at the top or at the bottom

between; there might be a
part way

might
even

casino

or

of the

be

slope,or

level parterre of
acteristic
permitted. A char-

the

ground
example of artful varietywithin modest dimensions
is the Villa Lante
near
Viterbo, designed by Vignola (begun
Here
and
a parterre with
a central fountain
1566, Fig. 230).
basins occupies the lower third of the length. To left and
right of the first ascent stand the two casinos which provide
the livingquarters,and above rise terraces of differing
widths
the main axis by features in which
and heights,connected
on
water
are
ingeniouslyintermingled. Ramps
steps and falling
flowers,or

and

terraces

stairs offer
The

descent.
oval

court

only, as

house

alternative

numerous

of ascent

means

and

Villa Pia in the gardens of the Vatican, with

and

curved

is another

ramps,

such

its

unexampled

living(Fig.222 E).
Fountains
occurred
not
Fountains.
only in. the villas but
everywhere in the cities,multipliedand diversified as never
of water
For large volumes
before.
or
small, for high pressures
background

or

low

for the art of

alike, treatments

found

were

which

rich
place in the design,however
or
sculpture.
times
A novel problem in modern

itself the chief

architecture
Theaters.
an

architectural

treatment

to

the

theater.

the

gave

and

was

The

water

free the

to

give

classical

precedents suggested to Palladio, for his Teatro Olimpico in

Vicenza
(1580),a close imitation of the interior of a Roman
and
at the rear,
encirclingcolonnade
theater, with cavea,
architectural sccetue frons. An addition quite in the spiritof
architectural
that of constructed
the time was
perspectives
visible through openings of the stage. The theater at Parma
and a singlewide opening to
(1618) has a deeper auditorium
a
Equally significantis the
stage for movable
scenery.
replacing of the rear colonnade by arcades in two stories.

HISTORY

4i8
From

these

of

which

Italian

the

in the

grew

loges

ARCHITECTURE

eighteenth century

still form

theater

the

interior.

Town

the inclusion

was

ideal

the

of

the

stage, like the

Citia

(1511-92) whose Ponte

inaugurated a new
lightnessand
fantastic than

were

the

the

corrections

undertaken

These, which

Rome.

II.,were

continued

included

the Piazza

cities

had
on

been
vast

of Saint

on

had

sort

Ammanati

Less

cityin

treatment

to

attempt

extension

of the whole

Efforts

composition.

tiers of individual

the

characteristic

No

expressionwas yet made.

planning. An ultimate

exterior

in

OP

secure

an

of

baroque principles
ural
architecta single
mostly to remain

Ideale

of

Bartolomeo

Santa

Trinita

grace

in

bridge building.

but

still ambitious,

paper,

in Florence

in

above all in
existingcities,
begun in a small way by Julius
scale by his successors.
They

Peter's and

the Piazza

del

Popolo,

begun by Bernini about 1656, the Spanish Steps,and the

In all these there appear
the
port of Ripetta on the Tiber.
grandiose unity and variety of form so characteristic of the
period.
Individual forms. The
governing conception of the postRenaissance
period in Italywas that each individual element
but a fragment, and that a high degree of unity in the
was
This concepdamaging to the unity of the whole.
parts was
tion
in conflict with
the antique conception
was
essentially
did not preclude parts sufficient unto
selves.
themof unity, which
It thus came
about that the structural expressiveness
of many
forms
had
for
to yield to the imperative demand
both

and

dismemberment

coalescence.

Thus

as

in Roman

tecture,
archi-

by comparison with Greek, purity of detail was

rendered
of composition.
less important by the mode
The period in Italywas
Walls.
distinguished
by a wide use
of stucco, not only for wall surfaces,as in the Renaissance,
of openings and
orders.
but
for all the members
This
extension
but

it

was

modeled

quoins
of walls

of its use
turned

resulted in the firstinstances

to

decoration.
or

about
with

the

marble

advantage

in the execution

Rustication

interiors the

economy,

of luxuriant

rarelyused

was

openings. In
veneering was

giving a strikingcontrast.
Openings. In the enframement

from

except in

incrustation

revived, inlaid patterns

of the

openings few

Italian

POST-RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

419

designers followed the practice of Palladio in retaininga

simple rectangular architrave, perhaps with a frieze and
Palladio himself multipliedears
and consoles
cornice. Even
and
temporaries
employed a bulging or pulvinated frieze. His conenframements
with
were
already elaborating
rusticated
herms
architraves, broken
pediments, and
or
figuresculpture,which soon became the rule.
Columns
and
wall membering. The
general relations of
arch, and

column,

wall

remained

much

the

same

as

in the
"

period,except for the frequentuse of a "colossal

with
horizontal
engaged order.
Free-standing colonnades
lintels appear
but seldom, although notably in the Piazza, of
Columns
Saint Peter's.
bearing arches remained in favor for
now
courtyards,but the supports were
usually grouped in
favored by Alessi. In the membering
pairs,a motive especially
of facades the tendency toward
grouping the members, which
had begun with the coupled columns
of Bramante, was
carried
further.
much
The
pilasterwas reinforced by slightbreaks
in the wall at either side, or groups
of shafts and pilasters
were
composed, like the grouped piers of the Middle
Ages.
Renaissance

In interiors these
various
the

members

once

of

more
a

vault,

correspondingbreaks

enliven

on

individual

support to the

exteriors they served, with

in entablatures

and

balustrades, to

silhouette.

the

Stairs.

gave

mental
specialproduction of the period was the monuinside
outside.
angelo's
Michelstairway,either
a buildingor
stairwaysat the Laurentian Library and at the Capitol
the suggestion,which was
quickly taken up in many
gave
different ways.
Thus, in the Villa d'Este at Tivoli (about
of a symmetrical stairway are bent into
1550),the two arms
semicircles;at the Villa di Papa Giulio, into quadrants.
Then
followed the stairs with two arms
side by side,and with
three arms
winding up against the walls of a rectangular
in the Palazzo
Barberini
room
as
(about 1630). Further
possibilities
lay in a symmetrical doubling of these schemes,
first,attempted in the cloister of San Giorgio Maggiore in
In the Genoese
Venice by .Longhena (1 644)
palacesthe stairs
through several stories were brought into a singlecomposition
by the breaking through of all surrounding walls, and the
vaults.
on
carryingof the upper flights
bridge-like
.

420

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Spain. Academic architecture. The conquest of the Indies

made
of the sixteenth
Spain, by the middle
century, the
in Europe.
PhilipII. gave expressionto this
greatest power

FIG.

power
a

state

"

by the buildingof

votive

every

231

church

needful

and

THE

the

ESCURIAL.

PLAN

(1563-84),comprising
monastery, and palace,with

Escurial

mausoleum,

dependency for the service of both

(Figs.231, 232). Its buildinglay chieflyin

church
the hands

and
of

POST-RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

421

(1530-97),whose work, severely academic

in its forms, established
the post-Renaissance tendencies
in
ployed
Spain. In the Patio of the Evangelists,to be sure, he emarch order with equal bays and unbroken
the Roman
in the
entablatures, but elsewhere the membering abounds
Juan de Herrera

FIG.

232

"

THE

ESCURIAL

complex grouping of supports, the breaking of horizontal

members, the unitingof interior spaces by penetratingvaults,
and the multiplication
of aspects in perspectiveby the combination
of dome

and

towers.

Herrera's sobriety was

soon
"Baroque supremacy.
seded
superof
in
hands
which
the
by baroque freedom,
ultimately
the boldest
license.
Joje" Churriguera (1650-1723) became
The
national traditions of the Plateresquewere
reflected in
the
which
Churrigueresque style,
paid less attention to the
"

"

422

creation of

HISTORY

the
the

forms

new

elaboration

OF
of

of detail.

ARCHITECTURE

plan and

It reached

space

than

the luxuriant

to

its fullest

in

development
such as the high altar
great portals and altar-pieces,
church of El Salvador in Seville (Fig.233).
end

the

marked

accession

The

Reaction.

of

of the

Spanish

Bourbons

domination

in

in

of

which

1714,

politics,
brought

also
of

subordination

cies
tenden-

Spanish
in

The

art.

palaces of the
La

rulers at

ja

world-

the

only

liness

Gran

imitated

and Madrid
not

new

of

Versailles

its architectural

but

formalism.

The

baroque tendency,
which comported so
with

well

national

sympathies,

sisted
per-

nevertheless,

creating novel

now

forms

of

interior

space,

and

still filling

the framework
the

orders

exuberance
France.
there
FIG.

233

"

OF

SEVILLE.
EL

ALTAR

OF

THE

(SCHUBERT)

SALVADOR.

short

reached, and
Even

freer

phase

duration, however;
the

of

an

ment.
orna-

In France
first

was

compromise

of

period

baroque
This

with

came

brief

CHURCH

of

supremacy.

of
was

tively
relasoon

dency
tenvictory of the academic
came! earlier than in Italy and was
more
complete.
the
the
academic
of
dency
tenduring
compromise
years
the
predominated, although in the later of them
asserted itself vigorously,in the
more
tendency once

known

as

ultimate

the

rococo.

The

conventional

subdivision

POST-RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

423

period in France into phases designatedby the names

of the kings conforms
tolerablywell with this development,
corresponds
although the duration of the phases by no means
premacy
exactly to that of the reigns. In general the baroque sube identified with the styleof Henry IV. and
may
Louis XIII. ; the compromise, in its earlier and stricter form,
with the styleof Louis XIV., in its later and freer form, with
that of Louis
XV.; the ultimate victory of the academic,
with the styleof Louis XVI.
Establishment of academic and baroque tendencies. Already
in the later work
of native masters
of the High Renaissance,
have seen, there were
of postas
we
signs of the appearance
of the

Renaissance

tendencies.

had

treatises

written

On

one

hand

discussingthe

of classical members.

On

De

proper

the

and

1'Orme
form

and

hand

other

Bullant
tions
propor-

1'Orme

De

had employed at the Tuileries and at Charleof the forms of the school of Michelangelo,such as the
val many
herm, the rusticated architrave,and the broken pediment.
and

Du

Cerceau

Henry IV.

With

combination

of brick and

the

resumption of
IV. after the religious
wars
(about 1600),
the strict classical forms had everywhere yielded to those of
the triumphant baroque of the day in Italy. It was
rarely,
however, that baroque principles
governed the whole composition.
In the typicalbuildingsof the time of Henry IV., only
the details of the baroque were
applied to the simplest
Baroque supremacy.
buildingunder Henry

rectangular masses.
in

close

through the

Examples

of these

decoration

went

affiliation with

characteristics

stone

Protestant

came

Holland.

Henry IV. 's additions

the Place
his buildings about
to Fontainebleau, as well as
Royale and the Place Dauphine in Paris. All these have a
of rusticated quoins at the corners
and at
simple treatment
the openings,with occasional use of consoles,rusticated architraves,
and broken
pediments at small scale. The internal
much

are

further toward

Italian freedom.

treatment

of doors

and chimneys, enframements

members

broken

and

Other

interwoven, consoles

were

and

In the

doubled,
cartouches

developments which recall contemporary

Italian movements
lay in planning. At Saint Germain,
Du Perac built for Henry a series of vast terraces and steps
For the improvement
recallingthose of the Villa d'Este.

multiplied.

424

of

HISTORY

Paris, which

the

king
They were

henceforth

laid out

ARCHITECTURE

OP

the

two

the

became

focus

great squares

of national

life,

already mentioned.

surrounded

by buildings of unified design the

first of a long series of similar enterprises
in town
planning.
Louis
XIII.
Under
Louis
XIII.
(1610-43) the baroque
influence still preponderated, although to a degree which
A more
gradually decreased.
frequentuse was again made of
the orders,and the baroque elements
confined within the
were
fields marked
The
out
by them.
leading architect of the
earlier years of the reign was
Salomon
de Brosse
(d. 1626).
For Catherine
de' Medici
he built the
Palace
Luxembourg
(1616-20),which she wished to resemble the Pitti Palace in
Florence.
The
drawings which she secured from Italy did
indeed have their influence,
larity
for there were
pointsof simimany
between
The

the work

court,

open

the

"

of De

Brosse

and

that

of Ammanati.

superposed rusticated

orders, the

rusticated

arches, flat and semicircular,as well as the rigidity

of the architectural framework, all reappeared. The general

grouping and the broken silhouette

pavilionsand high roofs,were,
many
In De
he

Brosse's

also showed

exemplifiedin
later

French

tendencies

facade
the
the

palace, with its

wholly French.

of course,
for the Gothic church
of Saint Gervais

influence

of the freer Italian

Gesu, which

church

of the

facades.

furnished
The

tendency

as

the model

for most

conservative

French

representedby the earlier designsof Jacques

Lemercier
(1585-1654). His enlargement of the court of the
Louvre
the system established by Lescot,
on
(1624-30) was
with the addition of a few baroque elements; his vast symmetrical
chateau
of Richelieu
for
its
wall
depended solely,
with a filling
of stucco.
treatment, on rusticated enframements
Reaction.
In the later years
of the reign of Louis XIII.
there was
already a strengtheningof the academic tendency
which resulted in compromise. That this should have been so
when
the baroque in Italywas
at the very
moment
receiving
its greatest development was
due to several causes.
Among
these perhaps the strongest was
the growing tendency of
France
toward
and organizationin every field
absolutism
the monarchy, the church, the arts in general. An instance
the founding of the French
was
Academy (1635),having for
its object "to give certain rules to our language and to render
were

"

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE
it pure."

Similar in its direction

and

belief in "reason"

logicof the Italian

libertyof the baroque

academists

in the

1635, coincides

with. the

Rome

no

return

The

"

BLOIS.

WING

OF

the work

of the

shared

direct interest in Roman

writings of
Fre*art de

the

to

in architecture.

234

the

High Renaissance
Italians

Chambray,

the

emotional

imitation

of

drama, beginning with Corneille about

were

who

stricter

Frenchmen

longerstudied contemporary

FIG.

with

renewed

The

French

sympathetic with

than

masters.

classical models
classical forms

the fundamental

was

"good sense," more

the

425

following of
who

architecture

so

went

to

much

as

D'ORLEANS

GASTON

masters,

with

whom

they

buildings. The academic

diligentlyread and compared.

had

been

sent

to

Rome

in 1640,

published the first complete translation of Palladio (1650),

and also a parallel
of the canons
theorists.
of ten of the principal
The
Compromise. FrancoisMansart.
StyleofLouis XIV.
leader in the return to academic
purity in architectural practice
Gaston
Francois Mansart
His
for
was
(1598-1666).
wing
d' Orleans in the chateau of Blois (1635-40)depends for its

426

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

effect almost

solelyon the proportionsand the sober membering of the superposed orders (Fig. 234). Except for an
increase in the height of the entrance
pavilionand for the
singlecartouche in the center, all the architectural lines,even
those of the roofs,carry through without interruption. Rustication
and dormers
alike absent, and baroque influence
are
only in the decorative carving. Mansart's
purism
appears
in the use of the orders persistedin his work at the church of
the Val-de-Grace
in Paris (begun 1645),although the general
scheme
is that of the baroque churches of Italy,and baroque
consoles

both

occur

throughout
between
the

academic
terms.

same

in the facade

and

in the dome.

forth,
Hence-

the

reign of Louis XIV., the compromise

and baroque tendencies prevailedon much
in the larger
On the exterior,and even

the academic
framework
dominated
membering of the interior,
the design; baroque forms were
confined to the decoration.
A
Le
Vau.
in the direction
of
step beyond Mansart
taken
pronounced post-Renaissancecharacter was
by Louis
Le Vau
(1612-70) who was the court architect after the death
of Lemercier.
Mansart
used
Whereas
always an order to
each
rarely failed to introduce a "colossal
story, Le Vau
This
order," risingfrom a low plinth to the main cornice.
indeed, no new
thing in French architecture,but it was
was,
feature which
had
fallen into disuse during the baroque
a
Le Vau
employed it in the chateau of Vaux-lesupremacy.
Vicomte, in the south facade of the Louvre (1664),and in the
(1660-68). In all these cases,
College des Quatre Nations
however, only one or more
pavilionshave the largeorder and
the rest of the building is treated with superposed orders or
no

order
The

all.

at

principal front of the

it was
Louvre
felt that something grander was
necessary.
After the rejectionof many
designs by native architects,it
Bernini
His
from
Rome.
was
finallydecided to summon
design,produced in 1665, involved the destruction of much of
the existingbuilding. It proposed the rebuildingof the court
with a singlegiganticorder risingfrom the ground, and the
of the exterior with an order of equally large scale,
treatment
raised

scheme

Louvre.

on
was

Perrault.

rusticated
soon

For

the

basement.

abandoned

as

The

execution

of

impossibly extravagant,

this
and

POST-RENAISSANCE
a

prepared by

design was

new

ARCHITECTURE

427

Perrault, a

Claude

who

savant

profitedby the
lesson Bernini had given in unity of design and largenessof
scale,but adapted his facade better to the existingwork and
it a more
uniform
membering and proportions (Fig.
gave
235). Like Bernini he placed a large Corinthian order, inhad

turned

He

his attention to architecture.

235

PIG.

"

PARIS.

eluding the two upper

the ground story, and

COLONNADE

OF

stories,over
used

THE

LOUVRE

basement

flat roof

the height of

behind

balustrade.

Bernini, however, and indeed for the first time in

modern
architecture,he did not merely decorate the wall with
an
engaged order, but employed a free standing colonnade in
front of it,like that of a peristylar
temple. He followed De
Unlike

Brosse
them

and

Mansart

larger scale and

new

impress

had

grown

corner

in

up

towers
a

to

the

employing coupled columns,

more

five-partscheme

in France

and

medieval

Roman

from

the

detail.
for

He

gave

also gave

long fagades. This

medieval

castle with

gate-house,and had
massing. Perrault treated

central

but

its

far served
preit with but
so

HISTORY

428

all the

slightprojectionto
the

central

this

day.

one

"

ARCHITECTURE

OF

and
pavilions,
which

formula

with

pediment

remained

has

usual

over

to

predominance of principlesof law and

order based upon
fortified by the formation
the antique was
in 167 1 of the Academy of Architecture,to complete the system
of organizationbegun in literature by the founding of the
of classical
Academie
Fran$aise. A further reinforcement
The

FIG.

academies.

236

influence
of the
studies

The

VERSAILLES.

"

THE

PALACE

FROM

THE

PLACE

D'ARMES

a regularfooting
on
through the establishment
of sending promising artists to complete their
custom
in Rome.
the French
Thus arose
Academy in Rome,

chartered

came

in 1677.

Versailles.

J.

H.

From

Mansart.

the

commencement

of

in 1661, Louis
XIV.
personal administration
began the
development of the chateau built for his father at Versailles,
for which he had a specialpreference. Ultimately he made
it

his

his permanent

residence

originalchateau,
be

many

times

originalaspect
influence

on

and

the seat

simple structure
enlarged, although
a

toward

the

scale

the
of

of his government.
The
of brick and stone, had to
it retained

much

fore-court,and
the

later

inevitablyhad an
work
(Fig. 236). The
completed by Jules

by Le Vau, were
Hardouin
The
Mansart, a great-nephew of Francois.
of membering finallyadopted for the long unbroken

extensions, begun

of its

system
facades

ri
**,,--'***

SE0H

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IJ

'

"

"

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tf""At"vf1-"V^~'~^l1|

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Liilill^ltlli
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"

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isL^ljT^*^--********^*****^-"
*^v~

"

"

HISTORY

the

garden was

430

toward

OF

ARCHITECTURE

rusticated basement, an order,

and an 'atticwith balustrade.
The
interest of the building,
of the exterior
however, lies less in the architectural treatment
a

of functions
plan, with its multiplicity

in the

than

that of

(Fig.237).
king and

problem was to provide quarters not

the princes of the blood, but also for the entire court, with
offices for the ministers, provisions for service, immense
In addition there
stables,a chapel,and ultimatelya theater.
side,the garden and park, on the other side,the
on
one
were,
both
alike symmetrical on
the main
town, newly founded
axis of the palace. Never
at the Escurial, had
before, even
there been
a
singlecomposition on such a vast scale. The
of a corresponding richness.
interior decoration was
Here,
the exterior,appeared the baroque elements
than
on
more
The

only for the

"

stillcharacterized

which
the
Le

of the long Galerie des Glaces, decorated

ceiling
abundance
of
Brun
an
(Fig.238),there was

consoles, and

free

sculpture. In

alike,Versailles established

ness

in

architecture.

contemporary

dreamed

soon

extreme

provoked

been

outbreak

new

It took

successor.

baroque

XV.

the

Outbreak

little favored

the

his

every

prince

Rococo.

The

by Louis XIV.
tendency under his

free

the

followers,which

in France.

Curves

luxurious-

art

suggestionsfrom

and

manifestations
decoration.

of

many

of Borromini

ments,
pedi-

of

realizing.
of
free tendency. Louis
formality imposed on life and

Europe

broken

ideal which

an

Charles

by

and

extent

in

Thus

of the

movement

in

hitherto

most

nounced
pro-

in interior

occur

multiplied both

were

had

earliest and

The

Italian

late

plan

and

in

broken
and
were
flowed
overelevation; architectural lines were
of
column
and
The
apparatus
by sculpture.
pompous
banished
from
entablature
was
interiors,and replaced by a
delicate and

intimate

with

panels,cartouches,
and floriated scrolls (Fig.242). The prevalenceof shell-work
rocaille led to the designationrococo, appliedlooselyto all
or

more

the

work

of

free

treatment

tendencies

movement.

Efforts

architecture

on

were

similar

not

resulted

which

wanting

lines.

In

many

to

from

remodel
of

the

the

new

external

designs

of

(1693-1750) vertical and horizontal members

In
abandoned
in favor of flowing reverse
curves.

J. A. Meissonier
are

alike

France, however, this

extreme

was

not

reached

in the exterior

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE

431

The orders were

retained
buildingactuallyexecuted.
the facade, with only a slightlygreater libertyof detail.
on
itself on the exterior mainly by
showed
The spirit
of freedom
and angular elements
of curved
of plan, and
increased use
an
within the bays and above
of ornament
the
by an exuberance
well exemplified
cornice. All these characteristics are specially

of any

FIG.

in the notable

238

"

VERSAILLES.

THE

GALERIE

DBS

GLACES

of

buildingserected for Stanislas,Duke of

Lorraine, at Nancy (1750-57).
Academic
victory. Louis XVI.
Contemporary with the
later years of the rococo
and well within the reignof Louis XV.
there was
reaction againstthe extravagance of the free
a new
of his successor.
The
tendency, associated with the name
design of Servadony for the fagade of Saint Sulpicein Paris
(1732-45)showed in its two lower stories of columns and arches
a

group

classical strictness and

similar

character

majesty unusual

appeared

in the

H6tel

the time, and a

Dieu by Soufflot at
at

Lyons (1737). In the work of JacquesAnges Gabriel, falling

in the years 1752 to i77o,thetendency won
a complete victory,

432

and

HISTORY

the academic

Gabriel's

at

and

consecrated

in

some

de

for the

In

of

high

most

239

PARIS.

"

he secured

cases,

order

the

embracing

two

LA

DE

In the

followed

he

PLACE

basement.

Perrault's

touch

and

left the

remaining walls unbroken

enframements.
elegant window

of Louis
luxuriant
in

XVI.

even

At

freedom.

character, both

imitation

academic

of

the

interiors
the

within

classical

same

and

alike to

movements

an

once
a new

more

and

made
freer

scheme
stories

order

itself,

of Roman

magnificence.
the principalpavilion,
except by the slender
Before

accession

the

buildingshad
time there began

without,

due

to

brought

lost their
a

change

the
rococo

literal

and

end.

Types of buildings. Chateaux.

wars

of the

of

motives, which

detail

CONCORDE

handling

Often he restricted the order to

and

at

purity of academic

them

an

"

development.
(Fig. 239),
Compiegne, the
(Fig.240) form

la Concorde

Petit Trianon

the

unrivaled
Perrault

by

FIG.

Place

Versailles,and

ornament.

above

the

Militaire in Paris,the Palace

of work

body

received its ultimate

system

designs for

for the Ecole

Theater

ARCHITECTURE

OF

The

close of the

it safe to live in the

development

religious

country, and

of the chateau.

From

mitted
per-

this

POST-RENAISSANCE
time

until

Louis

ARCHITECTURE

XIV.

made

433

residence

constant

at

court

the
necessity,
to

chateaux
which
nobilitybuilt many
correspond
countless manor
houses
of England. While
of
some

the

the

larger of these retained

was

arms,

omit

to
so

the

that

block

in many

FIG.

left.

was

On

made

thicker, with

the

fourth

"

VERSAILLES.

double

to

shorten

examples only

PETIT

the other hand

court, the tendency

side and

of the smaller

24O

block

on

the inclosed

the

the main

TRIANON

the main

file of rooms,

so

block
that

itself was
it

was

no

private apartments. The main

staircase,which in Frangois Mansart's
designs still occupied
the center, was
pushed to one side in favor of a monumental
became
vestibule.
The
functions
of rooms
increasingly
its
made
specialized. The salon or reception-room now
accorded
the place of honor in the center,
and was
appearance,
facingthe gardens. From the time of Le Vau it was given an
to the
a view
form, projectingso that it commanded
elliptical
affected
The regime established by Louis XIV.
sides as well.
longer necessary

to

traverse

434
chateaux

HISTORY
in two

ARCHITECTURE

OF

On

hand,

Versailles,
magnified
palace. On the
other hand
it produced in the neighborhood of the palace a
of small but elegant chateaux
number
serving as retreats for
recreation or privacy, like the casinos of the Italian villas.
Marly, the Grand Trianon, and the Petit Trianon (Fig.240)
are
examples showing the increasingdesire for intimacy,which
ultimatelyresulted in the rustic hamlet of Marie Antoinette.
The
Gardens.
and
were
gardens themselves
given a new
This was
magnificent treatment.
inaugurated by Andre le
Ndtre
and developed by him
at Vaux
at Versailles and the
It involved
other royal residences.
a
general increase in
it

the

oppositeways.
chateau

scale, the introduction

into

one

at

the modern

of canals,

of great size,and an extension

all the neighboring countryside

basins, cascades, and

of the

by

scheme

garden

means

of

tains
foun-

over

system

of

allees. The reaction from splendor

radiatingand intersecting
apparent in the buildingof the Trianon had later its expression
in the gardens. The informal or landscapegarden of England
was
adopted, as a more
fittingmilieu for the playfulphases
of court

life.

Hotels.

The

gave
or

an

development of Paris into a

impetus to the development

hotel, which

of its court

and

for all the

varied

often

rivaled

national
of

chateau

the

olis
metropdence
city resi-

in the

extent

gardens. The ambitious examples, largeand

small alike,preserved the fore-court and
toward
the
screen
street, with the living-roomsin a block facing the garden at
internal changes in the direction
the rear.
The
of
same
greater convenience took place in the hotel as in the chateau.
Great
exercised in making separate provision
ingenuity was
functions

of the

establishment, often

on

irregularsites. Stables and service quarters were

of their own,
where
the
provided with subsidiary courts
houses on narrow
lots
dimensions
at all permitted. The minor
also given the architectural
were
expressionin classic forms
which
has governed the aspect of cities to this day. Sometimes
treated uniformly as the
of houses were
whole
ranges
times
at other
surrounding walls of a monumental
square;
but a single facade, usually of three bays. In
there was
either case
the favorite division of height,a basement
story
with two others above, correspondingto an order,was adopted.
limited

and

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE
As land values rose, apartment
were

built, conforming

with

mezzanines

the

to

houses

in four and

435
more

stories

architectural scheme, but

same

attics.

and

in France

church

during the seventeenth

less significant
than either the
and eighteenthcenturies was
of notable religious
state
or
society,yet a certain number
undertaken.
The
parish churches had the
buildings were
basilican plan,as well as the fagade in two stories with consoles
The

Churches.

twin

or

Italy. The

in

churches

those which

were

Grace

of

characteristic

towers,

either had

(begun 1645),or

were

of the time

important churches

more

basilican

contemporary

votive character,like the Val-dechapelsattached to an institution,

(1635-53),the College des

(1660-68), and the H6pital des Invalides
Quatre Nations
free from liturgical
thus relatively
(1692-1704). They were
like the churches

of the

and

could

restrictions

fulfil their

functions

monumental

All four of these just

adoption of a dome.
and external silhouette inaugurat
have
the high drum
and the Val-deby Saint Peter's. The Sorbonne

the

through
mentioned

Grace, both
facades

Sorbonne

of which

like those

of

have
the

have
basilican naves,
two-storied
basilican churches.
In the new

chapel of the Invalides this scheme was retained even

though
the church
a composition of purely central type, without
was
aisles or galleries.Only at the College des Quatre Nations
the singleorder employed. The plans of all these domed
was
churches
offer interesting
examples of the tendencies of postRenaissance
the multiplying of interrelations
days toward
vidual
between
the parts, rather than the preservingof their indispecialreasons
unity. At Versailles there were
why
introduced.
could
be
dome
The
not
a
palace chapel had to
of the king,and
yieldthe axial positionto the state bedroom
thus could not receive a development which would
injuretoo
much
the symmetry of the whole group.
The solution adopted
treated as tall
by Mansart, a basilican plan, with galleries
colonnades

above

the low

arcaded

design,yet quitein accordance

the

aisles,was

with

the

novel

in church

general formulae

of

period.

Ensembles.

Planning. The
which had begun in

rOrme,

was

even

more

design of
French

vast

unified

architecture

with

sembles,
en-

De

characteristic of the post-Renaissance

HISTORY

436

period.

The

were

the

not

ARCHITECTURE

OF

great chateaux

like Versailles

only examples.

The

Hdpital

and
des

the

Louvre

Invalides

in

for six thousand

abled
disParis, which furnished accommodation
soldiers,and the Ecole Militaire,also on an enormous
scale,were
symmetrical compositionsabout a series of courts.
The

systems of subordinated

organization,as
skill

shown

was

union

of elements

features.
elliptical
Town
planning.
private buildingsof
continued

under

Dauphine

were

which

was

involved

never
a

reached

high degree of
in the vast
Roman
ensembles.
An
equal
in the handling of diagonal axes, and in the
in irregular
of circular and
plans by means
The

axes

creation

of squares

surrounded

by

uniform

design,begun by Henry IV., was

His Place Royale and Place
his successors.
both rectangularin plan. A project of his
realized,however

semicircular

space

the

"

at the entrance

Place

de

France

"

the

city,with
conceptionwas

to

radiatingto every quarter. A similar

embodied
by Louis XIV. in the circular Place des Victoires
(1684-86). The Place Louis le Grand or Place Vendome
was
a rectangle diversified by the
cuttingoff of the corners
nally,
diagoand ornamented
columns
and
by engaged
pediments at
the axial points. The
Place Louis XV., or Place de la Concorde,
conceived, like these last two, primarilyas a setting
was
for a monument.
Its buildings occupy
only one side,but with
their free standing colonnades
like those of the Louvre
they
have a richness unapproached in the other examples. In the
also treated as unified
provincialtowns squares and quais were
series of squares
a whole
was
compositions; at Nancy even
brought into one design,comparable in extent and complexity
fora.
to the greatest of the Roman
Thus was
expressed the
avenues

fondness

of the

time

for order

and

subordination, as well

a?

for the

absorptionof individual unities in a largerunity.

Construction.
Except for the period of Henry IV., when
influence caused
in some
Dutch
the adoption of brick even
stone
regions where
was
more
easilyobtainable, stone was
used almost
The
constructions.
exclusivelyin monumental
softness and fine texture
of the French
limestone
permitted
in
Marble
almost
free
and
delicate
if
marble.
as
as
carving
itself was
ment,
used but seldom, and then only as a preciousadornfor

instance, in the shafts which

distinguishthe central

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE
blocks

Versailles and

at

Trianon.

The

437
of

ease

the

working

geometricalskill of the French builders,

of cut stone for vaulting to an extent
resulted in the use
where
noof
science
else approached. The
stone-cutting or
stereotemy was thus developed to the highestpoint.
ment
Details.
The conception of generalunity in exterior treatnot often pushed, as in Italy,to the destruction of
was
of doors
the unity of singledetails such as the enframements
stone,

well

as

FIG.

241
DENIS.

"

the

as

SAINT

PORTE

PARIS.

FIG.

242

FRONT

PRINCIPAL

OF
OK

LOUIS

"

VERSAILLES.
THE

TAIL
DE-

APARTMENTS

XV.

After the brief period of baroque supremacy

details followed classical or Palladian models
with but

windows.

and

such

equaled them in harmony of proportion

of
the
The
time
theless,
spirit
appeared, neverprofiling.

little modification, and

and

in the

fondness

in the

coupling and
frequent use

facade

of the

for the

introduced

was

for the

(Fig. 240)

either side of the main

break
same

was

made

consoles,and

appeared
Thus

subordinate

also

in the
break

projectingportico,
in the architraves

rationalistic sentiment

which

demanded
interruptedpediments repugnant sometimes
omission of the orders altogetherwhere the column would

found
the

and

of supports.
It
of transitional members.

similar though minute

The
of the side windows.
and

ears

grouping

Petit Trianon
on

of

use

438

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

fulfilits originalfunction as an
isolated support. An
example is the Porte Saint Denis in Paris (Fig.241),in which
the Roman
of triumphal arch was
scheme
expurgated by
not

substitutingfor the columns

large taperingpanels decorated
with
sculptured trophies. This
distinctively national
tendency, which
gradually gained strength during the
bore much
fruit in the
which
one
eighteenth century, was
followingperiod.
Interiors.
In interiors the unity of design between
wall
and
furniture was
novel
and
treatment
a
strikingfeature.
During the prevalenceof the rococo, indeed, interior unity was
carried to the extreme
the shape of the room,
the motives
of
its paneling and the lines of the furnishingsbeing all based
which
similar curves,
ciency
on
precluded any individual self-suffiin the parts (Fig.242). Under
Louis XV.
and Louis
XVI.
the desire for intimacy led to a reduction in the size and
in which
height of the rooms,
elegance was
sought rather
than splendor.
England: baroque supremacy.
Jacobean architecture. The
first of the post-Renaissanceforms to reach England were
the
baroque cartouches and strap-work from Germany, which, as
have seen, were
lavished on buildingsstill fundamentally
we
Gothic in their disposition
(Fig.218). The reignof James I.
(1603-25) thus constitutes a period of baroque supremacy,
As in France, also,
analogous to that of Henry IV. in France.
this baroque predominance was
succeeded
soon
brief,and was
by a compromise in which academic elements predominated.
Introduction of academic
duction
forms. Inigo Jones. The introof academic
into England was
forms
the
essentially
work of one
Inigo Jones (1573-1652). His architectural
man,
career
began after a journey to Italyin 1613 and 1614 in which
he visited Rome
and Vicenza, studied the writingsof Palladio
and others, and became
and the
acquainted with Maderna
"

other

foremost

thus

subjected both
baroque, and both
however,
forms

already in

the forms

current

architects of Rome.

contemporary
to

the

affected

was

not,

academic
his
as

work.

influence
The

in France,

He
and

to

was

the

promise,
resultingcom-

one

based

on

the

in the country, but one

based directly
on
in Italy. Thus
endowed, as
England was

use

early as 1620, with buildingsmore

advanced

in

point of style

POST-RENAISSANCE
than

those

of any

ARCHITECTURE

other

country than
for the

noted of Jones'sdesignswas
a

Italyitself. The most

(1619),
palaceat Whitehall

composition resembling De rOrme's for the Tuileries.

only portion executed, the Banqueting Hall (Fig.243),

vast

The
had
a

43 9

characteristic Palladian

flat balustraded

FIG.

243

roof and

LONDON.

"

THE

facade
an

with orders in

entablature

BANQUETING

two

broken

stories,

about

the

WHITEHALL

HALL,

portico of Saint
supports. Jones's free-standing Tuscan
at Greenwich,
Paul's, Covent Garden, his "Queen's House"
as

well

Paul,

his

as

giganticporticofor the

represent

Charles's

block

Maderna's

his

at Greenwich

fagade of

with other minor

academic

side.

old Cathedral
His

design for King

Hospital,however, closelyfollows

Saint Peter's,and

works

and

the gate at York

Stairs,
interior designs,shows pronounced

baroque characteristics.
Sir ChristopherWren.

Until after the

work

isolated.

remained

almost

Civil Wars

With

the

however, began the activityof ChristopherWren

a

distinguishedmathematician,
was

derived

1665, the very

year

of Saint

from

books

of Bernini's

whose
and

Restoration,

(1632-1723),

trainingin

chief
from

Jones's

visit to

tecture
archi-

Paris

in

triumphant receptionthere.

440

It

HISTORY

natural

ARCHITECTURE

OF
in

that

him,

in

Inigo Jones, academic and

baroque influence should mingle, the baroque element being
even
stronger than in his predecessor. In certain designs,to
be sure, such as the Library of Trinity College,Cambridge,
with its reminiscence
of the Library of Samt
mained
Mark, he rein London,
strictly
academic; and in the Monument
commemorating the great fire of 1666, he anticipatedlater
classical movements
by an imitation of the column of Trajan.
was

FIG.

In

244

"

and

his towers

detail of his

Saint

SAINT

PAUL

and

stone, and

Low

Paul's.

CATHEDRAL.

Maria

of

contemporary

Countries.
Wren's

important

most

great octagonal domed

like Santa

for the

all in the luxuriant

above

church

della Salute

in

commission

His

rebuildingof Saint Paul's, 1668-1710.

was

PLAN

in his fondness

the influence

he shows
interiors,

the

spires,however,

of brick

combination

Italy and

LONDON.

as

with

Venice,

first
an

but

was

the

design for

it

encirclingaisle,
with

even

greater

and varietyof spatialeffect. This

of connections
multiplicity
and Michelangelo's
proved too radical for the clergy,as Bramante's
for Saint Peter's had proved, and a
central schemes
had to be substituted
(Fig. 244). The
longitudinalscheme
dominant
feature, includingthe
a
dome, however, remained
whole

width

of

both

nave

and

aisles

as

in

the

cathedral

of

By
HG.

245"

LONDON.

courtesy

of London
SAINT

Stereoscopic

PAUL'S

CATHEDRAL

and

Photograph

Co.

442

HISTORY

Florence.
have
but

Its external

been

derived

ARCHITECTURE

OF

from

in its final form

in the

form
San

earlier projectsseems

Gallo's model

(Fig. 245) it

for Saint

influenced

was

to

Peter's,

rather by

Bramante's

designs. Like Bramante's

Tempietto at San Pietro
in Montorio, it has a peristyle
of free-standing
columns
with
a
balustrade, a paneled drum, and flat ribs on the dome
The
vastly larger scale of Saint Paul's gives the
proper.
compositiona new
majesty. For the fagade Wren adopted the
two-storied

with

twin

scheme

of most

of the Italian churches

towers

similar

in

and
other
Agnese at Rome
porticoesof coupled
had
The

of the

more

basilican

buttresses
necessary

the

cone

made

of

one,

construction

design which
interior and

which

up

writer

Blenheim

of the

interior

supporting

was

the

dome

formed

was

interior,with

the

flying
felt it

the

fell far

also

of timber
lantern.

around
the

below

framework

frankness

Thus

over

of

gain the complete libertyof

for both
post-Renaissanceartist demanded
sacrificed

exterior.

Vanbrugh. The
heightened contrast
took

center, however,
and Perrault.

dignity of Palladio

by the clerestory,Wren
by carryinghis second story order

The

brick

in the

necessary

mask

to

time,

composition to those of Sant'

baroque examples. The superposed

columns

arrangement

exterior.

exterior

academic

of the

architecture

to

dual

tendencies

in the

work

of the period appear

of Sir

John Vanbrugh,

in
who

after a brilliant success

as
thirty-five,
In his vast designsfor Castle Howard,
of comedies.
Palace
racy,
(Fig.246), and other houses of the aristocat

he carried to the limit the scale of orders

and

rooms,

the

and the support of the

picturesque composition of masses,
colonnades
and
main
mass
dependencies.
by subordinate
in the treatment
of the cupolas and
Baroque features abound
the porticoesand
colonnades
the skylinegenerally,whereas
often of strictly
A classical portico
classical ordonnance.
are
of this sort, without
with baroque elements,
any combinations
in the Clarendon
Press building at Oxford, designed
appears
about 1 7 10.
by Vanbrugh and his pupilNicholas Hawksmoor
Academic supremacy.
The Palladian style. The influence
of the universities,indeed, was
squarely on the side of the
' '

' '

classical and
amateurs

academic, and

for whose

the

same

was

true

schoolingthe "grand tour"

of the
to

noble

Italy had

POST-RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

443

become

influential of these was

indispensable. The most
Lord Burlington (1695-1753) who
ings
purchased Palladio's drawin Vicenza, issued an
edition of his writingsin 1715-16,
and of his restorations of ancient buildingsin 1730.
He also
assisted the architects of Palladian
tendencies
Colin
bell,
CampWilliam
Kent, and others
by commissions and by help"

"

no.

ing in

the

246

"

BLENHEIM

of
publication

PALACE

their

FROM

THE

FORE-COURT

designs. Burlington House in

London
direct following of
by Campbell, 1716-17, shows
Palladio's
favorite
of these was
his Villa
designs. The
Rotonda, which was
reproduced both by Campbell and by
For
the
at
York,
Burlington himself.
assembly rooms
of Palladio's "Egyptian
Burlington adopted an imitation
standing
Hall," surrounded
by colonnades in two stories. The freeporticoas used by Palladio became the rule for the
great houses of the nobility(Fig. 247) and for churches as
well.
Henceforth throughout the century in England academic
carried to the point of banishing all
purity of detail was
the facades, which
decorative sculpture from
depended for

444

HISTORY

their effect solelyon

Thus

ARCHITECTURE

OF
abstract

England anticipatedby

composition and
generationor more

of academism

and

and

positionto exercise

in

was

the advent

proportion.
the victory

of classicism in other
on

them

countries,

powerful return

influence.
Domestic

architecture.

The

great houses.

The

sance
post-Renais-

the heyday of the

period after the Restoration was
natural
that
the
English landed
aristocracy,and it was
characteristic type of the period should have been the great
The
royal palaces scarcelysurpassed many
country house.
other seats in size and splendor and may
well be considered
with them.
In the development considerations of form took
first place,and the interior was
arranged as well as possible
without
The first buildingof the new
disturbingthe facades.
order was
the Queen's House
at Greenwich, designed in 1617.
It was
solid rectangularblock, with a central colonnaded
a
trade
loggiaover a high basement, and with a flat roof and baluscontrast
to the typicalJacobean house,
a revolutionary
its tall wings, bays, and gables. In his designsfor Whitehall,
Jones employed superposed orders; in those for the later
set
buildingsat Greenwich, a colossal order and attic. In SomerHouse, as executed, he adopted pilasters
running through
The
arcaded
basement.
two
an
stories, over
plans made
"

in the direction of convenience

certain advances
the

files of

corridors
on

rooms

doubled

were

in many
of the
Palladio's scheme
of

often added.

were

either side of the

and

fore-court,connected

with

privacy"

blocks, and

dependencies
the house by

adopted. Of the Italian formulae for

the one
facades introduced by Jones, the favorite was
which
had the added
the tall
prestigeof its adoption in the Louvre
order over
used by Wren
basement
at
a
story. This was
Court
reverted to (after
(1689-1700), and was
Hampton
Vanbrugh's preference for the colossal order) by the later
In the largerhouses
of Vanbrugh, there was
Palladians.
a
modification
of the block-like mass
of the main house by wings
providinglong suites of state apartments toward the gardens,
colonnades, was

also

"

on

the

model

of those

at

Versailles.

At

Blenheim, indeed,

along the sides of the

the kitchens and stables were
pushed stillfarther
either
on
forward, and grouped about independent courts
these

wings
house; and

were

also turned

forward

POST-RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

fore-court

like the Cour

side of

Unlike

Versailles,however, Vanbrugh's houses

second

the central and

on

terminal

masses

445

Royale

which

Versailles.

at

had

emphasis

an

makes

them

much

the return
to
lively in silhouette (Fig. 246). With
the adoption of the great free-standing
Palladianism
came
columns, as at
pedimented portico,often of six Corinthian

more

FIG.

Prior

Park

PRIOR

PARK

Bath, built in

near

NEAR

1734

BATH

(Fig. 247).

houses

"

blocks,

as

at

provided for

Holkham.

Smaller

The

in the basement

convenient

more

"

the arrangement
still more
was
sometimes with
symmetrical on both axes

Palladian
even

247

houses.

service

Even

four

"

outlying

were

now

living-rooms.

the multitude

weight of academic apparatus, there

number
of unpretentious houses in many
used.

schematic

quarters

their

at all were

other

story,less frankly confessed but

in their relation to the

Besides

In

those attributed to

with

of great houses
was

an

greater

even

of which

Jones and

no

orders

Wren

are

446

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

merely straightforwardcompositions of
brick, or of brick and
sometimes
classical architraves, but
of stone, of

Leaded
wooden

and

mullioned

sashes, and

windows

were

classical detail

wall

stone

"

and

"

sometimes

without
abandoned
was

openings
even

for

restricted

with
these.

painted
to

the

pilastered
doorway and main cornice. In the simplerexamples
be nothing specifically
classical except the
there might even
generalregularityand symmetry, as, for instance,in Clifford

FIG.

248

"

CLIFFORD

CHAMBERS

(Fig.248),where the "vernacular"

styleis seen in
cultivated and luxuriant natural setting.
a typically
Gardens.
The earlier gardens of the periodin England were
under
foreign influence
successivelyItalian,with terraces,
statues, and fountains; Dutch, with yews clippedin fantastic
shapes; and French, with the long allees and canals of Le
Notre.
In the early years of the eighteenth century, under
the leadershipof writers like Shaftesbury,Addison, and Pope,
began the modern
appreciationof natural landscape,and in
its wake
the creation of the informal landscapegarden
came
a
new
English. The great formal gardens
type, specifically
until the houses stood immediately
were
graduallyremodeled
Chambers

"

"

POST-RENAISSANCE
in

ARCHITECTURE

to

naturalesquegrounds,where
create
pleasingvistas and a

multitude

of minor

stratagem

every

employed

was

varietyof character.

constant

decorative

447

structures,

which

among

playful reproductionsof classical temples began to appear,

served still further to diversify
and enliven the grounds.
in EngParish churches.
Church
buildingwas uncommon
land
during the post-Renaissanceperiod,except in London.
There
the vast growth of the city and the havoc
wrought by
the

made

great fire of 1666

many

new

They presented a problem, which even

in England shared with the Protestants
build

to

Renaissance
In

with

preaching.

barrel-vaulted
in

as

nave,

them, and

the

necessary.
the established church

forms

of France
a

church

dome

first

in Saint

the

and

many:
Ger-

primarily
church

of
example,
the
Saint Paul's, Covent
Garden
nearer
(1631),Jones came
ideal of a reproduction of the classic temple than
Palladian
It proved an
isolated exotic.
Wren
had Palladio himself.
and compact
solved the problem by the adoption of broad
by columns, yet of the greatest
plans, little encumbered
A
basilican arrangement
variety and ingenuity of forms.

adapted

for

in

structures

Bride's, is

supported

on

not

columns

common
un-

and

occasionallyfound, as at Saint Stephen's,

Galleries were
Walbrook.
frequently added to increase the
seatingcapacity. On the exterior Wren
usuallyretained the
diagonal arches

bell tower

and

is

subordinated

the architectural

treatment

of the

development of its upper portion.

He sought to retain the expressiveeffect of the Gothic spireby
in decreasingstages.
of classical elements
facile combinations
influential of these steepleswas
The first and most
that of
Saint Mary-le-Bow (Fig.249),which has the transition from
and the further
the square belfrystage masked
by angle finials,
reduction in diameter
accomplishedby a range of consoles.
later development of the type took place through the
The
elimination of Gothic or baroque elements in the steepleand
through the addition of a porticoand other classical members
in
to the body of the edifice. All these changes best appear
the churches of James Gibbs, whose
church
of Saint Mary-leof the exterior by superposed orders
Strand has a treatment
based on that of Saint Paul's.
His design for Saint Martinin-the-Fields' has a hexastyleCorinthian porticoand a steeple
rest

of the church

to the

rich

HISTORY

448

OP

the transition from

in which

subtly accomplished
prototype of
Town

many

than

ARCHITECTURE

octagonal is even

to

square

in those

of Wren.

more

It became

the

others.
unified

The

planning.

planning of many
period,began in England

characteristic of the

buildings,
with

Inigo
Garden
surrounded
a
Jones's design for Covent
by
square
for pilasters
arcades, which are treated as the basement
open
For the rebuilding of
running through two stories above.
London
after the great fire of 1666, Wren
prepared a plan
based
the radiatingprinciplealready adopted in France,
on
of private interests affected prevented its
but the multitude
so

"

Unified

execution.

and

streets

however, continued

squares,

whose
to be built by the great landed
proprietors,
The
ultimate
ground rent favored this method.
such

is best
enterprises

outside

seen

created
the architect John Wood
with
"circuses" and "crescents"

of

London,

only

not

at

system

of

scope

of

Bath, where
but

squares,

academic

coherent

also

facades

treated with

or
superposed columns.
pilasters
Details.
The period of compromise between
and
academic
baroque tendencies in England was generallymarked
by strict
followingof the forms and proportionsof the orders themselves,
license in the other details,especially
but by considerable
in
interiors.
Thus, although twisted
columns, for example,
in but few instances
(as in the porch of Saint Mary's
appear
Church, Oxford, attributed to Inigo Jones),broken and scroll
pediments, architraves with rusticated key-blocks,and free
combinations
of consoles
often occur.
In the interiors by

Wjcen, such features

exuberant

carving,the

descendant

of Bernini

work

appears

the

combined

are

work
and

of

with

With

the

himself,who

had

In all this

post-Renaissancefeelingfor
of

fusion
Palladian

eighteenth century, however, came

of composition, even
this mode
Palladio

and

spiritual

the Italian decorators.

characteristic

whole.

lavish

most

Grinling Gibbons,

interdependence,transition,and
indissoluble

the

followed

to

it

the

tendency
far

in

movement

expurgate
so

parts in

as

to

the

an

the

abandon
works

academic

of

forms

the breaking of cornices

permitted. Thus the use of pavilions,
of ears
and consoles,and of stringat engaged columns, the use
courses
interrupted by pilasterswas
gradually abandoned.

Unbroken

cornices

and

self-sufficient doors

and

windows

By
FIG.

249

"

courtesy
LONDON.

of London

SAINT

Stereoscopic

and

MARY-LE-BOW

Photograph

Co.

