The University of Jordan

Faculty Of Engineering and Technology

Student Name: Saif Eddin Zaki Sayed Ahmed

Student ID: 2130044
Department: Civil Engineering
Subject: Surveying
Section: 1
Date: 04.04.2015

Contents:
1. Introduction
........ 3
2. Project Objectives
.....
3. Leveling and its Applications

5
3.1

Methods of leveling

..
3.2

11
12

Characteristics of Contour lines

4.4

11

Methods of Contouring

..
4.3

Types of Contour Lines

..
4.2

A list of Definitions

..
4. Contouring
..
4.1

Types of Errors

..
3.4

Main Equipment

..
3.3

14

Uses of Contour maps

..
16
5. Longitudinal Section (profile) and cross-section
.
16
5.1

Longitudinal Section (Profile)

5.2

16

Cross-Section

..
6. Earthwork Calculations
..
6.1

19

Volumes

..
6.3

18

Areas

..
6.2

17

Mass-Haul Diagram (MHD)

23

21

7. A case study
..
Abstract
..
7.1

25

Profile and Cross-Sections

7.4

25

Route Location

..
7.3

24

Introduction

..
7.2

24

27

Calculation of Earthwork

27

7.4.1 Areas of Cross-Sections

27

7.4.2 Volumes of Earthwork

7.5

28

Mass-Haul Diagram

..
8. Conclusion
..
Appendices
..
References
..
9.

29
29
30
37

1.

Introduction
A man's feet should be planted in his country, but his
eyes should survey the world. -George Santayana

Surveying has been an essential element in the

development of the human environment for so many
centuries, as it is an imperative requirement in the
planning and execution of nearly every form of
construction. It can be regarded as that discipline which
encompasses all methods for measuring and collecting
information about the physical earth and our environment,
processing that information, and disseminating a variety
of resulting products to a wide range of clients.

2.

Project Objectives

This project aims to expand our knowledge behind leveling

and its applications, understand contour maps and how to
use them, introduce different ways of area and volume
calculation, and open a new door for creativity to delve
into the practical life of an engineer.
The following topics should be understood at the end of
this project:
(i)

Definitions of: leveling, contouring, longitudinal

section, cross section, areas, volumes and mass
haul diagram.
(ii) Characteristics of contour maps and their uses
(iii) Leveling procedures.
(iv) Applications of leveling.
(v) Types of Sections (Profile and Cross-section.)
(vi) Earthwork calculations.
The following objectives should be accomplished at the
end of this project:
(i)
(ii)

Design a route between two known points.

Design Profile and cross-section of the ground level
and formation level for a proposed road.
(iii) Calculate the areas of each x-section.
(iv) Calculate the cumulative volume.
(v) Make mass-haul diagram.

3.

Leveling and its Applications

Leveling is one of the types of geodetic measurements

used to create a geodetic elevation reference grid and
conduct topographic surveying, as well as to plan,
construct, and maintain engineering structures such as
railroads and highways. The science of leveling goes back
to the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans and their
massive construction projects; the first data on a leveling
instrument are associated with the Roman architect
Vitruvius (first century B.C.) and the ancient Green
scientist Hero of Alexandria (first century A.D.).
It can be defined as the art of determining and
establishing the relative height, as well as the difference in
elevation, between different points on earth surface. The
elevation or relative height (R.L) of a point is the vertical
distance above and below a given reference level surface
(zero elevation) usually a mean sea level, which can be
calculated
using Height of
Collimation
method or by
Rise and Fall
method.

3.1 Methods of leveling

(i)

Height of collimation method:

The instrument is set up where the benchmark can
be viewed within correct parameters, and a
reasonable number of sights can be viewed. The
back sight is read to the benchmark and booked.
This is recorded as a backsight and establishes the
height of the instrument above the benchmark.
The actual Reduced Level of the Bench Mark is also
recorded.
Staff readings are added (BS) to
benchmark to get the elevation of the line of sight
(HC).
Subtract staff readings of the rest of the points
from the line of sight to establish elevations of
these unknown points.
H.C = R.L of a point + reading at A
R.L of B = H.C reading at B
(Refer to appendix A)

(ii) Rise and Fall method:

Backsight, intermediate sight and foresight
readings are entered in the appropriate columns
on different rows. However, backsights and
foresights are placed on the same row if the level
instrument is changed. The first reduced level is
the height of the datum, benchmark or R.L. If an
intermediate sight or foresight is smaller than the
immediately preceding staff reading then the
difference between the two readings is place in the
rise column. If an intermediate sight or foresight is
larger than the immediately preceding staff
7

reading then the difference between the two

readings is place in the fall column. A rise is added
to the preceding reduced level (RL) and a fall is
subtracted from the preceding RL.
R.L of a point=R.L of previous point (+ rise
OR fall)
(Refer to appendix B)