HISTORY

450
tended

in

rule

to

buildingsthemselves

sufficient, with
Academism
which

little

thus

Germany.

the

their

to

first gave
place to
it.
to succeed

Baroque

after

transition

standing proudly

here

destined

was

ARCHITECTURE

OF

architecture:

introduction

self-

environment.

the

classicism

new

many,
1580-1730. In Gerof baroque forms
from
Italy,
c.

about

the

1580,

maintained
baroque spirit
a
complete
At
ascendancy.
first it

the

was

fluence
in-

of Alessi and
of north

Italywhich

dominated,

and

which, united

with

survivals

of

evalism,
medi-

produced
such

cally
characteristiGerman

ings
build-

the

as

richsbau

at

Friedberg
Heidel-

(1601-07),and
the

Rathaus

Augsburg
20). The
Years'

(1614Thirty
(1618-

War

48) with

at

its unparalleled

devastation,
however,
brought
all building in Germany
FIG.

250

DRESDEN.

"

PAVILION

CENTRAL

THE

to

OF

ZWINGER

and

destroyed

architectural

itself.
had

Meanwhile,

summoned
with

Thus

them

in

1606

prepared
executed
Rome.

in

in

south, the

tion
tradi-

Catholic

princes
their aid the Jesuits of Italy, bringto
ing
Italian architects and their maturer
baroque.
Vincenzo
Scamozzi, a discipleof Palladio,

plan for the

1614-34, with

Italian

the

still,
stand-

architects

cathedral
forms

built

of

Salzburg, which

reminiscent
at

Prague

was

of II Gesu
the

Waldstein

in

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE

451

(1623-29) with its great garden loggia of arches on

coupled columns; and later,in Munich, the Theatine Church
(1663-75)with its two-story facade, its tall dome and Western
An
with
towers
independent German
multiplied consoles.
version of the baroque did not flourish until after 1700, when
Palace

of masters

group

showed

arose

facilityin
of expression
this medium
in
scarcely equaled even
Schlxiter
Italy. Andreas
imbued
the royal palace in
who

Berlin

with

decorative

the

exuberant

spirit

of

his

sculptures,Matthaus
Poppelmann attained in the
Z winger at Dresden
(171122) the ultimate fusion of
all the elements through the
incompletenessand mutual
one
dependence of every
(Fig. 250). Georg Bahr
nation
brought to a brilliant culmithe development of
the Protestant

church
at

by

Dresden

its rotunda

auditorium-

his Frauenkirche

(Fig.251),with
and

storied

terior
in-

its unique
galleries,
and
from

successful
mass

to

transition
dome.

In
FIG.

251

"

FRAUENKIRCHE

DRESDEN.

Vienna, Johann Fischer von

Erlach,the pioneerhistorian
of architecture,showed
of

a more

classical portico,and

eclectic spirit
"

of imitations

in the ment
employof the column of
as

Trajan, as elements in his church of San Carlo Borromeo

but in generalbaroque conceptionsdominate
wholly.
about
Rococo.
From
French influence:c. 1730-70.
1730,
this native growth was
thanks
the
to
submerged,
ing
overpowerprestigeof France, by an influx of French architects and
French
influence.
These men
were
adepts in the free rococo
"

452

decorations
who

HISTORY
of Louis

remained

in

ARCHITECTURE

OF
XV.

France,

and, unlike their fellow extremists

not

were

restrained

by

academic

carryingover their curvilinear styleto exteriors.

On the contrary the prevailingnative baroque encouraged
in gracefulchateaux
them
like the
to indulge their tendencies
part
Amalienburg by Frangois de Cuvillies,which have no counteroutside of Germany.
Rise
the
of academism.
English influence. Frederick
Great
(1740-86) turned not only to France but to England,
which
in the later eighteenth century began to set the mode
for France
itself. The
in Berlin
even
Royal Opera House
(1743) has a pedimented Corinthian
porticoof six columns,
classical niches, and
almost
of
severe
complete absence
final victory of this academic
sculpture. The
tendency,
in the decorative
presaging that of classicism itself,appears
of the Gendarmenmarkt
in Berlin (1780^.) by Karl von
towers
Gontard, in which are mingled reminiscences of the tall domes
tradition from

of Wren

and

Soufflot.

PERIODS

OF

POST-RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURE

ITALY

I.

Establishment

of academic

and

baroque tendencies,c. 1540-80.

Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475-1564.

Studies for the fagade of San Lorenzo
at Florence, 1514^".
New
(Medici Chapel), 1521-34.
Sacristy of San Lorenzo
Laurentian
Library at Florence, 1524-71.
Saint Peter's at Rome, 1546-64.
of the Capitol at Rome, 1 546 f.
Palaces and square
Santa
Maria
degli Angeli at Rome, 1559.
Porta Pia at Rome, 1559.
Andrea
Palladio,1518-80.
Basilica at Vicenza, 1549.
Palazzo Valmarana
at Vicenza, begun 1556.
San Giorgio Maggiore at Venice, 1565.
II Redentore
at Venice, 1577.
Villa Almerigo (VillaRotonda) near
Vicenza, 1570-89.
Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza, 1580-84.
Barozzi da Vignola, 1507-73.
Giacomo
Palace

at

Villa di

Caprarola,1547.
Papa Giulio

at

Rome,

1550.

POST-RENAISSANCE
Sant'

Andrea

Villa

Lante

at
near

ARCHITECTURE

453

Rome, 1550.
Viterbo,begun 1566.

Rome, 1568.
Giorgio Vasari, 1511-74.
of the Uffizi in Florence, 1560-80.
Court
II Gesu

at

Alessi ,1512-72.

Galeazzo

Sauli at

Palazzo

Genoa, c. 1550.
Carignano at Genoa, begun c. 1552.
Palazzo Marino
at Milan, 1568.
Bartolomeo
Ammanati, 1511-92.
Ponte
Santa Trinita at Florence, 1567-70.
c. 1580-1730.
Baroque supremacy,
Giacomo
della Porta, 1541-1604.
Design for facade of II Gesu at Rome, c. 1573.
Domenico
Fontana, 1543-1607.
Acqua Paolina, 1585-90.
Carlo Maderna, 1556-1639.
Facade
of Saint Peter's at Rome, 1606-26.
Giovanni
Lorenzo
Bernini, 1598-1680.
Baldachino
of Saint Peter's at Rome, 1624-33.
Colonnades
of Saint Peter's,1656-63.
Scala Regia in the Vatican, 1663-66.
Maria

Santa

II.

Palazzo

di

Ludovisi

1642-1700.
(Montecitorio),

Borromini, 1599-1667.
Remodeling of Palazzo Spada at Rome,
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, 1640.
Sant' Agnese at Rome, 1645-50.
Guarino
Guarini, 1624-83.
Palazzo
Carignano at Turin, 1680.
Baldassare
Longhena, 1604-82.
Francesco

Maria

Santa
III.

della Salute,

1631-82.

Compromise,
1730-80.
Juvara,
Filippo
1685-1735.
c.

The

Supcrga

Palazzo

Madama

Alessandro
Facade

Turin, 1706-20.
at Turin, 1718.

near

Galilei

(1691-1737).

the Church

of the

Lateran, 1734.

LuigiVanvitelli,1700-73.
Palace

at

Caserta, 1752 jf.

SPAIN

I.

Academic

architecture,c. 1570-1610.
Juan de Herrera, c. 1530-97.

"

1632.

454

HISTORY

The

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Escurial,1563-81.

Cathedral

in

Valladolid,1585 Jf.
Exchange in Seville,1584-98.
c.
Baroque supremacy,
1610-1750.
Gomez
de Mora, d. 1647.
Juan
Jesuitcollegeand church in Salamanca, 1614 (-1750).
Jose Churriguera, 1650-1723.
Catafalque for Queen Maria Luisa, 1689.

II.

Town
Pedro

Hall of Salamanca.
Ribera.

Facade

of the

HospicioProvincial

in

Madrid, 1772 (-1799).

Rodriquez, 1717-85.
San Marcos
in Madrid, 1749-53.
San Francisco el Grande
in Madrid, 1761.
III. Reaction, c. 1730.
Battista Sacchetti,d. 1766.
Filippo Juvara and Giovanni
Royal Palace at La Granja, 1721-23.
Royal Palace at Madrid, 1734^".
Pedro Caro, d. 1732.
Palace at Aranjuez,1727 (-78).
Ventura

FRANCE

I.
.

Baroque

1590-1635.
Henry IV., 1589-1601.
Etienne
du Perac, c. 1540-1601.
supremacy,

c.

Palace

Gardens

Saint

Germain, 1594.
Chastillon,1547-1616.
Place Royale at Paris, 1604.
Louis XIII., 1610-43.
Salomon
de Brosse, b. between
and 1562, d. 1626.
1552
Luxembourg Palace, 1616-20.
Fagade for Saint Gervais in Paris,1616-21.
Jacques Lemercier, 1585-1654.
Enlargement of the Court of the Louvre, 1624-30.
Chateau
de Richelieu,1627-37.
Church
of the Sor bonne, 1635-53.
Compromise, c. 1635-1745.
Stricter phase, c. 1635-1715.
Francois Mansart, 1598-1666.
Wing of Gaston d'Orleans at Blois,1635-40.
Chateau
of Maisons
near
Paris, 1642-51.
Church
in Paris,begun 1645.
of the Val-de-Grace
Louis XIV., 1643-1715.
Claude

II.

and

at

POST-RENAISSANCE
Louis

ARCHITECTURE

455

le

Vau, 1612-70.
of Vaux-le-Vicomte,c. 1656-60.
Chateau
College des Quatre Nations at Paris,1660-68.
Continuation
of the Louvre, 1664-70.
Remodeling of Versailles (Cour de Marbre), 1665-70.
Claude
Perrault,1613-88.
Colonnade
of the Louvre, 1665.
Mansart, 1646-1708.
Jules Hardouin
Second
remodeling of Versailles,1678-88; chapel,
1699-1710.
Dome
Francois
Porte

of the Invalides at

Paris,1692-1704.

Blondel, 1618-86.
Saint

Denis

Freer

at

Paris,1672.

phase, rococo,
1715-45.
XV., 1715-74.
J. Aubert, d. 1741.
Stables at Chantilly,1710-35.
Hotel Biron at Paris,1728.
Girardini,dates uncertain.
Palais Bourbon
at Paris,1722.
Germain
Boffrand, 1667-1754.
c.

Louis

Hotel

d'Amelot
Here

at Paris.

de

Corny, 1705-63.
New
quarter at Nancy, 1750-57.
III. Academic
victory,1745-80.
Louis XVI., 1774-92.
Jean Nicholas Servadony, b. 1695 or 1696, d. 1766.
Facade
of Saint Sulpicein Paris,1732-45.
Soufflot,
1709-80.
Jacques Germain
Facade of the Hotel Dieu at Lyons, 1737.
Saint Genevicve
(the Pantheon) at Paris,1757-90 (see
Chapter XII).
Jacques Anges Gabriel,1698-82.
Ecole Militaire in Paris,1652^.
Palace at Compiegne, 1652-72.
Theater, etc., at Versailles,
1753-70.
Petit Trianon, 1762-68.
Palaces of the Place de la Concorde
in Paris,1762-70.
Jacques Denis Antoine, 1733-1801.
The Mint in Paris,1771-75.
Emmanuel

ENGLAND

I.

Baroque supremacy,

c.

1600-20.

(See English Renaissance

16

architecture,under

Tames

I.)

456
II.

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Compromise, c. 1620-1720.
Inigo Jones, 1573-1652.
Queen's House in Greenwich, 1617-35.
Palace in London, 1619-22.
Whitehall
Square and church of Saint Paul, Covent

Garden, 1631.
London, 1633 jf.
Charles's
Block
at
King
Greenwich, 1637.
Somerset
in London, 1636-38.
House
Wilton
House, 1647.
Sir Christopher Wren, 1632-1723.
Sheldonian
Theater
at Oxford, 1663-68.
Plan for the rebuildingof London, 1666.
Saint Paul's Cathedral
in London, 1668-1710.
The Monument
in London, 1671.
Temple Bar in London, 1671.
City churches in London, 1670-1711.
Saint Stephen's,Walbrook, 1672-79.
Saint Mary-le-Bow, 1680.
Saint Bride's,1680-1702.
Buildings at Greenwich, 1676-1716.
Library of Trinity College,Cambridge, 1678.
Hampton Court, 1689-1703.
William
Talman, fl.1670-1700.
Chatsworth, 1681.
Sir John Vanbrugh, 1666-1726.
Castle Howard, 1702-14.
Blenheim
Palace, 1705-24.
Nicholas Hawksmoor,
1661-1736.
Clarendon
Press at Oxford
(with Vanbrugh), c. 1710.
Portico

III. Academic

of old Saint Paul's Cathedral

supremacy,

Richard

c.

in

1720-70.

Boyle, Earl of Burlington, 1695-1753.

Wade's
house in Bath, 1723.
Villa at Chiswick, 1729.
at York, 1730-36.
Assembly rooms
Colin Campbell, c. 1729.
Burlington House in London, 1717.
Wanstead, 1720.
Mereworth
Castle,1723.
James Gibbs, 1628-1754.
Saint Martin-in-the-Fields'
in London, 1721-26.
Radcliffe Library at Oxford, 1737-47.
William
Kent, 1684-1748.
Holkham, 1734.
Horse
Guards
in London, begun 1742.
General

ARCHITECTURE

POST-RENAISSANCE
John Wood,
Prior

Park

c.

457

1704-54.

Bath, 1734.
Bath, 1754$.
Dance
the
elder,1698-1768.
George
in London, 1739-53.
House
Mansion
James Paine, 1725-89.
House, 1763.
Worksop Manor
Sir William
Chambers, 1726-96.
in London, 1776-90.
House
Rebuilding of Somerset
Circus

The

near

at

GERMANY

I.

c.
1580-1730.
Baroque architecture,
Michaelskirche
in Munich, 1583-97.
Friedrichsbau
at Heidelberg, 1601-07.
Elias Holl, 1573-1646.
in Augsburg, 1614-20.
Rathaus

Vincenzo

Scamozzi.

Design for the

Cathedral

of

Salzburg, 1606, executed

1614-34.
Antonio

and

Pietro

II.

Spezza.

Palace at Prague, 1629.

Loggia
Enrico Zuccali,1643-1724.
in Munich, 1663-75.
Theatine
Church
Andreas
Schliiter,
1622-1714.
Royal Palace in Berlin,1699 ff.
Fischer von
Erlach, 1650-1723.,
Johann Bernard
of
Prince
at
Palace
Eugene
Vienna, 1703.
in Vienna, 1716-37.
Church
of San Carlo Borromeo
Matthaus
Daniel Poppelmann, 1662-1736.
Zwinger in Dresden, 1711-22.
Georg Bahr, 1666-1738.
Frauenkirche
in Dresden, 1726-40.
Balthasar Neumann,
1687-1753.
Schloss Bruchsal, 1722-43
(partlyrococo).
Rococo, c. 1730-70.
Francois de Cuvillies the elder,1698-1768.
Amalienburg near
Munich, 1734-39.
Pierre de la Gue"piere.
Schloss Monrepos near
Ludwigsburg, 1760-67.
Schloss Solitude near
Stuttgart,1763-67.
Knobelsdorff, 1699-1753.
Georg von
Neues
Schloss at Chariot tenburg, 1740-42.
Sanssouci,begun 1745.
of the

Waldstein

HISTORY

458

III. Rise

of

ARCHITECTURE

OF

academism, c. 1740-80.
Georg von Knobelsdorff,1699-1753.
Royal Opera House at Berlin,1743.
Karl von
Gontard, 1738-1802.
Communs
at Potsdam, 1765-69.
Towers

in the Gendarmenmarkt

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

General

works

in

Berlin,1780.

NOTE

covering the periodare

G. Ebe's

Die

sance,
Spat-Renais-

des Rococo
Barockstiles,
des Klassizismus
una
(Geschichteder neueren
Baukunst}, 3 vols.,
of
which
individual
the
volumes
listed below, and
are
1887-89,
P. FrankPs
Die Entwicklungsphasen der neueren
Baukunst, 1914.
Barock- und RococoFurther illustrations are provided by R. Dohme's
Books
plementary
dealing with but One of the comArchitektur,
3 vols.,1892.
tendencies of the times are P. Klopfer's Von Palladia bis
cine
Schinkel:
Charakteristik der Baukunst
des Klassizismus
(Geschichte
der neueren
M.
S.
and
Baukunst}, 1911,
Briggs'sBaroque Architecture,

vols.,1886;

1914.

Discussions

Renaissance
Barock

C. Gurlitt's Geschichte des

of the relation of the tendencies

und

Barock, 1888, 2d ed., 1907;

und Rokoko, 1897, and K. Escher's
Barock

are

H. Wolfflin's

A.

Schmarzow's

und

Klassizismus,

1910.

Italy. Gurlitt's volume, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien,

be supple1887, is still the principalhistorical account, which may
mented
the
the
Italian
and
sections
of
other
by
generalworks,
by the
photographs reproduced in C. Ricci's Baroque Architecture and Sculpture
A.
in Italy,1912.
concerned
with
Rome
are
Riegl's
Specially
Die Entstehung der Barockkunst
in Rom, 1908, and Escher's Barock
und
Klassizismus.
For the villas and gardens see M. L. Gothein's
Geschichte der Gartenkunst,2 vols.,1914, Chapter VII; H. I. Triggs's
The Art of Garden
Design in Italy,1906, and G. Lowell's Smaller
Italian

Villas and

France.
a

less

The

degree)the

Renaissance

temps de Louis

Topographical
those

as

on

Renaissance

architecture

and

(to

the postGeymuller and Blomfield cover

Two
works
well.
by H. Lemonnier, L'art
of

de Richelieu et de Mazarin, 1893, and L'art franqais

XIV., 1911, include architecture with the other arts.

works

of L. Deshairs

Nail and

of Ward

works

period

franqaisau temps
au

Farmhouses, 1916.

work

C. Gurlitt

large photographic reproductions include

Bordeaux, Dijon, and Aix, and those of R. le
Lyons. F. Contet's Les vieux hotels de Paris,

with
on
on

Paris in a similar way, while each

covers
vols.,1908-14, partially
to it.
of the great royalpalaceshas several works devoted
especially
10

POST-RENAISSANCE
Three

by

works

and

Planat:

P.

style Louis

Le

indicated

style Louis

Le

XVI.,

their

by

ARCHITECTURE

give

1907,

Garden

titles.

Fouquier's

De

I'art des

jardins du

H.

Les

jardins

de

Stein's

covering

French

Architects

and

architects

in

is devoted

and

photographs
M.

E.

M.

H.

Centuries, 1908;
Sadlier

V.

1915;
1904;

and

E.

Spain.
illustrations

listed

under

above:

vol.

Deutschland,
in

compass,

Rokoko,

Kirchenbauten

ii

this

der

series

vols.,

1901-09,

period.

der
is

of

large
J. Belcher

in

England,

the

in

ijth and

i8th

Domestic

Mansions

London

E.

see

in

Ireland,

of Bath,

Architecture

Gill's

L.

biography
des

B.

by the

and

Houses

from

Chancellor's

The

in

Spain.

and

Uhde,

furnished

and,

der

Barock

deutschen
churches.

largely

P.

1914.

tektur,
Archi-

Barockbauten

Gurlitt's

devoted

to

in

in
im
.

Rokokozeit

in

Barock

und

J. Braun's

Die

vols., 1908-10,
Historische

German

convenient

more

und

Schumann's
Dresden.

to

Jesuiten,
C.

dcutschen

Architektur

vols., 1891-95;

Schweiz,

der

work,

Architektur

and

Dohme's

Staehelin's

Suddeutsche

Further

Junghandel,

by

Motive

G.

{Geschichte

Spanien

discussion.

of

Stahl's

specially devoted

is

in

works

is

Aufleger's
2

Barock

authoritative

is the

Schmoll

P.

Popp's

1885,

C.

Renaissance

O.

und

Deutschland

in

Georgian

and

by Lambert

1904;

H.

of

specially treated

Gardens

Eighteenth Century

1908,

Jahrhundert,

XVIII.

the
full

tecture
ArchiEnglish
(smaller
Centuries, 1905
buildings);

illustration

1892;

2,

is

which

series

by

Bunney's

Geschichte

the

Ample

mentioned

French

Architects, 1909.

furnished

are

and

Dickinson's

The

Schubert's

Germany.

notable

L.

Baukunst),

neueren

M.

XVIII.

individual

British
O.

and

of

Architecture

architecture

Richardson

For

of the

others

P.

Green's

A.

1660-1820.

der

and

A.

M.

Lives

and

the XVII.

of
T.

Field

furnished

Renaissance

English Houses

Macartney's

E.

Later

works

includes

It

works.

is

in

sance
History of Renais-

1615.

modern

drawings

Domestic

vols., 1897-1901.

and

measured

Macartney's

after

period

the

to

M.

and

Dilke's

F.

vols., 1897,

in

1900.

Blomfield's

1500-1800,

of contemporary

bibliography
and

England,

E.

by

V.,

periods

treated

biographical

Century,

is R.

principal work

The

Architecture

part

XVIII.

Sculptors of the

England.
major

supplemented

are

the

siecle, 1911,

general

The

France.

is

XXe

au

for

plates

architecture
XVe

style Louis

Le

XIV.,

similar

459

cities

covers

Stadtcbilder,

important

in

CHAPTER

MODERN

XII

ARCHITECTURE

mid-eighteenth century witnessed the beginnings of a

and cultural,scarcelyless important
series of changes, political
than those of the fifteenth century.
of these
Although many
extensions
of those
movements
or
were
logicalconsequences
of the
Renaissance, their importance and
approximately
simultaneous
the
idea
that
justify
they constitute
appearance
the beginning of a new
modern.
The freedom
era, specifically
of inquiry applied in the Renaissance
to letters and art, and
in the Reformation
to religion,
was
now
applied to history,
and
science.
A multitude
of individual
tendencies
politics,
combined
of archeologicaldiscovery and
to initiate the age
historical research, of revolution
and
democracy, of natural
science
and
invention, of capitalism and colonial empire.
destined to affect not only the stylistic
These
were
aspect of
of the prevailingtypes of
architecture,but equally the nature
of construction, as well as the extent
buildingsand methods
The

to which

these

General

were

diffused

over

the world.

characteristics.

play
Although the kaleidoscopicinterit difficult to generalizeregarding the
of forces makes
architectural
characteristics of the period,they may
be conceived
broadly as the result of a synthesis of retrospective
and
exist side by side, not
progressive tendencies, which
and baroque tendencies
in the previous
unlike the academic
of form
and detail it is the newly won
period. In matters
historical understanding of previous styleswhich
has been
chieflyinfluential,
resultingin a series of attempted revivals
followed
of eclecticism.
In matters
of plan
by a season
and

construction,however, the growth of material

and

the

development

have

of

produced a

new

forms

multitude

civilization

of government
and
merce
comof novel types of buildings

MODERN
well

ARCHITECTURE

461

changes in the form and importance of

the old types, making every
supposed revival unconsciously
creation.
a new
ment
Finally there has begun a conscious movefunctional types and structural systems
to give the new
teristic.
an
expressionthat shall also be novel and entirelycharacas

constant

as

Complexity of development.
within

and

half

It

thus

of

coherent

about

comes

that,

development in
practicalmatters, there is a series of subordinate
phases
different
forms
of
detail.
distinguishedby very
Although a
of these phases might be distinguished,
greater or less number
the principalones
be considered
as
four, corresponding
may
and cultural phases : classicism,lomajig
generallyto |i^erfl.ry
ticism, egjeg^gjsjn
(alloutgrowths chieflyof the historical
century

funrf*rm?1'SF1 (primarilyan

nttitnH"), a*1^

outgrowth

of

science). As each of these phases, like the academic

varies in character and duration
in
baroque movements,

natural
and

different countries, it becomes

a

chronologicaland
strictly

of the

modern

most

of the

even

local order

architecture

architecture

tendencies, and
in all countries, it is

more

it is

than

the

during
immediately preceding.

fundamentally international

of the

difficult to preserve
during the discussion

more

their uniform

character
order

of the

of

fruitful to consider

In

cussion
disview

tectural
archi-

predominance
the individual

in their

movements

countries

rather than individual

general sequence
The
continuity of development in
by one.

one

given individual type, and the simultaneous existence and

in any
given country, scarcelyless
interplayof movements
be indicated by the way.
characteristic,
may
Classicism:
The first of the
study of classical monuments.
any

modern

movements

to

affect

architectural

forms

was

the

flood of

archeological
discoveryand publicationin the middle
Hitherto
the fund of knowledge
of the eighteenth century.
concerning ancient buildings,aside from the details of the
in
orders, was
surprisinglysmall. Writers and engravers,
with the construction
of
general,had been chieflyconcerned
academic
theories, or the representationof the buildingsof
their own
day both supposedly based on the antique, but
Palladio,
reallydeparting from it with the greatest freedom.
"

to

be

sure,

had

published rationalized

restorations

of the

temples

Roman
issued
the

HISTORY

462

his far

city of

as

OF

early as

1570,

These

multitude

and

in 1682

but

were

of works

Desgodetz

of the

drawings

accurate

more

Rome.

of the

ARCHITECTURE

isolated
which

had
of

monuments

ever,
forerunners,howcommenced

now

to

of them

garded
illustrating
buildings hitherto unreIn
Lord
or
entirely unknown.
Burlington
1730
of Palladio's drawings of Roman
buildings
brought out many
had lain a century and a half in manuscript. In 174^,
which

many

appear,

the

Piranesi_issued his first rrt^g-g the

engraver

coiossaT"series"o!^iews
ot ancient

ment^ofa

and

ments,
frag-

public the great wealth of

architecture in Italy,and, with their strikingartistic
Roman
of the antique.
the vogue
qualities,powerfully stimulated
illustrated works
In the fifties there began to appear
dealing
with Herculaneum, and later with Pompeii, the buried Camart in a way
much
so
panian cities which exhibited Roman
more
ments
livelyand intimate than the ruined and despoiledmonuof the capital. The knowledge of Roman
architecture
further enriched
was
by the study and publicationof the
by ffiood and Dawkins
temples at Palmyra and Baalbek
(1753 and 1757) and of the palace at Spalato by Robert Adam
and
Clerisseau
position
(1764) buildings differingwidely in comand
deta'il from the conventional
conceptionsof the
academic
theorists.
the revelation
of
Scarcely later came
Greek
hitherto known
counts
acmonuments,
only by the vague
which

placed

before

commence-

ruins

the

"

of

few

In

travelers.

Soufflot_weredrawing and measuring

.Revett

at

were

these

Athens.

and

other

few

sites

and

1750

later

years

began

Paestum

at

to

Cochin

1751

pour

; Stuart

and
and

garding
publicationsreforth. Leroy's

and
of Stuart
appeared
1758, the first volume
Revett's
Antiquitiesof Athens in 1762, Major's Pcestum in

Athens

in

1768, Chandler's

Ionia

of

the

same

character

in

1769, with

reaching

well

stream

into

of

the

successors

nineteenth

Caylus and Winckelof archeology and of the

mann
were
laying the foundations
history of art, Winckelmann
assertingfor the first time the
superiorityof Greek architecture and sculptureover those of
century.

At the

same

time the Comte

de

the Romans.
Reaction
The

againstthe baroque and against academic formula.

of antiquitywas
coincident with
increasingappreciation

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN

visible

in

contemporary

rationalistic advocacy

of

the

independent tendencies, already

The

architecture.

by Laugier in
quietgrandeur"

orders

1752,

and

which

based

rather

knowledge
extreme

Italy,in
Lateran.
the

appeal for

such

In France

to

"noble

in 1755,
art than on
reaction

were
a

from

real
the

in
baroque had already begun, even
the Superga and the facade
of the
as
the manner
of Servadony prevailedover
and
England the reversion from Wren

of the

works

while

primitive
simplicity

made

Winckelmann

antithesis to contemporary
of the art of the ancients.
The

rococo,

Vanbrugh

the

on

crescendo

463

in

strict Palladianism

was

universal.

It

was

felt

that, in the

striving for animation, picturesqueness,and

had
been
lost. It was
dignity and earnestness
originality,
which so many
these sober qualities,
were
seeking,that were
found superlatively
now
exemplifiedin certain of the works of
antiquity.
Characteristics and
The
result
development of classicism.
turned toward
that the current
of practicewas
the closer
was
imitation
of classical forms, and ultimatelyeven
of classical
ensembles.
Architects
approached the
dispositions and
antique directly,and not through Palladio or Vitruvius.
in the decoration
Hitherto the orders had been used principally
and pilasters
of wall surfaces ; columns
had been freelygrouped
and often placed above
The
a high basement.
temple portico,
in
the
of
Palladio
where
was
England,
example
except
been
used very rarely or not at all.
directlyfollowed, had
the other
almost
Now, on
hand, it became
essential,its
columns
closelyand equally spaced, risingdirectlyfrom the
in favor of
ground. The membering of walls was renounced
the simplestjointingor rustication.
like those of the
Forms
for the
rectangular temple and the Pantheon, determined
most
to be employed to meet
not
part in advance, had now
only the traditional problems of the church, the school, and
the dwelling,but also a multitude
of new
problems in the
legislativeand other governmental buildings, the banks,
and
exchanges, and commercial
structures, the museums
tions
theaters, assembly and concert
halls,the prisonsand instituwhich great political,
economic, and social changes were
conservatism, especiallyin
bringing into being. Academic
France, however, hindered

the

literal imitation

of

ancient

HISTORY

464

OF

ARCHITECTURE

precedent,just in proportionas it differed from the currently

and the Greek
Thus, although the Roman
accepted canons.
side by side almost
from
tendencies
the beginning, the
ran
remained
Roman
predominant until shortly before 1820.
Greek
forms
Even
in
then, when
surpassed the Roman
of Roman
character
popular favor, important monuments
still continued

to

be built.

The
sical
clasbeginningsin France.
reform of architecture began coincidentlyin France
and
England about 1760. T*LS^jnteGenevieve. in Paris (1759-90),
the portico and
Soufflot thought to imitate
dome
of the
in Rome
Pantheon
(Fig.252). For the first time in France
there is a free-standing
porticoof the full height of the facade,
its Corinthian
less than
columns
no
sixty-two feet high.
Roman

This

The

supremacy.

had

soon

at

gatre

its

(1777-80),
by

TWdf^v

portico of twelve
Roman

buildings
Victor

features

the

as

Louis, with

columns, and in the urban

characteristic

The

cast.

in such

successors

Grajid
its

lossal
co-

dwellingsof

of these

houses,

peristylarcour d'honneur with a triumphal arch at the grille,

dome
the
over
a
temple porticoat the door, and a saucer
the garden, are
circular projectingsalon toward
well combined
the Palace of the
in the Hotel de Salm
(1782-86),now
interiors lost the flowing lines of the
The
Legion of Honor.
and turned to the delicate,simple paneling and refined
rococo
of antique motives
which
mark
imitation
the style of Louis
XVI.
and
beginningsin England. In England Robert Adam
his brothers
(1760 jj.},although they created no building of
in Paris,gave a
such monumental
qualityas Sainte Genevieve
Roman
strictly
powerful stimulus to the employment of more
of interiors.
for the treatment
forms, especially
Free-standing
The

columns,

coffered

reliefs marked

the

vaults

and

domes, statued

principalrooms

even

of

niches

and

bas-

privatedwellings

of vases,
(Fig. 255), while a delicate surface decoration
and garlands in stucco, with Wedgwood
medallions
griffins,
and slender furniture designed in harmony, lent the rest an
distinction.
air of unusual
Although Piranesi and others had
of these features or assisted the brothers
anticipatedmany
Adam
welded

with
them

them, it
into

was

the

coherent

skill of the Adams

style. Almost

which

first

simultaneously

465
the first work

came

Stuart

by

and

inspiredby
Revett.

by

Greek

for the most

These

traditional

models, in

few

designs

part, however,

Palladian

lines,the details of the

composed on
orders, the employment of anise and anthemia, the purity of
This refinement
decoration, being the principalinnovations.
were

252

FIG.

and

"

PARIS.

CHURCH

OF

(THE PANTHEON)

GENEVIEVE.

SAINTE

severity,with a preferencefor the heavier orders, gradually

permeated the academic styleof building,which still

long continued.
Literal imitation

however,
was

of
more

classical models.
strict imitation

beginning,extending not merely

elements, but
the sentimental
with

miniature

repertoirewith
types.
Paris

whole

to

monuments.

to

Monuments.

while,
Mean-

of classical
individual
This

examples

details and

appeared

first in

decorated
landscape gardens, which were
classic temples and ruins.
Stuart enriched the
the Monument
of Lysicratesand other Athenian
or

Ledoux, in his octroi

(1780-88), made

liberal

use

gates and

stations

of classical motives

"

for
the

466

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

the circular temple

triumphal column, the exterior peristyle,
without a base.
even
using the Greek Doric column
Langhans took the Propylaeaat Athens as his model
for the Brandenburg
Gate
in Berlin (i788-0 iL although he used a more
Roman
and introduced other notable changes
type of column
creation (Fig.253). The French
which resulted in an original
"

FIG.

253

"

BERLIN.

BRANDENBURG

GATE

with their studied

imitation
of
Republic and its successors,
poleon
Rome,
naturally reproduced its monuments
also; and Na-

outdid all others with the column

of the Place

Vendome

(1805-10),modeled on that of Trajan, the Arc du Carrousel

(1806),modeled on the Arch of Domitian
("Constantine"),and
finallythe colossal ^rc-tlc1'ELuilu by Gbalgrin (Fig.254). In
of its predecessorsthis showed
contrast
to most
great freedom
in the renderingof the antique motive, with a puristic
tendency
architects of the revival period.
characteristic of French
very
in buildings intended
Even
for
Other literal imitations.
practical
use, the literal followingof classical prototypes began,
on

the

initiative of

commissioned
which

should

rulers

Clerisseau
be

in

and

1780

strictlyRoman.

statesmen.

Catharine

design her a
For his Temple

to

II.

dwelling
of Glory,

MODERN
the church

now

of

ARCHITECTURE
the

467

Madeleine, Napoleon insisted

on

the

selection of the

temple with
the thermae.

external

an

pediment.

FIG.

although
"

254

in the

Percier and
XVI.

Corinthian
designby Vignon (1807),a peristylar
its interior treatment
suggested by the halls of
The design of the Bourse
(1808-27)also included
but its great breadth
did not permit a
peristyle,
In all these works
forms were
Roman
employed,

Greek

"

PARIS.

ARC

DE

TRIOMPHE

interiors of the

Fontaine

on

decorative

Egyptian forms became

Eastern
campaign.

the

DE

ETOILE

Empire style developed by

"

lines of the

elements

popular

abundant,

were
as

Adams

result

of

Louis

and
and

even

Napoleon's

The Greek
began after
supremacy.
supremacy
first in England
the Napoleonic wars,
with important works
The

Greek

but

later

the

Roman

in Germany.
especially

revival, the

use

Again,

of Greek

preceded the bodily imitation

British

buildingsthe high school

at

as

orders
of the

in the
and

case

of

ments
larger ele-

temple. Among
Edinburgh (1825-29),by

z"z~
w

o
c"

gg
us s
z y
"

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN

469

Hamilton, is especiallynoteworthy, no less for its

plastichandling of Greek forms in the wings and terraces than

Thomas

in the
reproduction of the portico of the Theseum
central feature (Fig.257). In Germany
a great personality,
in combining classical spirit
Friedrich
Schinkel, succeeded
with modern
requirements in a series of works of which the
in Berlin
(1818-21) is perhaps the most
_Royal Theater
notable (.Fig. 258^
Later, under the patronage of Ludwig I.
for its

of

Bavaria, Leo

carried

Klenze

von

stillfurther

the imitation

culminatingin the Walhalla

reproductionof the Parthenon,

of classical ensembles,

at

burg (1830-42),a

raised

mighty*

Lei i auud

had

early as
National

bCTbstructure.

The

idea

of such

Regenson

reproduction
proposed it as
the Great; the
ance
begun in accorda

long captivateddesigners:Gilly had

for
1797
Monument

memorial
in

Frederick

to

had

Edinburgh

it in 1829.
Reaction from literal classicism.

been

with

of

them,

to

be

sure,

commemorative

exacting practicalfunctions,
reached, and

classical forms.

With

reflux set

the

these

most
buildings,

monuments

without

high tide of classicism

in toward

more

rationalistic

use

of

abandoned, and the

temple porticowas
Greek
suggestionappeared only in the fondness for the Doric
order, the delicacy of the projections,the elegance of the
tendency was strongest
profiles.In France, where the Roman
resistance
actual
and
the academic
to
most
copying was
the
was
tenacious, this last phase of the classical movement
firstin which Greek influence was
reallymuch felt,and it thus
of neo-grec.
received the name
By other tendencies which
they incorporate,however, as well as by their date, the ne"oapplied to them,
grec buildingsbelong, in spiteof the name
than
with
the following
less with the revivalist movement
phases of eclecticism and functionalism.
trative.
adminisTypes of buildingsduring the classical movement:
formal tendency of classicism
Counter to the extreme
there
to assimilate all buildingsto a singleclassical type
had constantlybeen the utilitarian tendency to differentiate
in accordance
and more
with their
types of buildingsmore
This had already begun
increasinglyspecializedfunctions.
under the old regime,but it was
powerfullystimulated by the
Revolution, which detached
governmental functions
many
"

The

was

"

FIG.

257

"

EDINBURGH.

FIG.

258

THE

"

BERLIN,

HIGH

ROYAL

SCHOOL.

THEATER

(RICHARDSON)

MODERN
the

from
The

ARCHITECTURE

palace,and

threw

earliest of modern

the

Somerset
fall

theaters and

administrative

quitewithin

and

House,
the

museums

Britain, where

number

period of academic

of other

buildings
Even

supremacy.

in

palace, as their multitude

latest of them

the

suggestionof

Gandon

in

portico

of the Four
and

of

Courts

solidityand
A

more

nounced
pro-

first

was

given

in Dublin, with
built

dome,

by

its

James

1784-96.

expression for governmental

in
found
also
was
soon
legislative
buildings,
largedeliberative halls forced the adoption

functions
one

functions

classical

buildings. Such
Legislative
where

also

permits ; and

rooms

merely a Doric
specificcharacter.

governmental

grandiose facade

commanding

of small

have

suggest this

to

earnestness

in the

had

in

in the Mint
expression,
(1771the rebuildingof the Palace of Justiceafter 1776.
the scheme
on
buildings,however, are essentially

All of these

even

miralty,
Ad-

to find monumental

75) and
of the

all.

from

the

France, however, specialized

governmental functions
commenced

to

open

buildings,distinct

in Great

developed

palace, were

471

more

or

new

Parliament

The

great scale.

House

Duhk'n

at.

had

led

the way
as
early as 1730^39, with an arcaded portico and a
domed
hall suggested by~the Pantheon, but carried out with
Palladian
forms.
The .seats were
arranged in a semicircle
in one-half
General
with

the

Versailles in

at

Doric

building.

columns
Here

at

the center

meeting of the States1789, an impressive basilican room

improvised within an indifferent

first the

of

theater,

hall with
was

Palais

the

when

the seats

body

chair

form,

was

on

in the

seats
structed
recon-

moved

was

arranged

developed
in

Bourbon

end, the

one

the

the

semicircular

afterward

at

was

Assembly

long side and

The

halls of the

throne

sides; but

the National

horseshoe.
Roman

was

three

along the other

as

For

octagonalroom.

in

to

double

the lines of

deliberative

Paris, 1795-1833,

and

was

the
Continent.
For
the
unicameral
widely followed on
found
buildinga powerful external expressionwas
legislative
in the Corinthian
prefixedto the
portico of twelve columns
in 1807.
Related
movements
to political

Palais Bourbon
Prisons.
for the reform
of

of methods

imprisonment

for

of

was

the

agitation

tion
first by the substitu-

punishment,
the death
penalty

in

many

cases,

HISTORY

472
and

later

by

order had

the

of the

little consideration

and

the form

Ideas

of

new

of the first phase

walls and

rusticated

ways,
door-

narrow

of force

sanitation,or reformation
had

this

(1770-82),designed by George

embodiment

very

prisonswhich

Characteristic

in London

Prison

Dance, which, with Its vast

was

ARCHITECTURE

improvement
to multiply.

caused

Newgate

was

the

OP

of

the

manity,
(Fig. 259). Huhowever,
prisoners,

until well into the nineteenth

prisonwhich

then

resulted

was

century,
different.

very

of correction

confinement
or
through solitary
disciplined
labor ultimatelycaused, about 1835, the universal adoption of
individual

cells and

necessities

of vast

highly organized system of separate

workrooms
and yards for various classes of prisoners.
Other
novel
structures.
Banks, exchanges,and commercial
called into being by the commercial
and
structures
were
genial
capitalistic
developments of the age, and proved to find conThe monumental
garb in the prevailingclassical mode.
porticoplaced before the bank or exchange suggestedthe power
walls
of finance or the stabilityof credit, while
the blank
the
classical purism had
made
its own
which
exactly met
of the first and
Bank

the

of

solutions

and

England

and

of similar

windows

had

Soane

to

of great halls
general external treatment
a

the

Although

rebuilding

financial institutions,

(1788-1835), Sir John

exterior, with

blank

In the

warehouses.

greatest of the modern

light courts.

with columns

docks

design a^wmdowless
and

of

multitude

is less frank

than

other

some

problems, certain features, like the Loth-

pieces
bury Angle (Fig.256) or the Lothbury Courtyard, are masterthe
of free composition with
classical forms, while
the
interiors are
full of dignity. The
in Paris and
Bourse
(1840-44), with their colossal
Royal Exchange in London
tarian
utiliThe
the monumental
tradition.
porticoes,continued

side of
Halle

the

an

commerce

Not

adaptation to

less novel

were

concert-halls,which
as

well

as

to

the

Such

features had

now

they

became

notable

but

in

embodiment

circular,domed

adornment,

extraneous

simplicityand

Theaters.

its most

pl^ ip Pprig (.TyK^

hall, destituteTof
very

had

market-

effective

by

its

purpose.

the theaters, museums,

and

responded to the growth of democracy

development of music and of archeology.
hitherto usuallybeen adjuncts of the palace;
detached, and subjectsfor special treat_

MODERN
first of the

The

ment.

which

(1741-42),for

Palladian

(i777-80 j, witn

FIG.

which
A

Roval

the

The

Grand

varied

Theater

England.

OLD

form

in Berlin
and

Opera

in

insisted

Theatre

Tiffin
on

an

Bordeaux

at

followed

was

in many
others,especially
All these were
cubical masses,
into

(RICHARDSON)

PRISON.

NEWGATE

stage, auditorium, foyer, and

more

receive

to

classical treatment,

still more

LONDON.

259"

theaters

and
ffaris
(1700-1802)

and

in France

been

473

^rciat had
Frejderic1" +]if_

form.

its

in

in the Odeon

independent

had

exterior

monumental

English

ARCHITECTURE

vestibule

made

its appearance
(1818-21),with which

had

refreshment-rooms

were

in Schinkel's
a

also

fitted.

Royal
room,
ball-

concert-room,
to

be

incorporated

added
to
(Fig.258). Wings containing these adjuncts were
the main
them
which
dominates
by its high-gabled
mass,
clerestory,its monumental
steps, and its Ionic portico,all
treated with Hellenic forms of slightrelief and with severely

classical
theater
not

the

The

ultimate

problem in Germany
temple portico,but the

model.
with

ornaments.

In
its

this scheme

the

was

ancient

classical solution

of the

different

which,

theater

circular end

one,

for

itself served

as

of the

auditorium,
dicating
the facade, clearlyin-

surrounding corridor, formed

the nature
of the building,but involvingconsiderable

474

HISTORY

sacrifices in
become

the

OF

ARCHITECTURE

vestibules, foyers, and

stairs

which

had

such

theater.
The
prominent features of the modern
notable example, the old Court
Theater
in Dresden
most
of this type even
when
strict
(1838-41),shows the persistence
classical forms
not
were
employed (Fig. 264).
In giving the museum
and concert-halls.
Museums
depende
inan
form Germany led the way,
in the eighteenth
even
In the
it created
notable
two
early nineteenth
century.
the
Klenze
monuments,
Glyptothek in Munich
by Von
in Berlin by Schinkel
(1816-30) and the Old Museum
(1824both
were
severe
28). These
compositions in the Greek
Ionic

order, which

used

was

Sir Charles

(1825-47),designed by
of

concert-hall,Schinkel

the

greatest elegance in connection

An

auditorium

for

also

had

in

the

British

Barry.
given a

with

the

For

Museum

the

problem

solution

theater

of

the

in Berlin.

is the principal
popular concerts
feature of Saint George'sHall in Liverpool(1838-54) which includes
also a smaller
recital-nail; two
court-rooms, and public
offices. The
exterior
by the gifted and youthful Elmes
with its two
Corinthian
vast
porticoes,its commanding attic,
its magnificent terraces
and approaches, is justly famous
as
the
monumental
of
all
modern
most
structures
(Fig.
among
260).
Other types. Churches.
For
the problems already consecrated
the church, the college,
the house, or palace
by time
classicism did not achieve new
solutions of the same
tance.
imporThis was
because
the
s
olutions
ready
alpartly
satisfactory
attained in the previous period tended
to be followed,
the
were
partly because
problems themselves
becoming
of the age, and
ones
secondary to the new
partly because
other forces tended
before long to take these very
problems
of
the hands
of the classical architects.
In the
entirelyout
vast

"

"

"

"

church,

as

elsewhere, the

imitation

of classical models

was

attempted, both the rectangular-templetype and the Pantheon

of the most
notable
of the reOne
vivalist
type being followed.
churches
beautiful
Porch
the

Saint

was

Pancras

in

London,

in which

tHe

details of the rErec^tneTim^veTe^mitated the North

"

for the entrance

sacristies,with

repeated, for

the

the

portico,the
Athenian

Porch

Tower

steeple. Chalgrin, in

of the
of the
the

Maidens

for

Winds, twice

church

of Saint

MODERN

Philippe du
Roman

or

the

Paris, was

western

architecture.

period which

classicism

the

among

"

many

LIVERPOOL.

great country

types, with

mansions

palaces

shared

with

tall central

classical

more

Like

the hdtels

built

were

revolution.

during
Even

the
poleon
Na-

with

remodeling the interiors of

palaces left by the old regime. The

SAINT

GEORGE'S

henceforth

rapidly,although magnificent town

built.

Others, however,

merely adopting a

Few

himself

contented

26O

series.

the Christian-

details.

Domestic

FIG.

towers,

475

inspired by

academic

established

two

portico and

three

in

a notable
basilica,initiating

followed
dome

Roule

ARCHITECTURE

under

Louis

(RICHARDSON)

HALL.

likewise
houses

XVI.,

multiplied less
continued

to

be

already described,

Greek detail,and
or
usually a porticoof Roman
The
less
often a circular salon suggested by the Pantheon.
ambitious
town
houses, solidlybuilt up in blocks, had usually
restrained treatment, depending on the proportionsof
a most
tions
stories and openings alone.
Often the town-planning tradicontinued
of the previous period were
by the unified
design of the houses in whole streets and squares, as in the
Adelphi and Regent's Quadrant in London, or the Rue de
all these

Rivoli

had

in Paris.

Colonnades

or

arcades

were

now

sometimes

HISTORY

476

adopted

in the lower

increase

ARCHITECTURE

OP

story, to shelter the foot

and

passengers

the effect of Roman

magnificence. In the minor

European country houses, a type most
frequent in England,
there was
some
attempt, about 1820, to imitate the temple,
although not without
breaking its unity by projectionsor
architecture, however,
wings. All these types of domestic
as well as the classical types of churches, were
graduallyswept
to

by the rise of romanticism, which

away

fair to

prevailin

architecture

modern
cultural

Romanticism:

changes.

like classicism, had

for
as

bade

even

whole.

Romanticism

its precursors

time

in architecture,

companions in
and
cultural
Their
literarymovements.
origins in some
were
cases
quite as earlyas those of the neo-classical tendency.
modern
The
appreciationof landscape and the idea of the
landscape garden had begun early in the eighteenth century.
Sentimentalism

in toward

and

of the century with

the Continent, in the sixties,
with

came

and

the middle

Gray, and on
also transplanted and quickened the cult of
Rousseau, who
At the same
time England and Germany
awakened
nature.
to an
appreciation of their northern, national heritage,the
mythology and legend, the history and art of the Middle
Ages. The importance of the Goths for the cultural development
in
of Europe was
affirmed
the dialoguesof The Investigator
in history,literathe principleof nationalism
in 1755;
ture,
and
announced
art was
by Herder and his friends in
Richardson

Von

Art

deutscher

und

however, did
until
Wordsworth

the

romanticists

thirties.
the

With

in

bear

not

1773.

their full

beginning of the
Coleridge,Byron

and

through her,

Kunst

who

made

influenced
for

way

all these

men

individual,rather than

Hugo

ideas

fruit,even

nineteenth

thus

planted,
im-

in literature,

century, with

and

man
Scott, with the Gerde Stael, and,
Madame
and

the emotion
the

The

the
and

French

of

enthusiasm

following of academic

the
of

rules,

The emotional
proclaimed as the springsof artistic success.
naturally accompanied by a revival of
upheaval was
fication
religiousfaith,which found its expressionboth in the gloriof traditional Christianityby Chateaubriand
and in
the preaching of a personaland naturalistic belief by Schleier-

were

macher.
The

medieval

revival in

architecture.

Picturesquenessand

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

477

all seemed
embodied,
naturalness, nationalityand religion,
for
not in classic architecture, but in Gothic, then a synonym
the art of the Middle

in northern

conditions,

lands
as

Ages.

thus

the

A revival of medieval

grew

out

renaissance

of racial and
of

classic

architecture

contemporary

architecture

had

developed in the Italy of the fifteenth century. Moreover,

quite died out in Italy
just as classic architecture had never
genial
during the Middle Ages, but had lingeredto provide a conrevival,so

soil for the

quiteceased
survivals
the Oxford

to be

Gothic

architecture

in
especially
practised,

of Gothic

had

continued

collegesuntil the time

England.

had

never

Traditional

in country churches and in

of the Restoration, and the

repairof buildingsin the old stylewent on

and even
in the middle
of the
Sir Christopher Wren
under
time a historical interest
eighteenth century. At the same
monuments
evidenced
in the heritage of medieval
was
by
the
Monasti
works
such
on
as
Anglicanum (1655antiquarian
with
individual
and
towns
73) and publicationsdealing
the books
the buildings show
Neither
cathedrals.
nor
any
knowledge of medieval forms of detail or principles
very accurate
of construction, yet they furnished
a
livingstock on
idea could be grafted. It thus
the romantic
which
came
in literathe romantic
ture
movement
about that England, where
also essentially
the home of
earliest and strongest, was
was
reconstruction

romanticism

and

in architecture.

Origins. Pseudo-Chinese and Gothic designs. The earliest

purely voluntary departuresfrom classical architecture in the
eighteenth century had scarcelythe serious motives of later
efforts,being suggested rather by search for novelty and
which the taste
modishness, in the sportive,trivial structures
for garden shelters and the assemblage
of the time demanded
travelers had
of intimate
parties. The reports .of Eastern
enthusiasm
for things Chinese, and as early as 1740
aroused
designs for porticoesand pavilionssupposedly Chinese were
classic temples,
being executed siderby side with miniature
both
in France
and England. By 1750 others supposedly
Gothic appeared in England, as similar to the pseudo-Chinese
in their fantastic flourishes as they were
dissimilar to their
scape
In the landprototypes, still so imperfectly understood.
already universal in England, such
gardens which were

478

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

began to acquire a sentimental significance,

aS
buildingsnow
the
to
beholder
which
different moods
the scenes
expressing
The
were
Gothic, symbolizing the ideals
designed to evoke.
of rusticityand
unworldliness which were
then fashionable,
rapidlygained ground.
The Gothic revival in England. First phase,c. 1760-1830.
The castellated style. The
first to extend
the imitation
of
Gothic to a building of more
Horace
important type was
Walpole, in the remodeling of his villa, Strawberry Hill
enthusiastic admiration
(1753-76). He was inspiredby the same
in his pioneerhistorical
of the Middle Ages which appears
The
Castle of Otranto
romance
(1764), and he hoped to
give a model of pure Gothic in contrast to the ignorant perversions
which

in vogue.

were

this idea he

With

imitated

and chimney-pieces
porches and battlements, doors, ceilings,
from
old work, but with complete unconsciousness
of their
in periodsof origin,
and even
with utter disregard
inconsistency
for the original
of the designs. The resulting castellated
purposes
called, was
style,"as it was
widely adopted in country
' '

seats,
as

At

on

of which

many

and

George Dance
the

time

same

such

well-known

Sir William

academic

Chambers

the first churches

architects

employed.

were

with

similar

forms

were

undertaken.

influence. In the last quarter of the eighteenth

forces furthered
the movement,
while giving it
century new
ecclesiastical cast.
A new
a
more
generation of antiquaries
Ecclesiastical

poured forth works

and

numerous

more

century earlier.

the

on

medieval

adequately

Attention

illustrated

attracted

was

although with insufficient knowledge

results.
James Wyatt, the chief of
great vogue

an

as

names

were

architect
often

than

from

the

were

creation

more

those

of

repairof the
attempted,

the restorers, had

were

old manorial

once

with disastrous

often

of domestic

towers

(1796-1814),the extravagant

the

to

also

astical
buildings. Ecclesithe details of their

given to these, and

windows, buttresses, and

churches

and

at

than

restorations

themselves, and

structures

churches,

derived
halls.
of the

rather

Fonthill

from

Abbey
William

romancer

(1803another noteworthy example (Fig. 261). Although

14) was
religious
feelingin England at this time was stillat a low ebb,
Beckford,

was

the most

famous

of

these;

Eaton

Hall

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN
and

churches

new

few,

were

an

479

increasingnumber

of these

style,as it was then understood.

A great improvement
Literal imitation of medieval models.
of detail,as well as an appreciation
in grammatical accuracy
of chronological
consistencyof style,followed the publication,
the
in 1819 and
1820, of Rickman's
Attempt to Discriminate
Stylesof English Architecture,and of Pugin and Willson's
the Gothic

followed

FIG.

26l

"

EATON

HALL

BEFORE

ALTERATION

IN

1870.

(EASTLAKE)

These
books, which
Specimens of Gothic Architecture.
provided for the first time a tolerable historical account of the
development of the style,and accurate
geometricaldrawings
of its examples, opened an
of literal copying of whole
era
culled from this or that period,most
features,conscientiously
frequentlythe later Perpendicular. The inclusion of drawings
of domestic
of the
work
helped bring about an abandonment
ecclesiastical forms previouslyadopted for dwellings,in favor
of a domestic treatment
dependent on the grouping of masses,
gables, and chimneys the so-called "baronial
style." In
which was
stilldominated
by classical
unconsciously
planning,
"

HISTORY

480

OF

ideals,a strict symmetry

lack

decoration

and

prevented

was
means

reproduction of

preserved; while in construction

and of sympathetic craftsmen
the spiritof the rich medieval

for imitation.

chosen

work

of

ARCHITECTURE

phase,1830-70. Pugin. The second

important phase of the revival opened with
Augustus Welby Pugin, a son of the elder Pugin.
and fertility
of invention with
at once
a freedom
Second

had

which

hitherto

been

and

unknown,

and

far

the

work

He

more

of

displayed

Gothic

forms

zeal for their

clusive
ex-

adoption which had the force of religiousfanaticism.

In his designs,1830-52, he sought and attained
medieval
a
in his studios he trained
picturesquenessof plan and mass;
and

carvers

metal-workers

to

designs; in his writingshe preached

architecture,

as

he

called

the details of his facile

execute

the revival of Christian

it,for civil as

of ritual in

buildings. At the same

the Anglican church, and

architecture

in relation

domestic

and

of all

this, Gothic

country
their

residences

many

of whom

modes, with

Gothic

to

the

and

their

greater confidence

the

church
a

result

only

form.

themselves

design,within

revival

recovered

medieval

devoted

religious

began the
study of

churches, which

henceforth

Gothic, began

to

for

functions

medieval

time

for

as

ritual arrangements.
As
the accepted style not

to

became
but

well

for

alike

tects,
Archi-

ly
exclusive-

accepted English

in themselves.

Houses

of Parliament.
Simultaneously with the first
of medievalism
of Pugin's publications (1836), the cause
achieved a triumph in the retention of the Gothic stylein the
of
the new
Houses
rebuildingof the palace at Westminster
Parliament, executed between
1840 and 1860 (Fig.262). The
architect,Sir Charles Barry, was a man
experiencedin design
The

"

with
was

classical

as

well

as

currentlydescribed

body.

The

emphasis in

with

Gothic

forms, and

having
massing, however,
Tudor

as

classical type, for it is laid not

on

the

details
is by

no

on

building
a

means

classic
of

of
the essential components
which
mark
the
towers
on

plan, the two chambers, but

of
Notable
and support the clock.
qualities
royal entrance
the practicalsolution of extremely complex
the design are
to portions of
problems in plan, including accommodation
stillremaining,and the picturesqueemploythe old structure
ment
of the magnificent river site. The
employment of
the

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN
medieval
of course,
Ruskin.

forms

in

gave

the

national

revival

481
of such

monument

importance,

great impetus.

another

An

impulse of different sort, yet equally or more

by the writingsof John Ruskin.
powerful,was given meanwhile
In his Seven Lamps of Architecture
(1849) and his Stones of
to the methods
Venice (1851)he urged a return
as well as the
forms of the Middle
Ages, and this not simply on grounds of
of morality. The emancipation
of ritual,
but even
or
religion

262

FIG.

LONDON.

"

of the individual craftsmen

was

to be at

of true
not

once

beauty

in abstract

of materials

devotion
and

and

an

HOUSES

from

end in itselfand

such
qualities,
of

PARLIAMENT

the modern

in architecture.

and

OF

to the attainment

a means

proclaimed to lie
proportion,but in honesty

This
as

industrial system

structure, and

was

in

thought, appearing above

evidence

of

all in the

sculptured

human

Such an animation
of detail and color
painted details.
he found especiallyin the marble
capitalsand polychrome
of Italy,to which
his admirers
walls and mosaics
turned
soon
when
architects were
for inspiration. It was
at the moment
wearying of the restrictions of antiquariannational precedent,
of invention.
Thus
and seeking a greater liberty
who
many

HISTORY

482

with

impatient

were

this

or

OP
Ruskin's

principlestook
suggestion.

individual

that

ARCHITECTURE

Victorian Gothic.

The

result of all these

called Victorian

of

advantage

forces

the

was

so-

great elaboration

of
Gothic, distinguishedby
detail,polychromy of materials,including marble, brick, and
encaustic tiles,
and a leaningtoward
Italian forms of "surface

Gothic"

rather

than

the

the

"linear Gothic."

northern

of the

Sir

Among

Scott
leading exponents
style were
Street (1824-81),
(1811-78) and his pupil George Edmund
who
in long and active careers
of its
ran
through a number
phases; and William Butterfield (1814-1900) who strove to
novel
create
a
development with a variety of Gothic and
elements.

modern

Scott

and

others

of the

Gilbert

group

even

tended
ex-

their

"

ful
practicebeyond the bounds of England by successcompetitionagainstContinental architects of all schools.
The battle of the styles." By 1855 the adherents
of Gothic

strong enough

were

in secular

architecture

conviction
certain

that

uses

Gothic

"

all purposes.
enkindled
over

fought in
England.
for
a

"battle

the

Houses

of

The

classical

Gothicists

with

his

by

Alfred

without

not

structural

logic,
gave
as

design for

fresh

material.
Law

be

outside

their

of

successes,

With

in

followed
Town

the

(1868-

Hall

In the sixties the influence

French

the movement

the national

felt their

of

to

forced Scott to substitute

finally
accepted Gothic
design for the

Waterhouse.
and

zeal unknown

(1858-73), victories scon

Assize Courts
(1859-64) and

Viollet-le-Duc

Gothic

for

ings
dwell-

Parliament, continued

were

Palmerston

of

urban

rural

singlestyle
Gothic was
superiorfor
the styles,"which
had

Office

69), both

well

field,and

scheme

Manchester

as

the

wider

that the

Thus

although Lord

Foreign

of

maintained

prevail,and

classic

churches, colleges,and

to

architecture,the classic to public buildingsand

they opposed the traditional belief that
must

of

supremacy

buildingsgenerally. To the growing

style was
exclusivelyappropriate to

each

the

"

challenge the

to

its greater

Gothic, with
fresh element

the

Courts

vindicated.

adoption

in 1868, the

of

strength

of

Street's

adherents

of

The

building proved,
the end of their supremacy.
however, to mark
By the time
little but condemnation, and
of its completion, 1884, it met
the conclusion

was

cause

outspoken

that Gothic

was

unfit for

public

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

483

cause
buildings. The fundamental
lay less in certain defects
in the building than in the gradual change of public taste.
The
belated
enthusiasm
of the revivalists could
no
longer
withstand
the eclecticism which elsewhere
prevailedso widely,
had steadilygained strengtheven
\ /and which
in England.
in Germany; Gothic and Romanesque.
|Y Romanticism
On the
Continent
revival was
the medieval
vital in Germany,
most
associated
with a nationalistic
where, as in England, it was
Goethe's
movement.
youthful panegyric on the cathedral
of Strasburg (1773)long remained
alone,however, and it was

until

not

after

Boisseree

the

Wars

awakened

of

the

appeared

general interest

German

past.

accessories

as

Liberation

of

to

the

not

before

time

the

the cathedral

about

Schinkel, who

1770,

exterior,as

ments
monu-

but

the Gothic

important buildings
Gothic
a
project for
his two projectsfor the

made

in 1819.
Of
the Gothic and not
(1825),

The

artistic

for

of Berlin

Werderkirche
chosen.

of

brothers

buildings had
landscape gardens on English

seriouslyconsidered

style was

in the

the

Pseudo-Gothic

since their introduction

models

that

the classical

one

be

was

Gothic

expected, was
spiritand
principle. The
interior was
with
in
conceived
an
insight advance of the day.
Henceforth
the stylewas
frequentlyemployed, with steadily
increasing knowledge, in the building of churches, and
became
occasionallyin other buildings,although it never
the medium
of romantic expressionhad
universal,and even
as
honors
with
to share
the still more
national
Romanesque.
The
Friedrich
was
strongest supporter of the Romanesque
in Munich
Gartner
ever,
von
(1792-1847), whose buildings,howin detail than

rather

show
notable

modern

large

to

was

in

constructive

measure

Gothic

of Italian influence.

The

most

lands, which may

still be considered
an
outgrowth of the revival,is the Votive
in Vienna, built by Ferstel in 1853-79, on the scheme
Church
of

cathedral

Romanticism
outburst
was

so

with
in

church

western

France.

of the thirties the

in German

towers

In

and

France

spires.
before

the

romantic

strengthof classical architecture

great that, although the

"hamlets"

of Trianon

and

Chantilly initiated,as early as 1775, garden architecture on

English models in a stylesupposedly Gothic, the mode
long
remained
without
serious adoption. Meanwhile, however,

484
the

HISTORY

Musee

Lenoir

des

from

Revolution,

churches

revealingto

was

medieval

own

art; and

(1811-23), the

court

of the

Frangais,collected by Alexandra
and
chateaux
destroyed by the

Monuments

the

ARCHITECTURE

OF

the

French

the

gloriesof their

the Histoire de I'art of Seroux

first general work

devoted

to

d'Aginthe arts

Middle

Ages, registereda new

appreciationof them.
By 1825 such a work as the chapel at Les Herbiers in Vendee
could be constructed, with tolerable knowledge of the details
of French
Gothic, although stillwith rigidclassical symmetry.
A more
popular appreciationwas stimulated by Victor Hugo's
Notre-Dame

de

Paris

in

1831, and

scientific understanding

more

and
by the archeologistsDe Caumont
Lassus, and above all by the architect Viollet-le-Duc (181479), who
developed, in the years following 1840, a wide
activityas a restorer of medieval buildingsand as a writer on
de
the art of the Middle
Ages. In his great Dictionnaire
V architecture fran$aise du XI.
siecle (1854-68) he
XVI.
au
of Gothic architecture
emphasized the idea that the principles
were
structural,and thus his influence tended to
essentially
make
current
logicaland organic.
designs in the stylemore
By Louis Napoleon's appointment of Viollet-le-Duc to a
Arts the Gothic movement
at theEcole des Beauxprofessorship
created

was

received

an

officialsanction

in the very

the Emperor
strong that even
his attempt.
On the whole, few new

forces,but the oppositionwas

was

forced

to

abandon

citadel of the academic

so

and these were

buildingsresulted from the Gothic movement,
almost
The
most
strikingof them is
exclusivelychurches.
Sainte Clotilde in Paris (Fig.263), built in 1846-59 by the
architects
Gau
and
Ballu, with twin spires and fourteenth
century detail. This church, however, is relativelyfrigid
compared with some
examples from the last days of the

movement,

after 1860.

the development of
on
Influenceof the romantic movement
the
types of buildings to which
types of buildings. The
romantic
contributed
almost exclusively
those
movement
were
having direct precedentsin the Middle Ages such as churches,
schools, town halls,and dwellings. Even in these types the
ing
remaindevelopment was largelya formal one, the dispositions
"

close to those
of the

of medieval

precedents and

times, as the national

of the
the relative stability

character

problems

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

485

indeed, precisely the

permitted. It was,
medieval
the needs
dispositionsin fulfilling
which

the

Gothicists

Their

innovations
had

them

preceded

life

of their chief theses.

one

structure

thus,

were

to the classical forms

dispositions

modes

of construction
lowed
generally fol-

were

well as medieval

as

forms

of modern

since

medieval
and

as

respectingplan and
part, novel only in relation
immediately

for the most

which

maintained

superiority of

of detail.

So

in

the church

Catholic,and
beyond it,the long

even

aisled

and chancels

naves

of the Middle

Ages

the

planted
sup-

and

domes

halls of the Renaissance

and

of

Other

Protestantism.

types
in

certain

In

only.
flexible

enced
influ-

were

the

England

scheme

Tudor

lands

of

the

Elizabethan

or

its freedom

manor,

with

in the

fenestration

in the

treatment

of

and
vice
ser-

quarters, replaced
the

strict symmetry

the

Palladian

The

old

In

new

Eclecticism:
but

one

united

"

only

institutions and
the

late

country and

PARIS.

SAINTE

CLOTILDE

conditions and

ideals.

movement

forces
emanations

had

in the further

followed
of the

Gothic

of Flanders

devoted

many
as

were

constructions

romantic
of

Cambridge

Germany

of the

halls
for

and

of these

schools.

of the

263

residential colleges

development

models

FIG.

house.

of Oxford

guild

of

ing
English boardtown
were

to similar

Long

halls and
taken

uses.

before

spent itself,it had

the

force

become

influential in architectural
of

as

general eclecticism.

style,
This

486

HISTORY

freedom

of selection from

OF
a

ARCHITECTURE
of

number

in the conditions of the time

grounded
been
to a singlestyle had
between
two
styles,to be
architects

Italy in
north
or

before,

thirteenth

in the

sixteenth.

Gothic
that

was

had

The
thus

or

often

art

was

been

Renaissance
alternative

mere

of itself nothing

of still others.

new

the

The

reason

lay

in the

choice

offered

introduced

them
did
struggle between
done before,in the triumph of either
both continued, subdivided
further,and received

novelty was
had always

adherence

earlier times.

Gothic

century

justas surely

the uniform

as

some

sure,

when

as

the

revived

in

styleswas

growth

art

into

to

into
the

of neo-classic
in kind ; the
not
one,

end,
but

as

it

that

the addition
of historical

of the
characteristic
creations
of
most
knowledge, one
modernity, which, for the first time, made the forms of many
stylesthoroughly familiar to a singlegeneration. This had
already contributed
largelyto the growth of classicism and
romanticism, and to their increasingdifferentiation into Greek
and
Roman
phases, Gothic and Romanesque phases, with
further alternatives offered by subordinate
chronologicaland
local varieties
constitutingin themselves a field for the
"

exercise of

certain

measure

of eclecticism.

To

these

the

with the
historical spiritnow
added other stylesunconnected
and soon
created among
neo-classic and romantic
programs,

designers the
choice

between

conscious
the

of
principle of complete freedom
various historical styles. This expressed

itself first in the sheer desire to create

collection of historical

imitations; it passed to the adoption of a given style on

grounds of personalpreferenceor supposed appropriatenessto
the problem in hand, later sometimes
of
to the combination
of stylesand the creation of a hybrid
elements
from a number
of expression.
which might serve
as
a personalmedium
Originsof eclecticism in architecture. The beginningsof this
be
wider
can
knowledge and wider eclecticism themselves
the Viennese
found quiteearlyin the eighteenthcentury, when
Erlach, published his pioneer
architect,J. B. Fischer von
tions,
Enlw urffeiner historischen Architektur,1721, includingillustraEastern, and
systematicallyarranged, of pre-classical,
and
Greek buildings,
as then understood, besides those of Rome
The
of contemporary
France
and
eighteenthGermany.
and elsewhere contained imitations
century gardens at Kew
.

MODERN
of Moorish

pavilionsand

Turkish

Gothic, and

Greek, Roman,
models

ARCHITECTURE

obviously

487

Chinese

unsuited

well

as

mosques,

Such

structures.

for

their

as

exotic

wide

adoption,
true
of the Egyptian motives
was
however, and the same
made
popular by Napoleon's Eastern campaigns.
The
''Italian style." Serious
productions outside the
resulted firstfrom the study
classicaland romantic movements
of the Italian styles of the Renaissance.
Appreciation of
these was
a
by-product of the Italian sojourn which formed
were

part of the

traditional

education

any

for clients

well

as

as

for

classicistsappreciatedfirst the buildingsof

in view
the High Renaissance, at once
most
classicaland most
in the tourist centers, Rome
and Venice.
Percier and Fontaine,
architects.

in two

works

(1809),were
and

The

to make
a

devoted

to

the earliest to call attention

among

drawings available

littlelater,
extended

buildings of Italy to
Florence.

Fruits

palaces(1798) and

the Roman

their admiration

those

of the

The

from

the

style

cists,
romanti-

the medieval

earliest Renaissance

in

usual
as
a
appreciationswere
in
decade or two
appearing in current
practice. By 1820,
built in the style
however, the old Opera House in Paris was
of the Basilica at Vicenza, and
other buildings
numerous
recalled the

of

for imitation.

to

villas

arch

these

orders

or

columnless

facades of the Italian

palaces. Germany took the lead in 1825-30, with buildings

the Pinakothek
with its
by Klenze and Gartner in Munich
arches,the Konigsbau, the Ministry of War, and the
pilastered
Royal Library,with their novel suggestionof the Pitti Palace
and other Florentine designs. In England the Italian manner
in with Barry, who adopted it as the most
suitable expression
came
"

for the

London

1829-31, initiated
Later

clubs, of which

long series.
the advent
developments. With

his Travelers'

Club,

of

the

"Italian"

style,as it was called,the field was open for imitations and

material
was
inspirationsof the greatest variety. The
tude
furnished not only by individual observation but by a multiof the
of specialpublications
concerning monuments
most
diverse styles. In practice a general tendency to
and
follow more
recent
demic,
more
styles,like the baroque, acaand rococo,
perhaps be discerned following the
may
of historyalready begun by the successive imitarepetition
"

17

tion of classic,Gothic, and

is neither

sketch

to

necessary

each

universal

Renaissance;

nor

the

but

the

development

It thus
becomes
regular one.
of subsequent developments in

trend

singly,rather than to seek to follow this or that

with others even
thread, often confusedly interwoven
stylistic
in the work
of an
individual
architect.
tions
Although manifestacountry

of the
are

eclectic movement

marked

scholars

in

differences

took

the

its

strength.

lead in historical

study

freely to experiment with

expression, whereas
England, torn
itself

between
eclectic

classicism

and

standpoint,
true

to

the

and

in all

appear

of

varied

classical tradition.

Germany,

whose

architecture,gave
historic

modes

of

its furious

by

romanticism,
France, more

countries, there

late

came

than
In

the

struggle
a
really
mained
others, re-

to

proportion

to

the

adoption of eclectic practice there appeared another

general
be noted here once
for all. This was
phenomenon which may
the few designs of trained
tects
archithe increasinggulf between
of buildings erected
and
the great mass
who
by men
were
no
longer sustained
by a traditional knowledge of any
who
could not adequately
two
sets' of forms, and
one
or
even
if they would.
others even
master
In
Munich.
Germany:
Germany, eclecticism dominated
architectural
this time
practice from 1825 to 1890. Within
falls the phenomenal
thus
growth of German
cities,which
bear deeply the impress of the movement.
The
first of them
it was
to receive
Munich, essentiallythe creation of Ludwig I.
whose
and
(1825-48), under
personal inspiration Klenze
turned
to Italy,now
dle
Gartner
to Greece, now
to the Midnow
Maximilian
II. (1848-64),gave
Ages. Ludwig's successor,
his eclecticism
different form, wishing to create
a
new
a
style
from
the
older
of elements
The task
ones.
by a combination
fell to the architect Burklein, whose
buildings are effective in
in their
balanced
their
yet picturesque composition and
rhythmical subdivision into bays, but suffer so much from their
poverty

of execution

and

Dresden
Gottfried
in favor

Vienna.

Semper

to

man

of the Italian Renaissance

Court

also

of the

one

discredited

have

(1804-79), had

especially the
was

as

Theater
creators

of

the

attempt.

powerful personality,

meanwhile

turned

the

scale

by his buildingsin Dresden,

(1838-41, Fig. 264). Semper

of modern

Vienna, in the

vast

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN
of
buildings

the

reminiscent

of

4*9

magnificent Ringstrasse on the lines of the

in 1858-60.
A beginning had
been
fortifications removed
in the Opera House
made
in Ferstel's Votive
Church
and
built by Van der Null and Siccardsburgin 1861-69, with forms
the

French

Renaissance

Semper, in his designsfor the extension

with

and

the
of

Court

Theater

Natural

FIG.

264

"

and

of the
the

OLD

COURT

THEATER.

I,

Imperial Palace,
of Art

Museums

(1871-89)
History (1870-89), continued

DRESDEN.

Francis

under

to

draw

his

(SEMPER)

with a strong
suggestion from the Italian styles,but now
leaning toward the grandioseeffects of the baroque. Among
the later buildingsof the Ringstrasseare the Rathaus
(1873with German
Gothic forms,
83),built by Friedrich Schmidt
the University and the Palace of Justice,with a mixture
of
French

and

Parliament

Italian

Renaissance

forms, and

the

Houses

of

(1874-83) with the forms of neo-Hellenism.

Berlin, Leipzig,and Strasburg. With the founding of the
German
Empire began a period of predominance for Berlin,
distinguishedespeciallyby the building for the Reichstag
(1888-95) by
(1882-94) by Wallot, and of the cathedral
The
architectural forms
Raschdorff.
adopted as a basis,

490
sometimes

HISTORY

OF

academic, sometimes

ARCHITECTURE
Renaissance,

were

as

rule

greatlymodified by the influence of the baroque, and showed

of Italian examples.
than
the study of German
even
more
This style,backed
by the influence of the court, has remained
in favor for governmental buildings in spiteof the efforts of
adherents
the modernists.
One of its principalcontemporary
with the Imperial
is Ludwig Hoffmann, who
achieved success
Supreme Courts in Leipzig (1884-95) and still retains the
A third monumental
creation
leadershipof the conservatives.
of the new
German
Empire is the imposing group of buildings
and
erected in Strasburg about
baroque
1890, in academic
medieval
forms.
For
religiousbuildings the
styles have
while for town
halls late
continued
to be generallypreferred,
been frequently
forms
have
Renaissance
Gothic or German
employed.
Eclecticism in England. In England eclecticism remained
for a long time less the result of conscious tolerance than the
unintentional
product of warring factions, each of which
insisted on the universal superiorityof its chosen style. The
classical side was
chieflymaintained, after 1840, by adherents
of a somewhat
free rendering of antique or Italian motives,
allied to the French neo-grec.
Their principalrepresentatives
for his restrained designs for
were
Cockerell, best known
of England, and Pennethorne, whose
branches
of the Bank
(1869),originallydesigned in Gothic
University of London
in its rich Venetian
forms, retains a vertical movement
garb.
had
its
wide
of
also
Victorian
Gothic
Although
variety prototypes,
final acceptance of the principleof general libertyof
choice
before
scarcely came
1870. The
style which then
of those previouslyfavored,
obtained the preferencewas
no
one
but the so-called "Queen Anne."
This took its suggestion
architecture
from the vernacular,half -classic English domestic
of the late seventeenth
and early eighteenth centuries,but
sought a free adaptation to practicalrequirements and left
considerable
liberty to the personality of the individual
architect.
Such
also exercised in certain
individualitywas
while the Gothic, on the whole,
experiments with other styles,
remained
the rule for churches, as it remains in England even
to the present day.
of the
and "Free
Classic."
The
creators
"Queen Anne"

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN
Anne

Queen

Eden

were

491

Nesfield, in his lodges at Regent's

Shaw
in his office
(1864) and Kew
(1866),and Norman
Zealand
Chambers
(1873, Fig. 265). These
building,New
buildingshad the frank expressionof a variety of materials
the Gothic
school had
which
initiated,forms recallingthe
Dutch
character which
reigned in the English architecture of
William
and Anne, and an individuality
of combination
which
modern.
The union was
was
timely,and buildingsin the same
multiplied.They included not only residences,
generalmanner
of the styleand many
the founders
others devoted
to which
Park

with

themselves

results of

livableness, but

buildingssuch
in

also

ambitious

more

banks

as

and

its residential

which

of

smallness

scale

uncommon

theaters,

origin and

rendered

it less

picturesque. A
gan
higher degree of monumentality beto be sought during the nineties
through the reintroduction of Palladian elements.
Thus was
produced

monumental

the

so

than

called

' '

Free

Classic

"

"

speciesof baroque in which individual

to
hold a large
liberty continued
has
the
dominated
place which
architecture
of
public and urban
England until very recently. Among
its adherents
be mentioned
John
may
"

Belcher,whose Institute of Chartered

Accountants, 1895, was the manifesto
of the school, and
Sir Aston
Webb.
Within
has

the last five years

been visible to return

tendency
to

more

265

FIG.

forms, encouraged
strictlyacademic
by the teaching of the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts

and

architecture
Club

the reversion

Concorde, is one

LONDON.

NEW

CHAMBE'RS.

ZEALAND

(MUTHESIUS)

sical
to clas-

in America.

(191 1 ),modeled

"

The
on

the

of the earliest and

facade

of the

Royal

mobile
Auto-

buildingsof the Place de

most
strikinginstances.

la

Other styles. Beside this main tide of eclecticism in England

has run a continuance of the medieval tradition
now
no
longer
"

HISTORY

492

regarded

as

houses

and

others

have

OF

ARCHITECTURE

churches.
worked

"

Here

within

in

building of country
Sedding, Bodley, Pearson, and

counter-current

chosen

the

range

of historic national

manship.
forms, scrupulouslyrespectinghonesty of materials and work-

They
impress and

have

at the

contrived

same

time

givetheir designsa personal

the spiritof the
come
nearer

to
to

than had

old masters
their

predecessors
imitations

whose

were

literal (Fig.267).

more

The

simple country
pecially
esparish churches
dowed
they have enwith

character
to the
suitability

tional
devoand

land-

which

scape

hitherto

had

escaped
architecture

modern

As

the

Anglican church

has

(Fig. 268).

the

appropriated
medieval
of

LONDON.

"

WESTMINSTER

CATHEDRAL

the

church
turned

there

to

other

styles. Thus,

since

has
266

architecture

England,

Roman

FIG.

1895, in the cathedral

Westminster, J. F.
Bentley has employed forms predominantlyByzantine,securing
of

interior of vast

character
spatialeffect and deeply religious
(Fig.266). The various dissentingsects have continued their
traditions by followingmainly the current
classical or baroque
styles. Until recentlyit was not wholly unusual to find more
exotic stylesessayed in secular architecture
well as in religious.
as
Thus Alfred Waterhouse
employed a personalvariety
of Romanesque in his monumental
of Natural
Museum
History
and IngressBell made
at South
Kensington, and Aston Webb
an

use

of

modified

Birmingham.

French

Renaissance

Of late years,

in the

Law

however, eclecticism

Courts
in

at

England

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN

493

personal,and the individualists are to be found

rather among
those who
abjure all historic forms.
Secular buildings. In France, where
Eclecticism in France.
congruity with a taste developed on classical architecture is
the criterion of every
experiment in other styles,eclecticism

has become

FIG.

was

less

267

FLETE

"

relativelya

country

villas.

NEAR

LODGE,

matter

The

(MUTHESIUS)

HOBLETON.

except in churches

of nuances,
Italian manner

of

the

thirties

and
was

followed

by a mingling of Italian and Greek influences in the

so-called ne"o-grec.Labrouste, Due, and
Duban, the first
pensioners of the French Academy to study the temples of
Paestum

movement

and

other
in

Bramantesque
and

Labrouste's

Greek

France.
work

at

monuments,
It
the

were

found
Ecole

refined facade

the leaders of the

expression
des

of the

Beaux-Arts

in

Duban's

(1832-62)

of Sainte

GeneLibrary
Greek
vieve (1843-50, Fig. 269), where
delicacy of profiling
was
employed in a facade reminiscent of the Tuscan
palaces.
The
and
national
interest in things romantic
contemporary
led to a revival of the styleof the French Renaissance, stimu-

HISTORY

494

OF

ARCHITECTURE

lated especiallyby the enlargement of the Hdtel de Ville in

Paris (1836-54) and its rebuildingafter the Commune.
Under
the Second
Empire a powerful impulse toward the baroque,
which

well

so

luxurious

expressed a

society,was

given by

In the Paris
genius of the first order, Charles Garnier.
Opera (1861-74, Fig. 270) he took suggestionsfrom the late

forms, in the

Venetian

268

FIG.

Roman

"

Casino

HOARCROSS.

OF

CHURCH

baroque, employed with

orofusion

of

conception of
on

continued

detail
the

which

its formal
to

be

felt.

his

were

classic which

Monte

at

THE

Carlo, from

HOLY

ANGELS

technical

facilityand
In

own.

still dominated

the Petit Palais des Beaux-

the

Arts

by

Musee

French

Girault

Galliera

widened

the

side, the influence of Garnier

Thus

the

tecture
archi-

has

long
by Ginain,

(1900),in

the main

perpetuate his traditions.

Churches.

In the

buildingof churches the identification of

Christianitywith the Middle
Ages led to wider departures
from the classic than in secular buildings,
where romantieven

MODERN
cism did

ARCHITECTURE

495

dictate the

The Romanesque
adoption of Gothic.
chosen as a compromise even
before 1840, and after that
was
in that stylemultipliedin the metropolis as
date
churches
well as in the provinces. The
variant
which
to be
came
reminiscent of the buildingsof Angouleme
one
preferredwas
and
Aquitaine, with their suggestion of Byzantine forms.
The
most
conspicuous example is the great church of the
not

269

FIG.

Sacred

Heart

"

at

PARIS.

SAINTE

BIBLIOTHEQUE

Montmartre

by

Abadie

GENEVIEVE

and

Daumet, begun
site,loftydomes, and ing
gleam-

in 1873 (Fig.271). Its elevated

whiteness make
it a strikingobject in the
Paris.

In

.such

Saint Augustin and

as

have

other

reasserted

churches

of the

latter half of the

century,

Renaissance
Sainte Trinite",
themselves, although rarely without

tinged by Byzantine

or

other

medieval

influences.

in the commemorative

chapel for the victims of the

Bazaar
fire,Guilbert has expressed the devotions
fashionable world in the facile modern
baroque.
Domestic

architecture.

its experiments with

urban
French

Gothic

and

forms

being
Finally
Charity
of

the

architecture has also had

other

styles,but,

so

far

as

concerned, has tended to revert to the

architecture par excellence,
that of the eighteenth

dwellings are
urban

Domestic

of

panorama

496

HISTORY

century, which
which

have

OF

still

cottage, however,

responds almost
but

changed

ARCHITECTURE

little.

The

completely
small

needs

to

country

villa

or

has

to
new
presented a problem relatively
French, which they have tried,with less success, to solve
by picturesquedesignssuggestedby English or Swiss examples.

the

FIG.

Other

European

countries

PARIS.

27O

OPERA

countries.

there

Belgium. Italy.
certain buildingswhich

are

overlooked, the products of national

Thus

in

Belgium

the

most

Palais

notable

In other European
must

not

be

of

importance.
Leopold II.
rebuildingof Brussels.

movements

prosperityexperiencedunder

(1865-1909)resulted
The

HOUSE

in
of

the

sumptuous
new

constructions

was

the

huge

de

eclectic
Here
an
Justice (1866-83),by Poelaert.
of classic forms
modification
of elements
by an admixture
mental
suggestingthe Orient has produced effects of the most monucharacter
(Fig. 272). Italy,on its achievingliberty
and unity in 1861, entered
had
a periodof development which
also its consequences
in the arts.
Emmanuel
II. in Rome
by Count

The

monument

to

Victor

Giuseppe Sacconi, begun

in

A
1884 and

triumph

HISTORY

OF

dedicated

in 1911,

designed to symbolize the

nationality.Rivalingthe work of Poelaert

of Italian

in vastness, it also shows

at

classic and

once

the most

which,

ARCHITECTURE
was

his influence in the

novel

(Fig.273).

The

forms

two

of

detail,

buildingsare

notable
not

has wished

phase of eclecticism,
examples of the younger
content
to adopt historical stylesin their integrity,
to make

new

synthesesof

historical elements.

to the developmentof
of the eclectic movement
contributions
of the eclectic
types of buildings. The specific
to the
movement
development of types of buildings were
Thus
formal, and, to a largedegree,second-hand.
necessarily
the movement
in generalplaced the seal of its approval on the
for governtypes already created by the classical movement
ment
buildings,banks, exchanges,and theaters, on the types
for churches, town
movement
created by the romantic
halls,
and rural dwellings. In such buildingsthe changes introduced
such as the tingeingof
relativelyslight,
by eclecticism were
classicism by Palladian
or
baroque forms, or the replacingof
Renaissance.
Gothic
forms
For
by those of the northern

Contributions

certain

types,

to

be

sure,

these, eclectic molds

firmly established. The French town

almost uniformly an adaptation of national

very

as

found

in the

old Hotel

have

become

hall has

become

Renaissance

de Ville of Paris.

forms

Administrative

buildingsfor government departments, which have multiplied

national
the world, have acquired an interduring the period all over
or
post-Renaissance
physiognomy of Renaissance
motives.
Many types but newly created, such as modern
and
welfare
institutes,
universities,public libraries,baths
in
railway stations and hotels, received their first treatment
these preferredstylesof eclecticism,and have tended to retain
the museums
the impress. In one
and notable group,
young
of historyand art, a peculiarappropriatenesshas been felt in
employing forms characteristic of the age or regionfrom which
objects exhibited come, and the same
tendency has manifested
itself in the national
and local buildings at international
expositions. In buildings,the exteriors of which are clothed
in one
another
or
garb of historic form, the plans often show,
of course, the most
novel adaptationto purelymodern
ments.
requirethis adaptation and to bring it
The strivingto make
of the exteriors
to expression in the massing and subdivision

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN

reallyopposed

is,however,
and

best

may

considered

underlyingideas

of eclecticism

manifestations

as

of

the

functionalism.

toward

movement

be

to the

499

Functionalism.

Fundamentally

different in direction

from

forms
which
eclectic movement,
part of the historical
tendency of modern times, there has developed in architecture
the

another

FIG.

"

ROME.

MONUMENT

TO

of

VICTOR

the

tendency

EMMANUEL

toward

II.

biologicalconcept of
adaptationof form to function and environment.
tion
Adaptain both these respects conforms
to the philosophical
cept
conof function
the dependence of a variable trait on other

natural
the

273

is part

which

movement,

science.

It is at

one

with

the

"

variables.
to make

The

conscious

endeavors

in modern

architecture

correspond to their
structural duties,to make
the aspect of buildingscharacteristic
of their use
and purpose,
the styleof the time expresto make
sive
of the distinguishingelements
in contemporary
and
national culture, may
thus be inclusively
designated by the
name

the forms

functionalism.

of individual members

HISTORY

SOD

ARCHITECTURE

OF

Early structural purism.

strivingfor truth

and

its

In

frankness

has

indeed

been,

as

architecture

French

"

"reason

and

function

sense."

triumphal arch

Roman

de 1'Etoile.

The

notable

and

the

characteristic of

century

It manifested

Porte

"

rule of

itselfin the restriction

its original
rationalization of the

Chalgrin

support, in

at

seventeenth

Soufflot

isolated

an

as

by

incompatiblewith
structural purism

not

Such

seen,

since the

"good

of the column

have

we

expressionin structure, the

earlier styles,
present in many

of historic forms.

use

as

of

functionalist tendency has been

It is thus
like the Greek and Gothic.
the modern

meaning,

narrower

Saint

tendency appeared

to

Denis

and

the Arc

the

partisans
superiorityfor their
style in functional expressiveness. The writings of Pugin,
indeed, state the structural theory in completeness: "There
should be no features about a buildingwhich are not necessary
for convenience, construction,or propriety,"and
"All ornament
architecture, who

of Gothic

should
of the

same

claimed

consist of enrichment

building."

The

among

of the essential construction

conclusion

drawn

by Pugin, however,
forms should be employed, and this was
that Gothic
the
was
burden
also of the earlyrationalistic writingsof Viollet-le-Duc.
with an
Likewise
content
inspirationfrom historical forms
Gottfried Semper and William
were
Morris, although their
contributingpowerfullyto the idea of a purely
writingswere
considerations
of material
and
modern
on
style based
technique.
and evolution.
The theories of environment
Reaction against
For the development of such a modern
historical tendencies.
had
gradually been in
style a broader cultural foundation
of creation since the later days of the eighteenth
process
century.

and

Herder

Madame

de

Stael

enunciated

the

principleof national individualityand organic evolution in

literature ; Hegel generalizedthe doctrine into a philosophy of
made
concrete
history and art; Schnaase
applicationof it
in his Geschichte der bildenden
Kunste
he
(1843-64), where
traced

for the

countries

to

first time

environment,

idea its ultimate

with

all this

evolution

and

the

formulation

there

came

environment

relation

race,

and

and
a

of the
beliefs.

wide

of different

Taine

gave

popularity.

recognitionof
in the natural

art

the

the

Parallel

importance of
world, culminating

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

501

in the

theories of Darwin, and also the application

biological
of the principleof nationalities in political
affairs,in the
unification
of Italy and
reaction
The
Germany.
against
historical

tendencies

of

all

art, in the radicalism

creative
Tolstoi

showed

sorts

itself likewise

in

of Nietzsche, Zola, Ibsen, and

in

in
literature,of Millet, Manet, and Chavannes
and
Rodin
in sculpture, and
painting,of Meunier
Wagner
in music.
Modern

material

marvelous

material

depending
changed with

civilization.

At

development

utilitarianism

of

the
the

and

same

time

came

nineteenth

the

century,

science, which

has
applied
ever
increasingrapidity the existing social
conditions,the prevailingtypes of buildings,the materials,
and the structural systems.
to
Everything has contributed
the concentration
of population in cities,which, especially
in America
and in Germany, have had the most
fabulous
and
sudden
class has multipliedand
growth. While the middle
on

reached

hitherto

degree of comfort

unknown,

there

has

aristocracyof wealth and on the

other an organized proletariat.Capitalism has brought with
it vast factories,stores, and office buildings,steam
transport
railroad and dock
has created
buildings,palatialhotels for
travelers,and great international expositions. Sanitation and
the building of
altered social theories have
revolutionized
schools, hospitals,
asylums, and prisons,as well as the housing
free
of the working classes.
Philanthropy has endowed

developed on

the

one

hand

an

libraries,settlements, and
Economic

pressure

employment

of

has

space,

led

welfare
to

institutions of all

strivingfor

time, and

technical

the most
resources.

sorts.

efficient
The

strengthcharacteristic of most earlier styles

has become
often impractical.The
employment of iron and
in the spanning of openings
steel has brought new
possibilities
damentally
statical theory,which has funand interior space, and a new
Other
new
altered esthetic principlesas well.
materials have multiplieddaily,while cheap transportation
to break
available everywhere and tended
has made
them
down
local peculiarities.
Since the
Characteristics of functionalismin architecture.
generous

middle
a

body

excess

of

of the nineteenth

of architecture

century all these forces have

produced

which, in spiteof its variety,has

502

HISTORY

fundamental
Sometimes
steel

unity
the

concrete,

in its

form

new

systems of construction

suggested by their

the effort has been

the

function

endow

FIG.

each

274

"

ARCHITECTURE

strivingfor functional expression.

materials like
attempt has been to give to new

glass,or

or

OF

of each

to express

of

building as

PARIS.

READING-ROOM

their
a

on

own

the

component

whole

OF

with

THE

like reinforced

times
properties. Someexterior of buildings

elements, and
character
specific

BIBLIOTHEQUE

to

in

NATIONALS

More
conformity with its purpose.
recentlythere has been
to remain
satisfied unless all the forms employed,
a tendency not
in the solution of time-honored
even
problems,owe as
little as possibleto the historic styles,
and thus are peculiarly
and emphatically modern.
At
Development offunctionalism. Expression of structure.
the outset
of the development of functionalist architecture its
of
principleswere
broadly stated, but the applicationmade
them
was
relativelylimited. With the conviction that the
historic styles
of architecture were
outgrowths of contemporary
and society,there had
conditions of race, climate, religion,
buildarisen a belief that imitation of those stylesin modern

MODERN

503*

ARCHITECTURE

and that a wholly new

be
ings was inappropriate,
stylemust
conditions
and
modern
developed, suggested by modern
problems. This was the later gospel of Viollet-le-Duc in his
Entretiens sur
V architecture (1863-72),and of Fergusson in
his History of Architecture (1865-67). The
scientific and
the criterion
utilitarian tendency of the day, however, made
of styleprimarilya matter
of structural system, and the hope
of the advocates
of modernity of stylethus lay in the effort to
find suitable expressionfor new
methods
of construction.
Construction
the

day

had
the

in iron.

of course,
coming into

The

iron,whether

was,

been

Ble in Paris had

been

cast

for utilitarian

use

of the

early years

constructive

novel

century.

reconstructed

The

or

such

of

strength

in the

constructions

from

new

wrought,

dome

of the

of

which

constructions

since

Halle

au

in iron in 1811, the Menai

Suspension Bridge, with its unprecedented

built in
1819-26. Although the elaborate
calculations

material

material

the architect's

had

span,

been

mathematical
tended

draw
with-

to

domain, efforts

before the
lacking on the part of architects,even
theoretical
writings just mentioned, to employ iron in a
frank and artistically
at once
manner
satisfactory.The most
notable instances of this were
the great reading-rooms of the
(1843-50) and of the BiblioLibrary of Sainte Genevieve
Labrouste
(1855-61, Fig. 274) where
theque Nationale
employed iron columns, very slender and widely spaced, supporting
of
vaults
metal
In
these
spherical
buildings
plates.
of masonry,
with no
the facades were
exterior expressionof
the
the iron work.
In the great market
as
buildingsknown
Halles Centrales, by Ballu
played
(1851-59),the exterior also disnot

were

of iron columns

its construction

covered

zinc.

with

arid, yet in harmony with the practicalcharacter of

the buildings. Of metal
alone, and only made
possibleby
recent
lever
metal, have been the more
suspension,arch, and cantiIt

was

bridges,with
giganticEiffel Tower
bridges, combines

their

enormous

spans,

as

well

as

the

in Paris

of the
(1889),which, like many
with absolutely frank
confession

grace

of structure.
Glass
were

and

iron.

secured

supports.

by

For
the

inclosed buildingswider
of

glass as
Structures of glassand iron
use

possibilities/

the
between
filling
had early been intro-

504
duced

HISTORY

OP

for the cultivation of

the

suggested by
expositionat

plants,and

horticulturist

London

for the
a

in

permanent

was

international

resulted

There

made

was

similar structure

Paxton

in 1851.

which

conservatory,

ARCHITECTURE

sort

the

of vast

Crystal

Sydenham, 1852-53, and was

widely influential in
stimulatingconstruction in glass and iron or steel. In some
of glass,as at the Palais de
later buildingsthe roof only was
1'Industrie for the Paris Expositionof 1855 and a multitude
of
later museum
buildings,consistingin effect of vast covered
In other buildingsthe roof was
courts.
largelysolid,the walls
of glass,as in the buildingsof the Paris Exposialmost entirely
tion
of 1878.
There
has been a general tendency, owing to
of sunlight,
heat and cold, to recede from the extreme
excess
of glassat first employed, but in urban
areas
shop fronts where
Palace

at

light and exhibition

the glass has been
solution
is the

work

of such

Grand

ta,
naturally the great desidera-

are

space

kept at a
a problem
de la

Bazar

maximum.
with

cessful
notably suc-

visible structural

de

rue

steel

Rennes, in Paris (Fig.

276).
Stone

and

iron.

systems with
old

and

long
materials, have

de

Paris,J. L.
which

materials

new

Vestibule

independent
Duc

himself

were

made

nor

analysis of his

in use,

novel
a

structural

combination

of

been

wanting. In the
Palais de Justice in

the

of ribbed

classical,but
structural

with walls and

good

with

or

also not

designsshowing

iron in connection
which

Gothic

devise

to

Harley (1857-68) at
Due
employed a system

neither

was

Experiments

the

stone

resulted

from

an

Viollet-le-

problem.
frank

vaulting

employment

of

of masonry
and tile,
deal followed,although mainly in utilitarian
vaults

constructions.

applicationof steel has been in

with
The
concrete.
employment of Portland
buildingmaterial, which rapidlyincreased in the
A

Ferro-concrete.
connection
cement

as

later years

further

of the nineteenth

century, gave

greater compressivestrength. During the

to concrete
same

much

time inventors

still further by
attempting to strengthen the concrete
tion,
buildingin a network of iron rods. This composite construcJoseph Monier after 1868,
popularizedby the Frenchman
were

has

received

the

names

reinforced concrete.

ferro-concrete, armored

concrete,

or

Its merit consists in that it.employssteel

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

in such

and concrete

material contributes the

that each

way

505

of

strength for which it is best fitted the concrete,

compressive strength and indifference to fire,the steel,tensile

elements

"

strength and resistance to shearing. Theoretical study and

tion
experiencehave kept pace in the designand construcpractical
of piers,
floor slabs,and arches of the new
girders,
material,
combines
the possibility
of wide spans
which
with cheapness
of execution
is the pouring of the
and security. The method
in temporary forms
of
freshly mixed, semi-liquidconcrete
wood
forcing
metal, within which have first been placed the reinor
bars, in the positionwhere tensile or shearingstresses
The

occur.

may

greatest items of expense,

experiments are

current

which

forms

temporary

be used

constitute

and, since they cannot

now

and

directed

to the

one

be

of

the

eliminated,

devisingof

forms

Owing to the fact that the

of each member
is already incorporated
steel reinforcement
in a protectingmass
of concrete, and owing to the difficulty
of
castingthin walls of the material,there is less temptation with
ferro-concrete than with other fireproof
systems to disguisethe
essential members
of the framework
with enveloping walls.
Aside from
this frank articulation of structure, a variety of
may

over

characteristic decorative
the
and

over.

been

has

treatments

devised,such

as

of tile patterns in the surface of the concrete,

the creation of grooves
by blocks nailed inside the forms.

embedding

for utilitarian buildings,some

Thus, especially
results have
massive
Other

systems,

already been

attained

both

ing
highly interestin light and in

construction.
materials.

and

described,

came

Independent

earlier
a

than

revival

the
of

of

the

novel

structural

latest

developments just
certain
neglected materials,
initiated the
Philip Webb

especiallybrick and terra cotta.

House"
movement
by using brick in William Morris's "Red
at. Bexley Heath
(1859). In the architecture of England and
America
during the followingperiod it has received a variety
of interesting
treatments
through the use of different bonds,
the varying of the width, depth, and
color of the mortar
and the employment of a varietyof colors and patterns.
joints,
Terra cotta, hitherto used mainly for friezes and ornamental
of
detail,became
available,as a result of improved methods
of Natural
manufacture, for whole buildings,the Museum

5o6

History

at

example.

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

Kensington (1868-80)being a
ultimately reached
possibilities

South
The

structural terra

white

OF

cotta, besides

wide

notable
"

early
impervious

of permanent
resistance to fire,

range

advantages of cheapness,
have given the material
of reproducing ornament
and ease
ever
an
increasing popularity. Efforts to give it also a
characteristic expression,through frank
recognition of its
have produced many
differences from stone
ing
interestmasonry,
colors

"

-with the

"

results.

Expression oj use and character. Deeply rooted, like the

strivingfor structural expression,has been the attempt to
secure
expression for the use and character of buildings.
had praised the expressionof character as the highest
Goethe
merit in architecture; the Italian critic Milizia,with Ruskin
and Viollet-le-Duc, had applied this principlespecifically
to

expressionof

the

central

and

tions
determining condiof the building in hand.
The eclectics alreadyrecognized
the principlein part when
they chose for different types of
seemed
most
buildings the several historic styles which
The
appropriate to their general purposes.
pioneers of
structural functionalism
inevitably gave to many
types of
structures, especiallythose with exacting utilitarian requirements,
The
an
impress which was characteristic of their uses.
ever,
desire for expressionof function has gone much
farther,howinfluencingthe plan and massing as well. It has become
the interior elements
the object of architects not merely to make
in extent, in height,and in
adapted to their purpose
relation to one
another, but also to emphasize the existence

the

of each

of these

elements

on

purpose

the exterior and

to

indicate their

and
in such a way
that the purpose
relationships
For the
arrangement of the buildingmight be unmistakable.
the
the practicaldevelopment and
functionalist movement
thus become
formal development of types of buildingshave
logicallyinseparable.
Contributions
to the development
movement
of the functionalist
and specializaWith
the multiplication
tion
of types. Theaters.
possible
imit becomes
of requirements and types ot buildings,
all those of importance. It must
to mention
even
which
suffice to discuss one
two
are
representativeof the
or
have
which
taken place in types already
transformations
nature

and

MODERN
of

existingand
is

ARCHITECTURE

the creation

507

of

The
ater
theones.
wholly new
type which, already highly developed during the
has retained
its importance and
gone
undermovement,

classical

characteristic modifications.

The

first of these

in

was

external

expression. Semper felt that the stage, with its

fundamental
no
extent, should
importance and immense
longer be kept under a singleroof with the auditorium, but
deserved independent recognition,
which the growing practical
In the
permanent.
necessity for great height has made
carried still further the idea
Paris Opera (1861-74) Gamier
of
of characterization,emphasizing on the exterior the form
the auditorium
as
well, so that foyer,auditorium; and stage
form
an
ascending series,while the stage entrance, dressingand
offices are
all given a frank
and administrative
rooms,
suitable expression(Figs.270 and 275).
Inner modification
of the theater. The internal elements, the
and

auditorium

in those

intended

not

the

favorable

house

conditions

here

have

of

these, as in

as

modified, especially

theater, the

century,

of metal

was

suddenly

for wood

and

to

do

away

horseshoe, and

nearly fan-shaped,so
possibleof the stage. A

ancient

conventional

as

to

give

to

all

as

similar ment
arrangein
different reasons,

speciallybuilt for performance

Richard
Wagner at Bayreuth and
an

and

functions

tended

rise in

seats

technical apparatus of the stage, where

had retained their hold until the

nineteenth

of

operas

introduced, for somewhat

been

theaters

dramas

more

view

has

The

production of

the tiers of privatelogesgrouped in

make

the

for the

Democratic

sort.

with

the stage, have likewise been

with court
theaters unconnected

of

the

music-

Munich.

In

singleslope.

traditional ments
arrangelast quarter of the

transformed

by

of electric motive

the

tution
substi-

power

for

strength. The revolving stage has made

possiblea
hitherto unhoped for rapidityin the change of scenes,
while
has opened the way
for a thousand
electric lighting
new
optical

manual

effects.

Railway stations. Railway stations had their originonly

in the thirties;they at once
assumed, of necessity,the two
fundamental
way
a

stations.

forms
For

which

stillexist
"

botli,if they

singletrain-shed spanning

were

terminal
of sufficient

tracks and

stations and

importance,
soon
platforms was

FIG.

275

"

PARIS.

OPERA

HOUSE.

PLAN

MODERN

adopted, and,

ARCHITECTURE

with

the

509

multiplicationof

tracks

and

the

of iron trusses, spans

of over
hundred
two
feet
reached
were
early in the fifties. The part of the station
containingthe waiting-rooms and offices gave opportunities

employment

for monumental

in the

realize,as

which

treatment

architects

classic hall of Euston

quick

were

Station

in

to

London,

in 1847. In the Gare de 1'Est in Paris

by Hardwick
(1847-52) a great gable containing a singlearched window
expressedon the facade the form of the train-shed behind, and
similar motive
received magnificent treatment
a
on
a
larger
scale in the Gare
du Nord
(1862-64). At terminal stations
with the main buildingat the head of the tracks the two
sides
have generallybeen used in Europe for arrival and departure,
with specialized
conveniences
for passengers
of
respectively,
built

number

of different classes.

stations

where

be at the

end,

access

motive

the

led

with

smokiness

been

reversion to the

the Gare

Where

adopted, on

is the

steam

has

"umbrella-

the stacks.

Where

hand, there has

singlehall, as in

the other

monumental

more

has made

inclusive train-sheds

slots close above

has been

building to

of the tracks

platforms.
of the

main

substitution of low individual

long narrow

electric power

elevation

to all the

to the
increasingly

sheds"

permitted the

depressionor

possibledirect
power

has not

space

stations,and in terminal

In way

du

In the

quai d'Orsay, Paris, opened in 1901 (Fig.278).

givingof expressiveform to such practical
requirements,

often

far from

great number

the

traditional domain

of

architecture,lie

of the

problems presented by the multiplicity

of modern
types of buildings.
Expression of modernity and nationality.Although the
endeavor
to find appropriateexpression for new
types and
new
systems of construction has inevitablygiven a modernity
of character

to much

current

in traditional materials have

architecture,the forms of detail

long continued

historical

to be

drawn

from

conventional
precedent, and many
types have
retained a historical imprint whether
classical,
medieval,
Renaissance.
The
broad
or
principleenunciated by Semper,
"The
solution of modern
be freelydeveloped
problems must
from
the premises given by modernity," has not yet been
than it was
pushed, any more
by its author, to its ultimate
conclusions.
nineteenth
of the
During the last decade
"

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN

century, however, the conviction

ideas, forms
acts, and
In

there

FIG.

in

created

278

"

based

GARE

which

us,

represent

abilities,
our

our

DU

material

and

diverse

QUAI

Within

structure.

the

ment
move-

tendencies,having otherwise little

D'ORSAY.

(LE

INTERIOR.

GENIE

CIVIL)

One, representedby Wagner and his followers

by Sullivan in America, and by the spiritual

common.

of Morris

descendants

France, holds
time

on

two

are

in Germany,

our

by

preferences."

our

forms

deepened that, as Otto

art must
yieldus modern

expressed it, "Modern

has

Wagner

has

and

to the belief that "The

seeks to derive form

and

materials.

in

Viollet-le-Duc
and

modern

motives

and

England
architecture

from

purpose,

of

struction,
con-

If it is to

give clear expressionto

also be as
our
feelingsit must
simple as possible. Such
simpleforms are to be carefully
weighed againstone another, so
to secure
beautiful proportions,on
which
almost
as
solely
'

the effect of

our

architectural works

depends."

In the works

these

of

HISTORY

5i2

only

men

of detail at the

the forms

cornices, are

and

propertiesand
plasticforms to

In

of windows

and

and

the

generally avoided, and

bases and crowns
of the piers,
at the
individual ones
suggested by the

which

construction

quite

materials.

of the

treatment

holds

school

modernist

other

base

on

stories is

technical

natural

emphasis

enframement

The

of individual

demarcation

doors

traditional

the

is retained.

cornice

ARCHITECTURE

OF

is subservient.
different

The

view.

Its

theory,stated by L. A. Boileau as earlyas 1889,

without
of constructingfirst,
is that, "instead
preoccupation
oneself
utilize the
final
to
with the
promising
appearance,
ingeniousnessof the construction as the decoration,one should
the
to a positionamong
relegate the ingenuitiesof structure
unworthy of appearing in the completed
secondary means,
fundamental

This

work."

school

attributes
it is

in

proportion as
receiving the impress
value

of

artist.

this

To

branch

of
of

who

the

current

works

their

forms

almost

also

treat

formations
as

des

Ecole

the

at

baroque

without

Beaux-Arts

in

has

Exposition of
the

as

basis

movement,
of

1900

different

Besides

Velde

curved
To

others,
cartilage-like
be

scribed
de-

At

the

might

classical elements.

modern

Thus

classic

themselves
less

standpoint,than

Paris

the

at

of the structural

was

are

theory of this

the scenic

treatment,

it

and

These

common.

the

early

r61e.

flesh,with

masking
had
expositions

forms,

been
a

taken

retrograde

the

triumph

of modernism.

consistent

the

de

junction.

in

the modernist

phase

of

which

great

so

of Van

the bizarre

for decorative
from

in

which, indeed, most

reallymuch

at earlier French

which

played

the

susceptible

sentiment

belonged the

nouveau,

like

of artistic

degree

Paris, although classical forms

of modernists, with

architecture

personal

sympathy prevailsfor

retained, much
school

of

points

Van

plastic,more

modernism

as
specifically
suggested by plant forms

belong

material

more

the

phase known
lines

to

followers

is,as always, a multitude

of these

two

systems there

of

whose
convictions
practitioners
of elements
not
are
a mixture
wholly concordant, and who
united only in the rebellion againsthistorical forms.
are
Development of modernist forms. The origins. England.

The

forerunners
were

the

of modern

disciplesof

individual
Morris

in

treatment

in architecture

England, who

in

1888

MODERN
instituted the Arts
works

of handicrafts

ARCHITECTURE
and

and

Crafts

Exhibition

interior decoration

for the

display of

in forms

created

makers.
first attempts to make
The
of
use
by their own
made
almost
originalforms on the exterior of buildingswere
Townsend
simultaneously in 1892 and 1893 by C. Harrison
in Brussels, and
and Victor Horta
in London,
Paul Hankar

FIG.

279

"

BROADLEYS

ON

LAKE

WINDERMERE

(MUTHESIUS)

took his departure

Chicago. Townsend
from
of the American, Richardson,
the Romanesque
forms
of the projections,
and transformed
them
by novel treatment
by fertile originalornament, and by a rich use of color. In
England the new
departure has proved too radical for popular
taste, in spiteof the preparationmade by the craft guilds,and
chief of them,
The
few architects have pursued its ideals.
in his chosen
C.'F. A. Voysey, however, has had much
success
most
field of the dwelling (Fig.279),in which he has adhered
strictlyto the idea of economy,
yet has secured interesting
effects by his employment of rough cast, woodwork
painted,
Louis

Sullivan

in

514
in broad

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

but

unhackneyed colors,and individual designs for

hangings, furniture,and hardware.
The
somewhat
Belgium and France.
Belgians introduced
fantastic combinations
of curved
lines,and experimented at
the same
steel work
in connection
time with
with
brick,
and
colored
the
first
glass. They gave
concrete, mosaic,
impulse in both France and Germany, although Englishmodels

!
;

KETTEN
BRUCKENl
GASSE

Copyright
FIG.

were

28O

"

VIENNA.

followed

creations

soon

STATION

name

outweighed

of I'art

invaded

THE

in rural domestic

Belgian influence
the

OF

made

architecture

RAILWAY.

architecture

all external

its way

nouveau.

METROPOLITAN

to

France

by Delphin-Verlag

and

independent

contributions.
about

First felt in the

The

1896 under

minor

in the

(LUX)

arts, it

lightand gracefulstructures
of glassand steel designed since 1898 by Hector
Guimard
to
entrances
to the Paris underground
"the Metro."
as
serve
After the first enthusiasm
for the new
forms, however, few
buildingsin France have shown so pronounced a break with
leaven
tradition. The
new
mainly in a greater
appears
soon

"

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN
within

freedom
its Latin

during

the

reason,

as

its faithfulness

and

nineteenth
a

which
styleitself,

the academic

elements

national

515

to

classical tradition

century, regards, not

style of its

France, with
without

some

own.

Germany that the movement

it is
has taken deep root, so that, in spiteof its foreignorigins,
already regarded by artists,if not by the government, as an
in rebellion againstthe Latin
expressionof the Teutonic spirit
of classic architecture.
The
domination
pioneer has been
Otto Wagner in Vienna, whose
inauguraladdress as professor
in 1894 was
declaration of independence
at the Academy
a
the historical styles. His stations for the Metropolitan
from
vironment,
frankly developed from purpose, enRailway (1894-97) were
and
that

It is in

Vienna.

Germany:

modern

materials, with

freelyinvented (Fig.280).
in

"Secession"

1897, for

The

little ornament,

formation

and

of the Viennese

which

Wagner's pupil, Joseph

Olbrich, designed an
building of novel type and
dency
fresh decorative conception,inaugurated an
analogous tenin painting and in handicraft, which
the architectural
gave
much
movement
support. Joseph Hoffman, another
Workshops" on the
pupil, founded in 1903 the "Viennese
exhibition

lines of Morris's

domestic

establishment, and has had wide

achieved

Wagner

and

architecture

expressionof

interior

in the Postal

steel construction

decoration.

Savings Bank
and

influence in

marble

Although
(1905) a notable
veneering,official

has prevented the execution of other monumental

projectsof the first order, and the buildingsin Vienna which
conservatism

are

most

advanced

in functionalist tendencies

have

hitherto

privateinitiative.
has
been
The
North Germany.
same
generally true in
of the moveNorth Germany, where the first strikingsuccess
ment
in the Wertheim
was
department store in Berlin, built
by Alfred Messel at intervals from 1896 to 1904 (Fig.277).
at first baroque, later Gothic
here
Although historic forms
all have been so transformed
that
furnished the suggestions,
Active official encouragement
the impressionis predominantly modern.
Duke
first given the movement
was.
by Grand
called Olbrich, Peter
Ernst Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, who

been

due

to

"

"

Behrens,.and others
Their

to

Darmstadt, and

of domestic
initial exposition

gave

them

architecture

free hand.

and

handi-

Si6

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

beginning of a widespread reform in these

ism
fields,largelyon English lines,but less affected by medievaland
saturated
decorative
with new
conceptions. Free
from
historic suggestion,and thus pronounced in its modernity,
is the expressionof the nature
of the factoryfound
in 1909 by Behrens
in his turbine
factory for the General
craft in

the

i was

go

Copyright

28l

FIG.

"

BERLIN.

TURBINE

FACTORY

OF

THE

by G. M tiller"

GENERAL

E. Rentsch

ELECTRIC

PANY
COM-

(AEG). (HOEBER)
Electric Company
vast
masses

now

has

At

in Berlin

(Fig. 281).

The

single
angular

of glass confined between

hall has its great areas
of its trusses
and
of concrete, and
the forms

steel

and
skill.
frankness
expressed with unusual
architects in Germany
the great majority of professional
movement,
only the perparticipatingin the modernist
sonal
of public works
of the Emperor in the case
intervention
prevented it from prevailingthere almost universally.

columns
With

(AEG)

are

the

of cessation

moment

Europe due

to

the

great

war,

of architectural
two

activity in

contrary tendencies

were

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

strugglingfor mastery in matters

of continuitywith
the elements
of

of
the

517

style.

emphasizes

past, the other

civilization.

novelty in modern

One

In

the

the

ments
ele-

Germanic

emphasis on novel elements which

and England it is the
has secured
the advantage, in France
conservative
emphasis on continuity which on the whole
In view of the currentlyintensified
retains the supremacy.
countries it is the radical

nationalism, it is natural
will be cultivated

to

and

expect that

these

perpetuated at

national

least for

ferences
diftime.

existingin the
underlying elements of internationalism
community of practicalproblems, materials, and structural
of both
international character
systems, and the essentially
The

the

conservative
to

seem

and

indicate

the

that

radical movement,

this

however, would

particularismwill

be

relatively

the present conservative or the present

radical tendency may
ultimatelybe victorious,we may be sure
to be constant,
that change in architectural style is bound

temporary.

and

Whether

that architecture will remain

less sive
expreslife than it has been

livingart, not

complicated texture of modern

life of earlier and simpler periods.

of the

of the

PERIODS

OF

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

FRANCE

I.

Classicism,c. 1780-1830.
Jacques Germain
Soufflot,1709-80.
Sainte Genevieve
(the Pantheon) at Paris, 1757-90.
Victor Louis, 1736-1802.
Grand
Theatre
at Bordeaux, 1777-80.
Colonnades
of the Palais Royal in Paris,1781-86.
Charles Nicholas
Ledoux, 1736-1806.
Gates of Paris,1780-88.
Pierre Rousseau, b. 1750, d. after 1791.
H6tel de Salm (Palace of the Legion of Honor) in Paris,
1782-86.
Jean Francois The"rese Chalgrin, 1730-1811.
Saint Philippedu Roule in Paris,1760-84.
Arc de 1'Etoile,
1806-36.

Barthe'lemyVignon, 1762-1829.
Madeleine

at

Paris, 1807-42.

Si8

OF

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

Alexandra

Brongniart, 1739-1813.
Paris, 1808-27.
Charles
Percier,1764-1838, and Pierre Fontaine, 17621853Arc du Carrousel in Paris, 1806.
Chapelle Expiatoire in Paris,1815-26.
Romanticism, c. 1830-65.
Chapel of Les Her biers in Vendee, 1825.
Francois Christian Gau, 1790-1854.
Sainte Clotilde in Paris,1846-59 (with Theodore
Ballu,
Bourse

II.

in

1817-85).
Viollet-le-Duc,
1814-79.

Eugene Emmanuel
Restoration
III.

and

fleche of Notre

Dame

in

Paris,1857^.

Eclecticism,c. 1820-1900.
Italian phase.
in Paris,1820.
Old Opera House
Neo-grec phase.
Jacques Felix Duban, 1797-1870.
Ecole des Beaux- Arts, 1832-62.
Theodore
Labrouste, 1799-1875.

BibliothequeSainte
Joseph

Louis

in

Paris,1843-50.

Due, 1802-79.

Completion of
French

Genevieve

the

Palais de

Justiceat Paris,1857-68.

Renaissance

phase.
Jean Baptiste Leseur, 1794-1883.
Enlargement of the Hotel de Ville
Baroque phase.
Charles Garnier,1825-98.
Opera House in Paris,1861-74.
Casino

at Monte

at

Paris, 1836-54.

Carlo.

Paul

Ginain, 1825-98.
Galliera in Paris,1878-88.
Musee
Charles
Girault,1851-.
Petit Palais des Beaux -Arts in Paris,1900.
Byzantine phase.
Paul

Abadie, 1812-84.

Church
IV.

of the

Sacred

Heart, Paris, i873~date.

Functionalism,c. i85o-date.
Theodore
Labrouste, 1799-1875.
Reading-rooms of the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve,
1843-50, and BibliothequeNationale, 1855-61.
Joseph Louis Due, 1802-79.
de Harley in the Palais de Justice at Paris,
Vestibule
1857-68.

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN

519

Victor

Baltard, 1805-74.
Centrales in Paris, 1852-59.
Buildings of the Paris Expositions of 1878 and 1889.
Alexandra
Eiffel,1832-.
Eiffel Tower
at the Paris Exposition of 1889.
Hector
Guimard, 1867-.
Stations of the Paris Underground Railway ("Metro"),
1898 /.
Auguste Ferret,1874-, and Gustave Perret,1876-.
des Champs
Theatre
Elysees, 1912.
Halles

ENGLAND

I.

Classicism,c. 1760-1850.
Roman
phase.
Robert
Adam, 1728-92, and James Adam, d.
Screen for the Admiralty in London, 1760.
Remodeling of Kedleston, 1761-65.
Record
Office in Edinburgh, 1771.
The Adelphi in London, 1772.
UniversityBuildings in Edinburgh, 1778^.
Sir John Soane, 1753-1837.
of England in London, 1788-1835.
Bank
Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, 1814-47.
Saint George'sHall in Liverpool,1814-54.
Greek phase.
James Stuart, 1713-88.
Hospital.
Chapel at Greenwich
Thomas
Harrison, b. 1744.
Castle"
"The
at Chester, 1793-1820.
Thomas
Hamilton, 1785-1858.
School
at Edinburgh, 1825-29.
High
Sir Robert
British

II.

1794.

Smirke.
Museum

in

London, 1825-47.
Romanticism, c. 1760-1870.
First phase, c. 1760-1830.
Strawberry Hill, 1753-76.
Fonthill

Abbey, 1796-1814.

Eaton

Hall, 1803-14.
phase, c. 1830-70.
Augustus Wei by Pugin, 1813-52.

Second

18

Church

of Saint

Augustine,Ramsgate, 1842.

520

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

Sir Charles

III.

Barry, 1795-1860.
of Parliament
in London, 1840-60.
Houses
Gilbert
Sir
Scott, 1811-78.
Church
of Saint Giles in Camberwell, 1842-44.
William
Butterfield,1814-1900.
All Saints',Margaret Street,in London, 1849.
Street,1824-81.
George Edmund
Law
Courts in London, 1868-84.
Alfred Waterhouse, 1830-1905.
in Manchester, 1859-64.
Assize Courts
Museum
of Natural
History in London, 1868-80.
Eclecticism,c. i83o-date.
Italian and neo-grec
phase.
Sir Charles Barry, 1795-1860.
Travelers'
Charles

IV.

Club

in London,

1829-31.
Cockerell,1788-1863.

Robert

Taylor and Randolph Buildings,Oxford, 1840-45.

of England, Liverpool,1845.
Branch
Bank
Sir James Pennethorne, 1801-71.
University of London, 1866-70.
Queen Anne phase.
Eden
Nesfield,1835-88.
Lodges at Regent's Park, 1864, and Kew, 1866.
R. Norman
Shaw, 1831-1912.
in London, 1873.
New
Zealand
Chambers
Functionalism, c. 1850 to date.
Sir Joseph Paxton, 1803-65.
Crystal Palace in London, 1851.
C. Harrison

Townsend.

BishopsgateInstitute

in

London, 1893-94.
Museum
in London, 1900-01.
C. F. A. Voysey, 1857-.
Horniman

GERMANY

I.

Classicism,c. 1770-1840.
Roman
phase, c. 1770-90.

Abbey

Church

Deutschhauskirche
Greek

phase,

Karl

c.

Gottfried

at

Saint

Blasien, 1770-80.
in Nurnberg, 1785.

1790-1840.

Langhans, 1733-1808.
Brandenburg Gate in Berlin,1788-91.

MODERN

ARCHITECTURE

521

Gilly, 1771-1800.
for Frederick
Proposed memorial

Friedrich

the

Great

in

Berlin,

1797.

Schinkel, 1781-1841.
Royal Theater in Berlin, 1818-21.
in Berlin, 1824-28.
Old Museum
Leo
von
Klenze, 1784-1864.
Glyptothek in Munich, 1816-30.
Walhalla
at Regensburg, 1830-42.
Romanticism, c. 1825-50.
Karl Friedrich Schinkel, 1781-1841.
Gothic
of Berlin, 1819.
project for the Cathedral
Werderkirche
in Berlin, 1825.
Friedrich von
Gartner, 1792-1847.
Eclecticism,c. 1830-1900.
Italian Renaissance
phase.
Leo von
Klenze, 1784-1864.
in Munich, 1826-33.
Pinakothek
Konigsbau in Munich, 1826-35.
Friedrich von
Gartner, 1792-1847.
Royal Library in Munich, 1832-43.
Gottfried
Semper, 1804-79.
Karl

II.

III.

Old
Gothic

Friedrich

Court
and

Heinrich

Theater

northern

in Dresden,
Renaissance

1838-41.

phase.

Ferstel,1828-83.
in Vienna, 1853-79.
Friedrich
von
Schmidt, 1825-91.
in Vienna, 1873-83.
Rathaus
Votive

von

Church

Baroque phase.
Gottfried

Semper, 1804-79.

Extension
Court
Paul

IV.

of the

Theater

in

Imperial Palace

in

Vienna, 1870 Jff.

Vienna, 1871-89.

Wallot, 1841-1912.
Reichstag Building in Berlin, 1882-94.
Ludwig Hoffmann, 1852-.
Imperial Supreme Courts at Leipzig, 1884-95.
Functionalism, c. i8so-date.
Otto Wagner, 1841-.
Stations of the Stadtbahn
in Vienna, 1894-97.
in Vienna, 1905.
Postal Savings Bank
Alfred Messel, 1853-1909.
Wertheim
in Berlin, 1896-1907.
store

522

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Joseph Olbrich, 1867-1908.

Secession galleryin Vienna, 1897.
Tietz

store

in Dusseldorf.

1906-08.

Behrens, 1868.
House
in Darmstadt, 1901.
Turbine
factory in Berlin,1909.

Peter

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

final volumes

NOTE

Joseph'sGeschichte der Baukunst, 1902,

bear the title Geschichte der Baukunst
des XIX.
Jahrhunderts,and
constitute the only historical work devoted to modern
architecture as
The

two

whole.

One

may

of D.

also consult

the modern

section of K.

O. Hart-

bis zur Gegenwart,

Entwicklung
Both of these are naturallyfullest on work in Germany.
vol. 3, 1911.
L. Magne's L1 architecture franqaisdu siecle,
France to
1889, covers
its date.
For the development of specialtypes, in general,or in
ihre Geschichte und
singlecountries,see A. G. Meyer's Eisenbauten:
H.
Muthesius's
Das englische
Haus, 3 vols.,1904-05,
JEsthetik,
1907;
in England, 1906.
kirchliche Baukunst
and his Die neuere
der
P. Klopfer'sVon Palladia
bis Schinkel (Geschichte
Classicism.
Baukunst}, 1911, gives a general survey of the movement,
neueren
with accounts
of the development of individual types of buildings.
Rome
I lie
L.Hautecceur's
et la renaissance de Vantiquite
a la fin du XV
the
and its
genesis of the movement,
siecle,1912, which discusses
F.
Benoit's
Uart
in
be
supplemented by
beginnings
France, may
franqaissous la revolution et I'empire,1897. A. E. Richardson's
Classic Architecture in Great Britain and Ireland
Monumental
During
the periodin England;
the XVIII.
and XIX.
Centuries,1914, covers
Architektur
und Handwerk
1800.
and P. Mebes's
Um
2
vols.,
1908, gives a partialsurvey of the work in Germany.
tecture
in archimovement
The history of the romantic
Romanticism.
treatment
has received special
only in the case of England,
sius's
in C. L. Eastlake's History of the Gothic Revival,1972; in H. Muthekirchliche Baukunst, Das
Die neuere
englischeHaus, vol. i,
The
der Gegenwart, 1900, vol. i.
and Die englischeBaukunst
1904,
best appears,
to the Continent
earlytransplantationof the movement
der
in M. L. Gothein's
Geschichte
Gartenkunst,
although incidentally,
there
must
turn
to
For
its
later
one
progress
1914, vol. 2, chap. 15.
and Joseph.
the general histories of Hartmann
mann's

Die

Baukunst

in

ihrer

Eclecticism.

Two

works

devoted

.,

to illustrations of German

ings
build-

der Neuphase are H. Licht's Architektur Deutschlands

Faqaden und Details moderzeit,2 vols.,1882, and H. Ruckwardt's

of this

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN

Bauten,

tier

englische
his

der

works

listed

of

1899,

similar

Baukunst

other

works

1892.

Daly

Cesar

for

Gegenwart,

vols.,

For

R.

one

Die

French
from

by

consult

may

Modern

buildings

of

Muthesius's

supplemented

1800,

France

Selfridge's

photographs

is

England

above.

or

of

collection

work

523

the

Architecture,

period,

the

largely

domestic.

Ruskin,

by

Billerey's

discussed

in

Belgium

later

Baukunst,
Lux,

1914,

America

H.

and

see

in

be

1908,

of

Peter

Behrens,

the

note

to

in

Chapter

the

by

traced

in

biographies
F.
XIII.

Hoeber,

C.

sur

of

1913.

der
I'art

con-

Germany

was

Ricker,

Scheffler's

Karl

and

Baukunst

in
N.

JEsthetik,

England

essais

by

20,

fully

most

und

englische

movement

translated

Baukunst,
may

the

of

vol.

series,

in

in

Journal

is

character

manism,
Hu-

appear

the

3d

Nouveaux
of

and

in

Geschichte

Die

of

practice

architecture
ihre

Muthesius's

manifesto

there

in

1912-13,

Fierens-Gervaert's

development
ed.,

iron

although

Architecture

Architecture,

"modernist"

of
in

Moderne

2d

of

works

The

Architects,

veloped
de-

structure

discussed,

are

made

Eisenbauten:

Meyer's

The

1903.

Wagner's

Its

in

and

temporain,

British

described

are

Gegenwart

Otto

G.

pioneer

The

1907.

in

A.

French

influence

The

317-45.

pp.

of

others

applications

the

and

Scott's

G.

Modern

paper,

Institute

Royal

the

of

"character"
and

in

Some

1914.

of

Viollet-le-Duc,

unsympathetically,

rather

F.

theories

The

Functionalism.

Wagner,
For

1901.

Moderne

by
the

J.
work

A.

CHAPTER

AMERICAN

XIII

ARCHITECTURE

Pre-colonial architecture.

Yucatan.

Long

before

European

explorers and colonists crossed the Atlantic there flourished in

civilizations which, although still ignorant of iron
America
or

of bronze, had

even

first,and
the

in

flourished

whose
in

highly developed

architecture.

respects the greatest, of these

some

Maya,

center

in

was

centuries

the

modern
of

the

was

The
that

Yucatan.

of

They

Christian

and
early
era,
in ruins long before the arrival of the
their great buildingswere
Their colossal structures
at
Spanish conquerors.
Palenque
Itza, and elsewhere reveal an abilityto
(Fig.282), Chichen
transport and work stones of great size,to employ the column
and the corbeled
vault, and to devise symmetrical plans of
first in imporsome
came
complexity. Religiousstructures
tance;
the royal palaces were
istic
even
secondary. A characterthe raisingof all buildingsof importance on
feature was
great substructures, often with sloping faces or in the form
A broad
of a stepped pyramid.
and
steep staircase on the
platform. Here stood the
principalface led to the upper
faced with stone
building proper, of massive rubble-concrete
(Fig.283). The arrangement of the plan was conditioned by
the

This

use

of

the

resulted

in

corbeled
narrow

vault
rooms

to

cover

which

all interior
could

be

spaces.

extended

definite
in-

length,but which had to be multipliedone behind

the other to secure
greater depth. Openings to the exterior
between
the chambers
or
were
spanned with lintels of wood
On
the exterior a
or
stone, or by smaller corbeled arches.
the line of the impost within, and
the
marked
belt course
often treated as a broad
opposite the tall vault was
space
A unique feature was
the "roof
frieze with relief decoration.
comb," a long pierced wall risingalong the center of the terin

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICAN
raced

roof.

Most

of the

although monasteries

and

525

principalbuildings were
palaces on a large scale

temples,
were

also

erected.

Successive invading tribes,less civilized than the

versions of
Maya, fell heir to their art, and diffused their own
Mexico.

FIG.

282

PAI.ENQUE.

"

SKETCH

PLAN

OF

THE

PALACE

AND

TEMPLES.

(HOLMES)
The buildingsof the
throughout Mexico.
the Aztec were
an
on
equal scale with those of

it

but
terrace

show

and

less refinement

and

Toltec

later

the older civilization,

constructive

pyramid substructures,the

and
skill.

The

relief decoration, the

HISTORY

526

OF

ARCHITECTURE

general types of plan with long,narrow

Often

the

FIG.

283

rooms,

retained.

were

were
buildingor rooms
grouped around quadrangles
and
In general the corbeled
courts.
vault was
abandoned,
and the terrace roofs of concrete
were
supported by wooden

"

SECTION

TRANSVERSE

OF

TYPICAL

MAYA

BUILDING.

(HOLMES)
wall-zone
is shown
with the stairway at the left. a. Lower
dressed
of jamb.
and
stones
b. Doorway
showing
squared
front with
in length,
d. Doorway
back
chamber
Wooden
lintels cut
connecting
c.
Inner
face of arch dressed with the slope. /. Ceiling,
and showing position of cord holders,
e.
line of molding, a survival
of the archaic
cornice.
of arch.
or
g. Lower
cap-stones
and
front
with
h. Decorated
entablature
i. Upper
moldings
coping.
zone.
j, k. False
/. Roof -crest
with decorations, (occasionally added).
decorations, (occasionally added).
The

pierced

beams.

part

upper

by

of the

plain

The
in many

pyramid

doorway,
midway

varied

character

local differences

for instance, large stones

in

some

other

of the

placesstone

could
could

materials

in construction.

be had

for columns

scarcelybe

found

available
At
and

sulted
re-

Mitla,
lintels;

suitable for

AMERICAN

ARCHITECTURE

brick

facing,and mud

had

adobe

or

to be

527

used, decorated

with

native

These

to an
end
developments came
with the conquest of Mexico
by the Spaniardsbeginningin 1 5 1 9
their conquest of the
the Spaniards, on
In Peru
Peru.
another
Inca empire in 1532, found
well-developedstyle of
an
architecture, with
independent development of many

and

stucco

color.

cities rivaled

and
Palaces, fortresses,

centuries.

another

one

importance. Polygonal walls of vast blocks, risingin many

at Ollentaitambo.
terraces, guarded the pass of the Andes
built around
and palaceswere
with
Houses
courts, sometimes
the first and
second
a
supported on
story receding from
Windows
and niches with inclined jambs
corbeled
vaults.
in

notable

were

colonists to

New

the

times

modern

for

which

were

attainment

struggleagainst odds for the

of building. As a result there
in which

such
these

turf

even

and

"

in the

differences

built

materials

The

social conditions.

first

at

means

pioneer stage,
hand

adobe,

"

as

available,and

with

the

and

resources

colonial

of the

duration

varied greatlywith the character

and

everywhere

was

the

of traditional ideals

simply as would serve primary

of shelter and worship. Later they sought to replace
modes
of buildingby those of their mother
country, but
were
inevitablymodified to a greater or less degree by

logs,or
needs

settlers seized

the

coming of the European

and unique in
a
problem new
had
architecture;civilized men
absolutelyprimitive and to
the

World

created

was

conditions

face

With

architecture.

Colonial

to

features.

and

climate

and

pioneer period itself

support of the colonists,

of the

country.

In the conquered
Spanish
and
wealth
and
a
Peru, where
empires of Mexico
civilized
native
population already existed,the Spanish
large
were

architecture.

in economic

able to establish their

soon

Development.

own

architecture,and

even

to

rivalingthose of the mother country in size

and
number.
faith gave
Desire to implant the Catholic
The earliest
prominence from the very beginning to churches.
including doubtless the small church erected in
ones,

erect

1524

monuments

on

of the great Aztec temple in Mexico

reminiscences
of the Plateresque and even
of

the foundations

City, showed
Gothic

and

by

Moorish
more

details.

elaborate

Such

soon
placed
rebuildingswere
either
by the
structures, designed

528

HISTORY

architects

court

who

emigrated

of Mexico, two

in
to

OF

Spain
the

or

New

successive

ARCHITECTURE

by

others

World.

of

scarcelyless ability

Thus, for the cathedral

Spain, in
de Mora
(Fig.284).
1573 and 1615, the second
other buildingswere
The cathedral at Lima
(1573) and many
Becerra, a discipleof
designed on the spot by Francisco
of style in Spain
The
Herrera.
successive transformations

FIG.

284

"

MEXICO

CITY.

designs were
by Juan Gomez

CATHEDRAL,

WITH

sent

from

(RIGHT)

SACRISTY

reflected in the Spanish colonies,usuallya few

faithfully
years later,with baroque tendencies naturallypredominating.
In 1749, when
Lorenzo
Rodriguez began the great sacristyof
luxuriant
the cathedral of Mexico, he employed a most
gregatio
agof baroque details for the facades
(Fig.284). By
were

1797,

however, when

the academic
of

the

reaction

great colonial

the towers
was

of the cathedral

supreme

; and

the work

architects, Francisco

(1745-1833), shows a handling

reminiscent
of that of Chalgrin.

guerras

were

of the last

Eduardo

of academic

added,
Treselements

AMERICAN

ARCHITECTURE

Types of buildings.

dominant

The

basilican,as in the cathedral

a

barrel-vaulted

each

bay,
the

and

nave

domed

of Mexico

type of church
"

solid

the

was

rectangle with

transepts, having penetrationsat

in the

compartments

buttresses.

529

Twin

western

aisles,and

tween
chapels be-

towers,

here,

as

were

the crossing was

over
a
frequent elsewhere, and a dome
Domed
of central type were
churches
also
general feature.
not
wanting. A specialdevelopment of the central type
in the sacristyof the cathedral of Mexico, the Sagrario
occurs
Metropolitano. This consists of a Greek cross inscribed in a
with
the crossing,barrelover
an
octagonal dome
square,
vaulted
and minor
domes
in the angles of the cross.
arms,
Secular and domestic buildingsfollowed those of the mother
country in being composed about an arcaded court or patio.
Florida.
The
America, Saint
outpost of Spain in North
of some
Augustine,founded in 1565, was not without structures
architectural
of relatively
pretensions,although these were
utilitarian
and

stand,

as

walls and
New

character.
the molded
well

as

wooden

Mexico.

The

old

its rusticated

tions,
bas-

and

paneled posts of the city gate still

simple house or two with whitewashed

balconies.
In the remote

still

fort,with

interior of New

Mexico

tecture
archi-

primitive. Here the native population

was
sparse and relatively
poor, so that little tempted the
Spaniards to the region except missionary zeal. The first
mission
built in
church, at San Juan de los Caballeros, was
well covered
1598, and the country was
by 1630. These
of adobe, or mud
buildingswere
merely cubical structures
brick,perhaps with a simplebelfry,built by the natives under
the cathedral
supervisionof the Franciscan fathers. Even
these
of Saint Francis
at Santa
Fe" (1713-14) differed from
chieflyby its largerscale. Its doorway and its twin western
was

towers
was

were

reserved

more

alike destitute
for

the

of classical details,and

altar, a

distant

reminiscence

ornament

of

the

examples of Spain and Mexico.

not
tempted
atCalifornia. In Alta California colonization was
until 1 769, when
Padre Junipero Serra established at
in
ended
San Diego the first of the series of missions which
1823 with San Francisco Solano, north of San Francisco Bay.
The
first chapels of brush
and the wooden
frames for bells

lavish

530
were

roofs

soon

of

HISTORY

replacedby
poles covered

nourished
under

and

the

ARCHITECTURE

OF
adobe
with

clay

number

the direction of the

of

Indian

fathers

285

"

SANTA

BARBARA.

singlenave,

As

reeds.

or

converts

Thus

at

with

the

missions

who

worked

increased,largerand

imposing buildingsreplaced these.

in 1787,
the first chapel,dedicated
in 1793 and again in 1815-20,

FIG.

of

structures

Santa

more

Barbara

enlarged in 1788,

was

when

MISSION

the present

built
re-

church,

FOUNTAIN

AND

the

in the province,was
built
largestand best constructed
(Fig.285). In it the baroque survivals which appear in the
crude facades of the earlier churches
are
superseded by an
attempt at classical elegance the low pediment with the six
engaged Ionic columns.
Singleor twin towers, piercedbelfry
corridors or cloisters,
walls, as at San Gabriel, long arcaded
characteristic features of the
at San Juan Capistrano, are
as
California buildings,which
otherwise dependent for their
are
"

effect

on

broad

the

surfaces

and

massive

buttresses

of

their

walls.
French

Louisiana.

and
The

general hunters

Spanish
French
and

traders rather

considerable

architecture

pioneers in

correspondingly little.
1608,

colonial

At

town

North

than

in

Canada

America

were

and
in

settlers,and they built

founded
in
was
Quebec, which
gradually developed, however,

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICAN
with

churches, monastic

for the
most

intendant

and

and

the

part the simple wall

of Louis

XIII.

buildings,and palaces
collegiate
archbishop.
surfaces

although in the
pilastertreatment

and

These

for the

detail of the

elaborate

more

had

period

interiors there

the rich

was

Orleans

was

not

founded

until

Copyright,
FIG.

there

286

"

NEW

of the

followingreign. New
typical house
1718. The

American

ORLEANS.

Architect

THE

and

Building

News

Co.

CABILDO

by roofed verandas with lightsupports,

sometimes
in a singlestory, sometimes
in two stories.
The cession of Louisiana
simultaneous
to Spain in 1764, almost
with the loss of Canada
the later architecture
to England, made
of these French
colonies fall under
foreign domination.
Thus
in New
Orleans after the great fire of 1788 the buildings
about
the Place d'Armes
rebuilt on a coherent
were
plan, in
the contemporary
style of Spain. The Cabildo or city hall
(1795,Fig. 286) had two stories of open arcades, with the
arch order and a pediment, all originally
of quite a classical
was

one

surrounded

aspect.
Dutch

colonial architecture in

New

Netherlands.

1624-64.

532
The

HISTORY

Dutch, who
Island

OF

ARCHITECTURE

hattan
Albany in 1624 and settled on Manof
1626, naturallytended to follow the mode

founded

in

cences.
buildingof their mother country, stillfull of medieval reminisof
Although the majority of buildingslong remained

wood, thatched
built, and

with

reeds, a few houses

later bricks

of stone

were

soon

In these mafrequentlyused.
sonry
the stepped gable toward
the street, so comstructures
mon
in Holland, was
adopted, as well as the tile roof. The
erected for the
most
conspicuousbuilding,the "Stadt-Huis"
into a city hall in 1653
in 1642 and converted
city tavern
were

"

"

conformed

to

this type.

It had

windows

vertical

banks

of

small

in

pairs, and a simple open

the bell. Although architecture
had thus
before the English conquest of 1664, there
made
little progress
the seeds of an
were
independent growth which developed
later under
English rule.
Architecture
Seventeenth
in the English colonies.
century.
The English colonies in America
first
at
were
widely separated,
segmental-headed
cupola to contain

as

well

as

that there
where

the

different in their character

very

much

was

settlers

century.
in view

hold

for all,however,

nature

This

of all the

could

of the fundamental

medievalism

Certain

the

been

of most

in those

them

among

buildingsof

scarcely have

so

purposes,

diversityof architecture even

were
mainly of English birth.

general characteristics
medieval
essentially

and

the

teenth
seven-

otherwise,

buildingin

and of court
England during the century, outside of London
sance
circles. England had been the last country to adopt Renaismuch
of detail, and was
later still in adopting
forms
classical types of plan and mass.
Throughout the seventeenth
Gothic,
century in England the country churches built were
medieval
the rural cottages and minor country seats were
in all but a few applied details and a tendency to symmetry.
in London, we may
Even
recall,the first classical church was

and

not

built until

1630, and it had

no

imitators

until after 1666.

wonder, then, if the colonists,themselves

largelyfrom
the rural districts,erected buildingswhich, strippedof almost
Small

structurallyindispensable,revealed their
A corollaryof this,and of the relatively
basic medievalism.
sional
primitivestate of society,was the general absence of profesevery

detail not

architects and the

dependence of

the craftsmen

builders

AMERICAN

ARCHITECTURE

tradition in matters

on

of

533
Another

styleand workmanship.

the almost universal

generaltrait in the seventeenth
century was
in
a
as
building material, even
prevalence of wood
which
are
preserved are
regionswhere the later monuments
continent was
In contrast
with England the new
of masonry.
denselyforested,so that in clearingland for cultivation timber
introduction
of sawfelled ready to hand.
The immediate
mills
was
in populous centers
made
plank stillless expensive than
to this day, brick and
otherwise, so that for years, and even
stone
have stood at a disadvantage in cost far greater than
anywhere in Europe.
ing
Virginiaand the South.
Virginiahad at the start the backand the advantage of a
of a powerful trading company
became
enormously
unique staple crop, tobacco, which soon
for export.
With
England, the colony, with

valuable

architectural
of

progress

in

Jamestown

of the

outbreak

civil

in

war

a refuge for the

Maryland, became
less
Neverthemeans.
possessingsome
the founding
From
was
very slow.

of them

royalists,
many

the

1607 the home

authorities

made

constant

require buildings of brick.

The
absolute
necessity of a plantation system, however,
forced the inhabitants
to scatter
along the navigable rivers
efforts

and

establish

to

only began
and

of

any

kind

and

were

stilluncommon

mechanics

made

about

1620

brick makers

some

of brick

does

not

and

towns

to

have

typical Virginia house of the

rectangularframed buildingof
architectural

any

brick at each

ornaments,

end.

The

in

houses

63 2

yet the first house

there were,

seem

Framed

scarce.

been

built until

seventeenth
very
and
with

buttress-like

form

Clay
wholly

1638.

century

moderate

The

was

size,devoid

of

great chimney of
of these

chimneys,

with

the steepness of the roof, proclaimed the medieval

basis
of the design. This is even
more
pronounced in the oldest of
the

Virginiachurches

which

includes

if the

some

stillremaining,Saint
bricks of

1631, although it is very

was

built

ful
doubt-

early. With its pointed

and mullioned
windows
this is unmistakably an Englishparish
of the outgoing Gothic, in spite of the quoins of its
church
In Maryland and Carolina
the same
tower.
generalhistory
later repeated,bricks of local manufacture
was
being gradually
adopted by the wealthier planters. Although Carolina
whole

fabric

Luke's, Smithfield,

so

HISTORY

534

OF

ARCHITECTURE

settled until after 1660, and large houses

of them
built until near
still show
two
or
1700, one
not

was

were

not

the fantastic

gables of the Jacobean manors.

New England. In New
of brick
England buildingsentirely
and stone were
ings
especiallyrare, but permanent framed buildof wood were
erected almost immediately after the founding
of Plymouth (1620),Boston
(1630),and Hartford (1636),
with no long period of makeshifts.
The
earliest settlers included
curved

carpenters, and, under

the

conditions

of

town

life

which

numerous
prevailed, artisans were
throughout the
colonial period. They brought with them
the medieval
lish
Engwith
traditions of framing houses
overhanging upper
with brick.
stories,and of filling
possible,
up the frame, where
The
of such
changeable climate did not favor the exposure

half -timber
instances

work
at

to

the

least, the
windows

The

medieval,

weather, and
exteriors
small

were

were

the

with

from

the start, in most

covered

were

leaded

clustered

with

casements,

form

boards.
claptially
essen-

of the

chimneys
and the ornamental
of the overhangs.
drops at the corners
different types of plan may
Several
be distinguished,
each
characteristic of certain localities. In Massachusetts
Bay and
the Connecticut
one
colony the usual type was
having two
rooms
upstairsand down, with an entry and a great chimney
between, and
the

lean-to

house

was

as

often

included

lean-to
from

the

added

at

start,

as

the back.
in the

Later

Whipple
preserved

Ipswich, Massachusetts
(Fig. 287), well
and
restored.
Plantation
The
typical house in Providence
of a singleroom
was
one
below, with a great chimney at one
house."
end, creatingthe "stone-end
Occasionally,as in the
house
at
Hartford, Connecticut, the
Theophilus Eaton
U
H plan, with a central "hall," was
Elizabethan
or
served.
preIn interiors the cavernous
the wainscot
fireplaces,
devoid of any
sheathing, and the occasional paneling were
Renaissance
detail.
Toward
the framed
overhang was
1700
medieval
details
and
methods
abandoned, but
lingeredwell
churches
into the eighteenth century. The
or
houses"
"meetingin New
England likewise retained survivals of
medieval
forms, but their dispositionwas
fundamentally
of the settlers there.
Protestantism
affected by the extreme
After the passing of the earliest simple cabins they tended
at

AMERICAN
to conform

around

three

535

the prevailingProtestant
type of England and
with
a
squarish, hall-like room,
galleries

to

Continent

the

ARCHITECTURE

"

sides and

the

pulpitagainst the fourth, which

generallyone of the longer sides. There was

belfrywas merely placed astride the ridge at

was

the

of the

Courtesy
FIG.

on

deck

287

"

in the center

IPSWICH.

when

WHIPPLE

tower;

no

end

one

White

Pine

or

Bureau

HOUSE

the roof

hipped, as

was

in the

"Old

Massachusetts.
at Hingham,
Ship" Meeting House
Pennsylvania. Philadelphiawas not founded until 1682, so
that colonial architecture in Pennsylvania has mostly the postdetail of the eighteenthcentury.
Before leaving
Renaissance
the medieval

survivals,however,

of the German
of any
others

sects

pretensionswere
until about

not

communities
walls and

like that

small

of

consider

ings
the build-

Pennsylvania,although the

not

1750.
at

must

one

built until well

The

monastic

Ephrata,

with

after

1700,

halls of
their

windows, their steep roofs and

earliest

and

religious

whitewashed

ranges

of little

536
dormers,

HISTORY
are

OF

unmistakable

ARCHITECTURE
offshoots

Germany.
colonial
Eighteenth-century
century

permanent

greater

came

materials, and

The

whole

seaboard

colonies

was

the codification

Middle

architecture. With
and

means

the

detail.

of the

comfort,

adoption

in

Ages
the

wider

teenth
eighuse

of

of classical forms

of

under

English rule,and
local diversitywas
subjectto uniform English influence. By
this time in England the styleof Jones and Wren
was
where
everyabounded
established,and the small provincialtowns
with doorways and interior woodwork
in which
the favorite
post-Renaissancemotives of broken pediments, consoles,and
rich carving were
conspicuous. Still more
important for the
was

now

of current

architecture

in

books,

great and small,which

reproduced both formulas for the orders

and
other details and
designs for whole
buildings. These
were
imported very freelyand will be found to have had the
greatest influence on singlebuildingsand on the prevailing
style. In the early part of the century the colonists merely
adopted classical details for the individual features of their
buildings the cornice, the doorway, and perhaps a cupola
without
beyond a symmetrical
any generalclassical treatment
Later the churches
and public buildings,and
arrangement.
the
monumental
a
dwellings,began to assume
finallyeven
character.
During the later years of the colonial regime
the Palladian
there
also appeared some
tendency toward
had
carried the day in England, and
had
strictness which
the
later architectural
dominated
publications. In these
in England, cultivated amaalso the case
teurs
as
was
movements,
selves
played the leading r61e, although the builders themthe teaching of the books
and to
were
quick to master
"

"

also the functions

assume

Houses.

The

first

of architects.

signsof

the

eighteenth century

the

substitution

were

of sash

the transition
the

at the

opening

of

of less steep roofs,

for the leaded
casements,

adoption

windows

tendency to employ a uniform cornice with a hip roof,

or
a
pedimented gable instead of a gable of medieval
type.
cornice and door were
When
given rich detail of modillions
had
the scheme
of pilasterswith a pediment
and
one
emplified
exabout
1730 in Westover, Virginia(Fig.288), and in
the finest houses of that day throughout the colonies. The
and

the

"

"

AMERICAN

ARCHITECTURE

537

at Westover
were
symmetrical dependencies seen
characteristic of Virginiaand of Maryland and were
sometimes
at Philadelphia. Frequent use
and
the
of the curved
seen
broken
shows
that
pediment and of rusticated enframements
the baroque element
In a
of Wren's
work
still current.
was
few instances, beginning about 1735, tall pilasters
were
applied

ample and

288

FIG.

to

the

with

of the

corner

individual

an

however, they

create

"

WESTOVER,

house.

As

pedestal and
no

VIRGINIA

these
a

only

were

of entablature,

fragment

general architectonic

associated

treatment.

The

earliest

academic
scheme
was
important house in which a more
Mount
two
attempted was
Airy in Virginia (1758), where
the a^ial
loggias one
arched, the other colonnaded
were
features
of a
with
balanced
outbuildings, taken
group
apparently from James Gibbs's publisheddesigns. It was not
until 1760 or
later that the free-standingportico with
a
to
and
this
did
become
not
at
pediment was applied dwellings,
"

all

common

"

until after the

Revolution.

In

few

instances,

HISTORY

538

ARCHITECTURE

OF

house in Charleston, South Carolina

notably the Miles Brewton
(c.1765),there were
superposed porticoeson the general
of many
of Palladio's villa designs,although with
scheme
Strict followingof
freedom
in proportionsand detail.
much
in residence work
Palladian
canons
only began with Thomas
design for Monticello in 1771, on the very eve of
Jefferson's
The
interior of houses, owing partly to
the .Revolution.
the prevalenceof wooden
paneling,was much richer and often
in architectural

coherent

more

of walls

subdivision

The

although more
essential

element, such

by pilasterswas

by

the
no

often,as in the Brewton

exterior.

means

common,
un-

house, each

doorway or chimneypiece, was

individually.Baroque features persisted even

elaborated
after

than

treatment

they

had

tendencies

vanished
The

Churches.

as

from

the

buildings in

which

first manifested

were

exterior.
the

more

the

were

advanced

churches.

Old

Charleston, consecrated in 1723, had a portico

Philip's,
in front of its tower, only a few years after the
of four columns
similar general parti. The
churches
with
a
great London
of Christ Church, Philadelphia,
built 1731-44
under the
nave
direction of Dr. John Kearsley,has an architectonic treatment
in two
arch order with pilasters
stories. Both
of the Roman
the basilican interior treatment
of
of these buildings had
Saint

Saint

Bride's

favorite
The

system

exterior

of the

and

other
for

London

the

which
portico,

tower,

was

churches, which
elaborate

more

in Saint

enlarged

in

colonial

had
Philip's

Saint

became

the

examples.

only the

width

Michael's, Charleston

York
(1752-61),and in Saint Paul's Chapel, New
(1764-66,
almost
the full width
of the church.
Fig. 289), to embrace
which
The steeplesfollowed English examples, among
that of
Saint Martin-in-the-Fields'
and other designs reproduced in
Gibbs's published works
attracted the most
imitators.
Public buildings. The earliest publicbuildingsof any pretensions,
such as the older New
York
Hall
(c.
1700) and
City
the old Virginia Capitol at Williamsburg (1702-04),stillbetrayed
medievalism
in their H plans,in spiteof the
a lingering
round
arches or the columns
of the connectingloggias. Even
in buildingswhere
character
has vanished, like
all medieval
the old State House
(Independence Hall) in Philadelphia
(1732-52),the architectural character remains fundamentally-

AMERICAN

domestic, and

the

ARCHITECTURE

public functions

539

suggested on the
exterior only by the greater size of the buildingand its possession
of a cupola. In the interior of Independence Hall,indeed,
there is a monumental
treatment
by an arch order with
almost
unique in the colonial
engaged columns, which was

FIG.

period. The

289

"

NEW

SAINT

YORK.

first attempt

at

are

PAUL'S

academic

CHAPEL

design was

Faneuil

painter Smibert, with the arch

order in two stories,the lower one
forming an open market.
A series of buildingsof unique architectonic character
was
Island,who,
designed by Peter Harrison of Newport, Rhode
he had
whether
not
or
professionaltraining in England,
Hall

in Boston

(1742),by

the

540

OP

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

architect
being the first professional
His Redwood
America.
in North
Library in Newport (1748Doric porticoof four columns, united to the
50) has a Roman
entablature
(Fig.
body of the buildingby a singleunbroken
the
fagade
290). Originallyonly the small wings flanking
prevented the buildingfrom conforming entirelyto the temple
deserves

the distinction of

FIG.

290

"

NEWPORT.

type, already imitated

The

Market

at

in

REDWOOD

the

LIBRARY

garden temples

Newport, 1761, represents

more

in

England.
advanced

academic

phase than Faneuil Hall, in that it involves an

arched
an
engaged order running through two stories,over
basement.
ambitious

This

was

the characteristic motive

of the

more

buildingson the eve of the Revolution, such as the

Pennsylvania Hospital, the Exchange in Charleston, and
The greater number
of public buildings,
others.
ever,
howeven
stillretained not only the modest
materials, brick and
wood, but also the simple wall surfaces and isolated details
of the earlypart of the century.
Architecture of the national period. Its origins. During the
almost
Revolution
pended.
(1775-83) building was
completely susAt its close, although some
craftsmen
continued

AMERICAN
their work

in the

ARCHITECTURE

541

styleas before,the leaders were inspired

by very different ideals.
They recognized that the colonial
and they sought to
style,whatever its merits, was provincial,
establish
architecture worthy of the new,
an
sovereign,
welded
from
republicanStates and of the great nation soon
them.
In all types of buildingsconnected
with political
and
social institutions,moreover,
the republican and
tarian
humanisame

ideals of America

FIG.

from

291

those

"

RICHMOND.

which

demanded

VIRGINIA

were

solutions

CAPITOL.

ORIGINAL

traditional in Europe.

buildings,prisons,asylums,

and

other

different

very

MODEL

For

types

ment
governnew

position
dis-

pioneer in both these

whose
Thomas
movements
was
career
political
Jefferson,
gave
him
of
his
the
realization
an
unexampled opportunity for
the forms of
architectural conceptions. He felt that even
detail should not be borrowed
from contemporary
European
the respect of foreign
styles,although they should command
had

observers.
the

to

be

The

found.

In this situation

he

turned

to what

he felt to be

unimpeachable authorityof the ancients,in whose republics

the new
States were
felt to have their closest analogy. In his
design for the Capitol of Virginiaat Richmond
(1785, Fig.

542

HISTORY

291), the first of modern

he boldly took as his model
Ionic order

ARCHITECTURE

OF

republican government
the Maison

substituted

was

to

save

Carree
expense,

at

buildings,

Nimes.

windows

The
were

necessarilypierced in the cella walls, and the interior was

subdivided in conformity with the balance of legislative
and
with the expression
judicialfunctions, if not exactly in accordance
of the exterior.
It is little realized that this design
Classical
considerably antedated
anything similar abroad.
examples had indeed been imitated in garden temples and
commemorative
but never
such a large scale
on
monuments,
and
in a building intended
for practicaluse.
Even
never
Gilly'sproposed temple to Frederick the Great (1791) and
monuments
Vignon's Napoleonic Temple of Glory (1807)were
Hall (1831) was
simply, and not until the Birmingham Town
there anything in Europe reallyanalogous to this first monument
of American

Academicism
of
its

architecture.

national

and

classicism.

literalclassic revival thus

fruit.

character

Meanwhile
evidenced

many
none

the

Public

buildings. The seed

implanted requiredtime to bear
buildings of less advanced
less the change from
colonial

Engineers,builders,and amateurs, both of native and

of foreignbirth,united to infuse them
with largenessof scale
of Dublin, in his
and
character.
academic
James Hoban
Carolina
and L'Enfant,
South
Capitolat Columbia
(1786-91),
the French
military engineer,in his remodeling of Federal
Hall in New
York, the first Capitolof the United States (1789),
both employed the favorite academic
formula
of a columnar
William Thornton's
central pavilionover
a
high basement.
Blodget's marble
Philadelphia Library (1789), and Samuel
facade of the Bank
of the United
States (Girard'sBank) in
Philadelphia(1795),had similar frontispieces
risingthe full
height of the building. The competitive drawings for the
effort
Capitol at Washington (1792-93) showed a determined
monumental
result.
The
to
secure
a
design of Thornton,
based on the great Palladian
which received first prize,was
stillwere
the competitive
layoutsof England. More advanced
designs of Stephen Hallet, a French architect of the highest
professionaltraining,who was
placed in charge of the work.
In his first study he had adopted the scheme, since so popular
in legislative
buildings,of a tall central dome with balancing
ideas.

FIG.

292

"

BOSTON.

STATE

HOUSE

HISTORY

544

wings, similar

in form

to

OF

ARCHITECTURE

the

College des Quatre Nations

in

studies,under Jefferson'sinfluence,were
based on the peristylar
temple, the Pantheon in Paris,and the
in Rome, which remained
the accepted
motive of the Pantheon
In these studies,also,Hallet anticipatedthe
central feature.
Various

Paris.

later

of

foreign instances
Charles

Bulfinch

halls
legislative

showed

both

column

influences, in the Beacon

Copyright
FIG.

293

the

"

NEW

by

the

of

semicircular

classical and
in Boston

YORK.

CITY

academic

(1789),based

Architect

American

the

form.

and

Building

News

on

Co.

HALL

Roman

State
House
examples, and in the Massachusetts
(1 795-98),with its tall dome and its colonnade above an arched
basement
of the midacademism
(Fig.292). Pure French
in the New
York
eighteenth century appears
City Hall
(1803-12,Fig. 293),designed by the French engineer,Joseph
Here for the
Mangin, in partnership with John McComb.
first time

in America

pavilions,with

appears

an

academic

sophisticatedwall

facade

treatment

of

with

angle

superposed

orders, of archivolts and rustication. The complete victory

of classicism,even
in its Roman
until
phase, did not ensue
after

who

1815.
crowned

It

was

its

the initiator of
Jefferson,
triumph with the design of

the movement,
the

University

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICAN
of

long colonnades connecting classical

varied design lead up to the central Rotunda
or

Virginiagroup.

pavilionsof

based
library,
The

545

on

Greek

Here

the Roman

Pantheon.

revival. Latrobe.

Long

before

classicism

had

carried the day the Roman

revival had been reinforced by a
The introduction
of Greek forms, alreadyused
Greek revival.
in

FIG.

an

England

294

"

and

Germany,

PHILADELPHIA.

architect who

countries.
monumental

He

BANK

had
came

OF

THE

Benjamin Henry Latrobe,

UNITED

STATES

(CUSTOM

professionaltrainingof both

the
to

due to

was

America

work, the Bank

of

in

1796, and

HOUSE)

these

in his first

Pennsylvania, 1799, employed

Greek
Ionic order in two
a
hexastyle porticoeswhich gave
to the domed
access
banking-room. In the conduct of the
work on the national Capitol,with which he was
charged from
1803-17, his principalopportunitieslay in the interior,where
he created
the great semicircular Hall
of Representatives
(now Statuary Hall),with its Corinthian colonnade employing

HISTORY

546
Greek

ARCHITECTURE

OF

His

capitalsof the Lysicratestype.

second

Bank

of the

United

States

last design was

in

Philadelphia
(1819-24),in which
encouraged doubtless by the philhellene
Nicholas Biddle, later its president he adopted the octastyle
Doric form of the Parthenon
itself (Fig.294). The need for
additional space in the interior,
indeed, led to the suppression
then the buildingapproached
of the side colonnades, but even
Athenian
ideal more
the ultimate
nearly than any modern
buildingwhich had so far been erected in Europe.
for the

"

"

The later classicists.

architecture

American

pupil of Latrobe, Robert

in advanced
classicism by employing
Mills,rivaled his master
Doric column, nearly a hundred
feet in height,as the
a Greek
in Baltimore
motive
of his Washington Monument
(1815),
and an obelisk of five hundred
feet in the Washington Monument
in Washington (1836^.). The temple form was
followed
in a series of State capitols,and
notably in the one-time
the Sub-Treasury
York
Custom
House
of New
(1834-41),now
"

another

latest and

until

influence dominated

Hellenic

and

nearly 1850.

literal version

more

richest

example

was

the

of

the- Parthenon.

main

The

building of

Girard

College in Philadelphia(1833-47),for which Nicholas Biddle

forced the adoption of the temple form, carried out
with
order of the Lysicratestype by Thomas
U.
the Corinthian
For
State capitols,however, the type having a
Walter.
and wings, with the prestigegiven it by the completion
dome
national
thenceforth
of the
more
Capitol (1829), found
Another
favorite motive
the long unbroken
adherents.
was
colonnade, as used in the original(FifteenthStreet)facade of
Mills (1836-39),and
the Treasury in Washington by Robert
in the Merchants'
(now forming the
Exchange in New York
lower
City Bank), by Isaiah Rogers
story of the National
the great semicircular porticoof
(1835-41). A novelty was
land.
the Merchants'
Exchange in Philadelphia,by William StrickWhen
the Capitol at Washington was
enlarged to its
present form (Fig.295) by Walter in 1851-65, he had naturally
to

and

follow
thus

movement

States

the

helped
a

and

monumental

academic-Roman
to

give

less Hellenic

the
and

nation

ordonnance

the

later

stamp.

were

of the

exterior,

buildings of the classical

By all these designs,the

endowed

dignified
government

with

tradition

architecture which

of

has

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICAN
been

with

continued

but

547

slightinterruptionsto the present

day.
architecture.

Domestic

In

architecture

domestic

after the

by the craftsmen
stylewas resumed
of buildingsmay
well
with little change, so that a largegroup
be described as "post-colonial." An
early example is the
Fierce-Nichols house in Salem
(c.1790),by Samuel Mclntire.
the colonial

Revolution

Copyright
FIG.

The

facade

295

"

by the American

WASHINGTON.

Architect

UNITED

differs little from

that

and

STATES

of the

Building

News

Co.

CAPITOL

Royall

house

in

Medford, built fiftyyears earlier,

except in the substitution of
and in the bolder
pilasters
of the doorway (Fig.296). Classical influence soon
treatment
itself in two
showed
One, which still
quite different ways.
involved no break with the past, was
the employment of Adam
a

heavy

forms

Doric

order

in the

of detail, both

corner

in exteriors

developed

the attenuation

ornament

so

of

and

interiors.

proportionsand

characteristic of the later work

the

Thus

were

delicacyof

of Mclntire

in

England in the early nineteenth

elsewhere.
The
ness
appropriatecentury, and occasionallyseen
in the prevailingmaterial,
of these forms
to execution
wood, lent them
a
specialattraction. The other classical
Salem, typical of

New

548

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

the States farther south, was

tendency,which dominated
quite
different in its inspiration
and direction.
It took its departure
from
Palladianism
and from
French
models, and ultimately
sought to assimilate the house also to the ideal form of the
of tall
the start the portico or frontispiece
temple. From
columns
was
a
prominent example being the White
common,

FIG.

House

in

296

"

SALEM.

FIERCE-NICHOLS

HOUSE

Washington (1792^., Fig. 297). The tall portico

became
especiallypopular in Virginiaand the South through
he
Jefferson'snumerous
sought, where
designs, in which
possible,to give the effect of a singlestory, as in the French
houses
of supposedly Roman
In remodeling his own
cast.
house, Monti cello (1796-1809),he introduced a dome over the
stillfurther resemblance
to such
a
projectingsalon, to secure
buildings as the H6tel de Salm in Paris. The professors'
of the University of Virginia,which
houses
he designed as
"specimens for the architectural lecturer,"included imitations

AMERICAN
of -the
there

ARCHITECTURE

prostyletemple, and
were

didactic

no

these

motives.

549

widely copied where

were

Nicholas

Biddle, with his

for things Greek, adopted a model

of
customary enthusiasm
the Theseum,
lusia"
peristyleand all,for his country seat "Andathe

Delaware.

Even

in New

England the prostyle

temple with Greek forms finallycarried the day, while in the
South the peristyle,
with its manifest suitability
to the climate,
was
widely adopted. Such magnificentspecimens as Arlingon

FIG.

ton

297

in

temple

WHITE

WASHINGTON.

"

Virginia,where
of Paestum

(HOBAN's

HOUSE.

the ponderous columns

imitated, as the

were

DESIGN)

ORIGINAL

of

Bennett

the

great

house

in

hexastyle Ionic main portico and

wings, as Berry Hill in Virginia,with two octastyle
tetrastyle
Greek
Doric porticoesand balancingoutbuildingsof the same
thian
order, or as the Hill House in Athens, Georgia, with a Corinof
peristyleeight columns wide in front,show extremes
have
classicism which
no
City houses in
parallelabroad.
New

showed

blocks

isolated.
a

block

with

In

the
1

793

Colonnade

academic

in

The

scheme

most

which

houses

stood

for the firsttime in America

erected

of the block

realized.
Row

as

design,the Franklin

treatment

seldom

tendencies

same

Bulfinch

of unified

pavilionsof

coherent
one

its

Bedford, with

and

remained
notable

Lafayette Place, New

Crescent in Boston,
detail.

Adam
an

Some

ideal,although

later

example was
(1827),which
carried throughout

York

Greek Corinthian order

free-standing
its length. The interiors of the classical houses lost in richness
through the abandoning of paneling,and through the chaste
had

5so

HISTORY
confined

which

purism

The

now

ARCHITECTURE

all detail

tall,cool

columns, served
and

OF

with

rooms,

as

neutral

essential structural

to

their occasional

backgrounds

to

ments.
eleof

screens

rich furniture

hangings.
Post-colonial buildings,differing
but little from
advanced
buildingserected before the Revolution,

Churches.
the

more

also

were

Here

common

also

slender

Nevertheless

the

among

churches

monumental

Latrobe's

Catholic

21),the first cathedral

it was

as

classical forms.
with

Saint

low

plan was

dome

over

In

1816

Latrobe

detail.

in the United

fundamental

States

ritualistic arrangement
a Latin
cross, vaulted

the

crossing,a

employed

the

western
as

Greek

tained
at-

after

soon

in Baltimore

Cathedral

Hellenized
detail,and twin belfries,

Greek
be.

The

Adam

The

century.

undertaken

in its size and

novel

with

their appearance

public buildings,made
the opening of the nineteenth
was

early republic.

effects,parallelto those

in

work

in

proportions came

more

of the

best
cross

(1805where

"

in its

as

throughout,
portico of
they might
form

for

in

John's Episcopal Church

Washington. Robert Mills

developed the auditorium type of octagonal or circular form
in Richmond,
in the Monumental
Church
Virginia (begun
The temple form was
1812),and others.
only adopted later,
for instance in Saint Paul's Church, Boston
(1820),with an
Ionic prostyleporticoof six columns.
its new
Prisons and asylums. With
departures in all
branches
reform

insane.

America
took the lead
of government,
soon
of methods
of punishment and of the treatment

The

New

York

State

in the
of the

Prison, built by Joseph Mangin

1796-98, included provisionfor the separationof the sexes

and of classes of criminals, and
the Virginia Penitentiary,

in

built by Latrobe

in 1797-1800,

was

based

on

the

principleof
more
fully

these
ideas were
Later
solitary confinement.
in radial plans,by the architect John
applied,and embodied
Haviland, of English birth.
prisons
By 1835 the American
from
that commissions
were
so
England,
favorably known
to study them
France, and other European countries came
abroad.
and to introduce their principles
with his
The Gothic revival in America.
Although Jefferson,
underlying vein of romanticism, had proposed imitations of
the first to
Gothic
models
as
early as 1771, Latrobe was

AMERICAN

ARCHITECTURE

Gothic

design,in Sedgeley, a country house

Philadelphia (1800). For the cathedral in Baltimore

execute

submitted

alternative scheme

an

which

was

near

he

first Gothic

the

church

In
design in America.
1807 Godefroi, a French
engineerand architect,carried out the chapel of Saint Mary's
with Gothic forms.
Other architects
Seminary in Baltimore
soon
essayed occasional buildingsin Gothic, stillinspiredless
by a conscious principle
of eclecticism
than

romantic

in the

style,of

neither

which

structural
nor

the

principles

decorative

the

forms

much

were

period

in

revival

was

un-

derstood.

the

terest
in-

new

Gothic

the

opened by
buildingof Trinity

Church

in New

York,

Upjohn
by Richard
(1839-46, Fig. 298).
Here
the design was
studied from
carefully
English examples.
These
long remained
the

favorite

models,

although James

Ren-

298

FIG.

NEW

"

YORK.

TRINITY

CHURCH

wick in Saint Patrick's

Cathedral, New
French
the

scheme

influence

Gothic

with
of

which

Meanwhile,

in

twin

western

Ruskin

led

to

moral

detail,and

medievalism
domestic

(1850-79), adopted the

York

had

the

architecture

to

forties, the
had

and cottages
impractical,

been
and

the

fervor

hitherto

In

towers.

been

the

sixties

adoption of Italian
in the advocacy of
absent

imitation
attacked

villas of

traditional

of
as

in America.

temples in
absurd

and

Gothic, Elizabethan,

flexible
had taken their places,
Swiss, or "Italian" .style
as more
in harmony
and convenient, more
with
domestic, and more
the landscape. Individual Greek
forms, however, had con-

552

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

tinued to be employed for the details of other houses, especially

in the towns, and thus both romanticism
and classicism were

gradually replaced by an eclecticism

most
building the stylewhich seemed
and
surroundings.
Eclecticism.
architects

of forms

knowledge
in

accessible

or

disastrous

America, where

In

by

The

chose

for each

appropriate to its

there

were

few

so

use

trained

models, the supplantingof traditional

unrestrained

results for the

Europe.

which

common

Civil War

eclecticism
of

run

had

even

more

buildingsthan

(1861-65),with

it had

the materialism

of

the
reconstruction,accentuated
resultingera of economic
and subjectedgovernment
cal
architecture to a mechanidifficulty,
Nevertheless
there was
no
period of years in
system.
did not seek to uphold
which competent and thoughtfulmen
the ideals of their art, in buildingswhich worthilyrepresented
in Europe.
Most
of the
notable
movements
contemporary
earlier men
Richard
Morris
Hunt
was
(1828-95), the first
American
in Paris,who
to study at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts
the

brought with him

of the

Lenox

Library,New
and

under

ing
1855 the rationalistic train-

the

Second

(1870-77),he

York

; while

in

preference for French

dominant

of Labrouste
York

York

and

school

forms, then

New

to

in the

houses

the influence

least,medieval
Richardson

in the

of younger
of Victorian

forms

and

the

Richardson, another
the

the tendencies

of his favorite

men.

English training,meanwhile,

establish the supremacy

chose

the

in New
"

Newport, he exploitedevery phase

classical tendency
adopting a more

at

followed

for the Vanderbilts

at

of

In

Empire.

Biltmore, in the Astor residence,and in "cottages

at

life,under

Renaissance

were

of French

style for his

(1872),he was

Gothic

cruciform

great central

with

tower

reminiscent

of

the

broad

rugged mantle

course.

Hobson

training,
accepted project for
influenced primarily

was

clothed

to

academic

Trinity Church in Boston

by the slightdepth of the site,which
He

tects
archi-

Gothic, and in churches,

employed as a matter of
Romanesque. When
Henry

American

of his

attempting

were

Romanesque

nave.

style,only

last years
older
The

of

unfavorable
naves

to

and

stone
polychrome sand(Fig.299). By

Auvergne and Salamanca

the time the buildingwas
completed in 1877, however, he saw
in Romanesque forms a far-reachingadaptability
to American

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICAN

needs, which
national
alike to
of

permit the development of a truly

and ruggedness seemed suited
style. Their simplicity
materials readilyavailable,to the general limitation
would

funds, and

the

to

relative

subsequent buildings,like

FIG.

299

553

"

BOSTON.

TRINITY

lack

the

of

skilled

Allegheny

CHURCH,

AS

ORIGINALLY

In

carvers.

Court

House

at

(VAN

BUILT.

RENSSELAER)

lary
with a personalvocabuPittsburgh(1884),he expressedfreely,
of Romanesque elements, the ideal character and practical

conditions
the town

great number

library,the country

warehouse.
fondness

of

Richardson's
for

towers

and

of contemporary
railroad station,even

types

"

the vast

mannerisms, however, such

for broad
low arches, were

as

the

more

of picturesqueyet
easilyacquired by others than his power
logicalcomposition. Thus, after his untimely death in 1886,
his stylewas
quickly discredited by imitators,while the abler
their independent development.
architects continued
and the beginningsof the colonial revival.
"Queen Anne"
the
Simultaneouslywith the building of Trinity had come
in England, with its
founding of the Queen Anne movement

554

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

and the revelation

colloquialism,
of foreignarts and crafts to America
nial
through the CentenExposition in 1876. These inspiredmany
attempts at
free and originalcreations,such as the
imitation, and some
Casino at Newport, built in 1881 by the firm of McKim,
Mead,

wide

program

White.

and

and

of frankness

attention

The

hitherto attracted by

the French

3OO

"

BOSTON.

and

men

Renaissance

by the American

copyright
FIG.

of these

PUBLIC

or

and

Architect

others,

some

the Roman-

Building

News

Co.

LIBRARY

naturallydrawn to the American

buildingsof the
and eighteenthcenturies which
correspond to the
Thus
style abroad.
began a
prototypes of the Queen Anne

esque, was
seventeenth

direct revival

eighties,with

of colonial
a

richness

different,to be

very

architecture,in
of

sure,

delicate

from

the

houses

many

detail

on

of the

the

exterior

of
general simplicity

the

old

examples.
The adoptionof Renaissance

of
and

native Renaissance
White

These

for the

were

adoption of those of
employed for the first

associates,Holden

(1885),where
the

motive.

Public
his

forms

forms. It was this adaptation

which prepared McKim,
Mead,
time

by

Wells, in the Villard houses

the arched
The

the Italian Renaissance.

windows

decisive

in New

of the Cancelleria

work, however,

was

of

one

their
York

furnished

the

Library (1888-95,Fig. 300), in which McKim,

Sainte Genevieve,
departurefrom the Bibliotheque

Boston

taking
gave

the

555
the

scheme

warmer

and

at

Rimini.

Francesco

San

showed

executed
a

with

HG.

decoration

3OI

"

ROCKVILLE.

McKim's

purism

the Greek

revival.

of

from

of Alberti's

element

of the

Italian

examples
of classical elements, and

use

characteristic

of

harmony

structural

the

character

In the interior each

sympathetically studied

building was
which

robust

more

of each

treatment

hitherto

GARDEN

OF

detail in the

material
in

unknown

"MAXWELL

and

America.

COURT"

librarywas

complemented
of Renaissance
ornament
by the luxurious elaboration
by
White
and Wells in the Century Club and Madison
Square
Garden
in New
York
(1891). The effect on current
practice
electrical. Almost
and
was
Queen
overnight Romanesque
Anne
to Renaissance
forms, which more
nearly
gave
way
approached universal acceptance than those of any stylesince
arrivals from

1Renaissance

There

were

variants, to be

the Ecole des Beaux- Arts tended

and

academic

architecture

sure,.

to follow

rather

than

Fresh

French
Italian.

556

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

literalimitations
preferredmore
buildingsmany
of the "Georgian" houses of the colonies in the eighteenth
The Italian tendency received a powerful reinforcement,
century.
For

domestic

however, in the work

Italian formal

the

steadilywidened
without
departing far
has

of Charles

scope

from

his

Platt, who

duced
intro-

into America

(Fig.301), and
of his architectural
activity
favorite style. It still counts

garden

the

A.

adherents.

many

Chicago Exposition. The crucial test

of
between
the partisansof a free and modern
interpretation
medieval
and the partisansof a strict following
motives chiefly
in the buildingsof
of some
form of classic architecture
came
the Columbian
Expositionin Chicago in 1893. The studies of
tion,
John W. Root, the originalconsultingarchitect of the exposiThe

Neo-classicism.

of

were

free

character, with

semi-Romanesque

recognitionof the steel construction and the temporary

of the
conceptions might well
buildings. These
of the

had

the ensemble

dominated

undertaking left the

to whom

by Hunt,
of Honor,

he

free to carry

the death

not

confided
their

out

nature

have

the

on

eve

architects,headed
the buildings of the Court

of Eastern

group

had

of Root

some

own

ideas.

These

that

were

buildings,and the formal

character of the court, demanded
a consistent
styleof generally
cornice
classical character, with a uniform
Roman
height
of
fixed at sixty feet.
This did not
preclude a treatment
merely academic cast, with details tingedby Italian or Spanish
the

mutual

dependence

influence,
considerable

so

that

of

their

the

within

scheme

there

was

diversityof style. The buildingswhich

attracted

those in which

the main

admiration, however,

the most

classical

were

single order of strictlyRoman

character
namely, the AgriculturalBuilding by McKim,
the lake, both
and the "Peristyle"toward
the Fine Arts group
(Fig.302). Attwood, in the Fine Arts
by Charles B. Attwood
project for the Grand Prix de
Building,followed Besnard's
dome
Rome, with its central porticowith an attic and a saucer
also greatly influenced
was
by the same
behind; McKim
design,although he followed it much less closely. True to the
hopes of their designers,the classical buildings produced a
and
effect of harmony
cumulative
magnificence which was
of the whole nation.
deeply stamped on the memory
cornice

was
"

reached

by

o
""

hjMr.0

G
"

H
C

S"
"

558

HISTORY

Neo-classicism.

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Later

developments. Although the leading

architects of the exposition
had hoped to give a striking
objectlesson of the value of classical and academic
formulae, they
Whereas, earlier,
hardly expected the result which ensued.
there had been one
two
isolated
or
experiments with strictly
classical forms, such

(1891),the
turned

whole

into

Grant

the

as

York

public architecture

monumental

in New

Mausoleum

fruit of the movement

and

of the country was

classical channel.
The

McKim's

was

unified

classical

now

first

design

for Columbia

University in New York, with its great domed

library(1895). A fresh impulse came
through the restoration
of the Universityof Virginiaby White
after the fire of 1901, and
the activityof McKim
with D. H. Burnham,
Olmsted, and
Saint-Gaudens
the commission
for the improvement of
on
Washington. The character of the early buildings of the
republic thus gave a nationalistic sanction to the classical
tendency, and the style of new
buildings was
government
"

"

henceforth

established.

Milestones

Knickerbocker

the

in the progress

(Columbia)

of the

ment
move-

Trust

Company
in New
order including
York, with its singlerich Corinthian
the
whole
height of the building, and the Pennsylvania
Terminal
Station, with its long Doric facades, and its great
thermae, almost devoid
hall,literally
copied from the Roman
orders
of practical functions.
From
the
the
used
start
ployed
frequently included Greek forms, and these have been eminstance
is
Lincoln
A
notable
recent
the
increasingly.
in
Memorial
in Washington, a peristylar
cella
which the old
are

revivalist

enthusiasm

prevailed over
any
current
tendency
residences

and

for

an

abstract

suggestion of
to employ Adam

individual
Louis

or

the extension

hotels shows

fields where

more

This second

classical revival in America

monumental

ideal has

architectonic

XVI.

forms

of the movement
would

treatment

The

character.

be out

of

in
to

place.

has littlecontemporary

England, which has itself been

the ocean.
influenced in the matter
by developments across
While the rest of the world is seeking,in one
or
another,
way
forms
new
life,
expressiveof the novel elements of modern
this insistence on the traditional authorityof the past can
be
adequately explained only by the unparalleledheritage of
parallel abroad

classical monuments

except

from

in

the formative

periodof

the nation.

AMERICAN
Thus

the founders

ARCHITECTURE

559

for the moment

republicmight seem
their aim of establishing
to have achieved
classicalarchitecture
national style.
as
a permanent
Gothic survivals.
In spite of the overwhelming victory of
classicalforms, the Gothic tendency has been kept alive,largely
of two men,
through the enthusiasm and artistry
Ralph Adams

FIG.

Cram

and

303

of the

"

Bertram

ASHMONT.

CHURCH

Grosvenor

many

church

Saints, Ashmont,

of

All

ALL

Goodhue,

partnership for

years.

OF

SAINTS

who

practisedin

Their initial success

Massachusetts

was

the

(1892, Fig.
the designs

free tendencies as
303),which embodied the same
of Sedding in England. These
tendencies have been perpetuated
in Goodhue's
later work, such as the chapel and other
buildingsof the MilitaryAcademy at West Point, with their
picturesqueadaptation to the rugged site. Cram has tended
to follow precedentsmore
and to range
strictly,
more
widely
the medieval styles,
as in his "Early English
Calvary
among
"

560
Church

Pittsburgh,and

at

the late

Byzantine

administration

Even
in its
buildingfor the Rice Institute at Houston, Texas.
last strongholds,ecclesiastical and collegiate
architecture,the
Gothic
has had
the
colonial
to yield ground, especiallyto
revival.
Nevertheless, although both the Protestant sects and
Catholic
church
the Roman
now
prefer the stylesunequivocally
with
their
the
associated
preferenceof the Anglican
past,
episcopate for Gothic forms, and the personal prestigeand
abilityof the Gothic leaders,have stillmaintained the Gothic
tendency.
Functionalist.
The
strivingfor characteristic expression,
in architecture,
which is the principle
of functionalism
appeared
subordinately in America as in Europe in all the movements
of the nineteenth century.
Structural
a
purism was
quality
of Latrobe's designs,as it was, more
pronouncedly, of those of
.

"

"

the Gothicists.

The

not

forgotten in

and

of

be

used

Even

the

lessons of Ruskin

only

in its

of the

early years

neo-classicism,when

it

and

was

Viollet-le-Duc
Renaissance

felt that

originalfunction

of

an

revival

the column
isolated

later years of these movements,

when
has yieldedto the expressionof monumental

in the

purism

were

must

support.
structural

character,

of a number
this very character itself is felt to be but one
ideals which
the different phases of architecture
govern
and
civic,religious,

domestic.

of
"

in

spiteof eclectic
inclination
so
strong in America, especiallyin McKim's
individual
work
the exterior of a building on
to model
an
velopmen
prototype selected in advance, there has been a steady deof logicalplanning and expressionof plan, under
the leadershipof the Beaux- Arts men.
McKim
and White
themselves
the pioneersin a characteristic use of materials
were
which has produced such interesting
results as the "Harvard"
and "tapestry" brickwork, the modeled
and
polychrome terra
cotta, and the local ledge-stonerevival of Philadelphia.
A new
Expressionof structure.
problem. In the expression
of structure
a new
problem has been presented by the steelframe
building. The absence of legal restriction permitted
Moreover,

"

"

real estate

owners

in the crowded

districts of New

York

and

of stories in new
Chicago, about 1889, to increase the number
office buildingsby supporting the floors entirelyon iron or
steel columns, leaving the wall with only its own
weight to

The

carry.

stories

as

development
desirable

of elevators

the

as

lower

or

lifts made
and

ones,

made

the upper

possible

York, with a
"skyscrapers" like the World
Building in New
and seventy-fivefeet.
Here, however,
height of three hundred
of nine feet at the
the self-supporting
walls reached
a thickness
base, and
injured the value of the lower stories. It soon

"

FIG.

occurred
on

to the

designersthat
at

stories

have

Architect

become
extreme

York

and

Building

News

Co.

BUILDING

GUARANTY

intervals, and be reduced

city,and such
Building in New
retention

American

the wall itself might be

great resultingeconomy.

twenty
worth

by the

(PRUDENTIAL)

BUFFALO.

"

the steel frame

with

The

304

Copyright

to

mere

supported
veneer,

buildings of twelve to
in every
siderable
concommonplace
heights as that of the Wool(779 feet) have been reached.
Thus

which differentiates these

shell of masonry,
the steel and glass shop fronts abroad, was

of

buildings from
It has
tradition.
to
originallydue to a natural adherence
the extreme
been
vital reason
perpetuated for a far more
against fire,
necessity of rendering such tall buildings secure
"

562

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

proved to twist and bend

The only adequate protectionproved
with disastrous results.
in
to be that furnished by casing all the structural members
preferably
masonry,
before

which

exposed

steel work

brick

terra

or

cotta,

had

which

already been
through fire. Aided by
experience in the great
more
conflagrationsin Balti-

(1904)

and

San

(1906),

Francisco

of such

technique

proof
fire-

construction

developed

the

has

that with

so

interior

the aid of metal

trim, wire

posite
glass, comfloors resting on

and

steel beams,

other

devices, a building can

made

be

now
non

only

not

combustible,

but

absolutelyproof against
fire, whether
arising
within or sweeping the
surroundings without.
manifest
The
practical
of the

advantages
have

system
wide
world-

led to

of its features.

of many
Its employment

in

facades,

adoption

however, involves
and

new

delicate problem of

expression.
The

solutions.

visual

indication

that

the

was

masonry

longer

self

no

supporting

depended on the steel

achieved
frame, was

but
FIG.

305

"

NEW

YORK.
BUILDING

WOOL

WORTH

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICAN
about

1895 by

Sullivan, notably in

Louis

(Prudential)Building

563
the
He

in Buffalo

Guaranty
abandoned

(Fig.304).
wall surface of ashlar in favor of a simple casing of the
a
members
of the frame, with glassfilling
the whole of the space
between.
The greater weight carried by the vertical members
he recognized by emphasizing the vertical lines. To avoid
structural suggestion in the casing he used terra cotta
any
having a delicate surface pattern. The principleof his
lowed
designs has been widely folby architects of tall
of the
buildings,
irrespective
styleemployed, althoughfew
have carried it through with
such
logical completeness.
To Cass Gilbert the emphasis
vertical

the

on

the

lines

gested
sug-

of

employment

forms, which

Gothic

eclat of his
in

them

the
of

employment
Woolworth

the

(Fig. 305) has

Building
extent.
popularizedto some
In many

ings,
build-

recent

very

however,

reactionary

whelming
tendency,based on the overpredominance of
classicism in other departments

architecture,has

of
resulted

in

reversion

plain wall surfaces and

to
plications
ap-

of the orders.

Modernist

The

forms.

origins. America, with

from

freedom
of

the

tradition,was
of

one

novel

restraint
also naturally

the first

experiment

to

its

FIG.

tries
coun-

with

306

"

CHICAGO

EXPOSITION.
BUILDING.

TRANSPORTATION
DETAIL

forms, consciouslypreferred
to

of the past as
"American
for an

those

old desire

expressiveof modernity. The

style" could hot be satisfied

merely by
even

HISTORY

564

in

the

case

of

itselfthere was,

any

group

Richardsonian

purely an American

adoption was
work

generaladoption of

the

if, as

ARCHITECTURE

OF

of historic

forms,

Romanesque,

its

In Richardson's

movement.

have

noted, a strong tendency to

modification
and originality
of detail,and this tendency was
taken
specialaptitude by Harvey Ellis,Root, and
up with

FIG.

others

of the

in the

307

as

OAK

"

we

PARK.

CHURCH

OF

THE

UNITY

pendent
truly indeprogressivetendency was the TransportationBuilding
Chicago Exposition by Louis Sullivan (1893,Fig. 306),

contemporary
side

Middle

with

West.

The

manifesto

of

the earliest similar attempts abroad.

Here,
the first monuments
of neo-classicism,was

by side with
indeed some
reminiscences of
a
building in which there were
Romanesque and Saracenic motives, but in which the essential
effort was
the modernity and novelty of the type of
to express
building,its materials, and its structural system. The plain
stuccoed

wall

surfaces,with their unbroken, block-like cornices

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICAN

565

originalrelief ornament, the arch

and column
with novel yet expressiveforms, anticipatedby
in the German
sion."
"Secesmany
years correspondingtreatments
In spiteof the overpowering influence of the classical
ensemble
of the expositionon America
at large,this building
in Chicago itself. Through Sullimade
van's
some
converts, chiefly
ment
pioneerexpressionof the veneered steel frame the movehad an influence far beyond its own
circle of devotees.
in the movement
Later developments. That participation
did
imitation of its leader was
not involve mere
early established
of Sullivan's pupils,Frank
Lloyd Wright. In his
by one
designsfor residences he has employed broad ramified plans,
of fertile

enriched by bands

wide

novel

eaves,

abstract

motives

fenestration, and

of ornament,

which

harmonious

have

of

use

suggestionof

the

scape
appropriatenessof these houses to the landof the lakes and the plainshas been widely recognized,
and they have profoundly influenced
the architecture of the
ambitious
Middle
West.
More
applicationsof similar forms
Gardens
in Chicago
have not been wanting. In the Midway
of gaietyin forms of exuberant
the spirit
Wright has embodied
of the Unity at Oak Park
yet delicate fantasy. In his Church
and characteristic
(Fig.307), he has evolved a monumental
rationalism.
of modern
To the
house of worship for disciples

Japanese. The

present

time, however,

appreciationabroad
It remains

to

be

than
seen

the
at

has

movement

received

more

home.

whether

the

acceptance and

wide

nationalistic basis of the neo-classical tendency will enable it to

of weakness
which aided the downfall
the elements
surmount
earlier classical revival, or whether
forces of functionalism will ultimatelycause

the

of the

of modernist

PERIODS
I.

OF

international

wider

adoption

forms.

ARCHITECTURE

IN

period,to 1776 (orlater

Spanish colonies.

Colonial

in

THE

STATES

UNITED

Spanish colonies).

Florida

(Saint Augustine founded

1565).
Marco
Fort San
(Fort Marion) at Saint
completed 1756.
Cathedral

at Saint

Augustine,
begun

1793

Augustine,

(rebuilt
1887).

566

HISTORY
New

OF

ARCHITECTURE

(Santa F6 founded

Mexico

Cathedral

of Saint

Francis

at

1605).
Santa Fe",1713-14.

1769).
(San Diego founded
San Carlos Mission, present church, 1793-97.
San Juan Capistrano Mission,later church,begun 1797.
San Gabriel Mission, present church, begun 1812.
Santa Barbara
Mission, present church, 1815-20.
Louisiana
(under Spain 1764-1800).
Cathedral
at New
Orleans, 1792-94.
Cabildo at New
Orleans, 1795.
Dutch
colonies,1624-64.
Huis"
"Stadt
at New
Amsterdam, 1642 (demolished).
California

English colonies.
Seventeenth

century.

Virginia(Jamestown founded 1607).

Thoroughgood house, Princess Anne Co., c. 1640.
Saint Luke's, Smithfield,
after 1631.
Massachusetts
(Plymouth founded 1620; Boston, 1630).
Fairbanks
house in Dedham, 1636.
Whipple house in Ipswich, c. 1650.
"Old
Ship" Meeting House in Hingham, 1681.
Carolina (Charlestonestablished on its present site 1680).
Yeoman's
Hall, Goose Creek, c. 1693.
Pennsylvania (Philadelphiafounded
1682).
William
house in Philadelphia,
Perm (Letitia)
1683 (?).
Eighteenth century.
Houses.

Mulberry Castle,South Carolina, 1714.

Westover, Virginia,c. 1730.
Royall house in Medford, Massachusetts,c. 1737.
Mount
Airy,Virginia,1758.
Whitehall,Maryland, c. 1760.
Mount
in Philadelphia,
Pleasant
c.
1761.
Brewton

house

in

Charleston,c. 1765.
begun 1771.
Monticello,Virginia(Thomas Jefferson),
The
c.
Woodlands, near
Philadelphia,
1775 (?).
Churches.
Old

Saint

Charleston, 1723 (sincerebuilt).

Philip's,
Church, Philadelphia(John Kearsley),1727-44.
(Peter Harrison), 1749-54,
Bang's Chapel, Boston
portico 1790.
Saint Michael's,Charleston, 1752-61.
Saint Paul's Chapel, New
York
(McBean), 1764-66,
Christ

steeple1794.

AMERICAN

ARCHITECTURE

567

Public

buildings.
City Hall in New York, 1700 (demolished).
Old
Virginia Capitol in Williamsburg, 1702-04
Old

(demolished).
Andrew

(1676-1741).

Hamilton

Old

State

phia,
(Independence Hall) in Philadel-

House
1732-52.

John Smibert
Faneuil
Peter

(1684-1751).

Hall in

Harrison

Boston,

1742

(sincetwice rebuilt).

(1716-75).

Redwood

Library in Newport, R. I., 1748-50.

in Newport, R. I.,1761.
Market
National period,1776-date.
Classicism,c. 1785-1850.
Thomas
Jefferson,
1743-1826.
VirginiaCapitol at Richmond, 1785-98 (remodeled).
Remodeling of Monticello,1796-1808.
Universityof Virginia,1817-26.
Pierre Charles L'Enfant, 1754-1825.
Federal Hall in New
York, 1789 (demolished).
Plan of the city of Washington, 1791.
Robert Morris house, Philadelphia,1792-95
(demolished).
Stephen Hallet.
Designs for the Capitolat Washington, 1792-94.
James Hoban, c. 1762-1831.
South
Carolina
Capitol at Columbia, 1789 (destroyed).
White
House
in Washington, 1792-1829.
William
Thornton, 1761-1828.
PhiladelphiaLibrary, 1789 (demolished).
Designs for the Capitolat Washington, 1793-1802.
Charles Bulfinch,1763-1844.
Beacon
column
in Boston, 1789.
Massachusetts
State House
in Boston, 1795-98.
Massachusetts
General
Hospital in Boston, 1818-21.
Completion of the Capitolat Washington, 1818-29.
Samuel
Blodget,1759-1814.
delphia,
Bank
of the United
States (Girard'sBank) in PhilaBrick

II.

1795-97-

Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1766-1820.

Bank of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia,1799 (demolished).
Works
at the Capitol at Washington, 1803-17.
Cathedral
in Baltimore, 1805-21.
House
at Baltimore
(with
Exchange, Bank, and Custom
Godefroi),i8i";-2Q(demolished).

5 68

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

(Second) United States Bank at Philadelphia,1819-24.

Joseph Mangin, and John McComb,
1763-1853.
New
York
City Hall, 1803-12.
Saint John's, Varick Street,New
York, 1803-07.
Robert
Mills, 1781-1855.
in Baltimore, 1815-29.
Washington Monument
East colonnade
of the Treasury in Washington, 1836-39.
Monument
in Washington, 1836-77.
Washington
William
Strickland,1787-1854.
Merchants'
Exchange in Philadelphia,1832-34.
Tennessee
Capitol at Nashville,begun c. 1850.
Ithiel Town.
Former

Connecticut

Custom

House

Capitol at New

(Sub-Treasury)in

Haven, 1829 (demolished).

New

York

(with A. J.

Davis), 1834-41.
Isaiah Rogers.
Merchants'

Exchange (Old Custom

House) in New

York,

1835-41 (remodeled).
U. Walter, 1804-88.
Girard College in Philadelphia,1833-47.
Wings and dome of Capitol in Washington, 1851-65.
Romanticism, c. 1800-50.
Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1766-1820.
Philadelphia,1800 (demolished).
Sedgeley near
Gothic
project for cathedral in Baltimore, 1805.
Thomas

Maximilian

Godefroi.

Chapel of Saint Mary's Seminary in Baltimore, 1807.

Richard
Upjohn, 1802-78.
Trinity Church in New York, 1839-46.
James Ren wick.
in New
Grace Church
York, 1843-46.
in New
Saint Patrick's Cathedral
York, 1850-79.
Eclecticism,c. i85o-date.
French Renaissance
phase.
Richard
Morris Hunt, 1828-95.
Residence
Lenox

of W.

K. Vanderbilt
in New

in New

York, 1883.

York, 1870-77 (demolished).

Library
Biltmore, North Carolina.
Romanesque phase.
Richardson, 1838-86.
Henry Hobson
in Boston, 1872-77 (west towers
Trinity Church
porch, 1896-98).
Allegheny County buildingsin Pittsburgh, 1884.

with

ARCHITECTURE

AMERICAN
Classical
Charles
Fine

569

phase.
B.

Attwood, 1849-95.
Arts Building,Chicago Exposition,
1893.

Charles

F.

McKim,

1847-1909;

William

R.

Mead, 1846-,

White, 1853-1906.
Newport, 1881.
Residence
of Henry Villard in New
York, 1885.
Boston
Public Library, 1888-95.
AgriculturalBuilding, Chicago Exposition,1893.
Columbia
UniversityLibrary in New York, 1895.
Pennsylvania Station in New York, completed 1910.
Hastings, 1860-.
John M. Carrere,1858-1911, and Thomas
de Leon
Hotel
Ponce
at Saint Augustine, 1887.
Stanford

and

Casino

New

Cass

at

York

Public

Library,1897-1910.

Gilbert,1859-.

Minnesota

State

Capitolin

Woolworth

Building in New
A. Platt, 1861-.

Charles
Larz

Anderson

Garden

at

Saint

Paul, 1898-1906.

York,

1911-13.

Brookline.

Leader

Building at Cleveland, 1912.

Gothic phase.
Grosvenor
GoodCram, 1863-; Bertram
Ralph Adams
hue, 1869-.
All Saints',
Ashmont, Massachusetts, 1892.
United
States MilitaryAcademy at West
Point, 1903.
Saint Thomas's, New
York, 1906.
Church
in
Calvary
Pittsburgh, 1907.
Rice Institute in Houston, 1909.
Functionalism,c. i893-date.
Louis Sullivan,1856-.
Transportation Building,Chicago Exposition,1893.
Prudential
(Guaranty) Building in Buffalo,c. 1895.
Frank
Lloyd Wright.
Larkin Building in Buffalo,1004.
Church
of the Unity in Oak Park, Illinois,
1908.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

P-re-colonial architecture.

generalview

NOTE

major part of the

field is afforded by three handbooks
by T. A. Joyce: South American
Mexican
and Archeology of
Archceology,1912;
Archceology,1914;
Central America
and the West Indies,1916. For North America
see
S. D. Peet's Prehistoric America, 5 vols.,1890-1905. Among
imof the

570

HISTORY

portant works

on

Studies

OF

ARCHITECTURE

specialregionsare

the Ancient

W.

H.

Holmes

's

Archaological

Cities

of Mexico, 1895-97, and H. J.

among
For others consult the bibliographies
in
Spinden's Maya Art, 1913.
Methods
and
Joyce's handbooks
and, on Mexico, in W. Lehmann's
Results in Mexican
Research,1909.
Colonial
architecture:
Spanish colonies. S. Baxter's SpanishColonial Architecture in Mexico, 10 vols.,1901, is an elaborate work;
B. Papin's The Picturesque'Architecture
L. LaBeaume
and W.
of
of
views.
For
a
Mexico, 1915,
slighterbook, composed primarily
California see
especiallyP. Elder's The Old Spanish Missions of
The Franciscan
California,
1913, and R. Newcomb's
of Alta California,
1916; for New Mexico, L.
Mission
Churches of New
Mexico, 1915.

English colonies.

Mission
B. Prince's

ure
Architect-

Spanish

popular general survey is afforded by H. D.

Eberlein's Architecture of Colonial America, 1915.
General
tions
collecof drawings and photographs are
The Georgian Period,3 vols.,
1898-1902 ; Frank E. Wallis's Old Colonial Architecture and Furniture,
Decoration, and Furniture, 1896;
Architecture,
1887, and American
G. H. Policy'sThe Architecture,
and Furniture of the American
Interiors,
Colonies During the XVIII.
and
D. Millar's
Century, 1914;
and
Measured
Colonial
Drawings of some
Georgian Houses, 2 vols.,
works
with
Among
1916.
regional
important texts are N. M. Isham
and A. F. Brown's
Early Rhode Island Houses, 1895, and their Early
Connecticut Houses, 1900; H. C. Wise and H. F. Biedleman's
Colonial
Architecture
in Pennsylvania,New
Jersey,and Delaware, 1913;
Homes
and Churches.
R. A. Lancaster's
Historic Virginia
Regional
works of largephotographs are J. E. Chandler's
Colonial Architecture
of Maryland, Pennsylvania,and Virginia,1882; J. M. Corner and E.
.

Soderholz's
Domestic

Domestic

Colonial

Colonial
Architecture

Architecture
in

in

New

England, 1891,

Maryland and Virginia, 1892;

E. A. Crane and E. Soderholz's Examples of Colonial Architecture in
South
Carolina
and Georgia, 1898. Regional works
of measured
and W.
drawings are W. D. Goforth
J. McAuley's Old Colonial
Architectural
Details in and around
Philadelphia,1890; L. L. Howe
R. C.
and C. Fuller's Details from Old New
England Houses, 1913;
Kingman's New England Georgian Architecture,
J. P. Sims and
1913;
H. F. CunningC. Willing'sOld PhiladelphiaColonial Details,1914;
ham
in the
Architecture
and others' Measured
Drawings of Georgian
District of Columbia, 1914.
Among the works treatinggenerallyof
Churches,1914;
singleclasses of buildingsare A. Embury's American
E. Chandler's
and
F. R. Vogel's Das amerikanische
J.
Haus, 1910;
The
Colonial House, 1916.
National
architecture: United States. No
adequate general work
has hitherto been attempted. Brief sketches which supplement one

571

another
Architecture

in

America,
in

the

and

United
vol.

Das

and

the

studies

by

A.

of

of
H.

the

1896,
later

i,

E.

by
1913;

M.

and

in

vol.

S.

is

there
G.

of

Van

Wright

121,

the

Greek

besides

C.

post-

vol.

of

99,

the

Thomas

and

Letters

of Latrobe,
the

1888;
R.

R.

Revival,

History

Journal

Rensselaer,

F.

American

201;

Life

the

little

by

in

biographies

The
and

ings
Build-

For
Old

426,

through

Public

Dow's

Brown's

the

Kimball;
Bulfinch,

W.

pp.

G.

by
and

1900;

F.

of

The

of

p.

types

1904.

98,

25,

1901;

J.

Schuyler's

supplemented

periods

Richardson

Granger,

by

certain

Architecture,
M.

vol.

1909,

History

and

States
Architecture

Department,

1910;

1910-11,

by

of

Prospects

United

Bragdon:

of
in

Treasury

see

vol.

1916,

F.

Record,

Domestic

period

may

Shaler's

C.

followed

the

be

S.

and

Haus,

Capitol,

Bulfinch,
For

1905.

of

Architect,

Charles

be

may

N.

development

The

84.

Architect,
This

States

Jefferson,

Architectural

classical

161.

United

the

Review

American

81,

pp.

pp.

Control

colonial

2,

amerikanische

Renaissance:

(in

States

and

Development

in

periods
the

Brunt:

425-51)

38,

pp.

Van

United

States,

26,

Vogel's

H.

vol.

1894,

Under

in

the

successive

the

of

those

are

Ashbee,

individual
of

McKim

1911.

of

CHAPTER

EASTERN

The

East

XIV

ARCHITECTURE

is a world

which, as we now
realize,
long surpassed
Europe in enlightenment, as well as in wealth and

Christian

With

its great
architectural

and philosophies,
there have
religions
flourished
stylesof corresponding duration and
complexity. In comparison with Western
stylesgenerally,
these have been less concerned with problems of structure
and
with abstract
more
problems of repetitionand combination
A notable
of forms.
characteristic
is the degree to which
each Eastern
artistic traditions
people has held fast to its own
varied
under
the most
politicaland religioussupremacies.
extent.

artistic influences

Nevertheless
and

forth

the Orient
a

varied

between
and

the

the

have

Eastern

not

failed to

peoples,as

Occident, so that there

historical development.

Two

has

pass

back

well

as

been

everywhere

main

currents

between

be

may

in the Far East embracing India, China,

one
distinguished,
and their dependent countries,the other in the Near
East,
and
other
countries
which
the
Persia
ultimately
embracing
the sway
of Mohammedanism.
Development of architecture in the Near

came

under

In return

for its

heritagefrom

the

Levant, Greece

and

his

successors

endowed
with

the

Easi.

Sassanian

art.

civilization of
preclassical
Asiatic empires of Alexander

the

Hellenistic art, which

extended

even

the Parthian
rulers (130 B.C.
beyond their borders. When
226
Mesopotamia, they adopted the Greek
A.D.) overran
With
Persian empire
columnar
the rise of the new
system.
under the Sassanian
however, the tide
dynasty (227-641 A.D.),
The
of art once
more
began to flow from East to West.
of ancient Mesopovaults and occasional domes
subterranean
tamia
basis
the
of
v
aulted
taken as
a consistently
were
style.
"

573
instances

In such
its

this achieved
other

In
means

In its

we

effects both

new

the

cases

monumental

dome, supported

over

of

and
a

decorative.

square

a notable
diagonal arches or squinches,was
westward
expansion this virile art contributed

FIG.

as

the

palace at Ctesiphon (Fig.308), with

arched
hall and facade of blank arcades,
great elliptically
as

have

construction

308

"

seen,

and

CTESIPHON.

to

ROYAL

the formation

PALACE.

of the

room

by

feature.

largely,

(DIEULAFOY)

Byzantine systems

of

ornament.

development. The
Sassanian
empire was brought to an end by the sudden expansion
of its
In a few years from the flight
of Mohammedanism.
tion
(622),his followers,obeying his injuncprophet from Mecca
to spread their faith by the sword, conquered Mesopotamia
Africa
and
northern
Persia
(642),
(637),Egypt (638),
architecture in these
Spain (711). At first Mohammedan
regionswas little else than the art of the different conquered
of the
peoples adapted to the worship and the customs
In Syria,in Egypt, and in Spain the Romanoconquerors.
employed for the construction
Byzantine column and arch were
Mohammedan

architecture.

General

574
of

HISTORY

buildings such

OP

ARCHITECTURE

the great mosques

the mosque
of Damascus

Mesopotamia

Persia

of Amru

as

and

and

the domed

at Cairo

(785-848). In

Cordova

and

(642),or

vaulted

halls of the

adopted as prominent features of the designs.

Besides the uniformity of the programs,
however, a certain
community of artistic character between different regionssoon
developed a character pronouncedly Oriental. This was due
Sassanians

were

"

in part to the taste and the traditions of the Arabs themselves,

but more
largelyto the earlier conquest of the Eastern lands,
the

prestigeof

these

as

the

seat

of the

early caliphatesof

Bagdad, and the vitalityof Eastern art as the

of inspiration
in the early Middle
Ages. Thus
generalsource
in Syria,which
had
the lace-like incised carving of Mschatta
earlier contributed
to Byzantine development, now
appeared
of Africa and Spain. Thus,
in the earliest Arab
monuments
the eighth
in Persia from
too, the pointed arch, common
century, appeared in Syria and Egypt from the beginning of
The tall dome
of pointed silhouette,and the court
the ninth.
with vaulted
halls abutting it also Persian features
trated
peneThe
Egypt in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
and

Damascus

"

"

conquest of northern

India

and

its conversion

to

danism
Mohamme-

teenth
for Persian influence there in the fourthe way
fifteenth centuries,while Persia itselfthen borrowed

opened
and
from

India

the

ogee

arch

and

the

bulbous

dome.
Turks

conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman

finally,
began

in their Oriental

which

became

return

new

influence

empire,through the

of

the

(1453),

Byzantine architecture

imitation

of

Hagia Sophia,
caliphs. The

of the Turkish
chief mosque
resulted
of the various schools which
the

With

from the
development
mingling of local traditions and distant influences continued
the nineteenth
uninterruptedlyuntil the eighteenthand even
century, and has been checked only by internal disorganization
and by the conquests of European powers.
of the Mohammedan
Mosques. The outward observances
facing in the direction of
religionare simple prayer, made
For their formal
Mecca, and preceded by purifyingablution.
the early believers naturally
places of worship, the mosques,
of the
scheme
the universal
adopted the peristylarcourt
furnished shelter from the
Levant
the porticoesof which
The mirhab, a small niche in the outer wall,
tropicalsun.
"

"

"

ARCHITECTURE

EASTERN

indicated the direction of Mecca,

the

porticoes
scheme

deepened

were

is seen

conquest of Egypt,

FIG.

309

"

and

and

575
this side of the court

on

multiplied.

This

mental
funda-

in the first great mosque

built after the
of Amru
at Cairo
the mosque
(Fig.310).

CORDOVA.

INTERIOR

OF

MOSQUE

The

tendency was to develop the deeper side of the court into

inclosed building often of vast
an
extent, as at Cordova
and
arcades,
(Fig. 309) with aisle after aisle of columns
In later western
beams
and a terrace
roof.
carryingwooden
the aisle leading to the mirhab
widened, and a
was
mosques
"

"

specialsanctuary
domed

was

created

in front of it.

sanctuary precededby

vast

open

In Persia
nave

or

great

niche

was

576-

early adopted, and

cardinal

the other
based
Hassan
occupy

models,

(1377), have
the

cruciform.

such

court

310

On

"

introduced

were

Egyptian

OF

Sultan

mosque
that these

side,and the scheme

at

mosques

of

reduced

MOSQUE

CAIRO.

the

as

so

greater part of each

FIG.

features
becomes

PLAN

AMRU.

the capture of Constantinople,

Hagia Sophia
its main buildingto the east, its great central
"

its atrium,

with

correspondingfeatures
The
pointsof the court.

Persian

on

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

perfectlyadapted to
in the
Mohammedan
worship. It was copied almost literally
at
Constantinople (1550). In other
Mosque of Suleiman
Ottoman
the possiblevariants were
used, especially
mosques
and

nave,

the

scheme

which
minor

the

its eastern

of

apse

central

"

found

was

dome

with

Byzantines themselves

elements

of the

most

mosques,
strikingfeatures, are the

with

corbeled

balconies

from

four

had

abutting half domes,

developed. Among

not

which

minarets,
which

yet

are

the

or

among

slender

muezzin

their

towers,

gives the

Copyright
FIG.

311

"

GRANADA.

THE

ALHAMBRA.

COURT

by H.
OF

C.

LIONS

White

Co.

578
call to

HISTORY
These

prayers.

of

OP

ARCHITECTURE
erected

were

at

one

or

of the

more

the

buildings,ingeniouslyincorporated with it.

varied much
in different regions,the Ottoman
Their forms
form, with a very tall cylindricalshaft ending in a slender
being especiallydaring.
cone,
The
Palaces.
enjoyment of worldly goods and pleasures
and the absolute power
not despisedby Mohammedanism,
was
corners

FIG.

and

vast

taste

for

312

"

THE

AGRA.

splendor and

the men's

apartments
rooms

were

made

high

as

above

MAHAL

of the

revenue

caliphsenabled them
luxury by the construction

palaces. In these the customs

jealous seclusion from the outer
of

TAJ

quarters and
of

the

as

the

Orient

world, and

demanded

women

and
one

children, the
or

possible,except

more

for

separation
the private

harem.

courts, the

loggiasand

The

fagades

balconies

the

ground and guarded by latticed screens.

relieve the heat of the climate,the courts
surrounded
were

shady

porticoesand

provided with

strict

reception-rooms from

distributed about
blind

of

gratifytheir
of magnificent

to

basins and

fountains.

To

by
A

EASTERN

ARCHITECTURE
the

complex axial system governed

and

the

The

579

relations

of the

principal

luxurious

elegance sometimes
in the Alhambra
at Granada, built by the
attained is well seen
rulers of Spain, chieflyin the fourteenth
last Mohammedan
The Court
of Lions (Fig.311), with
and fifteenth centuries.

rooms

courts.

its slender columns, its delicate stalactite decoration

colored

and

Indian

type

in stucco,

architecture
in the
gilded,shows Mohammedan
final development of one of its local schools, when
the elements
of diverse originhad been fused in a characteristic whole.
In Egypt, in Persia, and especially
Tombs.
in India, the
of great monarchs
tombs
rival the palacesand mosques.
The
was

domed

mausoleum,

set

in the

midst

of

at Agra
example is the Taj Mahal
(Fig.312), built by Shah Jahan in 1630, in which the central
is flanked
dome
by four smaller domes, and the principal,
the exterior by great
on
minor, and diagonal axes are marked
and harmoniously proportioned.
arches expressively
builders were
Mohammedan
Forms
fronted
conof detail. The
by few structural problems for which solutions had
not
Byzantine, and
by late Roman,
already beeru found
At
architecture.
Sassanian
first,like the early Christian
and
classical columns
builders, they employed borrowed
Their
supporting impost blocks and stilted arches.
capitals,
of
rested on squinches. Later their treatment
early domes

The

garden.

fundamental

most

noted

structural

elements, such

as

the

arch

and

the

governed by decorative conceptions. In Spain

and Africa arches were
cusped ;
given a horseshoe shape or were
in Persia, Egypt, and
treated with
a
Spain vaults were
tite
multitude
of small squinches resembling stalactites. Stalacalso used in some
motives were
capitals,
although in others
vault,

modified

was

Corinthian

expressiveGothic

motives

were

examples.

The

used, much

as

ornamentation

in the most

depended

but greatlyon effects of line,of

relief,
material, and, above all,of color. The prohibitionagainst
and animals, with the mathematical
bent of
representingman
of interlacing
the Arabs, resulted in a geometricalornament
little on

effects of bold

intricate.
Precious
figures, extraordinarily fertile and
materials were
freelyused; in Persia whole buildingswere
faced with colored and glazed faience in patterns suggested
by rugs and textiles.

580

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

Development of architecture in

the Far East.

Long before the

Aryan population of India

Christian era, the Chinese and the

had each adopted the basic constructive

elements

and

the

religious
symbolism of architectural systems, which persistent
conservatism, coupled in China with ancestor- worship, has
preservedto this day. Each employed at the start a structure
the Indian roofs
wood, with posts, beams, and brackets
being of thatch, the Chinese roofs of curved tile. In China
of

"

wooden

construction

early developed
and

beam
arch

has

construction, likewise based

stone

bracket, with

and

vault.

typical; in India

remained

similar

the

Characteristic

of

devices
both

of

there
on

the

the

corbeled

countries

the

was

multiplicationof similar decorative elements, graduated in

size and
of
subtly varied in arrangement, in combinations
overwhelming decorative effect. As dynasties rose and fell,
of less developed culture
established
as
foreign conquerors
themselves, as
Brahmanist, Jain, and
religioussystems
"

Buddhist
China

in

India, or

succeeded

"

architectural

systems

historical

growth

system

another.

or

arch with

in

spire or

sikhara.

influences

India

influence

adopted

Persia,and China

the

of

one

pointed

modified

the

bound

were

by

built
"

Indian

but

or

creed

dynasty, so that shrines

simultaneouslyand side by side,
not

or

Buddhist, Brahmanist,

Chinese.

The

or

outlyingregions

dominated

were

Thus

on

native

instances, on suggestionsfrom the Indian

In the main, however, these changes and

style essentiallyone

Mohammedan,

indeed, and

was,

Mohammedan

not

of different sects

other, the

in

steadilyadapted to the prevailing

fundamental
changes of style. Inner

there

some

were

each

Buddhist

were

radiatingjointsfrom

pagoda,

in

transformed

or

without

programs,

Confucianist, Taoist, and

by the influence of the great cultural centers.

Java developed in the eighth to the thirteenth centuries

notable

art based

the art

of the

on

Indian

Khmers

models, and had its own

in Cambodia.

Japan

was

influence

inspired

and
on
by China, and, undisturbed
by invasion,
in China itself.
preserved tendencies which succumbed
India.
The basic feature of Indian religious
buildingswas
the stupa, a hemisphericaltumulus
first
or
dome, which was
used as a grave
and thus gained religious
associations.
monument
In the earlyBuddhist chapter-housesat Ajanta (second
carried

EASTERN

ARCHITECTURE

581

first centuries

B.C.),the stupa served as an altar or

reliquary,standing in the apse-likeend of a hall, with a
The
colonnade
followingthe sides and encirclingthe apse.
domical
form of the stupa was
also employed as the crowning
feature of the shrines of Siva, the destructive aspect of the
Brahmanist
trinity,while for those of the complementary
and

FIG.

313

"

KHAJURAHO.

TEMPLE

OF

VISHNU

preservativeaspect, Vishnu, the form adopted was the spirelike sikhara.

of the great
the principalelements
These
are
medieval
temples of India, of which the shrine of Vishnu at
bule
Khajuraho (Fig.313) with its vast bud-like sikhara,its vestiand symbolic porches,its wealth
ic
of carved ornament,
dia
the Mohammedans
a
typicalexample. When
conquered Intheir art had already absorbed
Indian elements, and no
radical change was
in methods
of construction and
necessary
composition. The Siva dome, stripped of its sculptured
the dome
of the mosque.
The
temple
symbolism, became
platform was preserved,and the small sikharas which marked

582
its

HISTORY
became

corners

traditions

OP

minarets,

of Indian

dates

than

FIG.

from

India

314

"

as

in the

Taj

Mahal.

Thus

craftsmanship remained unbroken

European ideals by the English.

importation of
Java. Java felt the

the

ARCHITECTURE

influence

of Indian

that its Buddhist

so
itself,

THE

JAVA.

CHANDI

the
until

at later

movements

date

monuments

(SCHELTEMA)

MENDOOT.

the

eighth to the twelfth

centuries, its Brahmanist
shrines mostly from the subsequent period. Both
were
posed
comof the typicalIndian elements.
Sometimes
the ensemble
also of Indian character,as there was
was
a
pyramidal chapel
with a porch in front, like the Chandi
Mendoot
(Fig.314).
Sometimes, however, the general arrangement
more
was
around
characteristically
Javan, depending on the repetition,
a

central

numbers.

monument,
This was

of small

shrines

Budur

the system at
(ninthcentury),where the

shape,

was

themselves

hundreds

surrounded

supported

on

alike,often in great
the great temple of Boro-

large central stupa,

by smaller
a
pyramid

of niche-like shrines.

all

bells

in

three

of bell

terraces,

of six steps with

many

EASTERN
Cambodia.

In

Cambodia

ARCHITECTURE
there

583

arose,

under

Indian

and

Javan influence,the civilization of the Khmers, whose empire

from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries.
flourished especially
certain forms, such as the Javanese
Although it borrowed
system of an assemblage of satellite shrines,its developed
architecture was
markedly different from anything in India
in the cityand palaceof Angkor Thorn
and Java. As seen
or

FIG.

315

"

ANGKOR

WAT.

SOUTHWEST

ANGLE

OF

THE

PORTICOES

in the

temple of Angkor Wat (Fig.315),the styleinvolved vast

ensembles
governed by an elaborate system of rectangularaxes,
of approach, tall straight
with lakes and moats, causeways
stairways leading to elaborate gateways flanked by long
and a multiplication
of sikhara-like towers with rich
porticoes,
pointed silhouettes. The fine limestone freelyavailable was
laid up with exquisiteprecision,
without mortar, and carved
with endless sculpturesin relief and in the round, in which
the serpent-headmotive was
teristic
conspicuous. Especiallycharacwas

20

the fine restraint and

sense

of structural

fitness in

584
the

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

piersand capitalsof porticoesand gateways,

with

the classical

of the West

canons

as

which

accord

do few other structures

of the Orient.

China.

Unlike

the

steadilyretained wood
The singlehall

West, and
as

material

of wood

has

India, China

unlike

even

for monumental

remained

ures.
struct-

fundamental

the

of

element

the

even

As

largesttemples.
China

result

has

has

ried
car-

in

construction
wood

to

degree of

elaboration

and expressiveness

comparable
with

of the

that

of

systems

great

masonry

construction elsewhere.
essential

The

scheme

of

columns,
with arm-like brackets,
consists

supportinga beam system

and
hanging
overwidely
which
hip-roof,
struction
by the mode of its conurally
acquiresnata slightupward
at

curve

If the
316

FIG.

"

PETCIN.

THE

TEMPLE

OF

the

span

HEAVEN
or

one

angles.
is great,
lines of

more

interior

introduced, creating an
each

with

its

encirclingaisle

roof

own

and

supports are
series of aisles,

or

section of vertical

wall

(Fig.

produced by buildings in more

than one
shaded by overhanging
story, for each story was
When
the stories were
eaves.
multipliedthere was produced
the pagoda, often erected as a feature of a temple, but usually
also built of
monument.
as
a commemorative
Pagodas were
316).

similar

stone, in which
to

decorative
was

Chinese

effect

case

was

and
string-courses,

given more
houses

and

the stories were

the roofs between

the

character

sometimes
of

an

reduced

the whole

Indian

sikhara.

palaces,of isolated halls grouped

ure
struct-

The
in

an

inclosure,

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

586

accompanied by gardens

were

of

naturalistic

worthy
mountains, lakes, and bridges. Noteof fortification,
the walls and
also are the vast works
all,the Great Wall of China,
gates of the cities,and, above
miles long, first erected as an earthen rampart
twelve hundred

style,with

miniature

third

in the

B.C.,

Japan.

Chinese

architecture
of the

missionaries

Buddhist

of the

however, the

period
Japanese

rebuilt

and

walls and

centuries with

sixteenth

pagoda

century

at

towers

seventh

to

century.

and

Japan by
The

the

hall and

Chinese.

Soon,

characteristic

cations,
modifi-

purely

able to make

fifteenth

of stone.

brought

was

Horiuji are

were

in the

in the direction

of greater discretion and elegance. In

at their
were
(898-1186),these qualities

Fujiwara period
height,as may be seen in the subtle and delicate Phenix-hall
its sanctuary flanked by porticoesand pavilions
at Uji with
more
(Fig. 317). Later the system of bracketing became
but
stillalmost
absent
until the
wholly
carving was
complex,
Tokugawa period (1587-1867),when ostentatious exuberance
replacedthe simplicityand dignityof earlier times. Sculpture,
lacquered and gilded,disguisedthe structural members; the
and loaded
with ornaroofs were
ment.
given fantastic curvatures
Such was
the prevailingstylewhen
the opening of the
ports to European trade.(i854)brought the flood of Western

the

artistic

ideas, which

submerge

to

the native art

PERIODS

The

Near

have: tended, for the moment

OF

of

Japan.

EASTERN

ARCHITECTURE

East.

Sassanian

architecture,227-641 A.p.

Palace

at

Firouzabad.

Palace

at

Sarvistan.

Palace

at

Ctesiphon.
Mohammedan
architecture,622 A.D.-date.
Syria and E;^ypt.
at Cairo, 642.
Mosque of Amru
Mosque at Damascus, begun 707.
at Cairo, 878.
Mosque of Ibn Touloun
Mosque of Sultan Hassan at Cairo, 1356.
Tomb
of Kait Bey at Cairo, 1472-76.

at

least,

ARCHITECTURE

EASTERN

587

Spain.
Great

Cordova, begun 770.

restored
Seville,1199-1200,
1353.
Gate
of Justice,
at
Granada, begun 1230:
of Lions, 1354.
at

mosque

Alcazar

at

Alhambra
Court

Mesopotamia

and

Cathedral

mosque

1337;

Persia.
at

Ispahan, 760-70, remodeled

at

Bagdad, 831.
Ispahan, 1612-28.

in sixteenth

century.
Tomb

of

Zobeide

Imperial Mosque

at

India.
at Delhi, c. 1200.
Qutb Minar
Buildings at Fathpur-Sikri, 1560-1605.
at Agra, 1630.
Taj Mahal
Ottoman
Empire.
of Suleiman
at Constantinople, 1550.
Mosque
I. at Constantinople, 1608-15.
Ahmed
Mosque of Sultan
Ali at Cairo, 1815.
Mosque of Mehemet

The

Far

Indian

East.
architecture.

Cave

temples

Karle

at

Ajanta, second

and

and

first centuries

B.C.

temple, Ellora,eighth century after Christ.

centuries.
Temples at Khajuraho, tenth and eleventh
Javan architecture.
Temple of Boro-Budur, ninth century.
architecture.
Cambodia, Khmer
City and palace of Angkor Thorn, ninth century.
Temple of Angkor Wat, twelfth century.
Kailasa

Chinese

architecture.

Wall, third

Great

century

B.C.,

rebuilt

in fifteenth

and

teenth
six-

rebuilt

in

centuries.
Rock

temples of Lungmen, seventh century.

at Nankin,
Pagoda of Porcelain
1412-31.
of Heaven,
Pekin, eighteenth century,
Temple
nineteenth

century.

architecture.

Japanese
Early

temple

buildings

at

Horiuji, beginning

century.

Uji, eleventh
century.
of lyeasu, Nikko, seventeenth

Phenix-hall

Temple

at

century.

of

seventh

HISTORY

588

ARCHITECTURE

OF

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

The

provided

L'

architecture,

in

1907,

of

Art

Remains

Saracens

the

in

Spain,

Present

Day,

J.

and

Burgess

as

B.
O.

1915;

and

The

by

R.

special

Havell's

The

Japanische

Alhambra,
the
of

art

of

Java,

Architecture,

1905.

1912;

F.

covers

English
S.

are

E.

ing
cover-

L.

Calvert's
and

1904;

First

Phene

the

Poole's

Moorish
B.

Havell's

Invasion

Mohammedan

Spiers,

and

Ancient

Eastern

to

A.

revised

This

1910.

of

Architecture

1904-07;

J.

Impressions

be

should

such

views,

recent

more

Medieval

Cram's

generally

Architecture,

vols.,

vols.,

with

dealt

Kunstgeschichte,
3

R.

is

East

embodying

works

and

Far
and

Indian

Kunstgeschichte,

Monumental

1886;

Chinesische

Munsterberg's

A.

i),

History

supplemented
E.

1913.

Fergusson's

J.

The

from
.

by

and

1906,

regions

in

which

volume,

(vol.

Works

is

1912,

Saladin's

musulman

special

Egypt,

H.

lists.

detail.

more

moderne,

et

d'art

in

in

Architecture

Indian

in

in

architecture

Mohammedan

medieval

Manuel

architecture

Mohammedan

the

the

architecture

Eastern

on

bibliographical

full

very

work

V orient

architecture:

with

is

The

general

comprehensive

most

Benoit's

F.

NOTE

vols.,
F.

India,

1910-12,

Scheltema's

of Japanese

chief

The

Abacus.

Absidiole.

Acanthus.

An

of the

small, apse-likestructure

capital.
frequentlyused as a chapel.
the

conventionalized

plant.
architecture,an ornament
peak of a pediment.

the

and

sun-dried

Unburnt,

Adobe.

from

of

classic

In

A crater ion.

derived

ornament

acanthus

corners

member

uppermost

or

placed

leaves

the

upon

brick.

Greek
temples,housing the
Adyton. An inner sanctuary in some
image.
Agora. A Greek public square or market-place.
Aisles.
One
of the divisions in a building divided
longitudinally
the
colonnades
lines
of
of
side divisions,
or
one
piers,
by
especially
often lower
Alice.

Alternate

than

the

garden path

or

A term

system.

division.

central

usually bordered

avenue,

applied to

alternates

an

architectural

by

trees.

system wherein

with

a
more
simpler pier
complex one.
A pulpit,especiallythat found in basilican churches.
in a building,especially
the passageway
mbulatory. A passageway
a

Ambone.
A

around

the apse.
Amphiprostyle. A term

across
applied to a temple having columns
both front and rear, but not along the sides.
A long pot with a narrow
neck, usually of terra cotta.
Amphora.
A
vault.
Annular
vault.
ring-shaped
carries a lintel,
The
end of a wall which
treated
Anta
(pi.antes).
with a pilaster-like
projection.
The
Greek
Anthemion.
honeysuckle ornament.
bathing-establishApodyterium. The dressing-room of a Roman

ment.

A pse. A
dome

of semicircular

recess
or

other

the choir of

supported

Arabesque. An
of

polygonalplan, covered

especiallythe semicircular

by

semi-

termination

of

church.

conduit

Aqueduct. A
one

vault;

or

on

ornament

or

channel

conducting water, especially

arches.

masonry

of

for

capriciousor fanciful character,consisting

flowers,figures,
etc.
foliage,

HISTORY

59o

A series of arches

Arcade.
A

Arch.

structural

stones

Arch

order."

In classic

one

the

nearer

Archivolt.

these

of small

wedge-shaped

are

the system of enframingarches

architecture,

with

cross

two

transverse

the

arms,

longer

center.

lintel,usually with

curved

arch

entablatures.

and
by columns
Archiepiscopalcross.
Architrave.

span

"true"

voussoirs.

blocks, or
"

to

the

In

piersor columns.
an
opening by means

restingon

device

brick.

or

ARCHITECTURE

OF

molded

band

like

horizontal
an

bands

molding?.

or

architrave, carried

around

opening.

Squared and finished building-stone.

Atlas (pi.Atlantes). A male figureused as a support.
Atrium.
in the early
In Roman
architecture, the principalroom
house.
In more
elaborate buildings,a court partly open to the
before the narthe open
court
sky. In Christian ecclesiology,
Ashlar.

thex
Attic.

of

or

basilica.

pedestal-like feature

Baluster.

or

story above

the cornice of

building.
moldings,

consistingof two convex

toruses, with a hollow, or scotia,between.
The
central line of a symmetrical or other
balanced

Attic base.

Axis.

molded

column

base

position.
com-

An

used to support a railing;usually

upright member
other
urn-shaped or with some
swelling contour.
Bar tracery. Tracery composed of thin bars of stone, joinedtogether
the principleof the arch.
on
Barrel vault.
A semi-cylindrical
vault,or one approaching this shape.
Basilica.
In Roman
divided
an
architecture,
oblong covered hall,often subof business
to the transaction
by columns or piers,devoted
and the administration
of justice. In Christian architecture,
an
early Christian church of similar form, composed with
reference to a longitudinalaxis.
of columns,
Basilican.
Like a basilica in having longitudinalrows
or
a raised clerestory.
Battlement.

An

indented

parapet behind

which

archers

could shelter

themselves.

Bay.

Originally an

extension

one

opening between

compartment

of several such

or

two

columns

division of

or

piers. By

buildingwhich

sists
con-

divisions.

Bed-molding. The molding or suite of moldings supporting a cornice.

bell tower
Be/roi. In France and Flanders, the civil or communal
In medieval
as
military
opposed to the docker of the church.
is sometimes
towers
parlance the term
applied to the movable
used in attacking walled fortifications.

GLOSSARY

591

See Sir ing-course.

Belt-course.

rudimentary transept which gave the T-shaped form to

the early Christian basilica.
A
Billet mold.
molding consisting of short, broken, cylindrical
to that of the molding.
members, arranged with their axes parallel
in Norman
Romanesque architecture.
Especially common
An arcade
Blind arcade.
applied to the face of the wall so that no
The

Bema.

actual

openingsappear.
Greek

The

Bouleuterinn.

council-house.

pediment. A pediment in which the raking cornice is broken

through.
member
A support against lateral thrust; especially,
Buttress.
a
projectingat right angles to a wall,designed to receive such a
Broken

thrust.
The

Caldarium.

Campanile.
standing.
Capillamayor.

hot
word

The

view

the

in

-room

applied in

Roman

Italyto

bathing-establishment.
a bell tower, engaged or free
and

the apse
great chapel,nearly filling

of the

ambulatory, commonly

found

in

ing
block-

Spanish

churches.
from the
of a column, distinguished
Capital. The topmost member
shaft by distinct architectural treatment.
An ornament
Cartouche.
of irregularor fantastic form, inclosinga
with
armorial bearings,etc.
field sometimes
decorated
Caryatid. A female figureused as a support.
A small pleasure-house,especiallyin an
Italian villa.
Casino.
Extensive
Catacombs.
underground burial passages and vaults.
The bishop's chair in the early Christian church, comCathedra.
monly
placed at the back of the apse on the longitudinalaxis
of the

building.

Greek, a bishop's cathedral church.

A molding having the form of a quarter-hollow.
Cavetlo.
Cella. The essential or principalchamber
of a temple.
which the masonry
of an arch
on
Centering. A timber framework
or vault is supported until the key is in place,rendering the whole
Catholicon.

In

self-supporting.
Chamfer. The cutting away
architectural
Chancel.

The

square

edge

of

an

ordinary

member.

portion of

.apart for the

of the

church

in the

east

end, railed,and

set

of the

clergy.
Chapel ofthe Virgin. A chapel,dedicated to the use of the Virgin,and
usuallyextendingbeyond the apse on the long axis of the church.
Chevet.

term

cathedral.

use

appliedto

the

complicatedeast

end

of the

French

592

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

Chevron.

V-shaped, or zigzagornament.
Primarily the part of the church

Choir.

The
the

of the

arm

cross

where

the

between

singersare

commodated.
ac-

the transept and

apse.

Ciborium.

A canopy,
the altar of

generallyof marble and supported on columns,

The
term
is often
over
an
early Christian church.
in
to
the
chiseled
in
which
applied
Italy,however,
receptacle
the consecrated
wafers are kept.
Circus.
In Roman
for horse and
chariot
architecture,a course
in England a circular or semicircular
rounded
surraces;
open
space
by houses.
A
rises above
the adjacent
Clerestory.
part of a building which
it
be
with
window
to
roofs,permitting
pierced
openings.
Cloister. A court surrounded
by an ambulatory, usually arcaded.
A square
Cloister vault.
or
polygonal dome.
in a ceiling,
Coffer. A sunk panel or compartment
vault, or soffit.
A church
church.
that has a collegeor chapter, with a
Collegiate
dean, but not a bishop'ssee.
A series or range
Colonnade.
of columns, usually connected
by
lintels.
A

Colonnettc.
"

diminutive

Colossal order."

An

column.

order

running through

than

more

story of

one

building.
A

Column.

circular

supporting member,

usually with

base

and

capital.
An

Concrete.
stone

artificial stone
other

or

material
Console.

cement.

or

composed of an aggregate of broken

materials, held together by a binding

small

bracket

or

corbel,usually in the form

of

scroll of

verse
re-

curvature.

Corbel.

bracket

of masonry,

from
projecting

wall and

used

as

support.
Corbel

table.

often

over

Cornice.

by

An

Corbeled arch.

of masonry

projectingcourse

connected

the

arch

one

carried

corbels,

on

arches.

built up
below.

of horizontal courses,

each

ing
project-

which crowns
the wall of a
projectinghorizontal member
building; any molded
projectionof similar form.
Coro.
The elaborate choir,at times almost an independent building,
commonly
placed to the west of the transept in a Spanish
cathedral.

Coupled. A
Cour

term

d'honneur.

Court.

An

applied to columns
An

inclosed

entrance

space

or

court, open

within

pilastersgrouped in pairs.
on

one

side.

building or connected

with

it.

GLOSSARY
Crocket.
used

593

projectingpiece of carving,usually foliate,commonly

to

decorate

spirein Gothic
A

Cromlech.

edge of

the

gable or

the

slopingridgesof

architecture.

type of prehistoricmonument

composed of

circle of

stones.

The

Crossing.

in

space

cruciform

church

at

the

intersection

of

and

transepts.
the pavement
story beneath

nave

Crypt.

for the

keeping

of

church, commonly

used

of relics.

Cupola. A dome or lantern.

The buildingin which
Curia.

the

Roman

Senate

held its deliberations.

the intrados
point of the small arcs or foliations decorating
of an arch, or of tracery.
of very large blocks,
Cyclopean. A term applied to early masonry
unhewn
or
irregular.
in profile. In the cyma
curve
Cyma. A molding having a reverse
the thin concave
recta
portion projects; in the cyma
reversa,
A

Cusp.

the
Dado.

portion.
pedestalor wainscotingaround

convex

A continuous

Dentils.

Small

wall.

projectingblocks,suggestingteeth,forming part of

the support of a cornice.

the place where
Diaconicon.
Originally
for the church
which

the base of

service.

room

on

kept the vessels

side of the building

the deacons
the south

sacristyof the later church.

found
Dog-tooth.
angular, tooth-like molding, commonly
Norman
Romanesque architecture.
Dolmen.
A pair of stone
blocks with a coveringslab,used of
became

the

An

in

historic
pre-

monuments.

Dome.

hemisphericalvault;

an

exterior feature based

such

on

vault.
Domed

applied to the form of basilica,

especially
with
a dome.
East, when one or more
bays are covered
A
free
tower-like
the
standing,
Donjon.
structure, usually
strongest
of
medieval
castle.
the
European
part
basilica.

The

term

in the

A window

Dormer.

The

Drum.

cloister vault

or

Ear.

projectingfrom the slant of a

or
polygonal vertical wall
cylindrical

Echinus.
and
Enceinte.
with
fort

roof.
on

which

dome

frequently is placed.

projectingcorner

of

molded

architrave.

capital,supportingthe abacus
having a parabolicor hyperbolicprofile.
In military architecture,the wall or rampart, usually
bastions or towers
and curtain walls,which
surrounds
a
or
city.
The

convex

member

of

ARCHITECTURE

OF

HISTORY

5Q4

A column-like
member
from
Engaged column.
projecting
frequentlyactuallya part of the wall masonry.
columns
a

part of

That

Entablature.

extends

and

story

upward

to

the roof

slightswellingin the profileof

In classical architecture,an
open

Exedra.

provided
apse

with

in

seats:

on

the

beginningof

column.

platform, often

Christian

external surface of the voussoirs

The

arch

circular,
semi-

architecture

an

or

stones

composing

vault.

or

of the

One

Faqade.

to the

rests

niche.

or

Extrados.

or

which

wall and

attic above.

or

Entasis.

an

lintel construction

fronts

of

the principal
building,especially

front.
A

long flat band or belt,usually forming part of a suite

of moldings, of which it is usually the widest member.
Fan vault. The vault,in English PerpendicularGothic, shaped like
and suggestingby its spreading ribs
inverted, concave
an
cone,
Fascia.

the appearance
Fenestration.
The
Fillet.

of

fan.

open

an

of
disposition
flat member

narrow

windows

in

accompanying

building.

molding

or

suite of

moldings.
Finial.

In

Gothic

architecture,the bossy, knob-like ornament, of

foliate design,usuallyplaced at the point of a spireor pinnacle.
Fleche.
A very loftyand slender spire-like
structure, used especially
in France to mark important parts of a building,
like the crossing.
A groove,
Flute.
usually segmental or semicircular in plan.
A
buttress.
buttress composed of an arch or a series of arches,
Flying
which

carries the thrust

church

to

solid

of

vault

over

pierbuilt at the outer

the aisle

or

aisles of

wall.

The

market-place of a Roman
city.
Foyer. A lobby or saloon for promenade in a theater.
An order with rusticated,
"French
order."
fluted columns.
Fresco.
Wall painting,in mineral colors,applied to a plasterwall
while the plasteris stillmoist, and permitted to dry in with the
Forum.

plaster.
Fret.

An

of continuous

ornament

bands

or

filletsarranged in rectangular

forms.

longitudinalband of extended length,often decorated with

such a band in an entablature,between
sculpture; specifically,

Frieze.

the

architrave

Frigidarium.

The

and

the cold
Gable.

The

between

end
its

cornice.

cool-room

of
eaves

of

Roman

taining
conbathing-establishment,

plunge-bath.
wall
ridged roof,with the generallytriangular
and

the apex.

GLOSSARY

Gargoyle.A

spout, usuallygrotesquelycarved,designed to

water

the gutter and

from

water

cany

595

throw

it clear of the wall of the

building.
Greek

cross.

Grille.

of four

cross

gratingof
perforatedstone

Groin.

sort, but

any

most

slabs.

edge, or arris,formed

The

meeting at right angles.

commonly of iron work or

equal arms

the intersection of two

by

barrel

vaults.
Groin

vault.

Gutta.

compound vault, in

forming edges
A drop; one
of

the form

of

arrises which

of

under

barrel vaults

two

sect,
inter-

called

groins.
generally in
pendent
tached
atcylindrical,
cone, but sometimes
are

series of

frustum

the

to

or

which

side of

ornaments

mutule

or

other

architectural

feature.

Gynaccea. The

ranged
triforium,commonly arfor
the
segregationof
character,

in the

usually
galleries,

in basilicas of Eastern
women.

Half-limber.A type
timber

with

Hallenkirche.

of brick
filling

consistingof

of construction

type of German

framework

of

clay.

or

Gothic

church

in which

the aisles

high as the nave, eliminatingthe clerestoryand givingthe

of a great hall.
buildingthe appearance
Herm.
A head or bust supported on
sponding
a
quadrangular base correin
the
absent
to
mass
roughly
body.
six
front.
columns
the
across
Hexastyle. Having
Hippodrome. In Greek architecture,a place in which horse and
are

as

chariot

races

Hip-roof. A

run.

roof in which
its

the ends

as

well

as

the sides

are

inclined,

diagonal lines or hips.

a term
Hypcethral.
applied to some
temple cellas.
Hypostyle. Having its ceilingsupported by columns.
arch or vault.
at the springingof an
Impost. A horizontal member
In antis. A term
between
the ends of
applied to columns embraced
so

that

were

in

planes meet

Roofless

"

walls of antae.

two

The

Intercolumniation.

space

distance

or

between

two

columns

of

colonnade.

Interlacingarches.

Two

series of arches

arranged

to

intersect each

other.
Intrados.

The

Keystone. The
or

voussoir

inner face of

The
inn.

or

vault.

topmost, wedge-shaped stone

term

appliedto

in

arch, usuallythe last

the whole
Khan.

arch

an

an

the

to

be

placed,which

ders
ren-

secure.

service quarters of

an

Oriental

dwelling; also

an

Oriental

HISTORY

Sg6

OF
bath

in

ARCHITECTURE
Roman

bathing-establishment.
cupola or
risingabove a dome or the
roof of a building,and having openingsin its faces' by which the
interior is lighted.

Laconicum.

vapor

Lantern.

tower-like

Ages

presence

small shrine in

household

gods, were
The

cross.

of

small

A
A

of

cemetery.

dwellingwhere

Roman

the

Lares, or

form

of cross, in which
the other three.

subordinate

one

rib, inserted between

is

arm

main

two

siderably
con-

ribs

vault.

Lintel.

shaft erected in the Middle

stone

worshiped.

commonest

longer than
Lierne.

structure

ornamental

signalizethe

to

Lararium.

Latin

An

des marts.

Lanterne

horizontal

beam

spanning an

box

or
Loge.
compartment
A
galleryin a building open
Loggia.

side is

opening.

in the auditorium

arcade

an

or

on

at

least

of

one

theater.

side,on

which

colonnade.

An

Machicolation.

opening in the floor of a projectinggalleryfor

the purpose
of dropping missiles,etc.
A flat-topped, bench -like Egyptian tomb
Mastaba.
used by the
nobles of the Old Kingdom.
Mausoleum.
A large and elaborate tomb.
See

Meander.

Fret.

Megalithic. Composed of very large stones.

Megaron. The large hall of an ^Egean or Greek dwelling,generally
subdivided
oblong in shape and sometimes
by one or more
tudinal
longiranges

Menhir.

of supports.

single standing pillar of stone, used

of

prehistoric

monuments.

triglyphsin a Doric frieze.

Mezzanine.
A story of diminished
two
between
height introduced
stories
created by subdividing a high story.
or
higher
Minaret.
In Mohammedan
architecture,a slender and loftyturret,
having one or more
projectingbalconies.
Metope.

Mirhab.

The

support
Module.
Monolithic.

between

niche in

The

ModUlion.

Mosaic.

space

mosque

two

which

bracket, often carved

indicates the direction of Mecca.

with

serving to
spiralscrolls,

cornice.

unit

or

Composed
Decoration

divisor of the dimensions

common

of

of

building.

singlestone.

composed of tesserae or cubes of glass or

designs.
marble, set in mortar, in geometric or pictorial
Mosque. A Mohammedan
place of worship.
A slender, vertical,intermediate
Mullion.
upright, forming part
and
of a framework, dividing an opening,
commonly helpingto
the
glass.
support

GLOSSARY
A

Mutule.

projectingblock

The

Naos.

essential

597

the soffit of

on

principalchamber

or

Doric

of

cornice.

Greek

temple; the

cella.
Narthex.

covered

vestibule

stories,usually open
and
colonnaded
at the front, placed before
a
building,and
in
the
especiallycommon
early Christian period.
Nave.
That
church
the entrance, constituting
of
nearest
a
part
the long arm
in a Latin cross, appropriated to the laity. The
chief central division of the building,the central space between
the colonnades,as opposed to the aisles.
A recess
Niche.
in a wall, usually semicircular and semicircularheaded, often used for the receptionof statuary.
A tapering shaft of rectangular plan, generally with
Obelisk.
a
pyramidal apex.
the front.
Octastyle.Having eight columns across
Odeion.
In Greek
a covered
architecture,
buildingfor musical and
oratorical

Ogee

one

or

more

contests.

curve.

Gothic

of

double

in

common
especially

curve

Flamboyant

architecture.

Opisthodomos. An
Opus alexandrinum.
slabs and

vestibule

open

An

elaborate

the

rear

of

temple cella.

geometricalmosaic

of

marble

tesserae.

Opus francigenum. "French

Germans

to

Gothic

work," the word

blocks

square

first

applied by the

architecture.

A Roman
Opus incertum.
irregularfragments.
Opus reiiculatum. A Roman
small

at

of

method

method

standing

facing concrete

of
on

facingconcrete
their

corners

walls

with

walls with
in

diagonal

lines.

Opus spicatum. A

Roman

method

kernel-shapedfragments laid

of

facing concrete

walls

with

in

herring-bone pattern.
In Greek
theaters,the circle of the dance; in modern
the
theaters,
space for the musicians,or the parquet.
"Order."
In classical architecture,a recognizedsystem of forms for

Orchestra.

the column

and

entablature.

"Organic architecture." A vaulted architecture in which the vaults are

supported by ribs,piers,and buttresses arranged with direct
reference to the needs of

supportingthe

vaults and

opposingtheir

thrusts.

Ovolp. A

Pagoda.

convex

In

in profile.
molding approaching a quarter-circle

Chinese

and

Japanese architecture,a sacred

tower

in

several stories.
Palastra.
kindred

buildingor inclosure devoted

gymnastic exercises.

to

wrestling,boxing,and

SQ8

HISTORY

Palladian

motive.

OF

ARCHITECTURE

central arch

restingon

the entablatures

of lateral

square-headed bays.
Parapet. A breast wall placed at the edge of a platform, terrace,
balcony, etc.
Parterre.
A garden of beds with interveninggravel or turf.
Patio.
In Spain or Spanish America, a court in a house, open to the
sky.
of a
Pavilion.
A
subdivision
central, flanking,or intermediate
monumental
building or facade, accented
architecturallyby

projectionor
A base

Pedestal.
its

otherwise.
or

support for

column

or

building,usuallyhaving

capitaland base moldings.

low triangulargable bounded
by a horizontal cornice
and raking cornices.
An
Pendentive.
inverted, triangular,concave
piece of masonry,
In
a
placed upon
pier to support a section of a dome.
mathematical
terms, a segment of a hemisphere the diameter
of which
is equal to the diagonal of the square
or
polygon
own

Pediment.

to

be

covered.

vaulting,a surface intersectingthe main vaulting

surface to permit lateral openings to be raised above the line of
its springing.
the
Peristyle. A continuous
surrounding colonnade, either around
exterior of a buildingor the interior of a court.
Piano
nobile. The
principalfloor of an Italian house, above the
ground story.
Pier.
A masonry
member
acting as a support, distinguishedfrom a
column
by greater massiveness,by a shape other than circular,
or
by being built of coursed masonry.
Pier buttress. A solid pier of masonry
built immediatelyadjacent to
In

Penetration.

vault to resist its thrust.

Pilaster.

rectangular member, projectingslightlyfrom

wall, and furnished with a capital,base, etc., in

flat

face of

of

manner

the
the

column.

in a wall, used
engaged pier-likemember
in medieval
architecture as a stiffener or rudimentary buttress.
of
Pillar. A loosely used term
denoting an isolated vertical mass
used as a support.
In architecture,
applied to a support
masonry,
of
in the strict sense
which is neither a pier nor
a column
Pilaster

strip.

those
Plate

Podium.

slender

words.

tracery.

tympanum
Plinth.

Tracery composed
of stone,

as

rectangularblock
A

continuous

of

contrasted

openings pierced in
with

bar

usuallyservingas

pedestal.

tracery.
a

base.

thin

GLOSSARY
A

Portcullis.

barrier
sliding

passage.
An

open

columns

or

Portico.

porch
piers.

or

599

gratingto

vestibule

or

It is generally
raised

to the

the

few

to a

access

its roof

having

Presbyterium. That part of a church devoted

the high altar is placed and which forms
of the choir.

off

cut

gate

or

supported by

clergy,in which
termination

eastern

steps above

the rest of

the church.
A

Pronaos.

vestibule in front of the

cella of

Greek

temple.

trance
Propylceum (pi.propylcea). In Greek architecture,an elaborate engateway with a porticoor porticoes.
Proskenion.
In the Greek
theater,a wall or series of piers before
the skene,carrying a platform which
served as a stage for some

all of the

or

Prostyle. A

actors.

applied to a temple or pavilionhaving columns

the front only.
across
A chapel or room
Prothesis.
the north side of the early Christian
on
church; the prototype of the vestry.
Puhinated.
Swelling or bulging out; a term applied to a frieze of
term

curved

section.

Pylon. A monumental

gateway

of classical

tower

An

Pyramid-mastaba.
with

small

Quadriga.

Quadripartitevault.

on

drawn
A

Egyptian temple;

an

design.
Egyptian tomb

pyramid

chariot

to

having

the form

of

gate-

any

mastaba

top.

by four

horses.

of

groin vault, generallyribbed, composed

four cells.

Quoins. Stones or blocks reinforcingthe angle of a building.

The slopingmoldings of a pediment.
Raking cornice.
An inclined plane risingfrom a lower to a higherlevel, taking
Ramp.
the place of steps.
"Rhythmical bay." A term appliedto a continuous alternation of
"

wide
Rib.

and

bays.

narrow

arch, generallysalient from

masonry

molded, formingpart of the skeleton

the

structure

vault
on

surface and

which

the vault

rests.

Ribbed

vault.

vault

of

with

masonry

comparativelythin

web

supported by ribs.
Rocaille.

The

shell-work

or

scroll ornament

characteristic

of

rococo

decoration.

Roof comb.

In

the roof of
Roundel.
Rubble.

Maya
a

architecture,

piercedscreen-wall risingabove

building.

circular medallion.

Masonry

of stones

in shape
irregular

and

size.

600
Rusticated

HISTORY

OF

Stone

stone.

ARCHITECTURE
distinguishedfrom

masonry

by having the joints sunk,

sometimes

and

the

smooth

ashlar

surface

of the

roughlyor bossilyfinished.

stone

Sarcophagus. A

stone

dome

Saucer-dome.

with sculpture.
coffin,
usually ornamented
the
exterior
showing on
only the upper zone

of its surface.
Seance

of the

of the

stage, usually decorated

Scale.

The

Scotia.

skene, forming the background

with

columns.

effect of size

produced by a buildingor its members.

molding of circular plan.
end of the hall in an
across
one
English
passage

concave

"Screens."

The
house.

manor

Sex

front wall

The

from.

partitevault.

groin vault,usuallyribbed,and provided with a

rib to the crown
of the vault,which divides the whole

transverse

into six cells.

of a column.
An
Shaft. The main, cylindricalmember
upright
member, tall and comparatively small in horizontal dimensions,
engaged or free standing,and generallyused as a support.
Short and long work.
Stones
embedded
alternatelyhorizontallyand
at a wall angle,used to reinforce the
verticallyin the masonry
in early Saxon architecture.
angle and especiallycommon
Sikhara.
An Indian spire,used in the shrines of Vishnu.
Skene.
In the Greek theater, the buildingcontaining the dressingthe front of which served as a background for the action.
rooms,

Soffit. The

side

under

of

an

architectural

member,

such

as

lintel

arch.

or

Spina.

The

barrier

dividing a

longitudinallyinto

race-course

two

tracks.

Spire. A lofty,slender,generallyoctagonal member

a

medieval

to

crown

tower.

Splay. A slopedsurface,which makes

a largechamfer.
Squinch. A slab or small arch thrown
polygon to render its shape more
base of

used

an

obliqueangle with another,

angle of a square or
nearly round, to receive the

across

the

dome.

racing,six hundred Greek feet in length.

A tower
built in several recedingplatforms or stages.
Staged lower.
above
Stalactite vaulting. Vaulting composed of small squinches one
of stalactites.
another, giving the appearance
attached to a church or other building.
Steeple. A loftystructure
Stele. An upright stone
employed as a monument.
races,
consistingof diminishingterStep-pyramid. A pyramidal structure
forming a series of large steps.

Stadion.

course

Stereotomy.The

for foot

science of

stone-cutting.

GLOSSARY

601

point of springing of an arch above

of a capitalor impost.
Stilt-block. A block above
a capitalserving to
support
Stilt.

raise the

To

the

an

level

arch

or

vault.
Greek

In

architecture,a long, narrow

hall,usually divided
in
longitudinallyby columns, and having an open colonnade
place of one of the side walls.
or
consisting of fillets,
bands, imitating
Strap-work. Ornament
Sloa.

leather, folded

or

interlaced.

String-course.A horizontal
marking an architectural
Plaster

Stucco.

Stupa.

cement

or

of

course

masonry,

subdivision

used

as

usually molded,
building.

coating for

hemispherical tumulus

of

dome

or

walls.

characteristic

of Indian

architecture.

Stylobate. A continuous plinthor step serving as

columns, especiallythose of the Greek Doric
A pedimented or canopied niche.
Tabernacle.
A

Tablinum.
Roman

recess

or

apartment

at

the

back

base

common

to

order.

of the

atrium

in

house.

Tepidarium.

An

apartment in
temperature

in

Roman

between

termediat
bathing-establishmentin-

the

caldarium

and

the

frigidarium.
A
Terrace-roof.
Small

Tessera.

roof either flat or with

cubes

of marble

or

barelyperceptibleinclination.
glass,used in the composition of

designs in mosaic.
Tholos.
In Greek
architecture,a circular
The

Thrust.

outward

horizontal

force

structure

exerted

or

by

temple.
an

arch

or

vault.
Tie-rod.

A rod, usuallyof iron,set in the masonry

thrust.
to resist its outward

of

arch

an

or

vault

rib in a vault, springing

secondary or intermediate
from the pier on either side of the diagonal rib.
A molding of convex
Torus.
used
profile,
approaching a semicircle,
in
bases.
especially
Trabeated architecture. Literally,beamed
is
architecture, the term
applied to the post and lintel or horizontal architectural system,
as opposed to the arched
or arcuated
system.
Transept. A large division of a church lyingat rightangles to the
long axis of the building. It developed probably from the early

Tierceron.

"

Christian

window.

Transom
or

bema.
A

window

divided

by
horizontally

bar of stone

iron.

Triclinium.
three

In Roman
couches.

the dining-room,
furnished with
architecture,

HISTORY

ARCHITECTURE

OF

602

Triconch

plan. A plan ending in a trefoil or clover-leafed

in Syria,and later in Carolingian and German

common

Triforium. A
over

blind

aisle ; any

an

Tri glyph.

correspondingdivision below

projectingblock

ceilingand

the

between

space

in

Doric

the
a

shape,
tecture.
archi-

lean-to roof

clerestory.
by vertical

marked
frieze,

grooves.

memorial

of

sisting
victory,especiallyone conthem.
and other spoils,
of arms
or sculpturesrepresenting
A combination
of timbers or ironwork
Truss.
so
arranged as to
constitute an
unyielding frame for spanning an opening, etc.
in English
arch.
A four-centered,pointed arch, common
Tudor

Trophy.

monument

architecture.

Tudor

sepulchralmound.

Tumulus.

cell. A

Vault

or

of

subdivision

vault, the part defined by adjacent

ribs.

groins or

of masonry
panse
composing the main exinfilling
of a rib-vault,
supported by ribs.
An
theater or
Velarium.
awning stretched over the seats of a Roman
amphitheater.
which
has orother
material
A thin facing of wood
or
Veneer.
namental
qualitiesand overlays the structural material of a
building.
A spiralscroll.
Volute.
used in the construction
One of the wedge-shaped stones
Voussoir.
of

Wall

an

arch

shaft. A
into two

Wheel,

or

thin

The

web.

Vault

or

vault.

shaft,in the thickness of

or

parts.

more

rose, window.

The

Characteristic

circular

wall,dividingan opening
of earlySaxon
ure.
architect-

window, divided

by tracery,

commonly placed in the west end of a Gothic cathedral.

Ziggurat. A Mesopotamian religiousstructure, consistingof a tall
to
or
staged tower
stepped pyramid, with ramps givingaccess
which

was

the top.
NOTE

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

GENERAL

WORKS

RELATING

TO

THE

{Forworks coveringspecialperiodssee

HISTORY

OF

ARCHITECTURE

the note at the end

of each chapter.)

be
comprehensive histories of architecture may
mentioned
especiallythe following:
F. Kugler'sGeschichte der Baukunsl, 5 vols.,1859-72. Continued

Among

earlier

GLOSSARY

by

Baukunst,

vols.,

3d

Gurlitt

Geschichte

as

der

neuern

1887-1911.

6,

of Architecture,

History

1873-76;

C.

and

Liibke,

in

vols.

Fergusson's

J.
4

W.

Burkhardt,

J.

603

revised

ed.,

by

vols.,

R.

P.

Spiers

2d

1865-67;

and

R.

Kerr,

ed.,
vols.,

1891-93.

in

1881

12,

the

For

of

etc.,

of

having
Royal

Vine),

large
Institute

of
of

Manchester
Boston

Continental
are

Paris,

^873;

bildenden
der

of

libraries,

fuller

Bibliothek

in
der

la

Lutzow's

v.

Wien,

Kgl.

on

the

on

1876;

Akademie

of

der

their
de

Dobbert
Kiinste

and

of

ed.,

that
of

Similar

Berlin,

of

the

which
works

respective
de

G.
The

1914.

is

der

the

and

an

for

countries,
Beaux-Arts,

Akademie

Grohmann's
zu

made

libraries

Guppy

I'Ecole

Bibliothek

be

supplement,

York,

1895.

bibliotheque

der

H.

2d

New
in

work

Katalog

(by

named,

those

architecture

published

also

with

Library,

1908.
furnished

general

or

Salford

books
guide-

just

especially

University,

de

Catalogue

Kiinste

books

Columbia
was

C.

and

is

may

London,

Public

of

catalogue

Vinet's

the

excavations,

the

those

Mention

special

the

subject

as

libraries

Architects,

the

alphabetical

E.

British

and

Library

of

Discoveries,

the

such

architecture,

on

collection

of

works

of

libraries

1909;

Avery

vols.

study

see

of

history

the

Architektur.

der

catalogues

complete

most

(A

setting

literature

historical

collections

the

1898;

Bauslile,

1899.

of Arc/uzological

the

to

Handbuch

the

vols.,

For

Century

guide
in

classified

the

Die

II.

geographical

etc

general

especially

their

Murray,

references

the

architecture,

in

Michaelis's

best

Teil

methods.)

Baedeker,

see

Architektur,

de

monuments

A.

The

Histoire

constructive

of

history

der

date.

to

Choisy's

A.

by

Handbuch

Durm's

J.

der

Katalog
1893.

INDEX
The
index
Note:
covers
illustration being indicated

alphabetically under

the

referencesin the
by

towns

text and
illustrations,the presence
of an
All buildings are
listed
reference in Italic type.
cities where
they are located.

page

and

Abacus,
58, 60, 64, 67
Abadie,
Paul, 495
Abbeville,
296, 307, 309
290.
Abbiate
Grasso,
355
Abydos,
temple of Seti I., 23
in Egyptian architecture, Ji;
Abutment,
in Roman
tecture,
archiin Mesopotamia,
25;
112;

in

Romanesque

265 ff.; in Gothic

291,

ure,
architect-

architecture,

290,

292

in Italy, 402, 403,

architecture,
in Spain, 420-421,
407-410,
413;
422;
in France,
424-430,
422,
423,
431-432,

Academic

in

437;

England, 438-444, 448;

in Germany,

survivals of, 465; revival of,

in America,
536-540, 542491;

452;

487, 490,
555

545.

Academies,
French.
Vitruvian, 403;
424;
of architecture, 428;
French, in Rome,
428
Acanthus,
67, 68, 94, 377

Alessi, Galeazzo,
Alexander

the

Alexandria,

409-410,

Great,

56-57;

33,

419

56

Pharos, 57;

Serapeion,

57

A116es, 434, 446

Altars, 9, 75, 86, 165
Alternate
in Lombard
Romanesque,
system
Romanesque,
228; in Norman
256

Amalienburg,

452

Amateurs,
422-423,
Ambones,
165
Ambulatories,
221,

Amenhotep

536, 542
293

III., 21

American

architecture,
524-571
cathedral, 276, 280, 281, 283, 284,
287, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 299;
Saint John's Chapel, 307
Bartolomeo,
Ammanati,
416, 418
Amon,
ple
temple at Karnak, 19, 20, 21; tem-

Amiens,

at Luxor, 21
Amphiprostyle
temple, 76
Acarnania,
Amphitheaters,
73
104, 127-128,
144
architecture
Achaeans,
Anatolia, medieval
of, 171,
37
Achaemenian
architecture, 32-36
176-177
Acroteria,
Ancy-le-France, chateau, 382
73
Adam,
Robert,
Ancyra, St. Clement's,
462, 464
177
architecture
Adam
Andalusia,
Gothic
style, in America, 558, 547, 550
of, 315
Administrative
Andalusia, Pennsylvania,
buildings, 469-471,
498,
549
Anet, Palace chapel, 384, 386; Mausoleum
546
Adobe,
chapel, 386
526, 527, 529, 530
Thorn,
Angkor
Adyton, 76, 80
583
architecture,
^gean
Angkor Wat. 583
37-42
/Emilia, temple of Aphaia, 63, 80
Angouleme,
227, 252
yEolians, 51
Anselm, 256
^tolia, 56
Antse, 42, 71, 72, 76
architecture
hammedanAnthemion,
MoAfrica, Roman
in, 143;
83
of Tralles, 188
architecture
Anthemius
in, 573
Antioch,
56, 69
Agade, 26
Antiochus
IV., 69
Agorae, 87
Antoninus
Pius, 114
Agra, Taj Mahal,
578. 579
see
Aosta, 143
Agrigentum,
Akragas
Aigues-Mortes,
Apartment houses, 435
324.
325
Aix-la-Chapelle. Charlemagne's
Chapel, Apodyterium,
129
189, IQO, 196, 197, 212, 221
Apollodorus, 120
temples at, 80;
Akragas,
temple of Appius Claudius, 108
52;
Zeus, 70, 71, 86
Apse, 148, 292, 293, 294, 378
AJrthamar,
Apsidal chapels, 292
204

Ala.

138

Albany,

532

Alberti. Leon Battista, 351-352,

376. 377. 378, 403

Alcibiades, 94
Alcobaza, 314

366,

374,

Aqueducts,

104,

Aquitaine,
251 ff.;

Romanesque
Byzantine

108.

131-132

architecture
in,
influence
in, 202,

251

Arabesques, 377, 380, 387, 389

Arch, types of, 4; in Egyptian architecture,

INDEX

6o6
12.

in

23;

Mesopotamia,

architecture, 57,

in

73;

in Greek

25;

Roman

tecture,
archi-

108-109, us,
146, 147;
architecture, 163; in
Romanesque, 220, 240, 260; in Gothic,
in Renaissance
263, 288;
architecture,
376
Arch, commemorative,
104, 122,
133-134;
imitation
of, 351,
352.
438, 464, 466;
104,

107,

in early Christian

horseshoe, 264, 579; ogee,

pointed,
574;
architecture, 240, 260;
Romanesque
in Gothic architecture, 263, 288; pointed,
in India, 586; pointed, in Mohammedan
architecture,
triumphal, see Arch,
574;

Praetoria, 143
Augusta
Augustus, 113, 127, 136, 141
Austria, Gothic
Autun,
254

Auvergne,
249 ff-

architecture

Romanesque

in, 321

architecture

in,

Auxerre,
267
Avila, fortifications,268, 269, 323
Axial
2,
systems,
105, 416, 436
Aztec architecture, 525-526

in

commemorative

order, in Roman

Arch

architecture,
no112,
122,
125, 127, 146; in Renaissance
architecture, 349, 351, 357, 366, 368, 370,
in America,
376, 379;
538, 539
372,

Archeology,
Architect,
109;

460, 461-462
in Egypt,

status

in Greece,
32;
in the Renaissance,

Architecture,

24;
50;

in
in

potamia,
Meso-

Rome,

345-346
of, 1-7

elements

Baalbek,
Babylon,

145-146,

462
"Hanging

154,

26, 27, 30;

Gardens,"

30

architecture, 26, 30-32

Babylonian
Bagdad,
caliphate of, 574
Bagnaia, Villa Lante, 416, 417
Bahr, Georg, 451
Balbus, 126
v
Balconies, in Mohammedan
architecture,
576, 578
Ballu, Theodore,
484, 503
Baltimore, cathedral, 550, 551;

Washington

St. Mary's,

Monument,

546
Balusters, 376
Architrave, Ionic, 65, 73
Balustrades,
Archivolt, 146
408
Argos, 37
Bamberg,
308, 311
Aries, amphitheater,
St. Banks,
128, 152,
247;
472, 491, 498, 542, 545, 546
Barcelona,
TrophJme, 248, 249
315
"Baronial
Arlington, 549
style," 479
in
architecture of, 195 -Jf.,Baroque architecture, xxii, 361, 389, 392;
Armenia, medieval
in Spain,
Italy, 402, 403-407,
203 ff.
410-413;
Arris, 58
Art

nouveau,

512,

514
Basil's, 206,

Arta. St.
215
Artaxerxes
III., 35
Artois, Gothic architecture
in, 284
Arts
and
Crafts Exhibition, 513
All Saint's, 5j"?
Ashmont,

Ashur, 27
Ashurbanipal,

28, 30
Asia Minor,
Greek
architecture
in, 55-56,
of, 109; see also
58, 95; Roman
conquest
Anatolia; Ionia

Aspendos,

theater, 126

Assisi, S. Francesco,

319

Assyria, 25, 27-30

Asylums, 501, 550
Athens, 50, 52-54, 55, 56, 58; Acropolis, 81,
Antiquities of Athens,
97-98;
462;
Erechtheum,
69, 71, 78, 83-84, 85;
54,
imitation
of, 474; Little Metropolis, 189,
of Lysicrates, 69,
Monument
190,
200;
imitation
of
of, 465, 546; Odeion
95;
Herodes
of
Odeion
Atticus, 92, 152;
Pericles, 91;
Parthenon,
53, 54, 61, 78,
82, 84; capitals of, 63; imitation of, 469,
546; Propylaea,54, 87; imitation of, 466;
St. Theodore, 200;
stadion, 92;
temple
of Athena
Nike, 54, 70, 77, 78, 83, 84;
Zeus, 69; theater
temple of Olympian
of Dionysus, 91;
"Theseum,"
80, 82;
imitation
of, 469, 549;
Tower
of the
imitation
Winds,
of, 474
Athens, Ga., Hill house, 549
Atlantes, 69
in Roman
Atrium,

551;

in France,
421-422;
422, 423-424,
in England, 438, 448; in Germany,
in America,
528, 536, 537,
451;
revival
of, 487, 489, 490,
491,

53";
494,

495

Barry, Sir Charles,

474,

480, 487

Base, 3; see also Attic base

Basil L, 183, 208
Renaissance
in
Basement,
360, 361; in Post-Renaissance

architecture,

ure,
architectin
434,
432,
444;
American
architecture,540, 542, 544
of building, 163;
in the
Basilican
type
in
Renaissance,
post348, 364-366;

426,

427,

430,

architecture,435, 442, 447;

Renaissance
architecture, 475; in America,
in modern
529, 538
Basilicas, Roman,
120,
122,
104, 112,
141,
163 ff.,177,
148, 154; Byzantine, domed,
193

of Apollo, 84, 118

Bath, England, 448
128-129;
Baths, Greek, 92; Roman,
498; see also Therms
"Battle of the styles," 482
Battlements,
29,
478
Bay windows,
392,
393,
394
theater, 507
Bayreuth, Wagner
Bassffi, temple

Beads,

ern,
mod-

72

Beak-molding,

72

Beaulieu-les-Loches,
267
Basse-CEuvre,
Beauvais,
cathedral,
223;
St. Etienne,
south transept, 308;
293;
229,

262, 263

165
Attic base, 63, 144

Francisco,
528
William,
478
Beffroi, in medieval
Flanders, 329
Peter, 515, 516
Behrens,

Attics, 408, 430, 435

C. B., 556
Attwood,
Augsburg, Rathaus, 450

Belcher, John, 491

architecture
Belgium, modern
Bell, Ingress, 492

137.

architecture, 107, 112,

138; in early Christian architecture,

437;
450-

Becerra,

Beckford,

in, 496, 514

INDEX
Bema,
Beni

165
Hasan,

tomb,
17, 22
Bentley, J. P., 492
Gate, 466; cathedral,
Berlin, Brandenburg
489; Gothic project, 483; Old Museum,
474;
473;

Reichstag, 489; Royal Opera, 452,

Royal Theater,
Royal Palace, 451;

469, 470,

473,

darmenmarkt,
Werderkirche,

474;
452;

483;

of

towers

turbine
Wertheim

the

Gen-

factory, 516;
store, 510,

SIS

Bernini, G. L., 411-412,

418, 426-427
Berry Hill, 549
Red
House,
Bexley Heath,
505
Biddle, Nicholas, 546, 549
Billet mold, 255, 256
Biltmore, 552
Bin-bir-Kilisse,
176, 177
Town
law courts,
Hall,
Birmingham,
492;
542
Blenheim

Palace,

Blodget, Samuel,

442,
542

44 3,

444

of Gaston
Blois, chateau,
380, 381; Wing
d'Orleans, 425
Boccador,
382
Bodley, G. P., 492
Boileau, L. A., 512
Boisseree, S., 483
Bologna, St. Francis, 319, 340
Grand
Theatre,
Bordeaux,
464, 473
Boro
Budur,
382
Francesco,
Borromini,
412
Bosra, 760, 162, 174
Faneuil
column,
Boston, 534; Beacon
544;
lic
Hall, 539; Franklin Crescent, 549; PubSt. Paul's, 550;
Library, 554,
555;
State House,
Trinity Church,
543,
544;
552,

553

Council-house
see
Bouleuterion,
de Jacques Cceur, 331, 332
Bourges, Maison
Bournazel,
chateau,
382
Brackets, in Par Eastern architecture, 580,
584, 586
Braisne, St. Yved, 309.
Donato,
Bramante,
358-361, 366,
354-355.
378, 379
374- 375-376, 377.
Communale,
Brescia, Palazzo
370
in Roman
Brick, in Mesopotamia,
25;
in post-Renaisarchitecture,
sance
149-150;
architecture,
436, 440, 446;
423,
in
architecture,
in modern
482, 505;
America,
532,
533. 54". S6o, 562
Brick, enameled,
32,
33
in Mesopotamia,
Brick, sun-dried, in Egypt, 21;
in ^Egean
architecture, 40
25;
Bridges, Greek, 73; Roman,
104, 108, 131medieval,
503
335 ff.; modern,
132;
in, 285
Brittany, Gothic architecture

607
Btirklein, 488
Burlington, Lord, 443,

462

D. H., 558
Burnham,
Butterfield, William, 482
Buttress, in Roman
in
architecture,
131;
architecture,
Romanesque
265 ff.; in
Gothic architecture, 290, 291, 292
architecture, 183-216;
influence
Byzantium
revival
of, 213,
of, 492, 495,
250,
574;
560

"Byzantine
Byzantine,
Caen,
22Q,

Renaissance,"
115;

also

see

205

ff.

Constantinople

Abbaye-aux-Dames

(La

Trinite),

258, 266

257,

Caen,

(St. Etienne).
Abbaye-aux-Hommes
256, 257, 258, 266, ZQO,
296
223,
Cahors, Pont
Valentre,
336
of Amru,
Cairo,
Mosque
576;
574,
575,
of Sultan Hassan, 576
Mosque
Calah, 27
Caldarium,
130
129,
California, 529-530
227,

Caligula,

139

Callimachus, 68
Camarsac,
329
architecture
in, 580, 583
Cambodia,
Cambridge, colleges, 485; Trinity College
Library, 440

Campania, 127
Campaniform
capital,22
Campanili, 414
Campbell, Colin, 443
architecture
Canada, French
Canals, 434, 446
Candelabra, 377, 387

Canopus,

in, 530, 531

139

Canterbury,
303,
304
Capilla Mayor, 313
Capitals, Doric, 58-60,

62-64. 63; Ionic,

67-69; Byzantine,
Gothic,
268;
185, l"6ff.; Romanesque,

64-66;

Corinthian,

297

Caprarola, castle,
Caracalla, 114,

409

130

La Cite, 325
Caria, 55
Carolina, 533
Carolingian architecture, 220
Carcassonne,

ff.; ornament,

213

Carthaginian

wars,

51, 55

Cartouches, 390, 392, 411, 423, 426, 430,

438
Caryatids, 69
Casamari, 317
Cascades, 434
Casements,
533
Caserta, palace,414
Casinos, 416
Broadleys, 513
"Castellated
Bronze
style," 478
9-10
age,
Castle Howard,
de, 424
Brosse, Salomon
442
Castles, 325 ff.
Brunelleschi,
Filippo, 344, 347-35O,
364Catharine
II., 466
365. 366
Cathedra, 165
Brussels, Palais de Justice,496, 407; Town
Cato
the Censor, 112-113
Hall, 330. 338
(Prudential) Building, Caylus, Comte
de, 462
Buffalo, Guaranty
Cefalft, 239, 240
561. S63
Bulfinch, Charles, 544. 549
Ceilings, in Greek
architecture, 73, 82;
coffered, 386
Bullant, Jean, 381, 382. 383, 423
Cella, 76
Bulls, winged, 32. 33. 36
Centering, 32, 150, 185
Burgos. 314. 3iS
architecture
in, Central
Romanesque
Burgundy,
type of building, 163; in Rome,
architecture
in, 285
in Anatolia, 176;
170 ff.; in Syria, 173;
253 ff-: Gothic

INDEX

6o8

in the Renaissance,
350,
353, 355,
in post-Renaissance
366-368,
386;
405,

409,

414,

435;

359,

in America,

Pa via

see

Chaldaea, 26
Chalgrin, J. P., 466, 474, 500
Sir William,
Chambers,
478
Chambery,
307
chateau, 380
Chambord,

Cologne, cathedral,
Apostles,

Gothic
architecture
Chancel,
165
Chandi
Mendoot,
582

Chandler, Richard, 462

Chantilly, hamlet, 483
Chapel of the Virgin, in French

Colonial

in, 285

Gothic,

229

380

3H

Chateaux, 384, 432-434

Cheops, 16; see also Khufu
16
Chephren,
292,

Chichen

293,

294

Exposition,
Gardens,

556, 557,
564-565;
565; office buildings,

Itza, 524

478, 538;

423,

Chimneys,

382, 394/479,
533,
China, Great
Wall, 586
Chinese architecture, 584-586;
476, 487, 580, 586
Moni,
201
Chios, Nea
Christianity, adoption of, 115
Christian-Roman,
164-168

see

also Fireplaces

534

419, 427, 442, 451;

357. 361, 376, 539;
rostral, 133;
rusticated, 363, 386. 401,
triumphal, 114, 122, 133, 466,
410, 424;
544,546; twisted, 411, 412, 448; see also
Orders
355,

103,

355,

Commercial
buildings, 472
Como, S. Abondio,
233
Compie'gne, palace, 432
Composite order, 114, 145, 374
Compostela, Santiago, 263, 264
Compton
Wynyates, 332
Concert-halls, 474
Concrete, 149, 150, 524, 526; reinforced,
504-505

Connecticut,

colonial

architecture,

534

552

317

Cisterns, in Alexandria,
207 ff.
Civil War,

Clapboards,

American,

176;

Classicism,
America,

in Constantinople,

552

534

architecture,
161. 344-345,
444,

40-158;
461-462
461-476;

528, 530;

in the

in
Consoles, in Greek
architecture,
67;
in
Roman
architecture,
145-146;
144,
in
Renaissance
architecture,
361, 374;
post-Renaissance architecture, 403, 410,
419,

influence
in
United

of,

Spanish
States.

541-550

Clerestory, in Egyptian architecture,

23;

in

architecture, 123, 124, 131, 148;

in medieval
architecture, 165
Clerisseau, C. L., 462, 466
Notre
Dame-du-Port.
Clermont-Ferrand,
259

447,

437,

448;

in

Baths
115, 205, 574, 576;
Bin-bir-Direk
cistern,
207;

Zeuxis,

186, 208; Blachernae, 208;

Cenourgion,
Cisterna
Cisterna
Maxima,
208;
207;
uel
Pulcheria, 207 ff.; fortifications of ManComnenus,
Gul-djami
(St.
210;

Theodosius),
194"

195.

197;

197.

201;

188, 189, 190,

of, 574,
576;

191,

Holy Apostles,
Hagia Sophia,
192,

193;

193,

187,

imitation

Hodja-Moustapha-pasha
Kalender-hane(St. Andrew's),
195;
Kilissedjami
(the Diaconessa?)
195;
La Nea
djami, 189, 199;
("new church"
of Basil
of Suleiman,
I.), 189, 198; mosque
palace of Constantine, 207;
576;
,

Pantocrator,
Pentacoubouclon,
208;
199;
Palace, 208, 209;
Chrysotriclinium, 210; St. Irene, 1 88; SS. Sergius and
Bacchus,
187, 188; Stoudion
basilica,
188; Tekfour-Serai, 209
Construction, in Egyptian architecture, 23in
architecture, 149-150;
24; in Roman
esque
Byzantine architecture, 185; in Romanarchitecture, 266
in ^Egean
Corbeled
arch, 4; in Egypt, 23;
tecture,
archiin Greek
architecture, 37, 40-41;
Sacred

Roman

250.

435,

423.

American architecture, 536

Constantia, 137
Constantine, 124, 137, 183
of

Ciborium,
165
Circulation, elements
of, 2
Circuses, 104, 128; in town
planning, 448
Cistercian building,influence in Italy, 285,

240.

71,

Constantinople,

Churriguera, Jose, 421

Churrigueresque, 421-422

154.

of.

542, 547, 548

Columbia, capitol, 542
MesoColumns, 3; Egyptian, 13, 22-23;
Persian, 36; ^Egean, 41potamian, 32;

412,

influence of,

sance,
Churches, in the Middle
Ages, 159; Renais364-368,
post384-385;
345,
Renaissance,
435, 447-448;
409, 414-415,
modern,
484-485,
474-475,
490,
492,
American,
colonial, 533, 534494-495;
American,
modern, 550,
535, 536, 538;

Classic

the

Conservatories, 503-504

Chimneypieces,

SSL

revival

architecture, 527-540;

engaged,

Miles Brewton
540;
St. Michael's,
St.
538;
538;
Philip's, 538
Charleval, chateau, 384, 423
Charlottesville, University of Virginia, 545,
548-549. 558
Chartres, cathedral, 292,
296, 298,
295,

Chicago,
Midway
560

of

Mary

244

Greek, 49
42;
Columns,
coupled.

house,

Chevet,

Holy

315;

309,

St.

556, 560
Colossal order, 537,

Charleston, Exchange,

299,

276,

247;

554.

Chaqqua,
Charles
Charles

243,

Capitol, 242,

Champagne,

basilica, 154
V. of Spain, 388
VIII. of France.

446

Cloisters, 530
Cluny, 227, 229, 253
Cochin, C. N., 462
Cockerell, C. R., 490
Coffers, 149, 150

529

Certosa,

Clifford Chambers,
Cloister vault, 378

chitecture,
ar-

73;

580
Cordova,
Corinth,

in

Mexico,

524;

in

India,

great mosque,
574, 575
108; temple, 79, 82
Corinthian order, Greek, 49, 56, 57, 67-69,

INDEX
Roman,

84, 85;

144-146;

109,

Renaissance,
374, 386
Cornice,
Egyptian,
23;
5;
Ionic, 64-65
Coro, 313
Corridors,
/)/)/|
Domenico
Cortona,
da, 382

in

Doric,

the

58;

278, 326, 327

Coucy,

Greek, 57, 74. 89

Council-house,
Counter-Reformation,
401, 414
Cour
d'honneur, 464
in
potamia,
Mesoin
Courts,
12,
Egypt,
23;
i;
25; in .(Egean architecture, 38in
Renaissance
architecture,
359,
39;
in post-Renaissance
361, 368, 384, 392;
architecture, 415-416, 419, 424, 433, 434,
/)/]/!
in Egyptian
Courts,
peristylar, 74, 93;
in Greek
architecture,
architecture,
12;
architecture, 120,
138; in
74; in Roman
Mohammedan
architecture, 574, 578

Craftsmanship,

481,

532-533,

512,

R. A., 559
Cram,
Creil, 288
Crescents, 448, 540
Crete, .^Jgean architecture,
286
architecture,

138

Cupolas, 442.
Curia, 112
Curvilinear
306

Cusping,

532,

536, 539

Gothic

in

England,

579

Cuvillies, Francois

Gothic

37-42;

Cromlechs, 9
Cronaca, 352-353
Ctesiphon, palace, 573
Cubiculce,

540-541

Dais.

de, 452

pyramid

caliphate of, 574; Great

Mosque,

S74

Dance, George, 472,

Daouleh, 176

Daphni,

478

201

Darius, palace and

hall of, 34, 35; tomb
of, 35
Darmstadt,
515-516
Exposition of 1901,
Daulis, the Phokikon,
89
Daumet,
Honored
495

Dawkins.
462
Arcisse
De Caumont,
Decorated

Gothic

Dehr-Ahsy,
Delia

in

de, 484

England, 284,

177

Porta,

Giacomo,

93.

304

142

447,

451,

452;

in

modern

464, 471, 472, 475, 495;

Mohammedan
architecture, 574,
576, 579
Domestic
architecture,
Egyptian,

Babylonian,
Etruscan,

26;
107;

Greek,

57521;

74,

92-94;
Roman,
112,
137-143;
328, 333;
ff.; Gothic,

211
Byzantine,
Renaissance, 368-370, 384, 390, 392-394;
post-Renaissance, 415-416, 432-435,
444modern,
446;
475-476, 484-485, 491,

492,

495;

536,

538;

547-55O;

American,

colonial, 533,

modern,

534,

classical,

post-colonial, 547;
556, 565

of

the

534

Driibeck,
244
Drum,
358, 379, 406, 435, 442
Duban, J. F,, 493
Four
Parliament
Dublin,
Courts, 471;
House,
471
Due, J. L., 493, 504
Du Cerceau, J. A., 381, 382, 383, 423
Duilius, 133
Du
Perac, Etienne, 423
Durham,
260, 261, 301
229,
Dur-Sharrukin,
28; palace of Sargon,
27,
27,

28, 29-30

Dutch

colonial architecture,

Earl's

Barton,

531-532

224

English style of Gothic,

Ears, 73, 374. 419, 437. 448
Eastern
architecture, 572-588
Early

284. 303^".

ff., Eaton Hall, 478, 479

Eaves, 108, 565

411

Delorme, see L'Orme

House
Delos, 52. 55. 95;

115,

451

392

Damascus,

114,

ure,
architectin American
architecture, 542, 543, 545, 550, 556; in
colonial
in
architecture,
Spanish
529;
in
Sassanian
architecture,
572-573;
442,

Drops,

16

at,

Diocletian,

Dog-tooth molding, 256

Dolmens, 9
in Assyria, 31;
in Roman
ure,
architectDome,
118, 148; in Anatolia,
163, 177in Byzantine
in
architecture, 191;
179;
Renaissance
architecture,
347-348, 358,
366, 378-379; in post-Renaissance period,
405-406, 409, 412, 413. 421, 435, 44"-

Domitian, 134, 137, 141

Doors, Greek, 73; Roman,
144
Dorians, 37, 51, 74
Doric
order, Greek,
56,
51, 52,
42,
49,
58-64, 59. 61, 63, 70, 72, 74, 79-84. 466,
in the
107-108,
546; Roman,
109, 144;
Renaissance, 374
284, 304 JT., Dormers, 387, 394, 535
Dresden,
Theater,
488; Court
488,
474,
Z\*inger, 450,
480; Frauenkirche,
451;

Cyclopean
40
masonry,
Cyma,
71. 72, 73
Cyprus, Gothic architecture in, 286
Cyrus, 30, 32, 33; tomb
of, 36
Dahshur,

609

Trident.

04

Ecclesiastical
architecture,
importance in
medieval
in Byzantine art, 183;
art, 159;
in Gothic
in Romanesque
art, 219;
art,
279

ff.

circular
Delphi.
56;
temple,
85;
52,
precinct of Apollo, 95, 06; monuments,

58, 60. 63-64

Eclecticism, 460, 461, 485-499;

treasuries, 86
Dentils. 65-67,
145
Der-el-Bahri,
mortuary

552-560
Ecole des Beaux-Arts, see Paris
Ecpuen, chateau, 380, 384
Edinburgh, high school, 467, 470; National
Monument.
469
Egg and dart, 64, 72, 144, 151
Egypt, Assyrian conquest, 15, 28; Persian
architecture
Roman
in,
33;
conquest,
in, 174early Christian architecture
152;

95;

sut.

iH. 22,

chapel of Hatshep-

24

Desgodetz, Antoine.

462
Diaconicon. 165, 221
Didyma, temple of Apollo, 55, 57, 66, 78, 85,
118

Diminution

of columns,

3,

58

Echinus,

in

America,

INDEX

6io

architecture
of, 1*74 ff.' Flanders, Gothic
secular architecture in,
176; medieval
Mohammedan
architecture
in, 390-391
in, 573-574,
329 ff.; Renaissance
Flavian emperors,
S75-S76,
579
114, 146
influence of, Fleche, in Gothic architecture, 297
Egyptian architecture. 11-24;
82, 84. 467, 487
Florence, 346, 347 ff.,412; Annunziata,
351;
Badia, tomb, 373;
Baptistry, 238, 270,
"Egyptian Hall," 443
the Wartburg,
Eisenach,
268
Bargello, 334, 340; cathedral,
348, 374;
Elephantine, 21, 23
276, 280, 319, 320,
348, 378;
340,
347,
Giotto's campanile, 320, 340; Laurentian
Eleusis, Hall of Mysteries, 86
Elevators, 561
Library, 403-405,
Loggia dei Lanzi,
419;

Elizabeth, 391
Elizabethan
houses,
Ellis, Harvey, 564
Elmes, H. L., 474

347;
372,
374,

485, 534

392-394,

domestic

architecture
in, 332;
architecture,
346, 391-394;
post-Renaissance architecture, 402, 438Functionalism,
450;
504, 505, 513-515;
Romanticism,
477-483; classicism in, 464,

Renaissance

eclecticism, 486-487, 490-

465, 467, 469;

English colonial architecture,

in

Greek

532-540

architecture,

95;

in

Roman
in Byzantine
architecture, 143;
architecture, 210 ff.; in the Romanesque
period, 268; in the Gothic period, 335
Entablature,
Doric, 60, 161; Ionic, 65-67,
66

Entasis, 58
Ephesus, temple of Artemis,
theater, go, 91
Ephrata, 535
Epidaurus, 55;
gymnasium,

52,

55,

92;

67, 68, 69, 85, 145

Epirus, 56
Ernst
Ludwig of Hesse- Darmstadt,
Esarhsddon,
27
Escurial, 420, 421
106-108
Etruscan
architecture,
Etschmiadzin,
189, 195, 196
European
type of plan, 10, 39;
Greek type of plan

Exchanges,
Exedre,

95.

472,

79, 85;

Tholos,

131,

also

135

5O2,

174,

Fora

Gallery of Henry

292;

II.,

384, 434

for concrete.

505

Fossanova,
317
Fountains,
416, 434.
Fourth
crusade, 203

Foyers, 473, 474.

Roman
France,

of in Romanesque
Facades,
development
architecture,
266 ff.; in French
Gothic,
296; in English Gothic, 301 ff.
2QO,
Factories, 501, 516
Faience, 579
Fan vault in English Gothic, 305 ff.
Far
East, architecture in, 580-586
503

also Chimneypieces
see
Fireplaces, 534;
Fireproof construction,
506; 561-562
505,
Fisher
Erlach, J. B., 451, 486
von
Flamboyant
Gothic, 284, 306 ff.; influence
of, 337

So?

architecture
in,
152;
architecture
in, 247 ff.;
architecture
Gothic
in, 286 ff., 306 ff.;
secular
architecture
Gothic
in, 33Of.{
architecture
Renaissance
in, 346, 379-387;
architecture
in, 402,
post-Renaissance
in, 464, 465-467, 469;
422, 438; classicism

504,
Francis

in, 483-484;

507,

eclecticism

functio.ialism

in, 500,

in,
503,

514-515

I., 380-381
Frankfort, Salvatorsk^pelle, 221
Freart
de Chambray,
Roland, 425
the
Frederick
Great, 452, 473;
proposed
monument
to, 469, 542
"Free
Classic," 491
Freiburg, 309,
313,
314
French

483, 489

446, 578

Romanesque

487, 493-494;

Ferro-concrete,
504-505
Ferstel, Heinrich
von,
Fiesole, Badia, 365
Fillets, 72

258^".;
291,

120
ciyilia,

Romanticism

181

Fergusson, James,

Villa

Military architecture
Fortified
in
towns,
Romanesque
period,
period, 323 ff.
268; in Gothic
Forum,
104

6; of character,
of culture, 499,
506-509;
500of structure,
501,502,509-516;
563-565;
281, 500,
502-506,
556,
279,
511-512,
560-563

Ezra,

in
Normandy,
in Gothic
architecture,
290,
in St. Paul's, London,
442
Fontaine, P. L., 467

Fontainebleau, 423;
384
Fonthill Abbey, 478

Inno-

Uffizi, 409;

Fortification,see

515

498

130,

370;

Florida, 529
Flutes, 58, 65
Flying
buttress,

Forms

see

Spedale degli

367;

centi, 348-349,
Medicea,
369

Fore-courts,

Expositions, 498, 501

Expression in architecture,
499,

cornice, 373;
court,
416; imitation
of, 424, 487; Palazzo
Rucellai, 351, 352;
Palazzo
Strozzi, details,
371,
373;
Palazzo
Pazzi Chapel,
Vecchio, 332, 333;
Ponte
Santa
Trinita,
418;
378;
340,
S. Francesco
al Monte,
S. Lorenzo,
353;
old
365;
348, 349-350,
sacristy, 35O;
Medici
facade, 316;
chapel, 361, 363,
Maria
Sta.
degli
fagade, 403;
403;
al
Angeli, 350, 366, 367; S. Miniato
Sto. Spirito, 365;
Monte, 238, 270, 347;

sacristy, 353,

493

Ensemble,

351,
372,
371.

372;

Engineering. Roman,
104
architecture
England, pre-Romanesque
in,
architecture
in, 259;
213 ff.; Romanesque
Gothic
architecture
in, 285,
299^".;
medieval

Palazzo
Medici-Riccardi, 350,
Palazzo
Pandolfini, 361,
Palazzo
Pitti, 350,
376, 375;
373;

colonial

architecture, 530-531
order," 386
Fresco, in late Byzantine architecture, 206;
in Italian Gothic
architecture, 318
Fret, 62, 72
Friedrich IV., 390
Frieze, Corinthian,
67; Doric, 58, 60-62,
"French

108;
419

Ionic, 65-67,

84-85;

pulvinated,

INDEX
Frigidarium, 129, 130
Functionalism, 461, 499-516;
560-565

America,

in

611
Grave
monuments,
Greece,
^Egean
Persian

wars,

51, 55;

Gable roof, 39, 73, 78

Gables, 106, 387, 394, 479, 532, 536
Gabriel, J. A., 431-432
Gaillon, chateau, 380
Galilei, Alessandro,
413
Galleries, 368, 384, 393, 414, 447
Gandon,
James, 471
Renaissance,
Gardens,
sance,
post-Renais370;
in Italy, 411, 414, 416; in France,
430,

in

434;

America,
Chinese,

Gargoyles,

England,

556;

in

446-447;

Mohammedan,

579;

ff.

Gamier,

Charles, 494, 507

483, 487, 488
Gartner, Friedrich von,
Gate-houses,
384, 392, 393
Gates,
Roman,
134-135
F. C., 484
Gau,

Gaza,
Genoa,

architecture

baroque

in, 412;

university, 415
Geoffrey de Noyers, 303
Geometric
Gothic in England, 304
architecture
of,
Georgia, medieval
colonial architecture,
Roman
architecture
Germany,
152;

Romanesque

203

architecture

ff.
151-

Glass,

use

13,

ple
16-17; "Tem-

architecture, 502,

561-563

Gloucester, cathedral, 306, 307, 339

the Holy Cross, 311,
Gmund,
339
Godefroi,
Maximilian, 551
Goethe, 483, 506
Karl von,
Gontard,
452
B. G., 559
Goodhue.
Gorlitz, SS. Peter and Paul, 312, 339
later
Gothic architecture, 262 ff.,275-343;
vivals
opinion of, 275; priority in, 276; surin America,
of, in England, 477;
532-534

Gothic
552,

Goths,

revival, 477-485;

"

in

America,

550-

559-560
115

Goujpn, Jean,
Gournia,
39
Government

Gymnasia,
Gynacsa,

57, 92
in early

Martyr-

392

architecture,

128,

Christian

329

ff.

architecture,

165
Hadrian,
114, 118, 136, 146
Haidra, 210,
211
Half-timber,
534
Halicarnassus,
Mausoleum,
55, 95
55;
Hall, 534; in English house, 392
Halle, St. Mary, 312
in German
Hallenkirchen
Gothic, 309 ff.
Hallet, Stephen, 542-544
Hamilton,
Thomas,
469

Hampton

Court,

381, 382, 383

buildings, 469-472, 498, 541,

542-545. 552. 558

Graeco-Roman
period, 57-58, 151, 152
Alhambra,
Granada,
palace
577,
579;
Charles V., 388, 389

of

391,

393,

444

Paul, 513, 514

Hankar,
Hardwick,
Philip, 509
Harem,
578
Harlech,
326
Harrison,
Peter, 539-540
Eaton
Hartford,
House,
534;
Hatfield House,
394
Hathor-head
columns, 22

Hatshepsut,

22

of in modern

503-504,

14,

Queen's House, 344, 439

Gregory of Nysa, description of

in, 242 ff.;

Akragas

Gizeh, pyramids, n,
of the Sphinx,"

Greek
revival, 464, 467-469, 488, 489; in
America,
545-547,
549, 558
Greek
type of plan, 122, 124, 148
Charles's
Greenwich,
block, 439;
King

A. D., 495
Guild halls, in Gothic Flanders,
Guimard,
Hector,
514
Guttffi, 59

Gothic
architecture
in, 285,
308 ff.;
architecture
Renaissance
in, 346, 388in,
post-Renaissance architecture
390;
classicism in, 467, 468;
450-452;
402,
Romanticism
in, 483; electicism
in, 486,
in, 514-516
487, 488-490; functionalism
Germigny-les-Pres, 196, 197, 212, 214, 221
Gerona,
315, 340
Gernrode,
244, 271
Ghent, Town
Hall, 330, 338
Gibbons,
Grinling, 448
Gibbs, James, 447-448; influenceof 537,538
Gilly, David, 469
Ginain, Paul, 494
Giocondo,
Fra, 370
Girault, Charles, 495
see
Girgenti,.

368,

550

aces, Guilbert,
pal-

535

in, 105,

366,

352,

of,

in medieval
tecture,
archi148, 149, 150;
architecture,
226; in Renaissance
378,414
Guarini, Guarino, 412
Gudea,
building at Lagash, 26

419;

German

529,

influence

131,

322

409,

109

Greek
architecture, 49-102;
58, 103-104,
572
Greek
cross
plan, 187, 197,

ium, 176
Sir Thomas,
Gresham,
Groined
vaults, in Roman

586
291

Tombs

see

architecture
in, 37-42;
Macedonian
51,
quest,
con52;
Roman
conquest, 103, 106,

534

18

Hauran,
154
Haviland,
John, 550
Hawksmoor,
Nicholas, 442
Heidelberg, ch"teau, 389, 300, 450
Hellenistic period, 51, 56-57
Henry II., of France, 381, 384
Henry IV., of France, 423-424,
436
Henry VIII., of England, 391
Henry the Fowler, 242
Herculaneum,
462

Herder, 476, 500

66, 144
Hermogenes,
Herms, 390, 410, 419,

423

Herrera, Juan de, 421

St. Michael,
Hildesheim,
227,
"Old
Hingham,
Ship," 535
Hippodamus,
98
54-55,

Hippodromes,
92
Hip-roofs, 73. 584
Hoarcross,
church, 404
Hoban,
James, 542, 549
Flete Lodge, 403
Hobleton,

Hoffman,

Joseph,

515

243,

244,

271

INDEX

6l2

Jesuits, 415, 450

JumiSges, 256, 257,

Hoffmann,

Ludwig, 490
Holkham,
445
Holland.
Renaissance
in, 390
Gothic
architecture
Holy Land,
286, 321 ff.
Horiuji. 586
Horta, Victor, 513, 514

183,

in

the,

267

Justinian,
Inigo, 438-439.
191

ones,

Julius II., 358, 418

Julius Casar, 113, 118,
Juvara, Filippo, 413

444.

445,

120,

127

447,

44"

Hotels, 498, 501

Ka, 1 6
Kalat-Seman,

Hotels. French
Renaissance,
384
Domestic
architecture
House,
see
Housing, 98, 501
Rice Institute, 560
Houston.
Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, 303
Victor
R. M.,

Hugo,
Hunt,

Iconoclastic

552,

23,

controversy,

120

196

146, 148

107,

Inca

architecture, 527
India, Hindu
architecture,
580-582;
of, 580, 582;
Mohammedan
in, 574, S79, 581-582
Interiors, 430, 432, 438, 439, 440;
Empire,
American,
467; colonial, 534, 538, 539;
classical, 549-550
Interlacing arcades, 239, 241, 256
Ionia, architecture
in, 33, 51-52,
55, 56,

87
lonians, 51
Ionic angular
Ionic base, 72

Keystone,
Khafre, 16
Khajuraho,

capital, 144

Iron

Lanterns,

10

of in modern
architecture,
also Steel
see
560;
503-505,
Isidorus
of Miletus,
188
use

Isopata, 41
"Italian
style," 487, 55i'
in,
Italy, Greek architecture

501,

architecture

des morts,
335
in Romanesque

architecture.

of,

267;

in English Gothic,
in French
Gothic. 297;
in Renaissance
architecture, 348
301;
Las Huelgas, 314, 340

J. B. A., 484
plan, 365, 550
B. H.. 545-546, 550,
Latrobe,

51,

52;

Roman

architecture, 402,
403-419;
in, 406-498
392-394,

Lanternes

Latin

architecture

houses,
Shah, 579
I., 438

256

Langres, 288, 338

Languedoc,
Romanesque
250 ff.

Lassus,

architecture
of, 103-151;
Romanesque
ure
architectarchitecture of. 226 ff.; Gothic
secular
medieval
of,
285 ff.;
architecture
of, 332 ff.; Renaissance.
358;
early Renaissance,
346-379;
347,
Renaissance,
naissance
post-ReHigh
358-364;
modern

503

493,

Lagash, 26
La Granja, palace, 422
Lake dwellings, 8-9
Lancet style of Gothic, 284, 303 ff.
gardens, 434, 446-447, 475
Landscape
Lanfranc,

Iron,

491

146

Label molding, 107

Labrouste,
Theodore,
Laconicum,
129

65
Ionic order, Greek, 49, 51, 52, 56, 57, 64-67,
Roman,
66, 70, 72, 79, 82-85;
109,
144
Ipswich, Whipple house, 534, 335
Irene, Empress,
200

lonjccapital, origins of, 32,

age,

107,

Temple of Vishnu, 581

Khalb-Louzeh,
160, 173
Khammurabi,
26
Khan,
29
Khmer
architecture, 580, 583
Khorsabad; see Dur-Sharrukin
Khufu,
ii, 13, 16
fluence
inKlenze, Leo von,
469, 474, 487, 488
Knossos,
chitecture
ar37, 38, 39
Kodja-Kalessi, 160, 177

Iffley,259, 260
Iktinos, 82, 84, 85, 144
architecture
lie de France,
Romanesque
architecture
of, 261 ff.; Gothic
of, 284,
Impost,

Stylites,160, 173,

Kallikrates, 82, 83, 84

Karnak,
temples, IQ, 20, 21
Kassites, 26, 27
Kearsley, John, 538
Kedleston,
468
Kent, William, 443
Kew,
buildings at, 486-487,

484

556
Hyksos, 13
Hypsethral temples, 78
Hypostyle hall, 20, 22,

St. Simeon

174

534

cross

Lavra, the Catholicon,

Lean-to, 534
Charles, 430
Le Bran,
Ledpux, C. N., 465

Legislative buildings, 471,

545,

560

201

480,

541-543,

546

Leipzig, Imperial courts,

490

Lemercier,
Jacques, 424
Lemsa,
210
P. C., 542
L'Enfant,
Lenoir, Alexandra, 484
Le N6tre, Andre, 434
Leo
X., 358
Leo
the Isaurian, 106; cathedral, 314
of, Leon, S. Isidore, 263, 265

Jacobean
ahan,
ames

amestown,

533

architecture, 580, 386

architecture, 580, 582; influence
avan
580, 583
apanese

Jean-de-Berry,

Jean-le-Loup,

Leopold II., 496

Leroy, J. D., 462

328
279

Jefferson, Thomas,

538, S4I-S42,

544.

548,

550

Jerusalem,
173

Church

of the

Holy

Sepulchre,

Lescot, Pierre, 381, 382

Les Herbiers, chapel, 484
Le Vau, Louis, 426, 428, 433
Libraries, public, 498, 501, 503,
555

553,

554-

INDEX
Liernes, in English Gothic,
Gothic, 306
Flamboyant

304^.;

Lifts, 561

Light-wells,

39

in

613
Madrid,

palace, 422
Comacini,

Maestri

234

Magister Operarius, 219

Graecia, 109
Magna
87,
Magnesia,
agora,
Artemis,
57, 67, 77

of
88;
Temple
Lima, cathedral, 528
Lincoln, cathedral, 304, 305
cathedral, 227, 245, 246, 248
tecture, Mainz,
Lintels, 3; in Egypt. 15; in ^Egean archiarchitecture,
Major, Thomas,
462
40; in Renaissance
Manassia,
180, 205, 206
376, 386
Town
Assize
Courts,
Manchester,
482;
Liverpool, St. George's Hall, 474, 475
Hall, 482
Locri, temple, 77

Log-cabins, 527
Loges, 418, 507
Loggias, 361,

Mangin,

Joseph, 544,

550

fortified, 329,
Manors,
392
Mansart,
Francois, 425-426
387.
4SL
537.
370,
444Mansart,
Jules Hardouin,
428-430,
435
538
Mantinea,
of the, 380-381
Loire, chateaux
55
S. Sebastiano,
S. Andrea,
Mantua,
Lombardi
352;
family.,355
architecture
in,
Romanesque
Lombardy,
352, 366, 367
in Greek
architecture, 49, 54, 70,
Marble,
in, 354-355,
226 ff.\ early Renaissance
in Roman
architecture, 113,
72, 73, 82;
377
in Renaissance
in English Gothic, 304;
London.
Admiralty,
Adelphi, 475;
151;
471;
in post-Renaisarchitecture, 355;
sance
Bank
of England,
Burlington
468, 472;
in
Covent
Garden,
architecture,
418, 436;
House,
448;
411,
443;
in
American
Victorian
Gothic,
British
Museum,
Crystal Palace,
482;
474;
architecture, 542
Euston
Station, 509; Expositionof
504;
veneering, 118, 131, 149-151,
418
1851, 504; Foreign Office, 482; great fire, Marble
of Parliament,
480, Marburg, St. Elizabeth, 278, 310, 315, 316
448; Houses
447,
126
Accountants,
Marcellus,
481 ; Institute of Chartered
the Monument,
Marcus
Law
Aurelius, 133
Courts, 482-483;
491;
Museum
of Natural
Antoinette,
History, Marie
434
440;
Prison, 472, 473;
Markets,
Newgate
539, 540
492, 505-506;
New
Zealand
Chambers,
Regent's
Marly, 434
491;
described
of
Park,
by
Gregory
Regent's Quadrant,
Martyrium,
lodge, 491;
Automobile
Club,
Nysa, 176
Royal
491;
475;
colonial
architecture,
St. Bride's,
Maryland,
533,
Royal Exchange,
392.
537
472;
colonial architecture, 534
Massachusetts,
447-448;
447; St. Martin-in-the-Fields',
St. Mary-le- Mastaba,
St. Mary-le-Bow,
16
447, 440;
Strand, 447; St. Pancras', 474; St. Paul's, Mausolea,
55, 95, 114
St. Paul's (Old), 439; St. Paul's,
Mausolus,
95
440, 441;
Covent
St. Stephen's,
Maxentius,
Garden,
123,
124
439, 447;
Maximilian
II.. 488
Somerset
House,
Walbrook,
447;
444,
St. John's
architecture, 524, 526
the
Chapel,
Tower,
Maya
471;
Mazarin,
260; Travelers' Club, 487; University of
327
181
Mchabbak.
London.
Westminster
Abbey,
173,
490;
Meander,
62
Henry VII. 's Chapel. 306; Westminster
Mecca,
Cathedral,
Whitehall
Palace, 439;
573
402;
Stairs, 439
Medes,
Wren's
plan for, 448; York
30
Medford,
Royall house, 547
Long and short work. 224
Medici, Catherine
de, 424
Longhena, Baldassare, 412, 419
Medieval
influence
architecture,
Longleat. 392, 394
159-343;
of. 344-345
Philibert de, 381, 382, 383, 386,
L'Orme,
Medieval
revival. 476-485
423
Medieval
Lorsch, 223
survivals, 477, 532
536,
534,
Lotus
bud
column.
538
13, 22
Lotus
flower column, 22
Medum,
pyramid at, 16
Louis
XII.. 380
Meeting-nouses,
534-535
Louis XIII., 423, 424
Megalithic works, 9
hall of the
Louis
Megalopolis, 55;
XIV., 423. 425-430
87;
agora,
Louis XV., 423. 430-431,
Arcadians, 56, 89; theater, 91
438
Louis XVI., 423, 431-432,
Megaron, 39, 42, 74, 76, 80, 89, 92-93
438, 464
M6hun-sur-Yevre.
Louis. Victor, 464
328
Louisiana, 531
Meissonier, J. A., 430
Lou vain. Town
Hall. 330
Memphis, 13
Low
Countries, Gothic architecture of, 286
Memphite
period, 13, 16
Menai
I., 469, 488
Ludwig
suspension bridge, 503
in. 33
Menes, 12
Lycia. architecture
St. Nizier, 386
H6tel Dieu. 431;
Menhirs, 9
"Lyons,
-

McComb,
Mclntire,

John, 544
Samuel, 547

C. P., 554-555.
556, 558, 560
and
McKim,
Mead,
White, 554
Pedro, 388
Machuca,

McKim,

Maderna,

Carlo. 411

Menkure, pyramid of, 16

Mesopotamia
preclassical architecture,
32;

later styles, 572-574

Messene,

55

Metopes, 58, 60, 63, 84

Mexico
City, cathedral,

527,

528

24-

INDEX

614
Mexico,

architecture,
pre-colqnial

Spanish

524-526;
architecture, 527-529

colonial

Mezzanines,

369, 376, 435

Michelangelo, 358, 374, 377,
Michelozzo,
"

Middle

"

in

cathedral,

Marino,
230,

della

Passione,
Satiro, 355

San

13, 17, 20,

233,

228,

227,

Sta. Maria
Maria
near

290;

Sta.

367;

22

Palazzo

322;

Ambrogio,

232,

229,

Egypt,

321,

S.

410;
231,

419

Miletus, bouleuterion,
89; see also Didyma
Military architecture, Mesopotamian,
25, 29;
Mycensean, 37; Roman,
104; Byzantine,
Gothic, 323-328, 329; Chinese, 586
210;
Milizia. Francesco,
506
Mills, Robert,
546, 550
Minarets,
576-578
Minoan

period, 37-42

theater, 125

Mnesicles,
Moat,
384

Modena,

87
234

Modern
architecture, 460-523
Modernism,
505-516,
502,
563-565
499,
Modillions, 67, 145
in Greek
Module,
architecture, 50, 63, 64
Mohammedan
architecture,
573-579

Greek,

Moldings,

Naksh-i-Rustam,
35, 36
Nancy, 431, 436
Nantes, 307
Naos, 76
Napoleon, 466-467, 475
Napoleon
III., 484
Narni, bridge, 132
Narthex, in early Christian
165

71,

72;

Roman,

144;

Gothic, 298; Renaissance,

372-374
Moliere, opinion of Gothic, 275
Monaco,
Trophy of Augustus, 133

Nationalism, 219,
Naturalism, 476

New

104,

Greek,

Romanesque,
313 ff.; in

in

South
230

ff.;

Spanish

Cabildo, 331
"cottages," 552;
554;
Redwood
Market,
Library, 540
540;
New
York, 532; Astor house, 552;
Century
Club, 555!
City Hall, 544;
City Hall

Liebfrauenkirche,

Mural

Mycenze,

37;

40,
42,

41,
43

Tomb,

394,

palace, 39;
"Treasury

546;

Trust
Com(Columbia)
Lenox
558; Lafayette Place, 549;
Madison
ibrary, 552;
Square Garden,
chants'
Meroffice buildings, 560-563;
555;
Exchange
(National City Bank),
St.
Station.
Pennsylvania
558;
546;
St. Paul's
Patrick's, 551;
Chapel, 538,

State Prison, 550;

532;
ing,
551;
Woolwprth Build561, 562, 563; World
Building, 561;
Vanderbilt
Villard
houses, 552;
houses,

Stadt-Huis,

Trinity Church,

361, 452, 464

312,

of

116;
132,

247
174,

175,

339

533

Nineveh, 27, 28
Nippur, 26
Nordlingen, St. George, 310, 316
architecture
in,
Normandy,
Romanesque
Gothic
architecture
in, 285
?-55 ff-. 256;
St.
Peller
house,
Nurnberg,
390,
391;
Lawrence,

"Gate
of Lions,"
of Atreus,"
41-

311

Park, Church
Obelisks, 21
Oak

Odeions,

474,

42;

558;

Grant's

542;

"Baths
Nimes,
amphitheater,
128;
Maison
Carree,"
Diana,"
152, 247;
du
imitation
Pont
of, 542;
Card,

painting, 94, 139

498
58, 60, 63

Federal
Hall,
Knickerbocker

131,
148, 359,
Nicholas
V., 357
Nika
sedition, 1 88

312

Museums,
Mutules,

558;

554

cathedral, 312,
488;
Konigsbau, 487;
Glyptothek, 474;
Ministry of War, 487; Pinakothek, 487;
Theatine
Church,
Royal Library, 487;
theater, 507
Wagner
451;
309,

Columbia
(old), 538;
University,
Custom
House
(Sub-Treasury),

Niches,

339;

Munster,

529

"

Mousmieh,
Prastorium,
153,
154
frieze (Berlin Museum),
Mschatta
181, 574
windows,
483, 487,

Mexico,

539;

influence

Mosques,
574~S78
Mount
Airy, 537

Mullioned
Munich,

309

Orleans, 531;
Newport,
casino,

95;

architecture, 387, 527

Mora,
J. G. de, 528
Morienval,
262, 263, 267, 288
227,
Moriscoes,
387
Morris, William, 500, 505

Miilhausen,

517

Estny,

133

Moorish
architecture,
Italian and
Sicilian
in Spanish Gothic,

476, 501,

New

Anglicanum,
477
Monceaux,
chateau,
382-384
Monier, Joseph, 504

Roman,

344,

Nauplia, Nea
Mpni, 200
Near
East, architecture in, 572-579
Nebuchadnezzar,
30
Doric capital, 63
Nemea,
Neo-classicisrn in America, 556-559,
563
Neo-grec, 469, 490, 493
Neolithic period, 8
Nero, 113, 139, 141
Nesfield, Eden, 491
New
Bedford, Bennett
house, 549
New
England, colonial architecture, 534post-colonial architecture, 547, 549
535;

Monasticon

Monreale,
227,
240,
241
Montacute,
303
Monte
Carlo, Casino, 494
Monticello,
548
Montier-en-Der,
223
Monuments,
commemorative,

architecture,

Naumburg,

Mirhab,
574-575
Missions,
529-530
Mistra,
Peribieptos, 206
Mitla, 526

Mitylene,

85-86

360

351,

Kingdom

Milan,

403-407,

Mycenasan
period, 37-42
Mycerinus, 16
Myra, St. Nicholas, 177
Mystery
temples, 74, 75,

of the Unity,

565

74, 91^-92

Odoacer,
115
Office buildings, 501
Olbrich, Joseph, 515
"Old
Babylonian kingdom,"
in Egypt,
"Old
Kingdom"

26
13,

16,

20

INDEX
Ollentaitambo,
527
F. L., 558
Olmsted,
Olympia, 52, 55. 56, 95; bouleuterion, 89;
circular
gymnasium,
temple, 85;
92;
temple of
stadion, 92;
Metroon,
78;
Hera, 62, 79, 82; temple of Zeus, 77,
78, 80; treasuries, 86

Olympic
Openings,

50

games,

in
architecture, 73;
in
architecture,
early
144;
Christian
architecture,
ment
develop165;
architecture,
of, in Romanesque
267; in Gothic architecture, 204, 295, 296;
in Italian domestic
architecture, 333 ff.;
architecture, 374, 382
in Renaissance
Openwork, in late Gothic architecture, 307;
in Spanish Gothic, 315
76, 80
Opisthodomos,
alexandrinum,
Opus
165
Opus francigenum, 275, 308
Greek

in

Roman

Opus incer turn, 150

Opus

reticulatum,

150

Opus spicalum, 150

Orange, theater, 126;

triumphal arch, 247

Orchestra, 89, 91, 124, 125, 126
Orchomenos,
41
Orcival, 250
Orders, 49, 57; in Rome,
104, 107, 109-112;
in the Renaissance,
374-376, 377
in Italy, 405,
Orders, colossal, 375-376;
in France, 426, 427,432,
407, 408, 419;
434;

in

England,

439,

442,

444

architecture,
Orders, superposed, in Roman
in Renaissance
architecture, 351,
127;
in post355. 357, 368, 374, 388, 392;
Renaissance
architecture, 408, 414, 426
439,

442,

444,

447,

448;

in

American

architecture, 538
Orders, see also Columns
Organic architecture, definition of, 2i8jf.
Oriental

influence, in Roman

architecture,
Europe, 179

106, 115, 143 in western

type of plan, 12, 25, 37-39,

Oriental

87,93,

114, 148
Orientation
of medieval
churches, 168
Orleans, Gaston
d', 425
Ornament,
Mesopotamian,
Egyptian, 24;
.flJgean,42; Greek, 7232; Persian, 33;
in Christian-Roman
Roman,
73;
151;
architecture, 166; in Syrian architecture,
in early Byzantine
architecture,
174;
architecture,
184; in later Byzantine
198, 206; in Carolingian architecture,
in
Lombard
Romanesque,
223:
230;
in Tuscan
Romanesque,
266; in Sicilian
Gothic,
Romanesque, 240 ff.; in French
sance,
Renais297 ff-;in Spanish Gothic,
313;
in Mohammedan
ure,
architect377;
in Far
Eastern
architecture,
579;

580, 581

Orvieto, 320, 321

Ostia, 143; theater, 126
Otto Hemrich,
389
Oval
house, 10

Overhang,

534

Ovolo, 72
Oxford, Clarendon
Press, 442;
477. 485; St. Mary's, 448

colleges,

"Basilica,"
462, 493;
52,
temple, 75, 80, 85; imitation
63
549; temple of Demeter. capital,
Pagodas, 580, 584

PsDstum,
great

21

77;

of,

615
Palaces, Egyptian, 21; Mesopotamian,
25,
Persian, 33-36, 34; ^Egean,
28, 29, 30;
Roman,
Byzantine,
37,
39-40;
104;
2O"ff.; Renaissance,
355,
345, 350-352,
359. 360, 361, 368-369; post-Renaissance,
in Italy, 414, 415-416;
in Spain, 420in France, 433;
in England,
421, 422;
Mohammedan,
578439, 442, 444-445;
Chinese, 585
579;
Palcestras, 92, 130

Palenque,

524,

Paleolithic

period, 8

525

Cappella Palatina,

Palermo,

240;

dral,
cathe-

240
Palladian
motive, 376
"Palladian
style," 442-444,
in America,
536, 538

Palladio,

448-450,

Andrea, 370, 408-409,

461
Palm
column, 22
Palmyra, 146, 154, 462
Paneling, 534. 538
Papyrus column, 13, 22

465;

416, 419,

443,

Parion, altar, 86
Paris, Arc
du
Carrousel, 466; Arc
de
1'Etoile, 466, 467, 500;
Bazaar
de la
de
rue
Rennes,
Bibliothdque
504, 5/0;
Nationale,
Bibliothe'que
502,
503;
Sainte Genevidve,
493, 495, 503; Bourse,
cathedral,
280,
467, 472;
290,
292,
Com296, 338; Chapelle
203,
295,
Chateau
m"morative,
Madrid, 380;
495;
College des Quatre Nations, 426, 435;
Ecole des Beaux-Arts,
484, 491, 493, 512;
Ecole
Miliinfluence, 552, 555,
560;
taire, 432, 436; Eiffel Tower, 503; Exposition
of 1855, 504;
Exposition of 1878,
Gare
Exposition of 1900,
504;
512;
du
de 1'Est, 509;
Gare
Nord,
509;
Gare

du quai d'Orsay, 509, 511;

Halle
Ble, 472, 503; Halles Centrales, 503;
hotels, 434; Hotel Cluny, 33L
338;
337,
Hotel de Salm, 464; Hotel de Ville,382,
Invalides, 435, 436; Louvre, 337,
495;
colonnade,
382;
426, 427, 428; court,
embourg,
383, 424, 426; south facade, 426; LuxMadeleine,
467, 542;
425;
Metropolitan
Railway
stations, 514;
au

Mint, 471; Mus6e

Galliera, 494;
Mus"e
des Monuments
Francais,
octroi
484;
gates, 465; Od6on, 473; Ope"a, 494, 496,
Palais
Opera
(Old), 487;
508;
507,
Bourbon, 471; Palais de I'lndustrie, 504;
Palais de Justice, 47 1 ; Vestjbulede Harley, 504; Palace of the Legion of Honor,
Sainte Geneviftve;
see
464; Panth6on,
Place Dauphine, 423,
Petit-Palais, 494;
Place de la Concorde,
436;
432,

M6; de

ace
France, 436; Place Royale, 423,
des
Place
436; Place Vend6me,
436;
Victoires,436; Porte St. Denis, 437, 438,
de Rivoli, 475;
Sacred Heart,
rue
500;
St. Augustin,
Ste.
495.
497!
495;
Ste.
Chapelle, 271?, 291,
338;
299,
Clotilde, 484, 485; St. Eustache,
384;
Ste. Genevi^ve, 464, 465; imitation of,
St. Germain-des-Pre's, 290,
338;
544;
des Champs,
St. Gervais, 424; St. Martin
St. Philippe du Roule, 474202, 338;
St. Sulpice,431;
Ste. Trinite',495;
475;
Sorbonne, chapel, 435; Tuileries, 384, 385,
Val-de-Grace, 426, 435;
387,
423;
Venddme
column, 466

INDEX

6i6
Parma, 234, 270; theater, 416
Parterres, 416
Parthia,

293,

33,

36

Paulinzelle, 242, 243, 244, 271

Certosa, 320, 353, 354; San

Pavia,
231.

233.

270

358, 361, 382, 426, 428, 432,

448,

Paxton, Sir Joseph, 504

Pearson, J. L., 492
Pediments, in Greek
architecture, 73, 78,
in Roman
84;
architecture, 106; in
Renaissance
architecture, 349, 366, 387;
in
post-Renaissance
architecture, 411;
390,

401,

403,

419,

423,

236, 237,

"

112

Gothic, 284, 305 ff.,312

427-428
tomb
of
Persepolis, 33-36;
palace, 34;
Darius, 35
architecture in, 573Persia, Mohammedan
Claude,

Achaemenian

period,

Sassanian

period, 572-573
Perspectives, constructed,
416
412,
32-36;

Peru,

527,

237;

"

Platt, C. A., 556

Plymouth,
534
Poblet, 314
Poelaert, Joseph, 496
Poggio a Cajano, Villa, 353, 37O, 376
la Grande,
Poitiers, Notre Dame
252, 253
Pollaiuolo, Simone
del, 352-353
in Egyptian
Polychromy,
architecture, 12;
in
in
Mesopotamian
architecture, 32;
Greek architecture, 72; in Roman
tecture,
archiin early Christian
tecture,
archi151;
in Byzantium,
166, 176;
184,
in
198; in Lombard
Romanesque,
230;
Tuscan
in
French
236;
Romanesque,
Gothic, 298; in Tuscan
Gothic, 320
Polyclitus, 55
Polygonal masonry,
40, 527
Pompeii, 113, 116-118,
120,
137-139,
462;
of Pansa, 138,
amphitheater, ,127; House
theaters, 124
139;
Pompey,
113
Matthaus,
Poppelmann,
431
Portico, in ^gean architecture, 38-40; in
Greek
architecture, 57, 83, 93; in Roman
in Renaissance
architecture, 107,
iiS;
in modern
ure,
architectarchitecture, 386;
442, 443, 445, 447, 45?, 463, 464,
in American
469, 471, 472, 474, 475;

architecture,
358, 379;
architecture,
442;
modern
architecture,
ican
467; in Amerarchitecture, 544, 549, 558
Peristyle, interior, 74. 82, 89, 93, 148; see
also Courts, peristylar

575-576,
579
architecture,

235,

Plateresque, 387

post-Renaissance

574.
Persian

group,

238

Court
House, 553;
Calvary Church, 558
Pitzounda, 204, 214
in France,
Planning, 2; in Rome,
105;
irregular, 105, 361, 436
384, 435;
Plantagenet
Gothic, 285

437,

Renaissance

Perrault,

235,

Pisistratus, 52, 67, 86

267

cathedral

Pittsburgh, Allegheny

ure,
architectPeristyle, exterior, in Egyptian
in Greek
architecture, 74, 76,
23;
in Roman
architecture, 107, 116;
95;

Perislylium
Perpendicular

238;

Leaning Tower,

448. S36
Pekin, Temple of Heaven, 584
Pendentive,
177 ff.
Penetrations, 378, 414, 421
Sir James,
Pennethorne,
490
Pennsylvania, colonial architecture, 535
Percier, Charles, 467
Altar of Zeus, 57, 86;
Pergamon,
56, 73;
palace, 93; Ionic temple, 85
Pericles, 54, 80
Pe'rigueux, St. Front, 212, 227, 251, 252,

in
in
in

Romanesque,

Pilasters, in Roman
architecture, 127, 146;
paneled, 377
Pile dwellings, 8-0, 10
Pioneer architecture, 527
Piraeus, 54, 98,; arsenal, 74
Piranesi, G. B., 462, 464
Pisa, baptistry, 238;
cathedral, 229, 235,

Michele,

544

broken,

architecture,

228

529

Pavilions,

in Gothic

294

Pierrefonds, 327, 338

Pilaster strip, in Lombard

57, 572

Pasargadae,
Patio,

architecture, 228;

528

108
of Augustus,"
Perugia, "Arch
architecture,
538, 540,
542,
545,
537,
Peruzzi, Baldassare, 360-361, 374
also Peristyle,
see
546, 548, 549, 550;
Phaistos, 39
exterior
Phidias, 54, 80, 82
Post-colonial
architecture, 547, 550
Bank
of
Philadelphia, 535,
560;
537,
Post-Renaissance
architecture,
xxii, 401"
of the United
Bank
Pennsylvania, 545;
in America,
536-540, 542-545
459;
States (Custom
House), 545, 546; Bank
Pozzolana, 149
United
States
of the
(Girard's Bank),
Prague, Belvedere, 388; Waldstein
palace,
Centennial
Exposition, 554; Christ
542;
450
Girard
dependence
Church, 538;
College, 546; InPreclassjcal architecture, 11-47
Hall, 538-539;
library, 542;
Prehistoric
architecture, 8-10
Merchants'
Exchange,
vania
Pennsyl546;
Priene, 97; plan, 98; agora,
87; CouncilHospital, 540;
Sedgeley,
551;
House XXXIII,"
house, 89;
03; temple
State House, 538-539
of Athena,
55, 85
Philae, 21
Primaticcio, Francesco, 381, 382, 383, 385
Philip II., 420
Prior
Park, 445
Piano
nobile, 360
Prisons, 471-472,
501,
541, 550
Picardy, Gothic architecture in, 284
Pronaos,
76, So
in
medieval
architecture,
Picturesqueness
architecture,
Proportions, in Renaissance
335
in post-Renaissance
architecture,
377;
Piedmont, baroque architecture, 412
402, 403, 444
Pienza, Piazza, 370
Propylaea, 39-40, 42, 86-87
in Lombard
Pier, compound,
Proskenion, 89, 91
Romanesque
.

"

INDEX

arch
order, see Arch order
architecture, 103-158; influence of,
revival
ica,
of, 464-467; in Amer154, 345;

Prostyle portico, 76, 82, 83

Protestantism, 447, 451, 485, 534-535
Prothesis,

165,

617
Roman
Roman

221

238
Proto-Renaissance,"
architecture in, 151-152;
Provence, Roman
architecture
Romanesque
in, 247 ff.
"

Plantation,

Providence
Ptolemaic

period, 15,
Pugin, Augustus, 479
Pugin, A. W., 480, 500
marble,

Purbeck

534
22

461, 476-485
Rome,
57,
346, 357. 377. 412;
113-115,
of
Claudius, 108;
Appius
Aqueduct
"Arch
of Constantine,"
Arch
134, 147;
Arch
of Domitian,
of Titus,
147;
134,

17

16-17,

135

533

plans, 434, 436, 448,

stations, 498, 501,

Railway
Ramesseum,

23,

Ramps,

416

Ramses

III., 15

Ravanitsa,
Ravenna,

IQO,

507-508,

553

369, 374,

205

Apollinare in Classe, 194;

168, 160, 194;
Apollinare Nuovo,
(S. Giovanni
Baptistry of the Orthodox
of
in
Mausoleum
Galla
Fonte), 179;
Placidia
e
(SS. Nazzaro
Celso), 160, 178,
palace of Theodoric, 207;
195. !97i
179,
S. Vitale, 185, 186, 189, 190,
195,
197
Sant'

in Greek
Refinements,
architecture, 50, 82,
in
in Roman
architecture, 116;
85;
medieval
architecture,
219 ff.
Reformation,
401, 402

469

Reims,

cathedral, 287, 290,

291,
295,
St. Remi,
262
299,
300;
architecture
Renaissance
xxii, 344-400;

296,
vival
re-

ica,
of, 487-489, 490, 492, 493; in Amer552, 554-556
Ren wick, James, 551
of Gothic
Restoration,
buildings, 478
Revett, Nicholas, 462, 465
Revolution, French, 469, 484; American,
540
Rhamnus,
temple of Themis,
77
architecture
Rhine valley, Romanesque
of,
245

Rhodes. 56;
in, 286

plan of, 98;

Rhythmical

Gothic

ure
architect-

bay, 352, 357-358, 365, 386

Ribbed
vaults, in Lombard
Romanesque
226 ff.
and Gothic,
H. H., 552-553
Richardson,
Richelieu, chateau, 424
Monumental
Richmond,
capitol, $41, 542;
Church,
penitentiary, 550
550;
Rickman,
Thomas,
479
Rimini, S. Francesco. 351
de Luzarches, 279
Robert
Rocaille, 430
Rockville, Maxwell
Court, SS5
Rock- work,
411
in France,
Rococo,
438; in Germany,
451;
422.

430-431,

4-12

Rodriguez, Lorenzo,
Rogers, Isaiah, 546

528

123,

JEmilia,

Basilica

123;

Basilica
of MaxenBasilica
Ulpia, 122, 123;

122-123;

124;

Cancellaria, 357-358,
369,
itol,
Cap372;
Castle
of
Sant'
406, 407, 419;
Maximus,
losseum,
Angelo, 136; Circus
128; CoColumn
of
///.
127-128;

Forum
Forum

377

Sant'

Regensburg,

Basilica
113,

of Marcus
Column
AureDuilius, 133;
of Trajan, 133; Comilius, 133; Column
perors,
tium, 122; Curia, 122;
Fora of the EmForum
of Augustus,
121
;
113,
Forum
of Caesar, 113,
118, 120;
120;

550

109

Raphael, 358, 360-361,

Raschdorff, J. C., 489

133;

Julia,
tius,
in America,

553-554

Radial

556

552-553,

Quadriga, 134, 137

Quais, 436
style, 490-491;
"Queen Anne"
Quimper, 307
Quoins, 150, 423,

544-545

architecture, 217-274;
ity
priorin, 225;
influence of, 268 ff.
revival, in Germany,
Romanesque
483; in
ica,
England, 492; in France, 495; in AmerRomanticism,

304

Pylon, 20
Pyramid-mastaba,
Pyramids,
n,
13,

541-542,

Romanesque

Romanum,
IIQ,
121,
113,
122;
Forum
Trajan, 114, 120-122;
of Acqua
fountain
Transitorium,
147;
French
II
Paola, 411;
Academy,
428;
Golden
House
of Nero, 141;
Gesu, 411;
of

Isola Tiberina,
413,

463;

Mausoleum
Victor

to

168; facade,
143; Lateran,
Mausoleum
of Augustus,
136;
of Hadrian,
136; monument
Emmanuel
II., 496, 499;

of the
Caesars, 139-142,' 141;
Palatine
Palazzo
Hill, 114, 139-141,
143;
dell' Aquila,360, 361; Palazzo
Barberini,
Palazzo
Barberini, stairs, 419;
415;
Palazzo
Cancellaria, 357-358,
369, 372;
Palazzo
Farnese, 368, 369, 371,
372;

palaces

cornice, 375;
362; Palazzo

Palazzi
Ludovisi

Massimi,

361,

(Montecitorio),
Palazzo
Raffaello,
358, 360;
412;
del
Palazzo
lazzo
PaSenatore,
406-407;
Venezia,
Pantheon,
357;
114,
118, 149;
impost, 146, 147;
115,
117,
imitation
tabernacles,
of, 351, 359,
144;
Piazza
del
463. 471, 474, 475, 544, 545;
Popolo, 418; Piazza of Saint Peter, 412,
418,

419;

Mulvius,

Pons

^milius,

108;

Pons

Ripetta, 418; rostrum,

Sant'
Agnese
fuori-le-mura, 162,
122;
168, 180; Sant' Agnese, Piazza. Navona,
a' CatiS. Andrea, 409;
S. Carlo
412;
S. Clemente,
nari, 415;
163, 164, 180;
Sta. Costanza,
170,
180; S.
137,
177,
132;

Giovanni
in Laterano,
168; facade, 413,
fuori-leS. Ivo. 412;
S. Lorenzo
160. 167, 168, i6g, 180; S. Marco,
mura,
Sta. Maria
in Cosmedin,
168;
355, 357;
Sta.
Maria
Sta.
168, 180;
Maggiore,
del
Maria
Popolo, Chigi Chapel, 360;
St. Paul's Outside-the-Walls,
162, 164,
167, 168, 180; St. Peter's, 357, 359, 360,
366, 367, 368, 375-376, 378, 379, 404. 405;
baldachino,
colonnades,
412;
411; dome,
St.
facade, 411;
495-496;
nave,
414;
Peter's
(Old), 160, 164, 165, 168, 180;
in
S. Pietro
Montorio,
"Tempietto,"
S. Pietro
in Vincoli,
356, 358, 377. 379;
160,
160, 168, 180; S. Stefano Rotondo,
180;
Spanish
Steps, 418;
162, 170,

463;

INDEX

6i8

Tabularium,
109,
iio-m;
temple of
Antoninus
and Faustina, 146, 147;
ple
temof Castor and Pollux, 145;
"Temple
of Fortuna
Virilis,"109; temple of Mars
the Avenger, 113, 116; temple of Trajan,
and
temple of Venus
Rome,
118;
122;
of Vesta," 118; theaters, 126;
"Temple
theater

of
Pompey,
126;
113,
125,
of Caracalla, 129,
impost,
130;
thermae
of Diocletian, 130;
tomb
147;
of Constantia, 137;
also Santa
Cossee

thermae

Court
of the
Vatican, 357, 404;
tanza;
of San Damaso,
Court
Belvedere,
359;
Scala
loggia, 361, 377;
Regia, 412;
Villa Farnesina, 361, 369; Villa Madama,
Villa di Papa
361, 370,
378;
377,
359,
Giulio,409; stairs, 419; Villa Pia, 404,

416
Romulus
Augustulus,
Roof -comb,
524

Roofs, 4;
25;

115

Egypt, 23; in Mesopotamia,

in
in
Persia, 33;
Crete, 38;

in

in

Greece,

39,

in
American

387;

78;

73,

in

379;

in

Italian

sance,
Renais-

French

English

Renaissance, 382,
in
Renaissance, 394;

architecture,

532,

533,

535,

536;

in India, 580; in China, 580, 584

Root, J. W., 556, 564
Rose
windows, 295
Rostra, 122
Louis
of
de
Rouen,
cathedral, Tomb
St.
Breze, 382; Palais de Justice, 332;
Maclou, 307, 310; St. Ouen, 307, 308
Rough cast, 513
Ruskin, John, 481, 506; influence of, 551
Rustication, in Roman
architecture, 144;
in the
Renaissance,
371,
350,
351,
376;
in
post-Renaissance
architecture, 401,
410, 418, 419, 423, 424, 448
Ruweiha,
173

Gallo, Giuliano da, 352-353

Juan Capistrano, 530
Juan de los Caballeros, 529
Sanmicheli, Michele, 362-363
San
Miguel de Linio, 225
Sansovino,
Jacopo, 362-364, 377
Santa
Barbara,
mission, 530
Santa
Creus, 314
Santa
F6, cathedral, 529
Maria
de Naranco,
Santa
225
Santullano, 225
Sarcophagi, 94, 109, 135, 403
Sargon II., 27, 29
Sash windows,
446, 536
fluence
inSassanian
architecture,
572-573;
of, 573, 574
Saucer
dome, 379, 464, 556
Sccenie frons, 124, 126-127,
416
Scamozzi, Vincenzp,450
architecture
in, 321
Scandinavia, Gothic
Schinkel, K. P., 469, 473, 474, 483
Schliiter,Andreas,
451
Schmidt, Friedrich, 489
San
San
San

Karl,
Schnaase,
Scipio Barbatus,
Scotia, 65

500

sarcophagus,

109

Scott, Sir Gilbert, 482

"Screens," 392, 393
architecture, 11;
Sculpture, in Egyptian
in
in
architecture,
Mesopotamian
32;
in
Greek
architecture,
78, 84-85;
54,
in
architecture,
early Christian
174;
Byzantine architecture, 184; in Lombard
in
manesque,
RoAquitanian
Romanesque,
230;
253; in Spanish Romanesque,
in
French
Gothic,
263 ff.; in
298;
Gothic,
English Gothic, 302; in German
in Italian
in Spanish Gothic,
313;
310;
in
Renaissance
architecture,
377;
354,
in Japanese
Khmer
architecture,
583;
architecture, 586
Secession, see Modernism
of Byzantine
Golden
"Second
art,
Age"

Sacconi, Count
Giuseppe, 496
St. Augustine, 529
St. Denis, 309;
mausoleum
of the Valois,
197
Secular architecture, in Byzantium,
207 ff.;
384, 386
St. Gall (Switzerland), 221, 222
in the Romanesque
period, 268; in the
Gothic period, 322 ff.
St.-Gaudens, Augustus, 558
St. Germain,
Sedding, J. D., 492
423
St. Germer
de Fly, 290, 292,
Segesta, temple, 85
293
St. Gilles, 249
of Demeter,
Selinus, 52, 80; megaron
77;
St. Leu
ple
d'Esserent, 289
temple "C," 77; temple "F," 86; temSt. Loup-de-Naud,
262
of Apollo, 70, 78, 80
St. Maur-les-Fosses, chateau,
382
Semper, Gottfried, 488-489, 500, 507, 509
St. Medard-en-Jalle, 329
Senlis, 290, 296, 297
St. Saturnin, 250
Sen-Mut,
24
Saite
Sennacherib,
period, 15, 22
27, 28
cathedral,
Sakkara, pyramid, 16
Septapartite vaults in Durham
Casa
de
260
Salamanca,
Monterey,
388;
Serlio, Sebastiano,
381, 403
university, 387
Seroux
Salem, Pierce- Nichols
house, 547, 548
d'Agincourt, 484
Serra, Junipero, 529
Salisbury, 276, 280, 301,
302,
303,
304
Salon, 433
Servadony, J. N., 431, 463
Salonica, Eski-djouma, 186; Hagia Sophia, Service quarters, 2, 29, 430, 434, 442, 444,
1

86,

88

445,

Salzburg, cathedral,

450
of Hera,

Samos, 52; temple

Samothrace, Kabirion, 86
San
San

Diego,

79,

85

529

Francisco

Solano, 529
Gabriel, 530
Galgano, 317
Gallo, Antonio
da, the elder, 352-353,
368, 379, 405
366; the younger,

San
San
San

537,

549

Severus, 118
Seville, cathedral, 27.?,280, 315, 316, 318;
El Salvador,
Giralda
Tower,
316, 318Town
Hall, 387, 388
altar, 422;
Seti I.,temple at Abydos,
23
Sexpartite vaults, 257 ff,
Shaw,
Norman,
Shell-work,
430

Shop

fronts, 504

491

INDEX
Shute, John, 392
Siccardsburg, A. S. von,
Sicily,Greek architecture

489
in, 51, 52, 55, 56;
Roman
Romanesque
conquest,
109;
architecture
in, 239 ff.
Sidon, sarcophagi from, 94
del
Palazzo
Siena, cathedral,
Mag319;
Palazzo
Pubnifico, flag holder, 373;
blico,

S8o, 581
in Greek

333,

Site, adaptation

to,

Siva

shrines, 581
Skene, 89-91
Skopas, 85

Skripou,

199

Skyscrapers, 560-563
Smibert,
John, 539
Smithfield, St. Luke's, 533
Snefru, pyramid of, 16
Soane, Sir John, 472
Soest, Wiesenkirche,
310
Soissons, 204, 295
Soufflot, J. G., 431, 462, 500
architecture
Spain, pre-Romanesque
of,
architecture
of, 363 ff.;
224; Romanesque
Gothic
architecture
of, 285,
312 ff.;
Renaissance
architecture
in, 346, 387architecture
in,
388;
post-Renaissance
402-403,

Mohammedan

420-422;

tecture
archi-

in. 573-574.
579
Spalato, palace of Diocletian, 115, 142, 143,
mausoleum,
179, 462; arches, 146, 147;
137,

142;

Porta

Aurea, 147

Spanish colonial architecture, 527-531;

Sparta, 55
Spatial forms,
345;

in

in Roman
Renaissance

368, 377-378,

architecture, 148,
architecture, 366-

379

246, 247
Spina, 128
ure,
Spire,development of, in Gothic architect206 ff.
Spoleto, cathedral, capitals,373
Squares, 370, 423. 436, 448, 475
Squinches, 200 ff.,573, 579
Stables, 434, 444
Stadions, 56, 74. 92
de, 476, 500
Stael, Madame
Roman,
Stage, Greek,
89-90,
91;
124;

Speyer,

220.

245,

modern,
507
Stained
glass in

Gothic

architecture,

298

in Persia, 33;
in
Stairs, in Assyria. 29;
architecture,
Crete, 39; in Renaissance
in
post-Renaissance
380,
378,
384;
in
architecture, 405, 410, 415. 419. 433;
architecture, 524
Maya
Stalactite vaulting, 579
Stanislas, 431
architecture, 501,
of, in modern
Steel, use
also Iron
see
561-562;
503-505,
502,
Steeples, 447-448, 538

Stele, 94
Stereotomy, 437
Stilt-blocks, 146. 579
Stilting in Gothic architecture, 288 ff.
of St. Luke, 200.
Stiris. great church
little church of St. Luke, 190, 199,
Stoas, 74, 87. 91, 92, in
Stone age, 8-9

Stonehenge,

201;
200

Strap-work, 392, 438

Strasburg, cathedral,309,
buildings, 490

Strawberry Hill, 478

Street, George Edmund,
482
Strickland, William, 546
Stuart, James, 462, 464
in Roman
Stucco,
architecture, 147;

in
in
architecture,
378;
372,
architecture,
post-Renaissance
418; in
American
in Mohamarchitecture, 527;
medan
Renaissance

architecture, 579;
architecture

architecture, 335 ff.

medieval

in

95 ;

619

339,

483; modern

Rough

also

see

cast

Stupa, 580-581, 582

Sullivan, Louis, 511, 513, 563, 564-565
"SuROfl
Place, 393
Switzerland, Gothic architecture
in, 321
Syracuse, 109
Syria, Roman
146, 152-154;

architecture

in,

early Christian
Mohammedan

in, 171-174;

115,
143,
architecture
tecture,
archi-

573-574

Stylobate, 58
Sumerian
architecture, 26
Susa, 33
Symmetry,
50
Syracuse, 52, 56; altar of Hieron, 86; palace
of Dionysius, 55
"T"

form

in

Tabernacles,
147;

in

372,

374,

Carolingian architecture,

in Roman
Renaissance

architecture,

221

144,

architecture, 361,

376

Tablinum,
138
Taine, Henri, 500

Tarentum, 52, 109

Tegea, temple of Athena Alea, 85
Tello, see Lagash
Temples, Egyptian, 18-21; Assyrian, 29;
Greek,
Babylonian, 30, 31;
52, 75-86,
74-87; Etruscan. 107; Roman,
112,
114,
imitation
of, 409, 447, 463,
115-120;
467, 474, 475, 540, 541-542,
544.
546,
549, 550; circular,56, 85, 107, 109, 118;
imitation of, 358, 466
Tepidarium, 129, 130, 131
Terra-cotta, 62, 108, 505, 560, 562
Terramare,
10
Terraces, 359, 361, 416
Thamugadi, 143; forum, 120
Theaters, Greek, 52, 56, 74, 89-91; Roman,
imitation of, 471, 473-474,
124-127,
125;
post-Renaissance,
544,
545;
416-417;
modern, 472-474,
491, 498, 506-507
Theatral
area,
39
Theban
period,13, 17,
Thebes
(Egypt), 13
Thebes
(Greece), 55

Theodoric,

20

195

Theodosius
Theoretical
113;

II., 210
writings, Greek,
Renaissance,
352;
392,

403,

409,

modern,
461, 463, 480,
503. 506, 509-511,
512

Therma:,
Thinite

104,

114,

115,

Roman,
post-Renaissance,

50;

423,

425,

481, 484,

443;
500,

128-131, 148

period,12-13

Thirty Years' War, 450

This, 12
Tholoi, see Temples, circular
Thornton, William, 542
Thothmes
III., 24, 27
Thurii, 98
Tiberius, 141
Tiercerons, in English Gothic,
Flamboyant
Gothic, 306

304

ff.; in

INDEX

620
Tie-rods, 4. 378
Tile, 482, 504, 505, 579
forum,
120
Timgad,
143;
Tiryns, 37; palace, 39, 40

Vandals,
Van

Titus, 133
Tivoli, "Temple

of Vesta,"
118;
109, 110,
Villa
d'Este, stairs, 419;
capital, 145;
of Hadrian, 139, 140, 148
villa,
Toledo, 314, 317
Toltec

architecture,

525

Tombs,

Egyptian,
Persian, 36;
16-18;
JEgea.n, 37, 41 ; Greek, 74, 94-95; Roman,
Mohammedan,
I3S-I37;
579
Torus, 65
Toulouse, Hotel d'Assezat, 384; St. Sernin,
220,

263

259,

251,

Tourmanin,

772,

in

173

442,

480,
529,

447;
503;

530,

architecture,

in modern
architecture,
in American
tecture,
archi-

538,

SSL

552,

553

Town

halls, in Gothic
Flanders, 329 ff.;
modern,
485, 498
Town
planning, Greek,
56, 95-98;
54-55,
Italian
Roman,
Renaissance,
113-114;

post-Renaissance,
418;
448, 475
C. H., 513
Townsend,
bar, 294,
Tracery, plate, 294;
295
Trajan, 114, 120, 122, 133
370-371,

423-

424,

Treasuries,
Trebizond,
Trebizond,

Chrysokephalos,

206

339

Trianon,
see
Versailles, 483
Triclinium,
138
Trier, Porta
Nigra, 134, 1.35;
152

165
Triglyphs, 58, 60-62, 63, 64; corner,
144
arch, see Arch, commemorative
Triumphal

Trophies, 133, 438

Troy, 37
Troyes, 204, 296

Turin,
413,
Turkish

480, 485
136-137

135,
Palazzo

Carignano,

412;

Superga,

architecture,574, 576;

imitation

463

4U.

of, 487
Turrets,
Tuscan

394

order, 108, 374,

Tuscany,

Romanesque

439
architecture

Gothic
architecture
in,
Renaissance
-in, 347-353

319

in, 234;

ff.; early

Uji, Phenix-Hall, 583, 586

Ulm, 311
United
States, architecture
in, 540-565
Universities, 498
Upjohn, Richard, 551
Ur-Nina, building at Lagash, 26
Urns, cinerary, 135
of the Archangels, 205
Uskub, Church
Uzes, 267

Vanbrugh,

Sir

John, 442,

444

426;

gardens,

124

Veneering, marble,

118, 131, 149-151,

418
Venice, medieval
secular
building in, 334;
early Renaissance
sance
in, 355;
High Renaisin, 363-364;
baroque architecture
in, 412;
Logetta, 376-377;
Library of
St. Mark, 363-364, 365, 370; details, 375;
Palazzo

Cornaro
della
Palazzo
Ducale,
Palazzo
Grimani,
363,

363;

Ca'
334,

Grande,
335,
340;
Palazzo

364;
Giorgio MagSS. John
and
giore, stairs, 419;
Paul,
Sta. Maria
della Salute, 412, 413,
320;
St. Mark's,
S.
414;
201,
202,
203;
Salvatore, 365

Vendramini,

S.

355;

354,

531

Trianon,

434;

hamlet
General, 471;
434, 483; Petit
434,

theater,

437;

Vestibules,

Vezelay,

415,

254,

Hall of the Statesof Marie

Antoinette,

Trianon,

432,

433,

432

433

255

Vicenza,
"Basiliza," 370, 376, 407, 408;
imitation of, 487; Teatro
Olimpico, 416;
Villa

arch," 306
architecture,

Tumulus,

579

Grand

buildings of

Triforium,

"Tudor
Tudor

574,

Verona, amphitheater, 128; city gates, 363;

Palazzo
Loggia del
Consiglio, 370;
Roman
Pompei,
theater,
363;
126;
S. Zeno, 233, 234, 263
of
Versailles, 428, 429,
apartments
430;
Galerie
XV., 437;
Louis
chapel, 435;
des
Glaces, 430,
gardens, 434;
431;

205

Hagia Sophia, 205,

Tresguerras, F. E., 528

Constantine,

Mohammedan,

Verandas,

86

Troves,309,

573;

Vaux-le-Vicomte, chateau,
Velarium,

post-Renaissance

435,
475,

Velde, Henry, 512

Van
der Null, 489
Vanvitelli, Luigi, 414
Vasari, Giorgio, 409
Vaults, 5; Egyptian, 23;
Mesopotamian,
JEgean, 41;
25, 30-32;
Greek, 57, 73;
Roman,
104-105,
124, 128, 131, 148-149,
in
150,
151,
I-52,
Romanesque
154;
architecture, 264^".; in Gothic architecture,
286, 287 /.; in
English
Gothic,
301 ff.; Renaissance,
378;
sance,
post-Renais436; modern, 504; Sassanian, 572-

434

Tournus,
St. Philibert, 254, 255, 271
Tours, St. Martin, 221
Towers, in Romanesque,
267; in Gothic,
in Renaissance
206 ff.,301;
architecture,
414;
414,

115

de

Rotonda,

408, 409

Gothic, 482; in America,

Victorian
552
Emmanuel
Victor
II., 496
Court
Vienna,
Theater,
488-489;
489;
of
Houses
Parliament,
Imperial
489;
Palace,
Metropolitan
Railway
489;
stations, 514, 515; museums,
489; Opera.
of
Postal
Palace
Justice, 489;
489;
Savings Bank, 515; Rathaus, 489; Ringstrasse,
489; S. Carlo Borromeo,
451;

"Secession," 515;
university, 489;
Church, 483, 489
Viennese
Workshops,
515
Vignola, G. B. da, 409, 416
Vignon, Barthelemy, 467
Vignory, 261
Villas, Roman,
Renaissance, 353,
139;
post-Renaissance,
369-370;
409,
416
Villers-Cotterets, chapel, 386
da, 358, 366
Vinci, Leonardo
Viollet-le-Duc, E. E., 482, 484, 500, 503,
506
Virginia, 548; colonial architecture,
537

tive
Vo-

361,
411,

504,
533,

INDEX

shrines,

Vishnu

S.

Viterbo,
Vitruvian

academy,
50,

Volutes,

36,

32,

V.

Vries,

A.,

de,

J.,

Winckelmann,

409

84,

Greek,

medieval

366

145,

463
Roman,

78;

73,

architecture,
296,

295,

513-514

538

479

462,

Windows,

113,374,377,392,403

64-67,

F.

C.

Voysey,

403,

108,

E.

Willson,

318

68,

capitol,

Williamsburg,

581

Martino,

Vitruvius,

621'

ff.;

333

in

267,

in
294,

Renaissance

tecture,
archi-

post-Renaissance,

382;

374,

392

144;

165,

419,

437

Wagner,

Otto,

Wagner,

Richard,

Wall

511,

377.

386;

architecture,
Paul,

Horace,

White

546;

Washington

House,

Webb,

Sir

Webb,

Philip,

West

Wheel

White.

554,

536,

William

the

Wren,
447,

Wright,

America,
Indian

532,

533,

architecture,
580,

534,

580;

584

462
246

245,
Sir

in

448

Christopher,

448,

477

F.

L.,

Wyatt,

James,

Xerxes,

palace

York,
304

439-442,

444,

445,

565

478

and

hall

of,

Sens,

assembly

443;

rooms,

339

Ypres,

555

Cloth

Yucatan,

Hall,

330,

524-525

537

Ziggurat,

295

Stanford,
of

Robert,

Persia,
62;

492

559

windows,

William

Treasury,
546

464
302,

Hplden,

Westover,

Wood,

John's,

in

architecture,

John,

in

60,

34,

35-36

505

cathedral,

Point,

549;

St.

492

491,

Josiah,

Wedgwood,

Wells,

548,

482,

Aston,

545-546,

542,

558;

Monument,

Alfred,

Waterhouse,

Wells,

capitol,

Memorial,

550;

Chinese

Wood,

339

65

in

547;

Worms,

546

558;
Lincoln

in

224

478
U.,

Washington,
547;

architecture,
of,

of,

use

of,

architecture,

architecture,

Wood,

544

Saxon
form

Thomas

Walter,

Ionic

in

419;

306,

imitation

Doric

in

Chapel,

391

construction,
33;

540,

in

typical

Walpole,

376-

489

shafts,

Wall

Walls,

Wood

147-

architecture,

post-Renaissance,

American

Wallot,

Roman,

71;

Renaissance

in

George's

Cardinal,

Wolsey,

507

Greek,

membering,
148;

St.

Windsor,

515
501,

Zigzag

560

Zoroastrianism,

303

Conqueror,

29-30

molding,

Zoser,

259

THE

END

pyramid

256

255,
33

of,

16

338

cathedral,

305,

UNIVERSITY

OF

Architecture
This book

CALIFORNIA
" Urban

is DUE

on

JUN 16 1986
JUN 4- 1986
REC'D

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