3.2 Main equipment

The main equipment needed to carry out leveling
works is:
(i) Level with tripod (device which gives a truly
horizontal line).
(ii) Leveling staf (a suitably graduated staff for
reading vertical heights).
(iii) Chain/Tape (to enable the points leveled to be
located relative to each other on a map).
(iv) Change plate (staff base plate).
(v) Staf bubble (to ensure the staff is erected
vertically).
The level, its tripod, the staff and the staff bubble are
all precision items of equipment upon which the
accuracy of the work is highly dependent. They shall
be kept correctly calibrated, and be used and stored
with care.
There are three types of levels:
(i)

Dumpy levels: these are more basic levels

often used in construction work. The telescope
is rigidly attached to a single bubble and the
assembly is adjusted either by means of a
screwed ball-joint or by foot screws which are
adjusted first in one direction, then at 90.
8

(ii)

Tilting levels: This type of level is fitted with a

circular bubble for preliminary approximate
leveling and a main bubble which is attached to
the telescope. For each observation (not setup)
the main bubble is viewed through an eyepiece

and the telescope tilted by a fine screw to bring

the two ends of the bubble into coincidence
(iii) Automatic levels: This more modern type of
level is now in general use. It has a
compensator which consists of an arrangement
of three prisms. The two outer ones are
attached to the barrel of the telescope. The
middle prism is suspended by fine wiring and
reacts to gravity. The instrument is first leveled
approximately with a circular bubble; the
compensator will then deviate the line of sight
by the amount that the telescope is out of level.

3.3 Types of errors

There are three types of errors in leveling:
(i) Blunder: Large mistakes which occur due to
inexperience, fatigue or carelessness of surveyor.
For example, miscounting tape length.
(ii) Systematic: Instrumental defects. For example,
collimation error in the instrument.
(iii) Random: Such errors happen due to physical
and climatic conditions. For example, effect of
wind and temperature on the height of collimation
causing a slight change.
10

In order to reduce the errors and gain accurate and

precise leveling results, measurements must be
performed carefully using high quality instruments
kept in good adjustment, since a surveyor depends
mainly
on
their
equipment.
Additionally,
measurements must be repeated. Last but not least,
a closure check must be done.

3.4 A list of definitions:

Level surface: is a surface which is everywhere
perpendicular to the direction of the force of gravity.
An example is the surface of a completely still lake.
For ordinary leveling, level surfaces at different
elevations can be considered to be parallel.
Datum: is an arbitrary level surface to which
elevations are referred. The most common surveying
datum is mean sea-level (MSL)
Elevation: also called reduced level, is the vertical
distance between a survey point and the adopted
level datum.
Bench Mark: is the term given to a definite,
permanent accessible point of known height above a
datum to which the height of other points can be
referred
Back Sight: The first reading taken on the staff after
setting up the level. It is taken at a point of known
height.
Fore Sight: The last reading taken before changing
the position of the level.
Intermediate sight: All staff
between back sight and fore sight.

11

readings

made

Change point: are points of measurement which are

used to carry the measurements forward in a run.
Each one will be read first as a foresight, the
instrument position is changed, and then it will be
read as a backsight.
Height of collimation: is the elevation of the
optical axis of the telescope at the time of the setup.
The line of collimation is the imaginary line at the
elevation.

Leveling Staf

Level and Tripod

4.

Contouring

A Contour line is an imaginary

outline of the terrain obtained by joining its points of equal
elevation above a given level, such as mean sea level. It
is sometimes visible, such as the shorelines of a lake,
since water assumes a level surface. A map illustrating
12

contour lines is called a contour map. An example would

be a topographic map, which thus depicts change in
elevation and the shape of landforms showing valleys and
hills, and the steepness of slopes. Often contour lines will
form concentric shapes around each other.

4.1 Types of contour lines

Following are the essentials of the three types of
contour lines:
(i)

Index: Evenly spaced lines accented with a

heavier mark in order to attract attention; these
lines will be the first thing the eye catches. They
are marked with the elevation above sea level
and they are usually figured in intervals, which
differ from one contour map to another
depending on many factors (see table 4.1.)

(ii)

Intermediate: A set of intermediate contour

lines exist between each pair of index contour
lines, where the elevation change between one
index contour line and an adjacent intermediate
contour has the same value as the change
between two intermediate contour lines that are
located next to each other.

(iii) Supplementary: This type of contour lines is

expressed as a dashed line, representing half
the elevation change that is found between
intermediate and index contour lines. These
lines are only used on contour maps where the
overall change in elevation is very gradual or
slight.

13

No.

Factor

Big intervals e.g.

Small intervals
1m, 2m, 5m or more e.g. 0.5m, 0.25m,
0.1m or less

Nature of If the ground has large If the terrain is fairly

ground
variation in levels, for
level
instance, hills and ponds
Scale of For small scale maps
For large scale maps
the map covering a wide area of showing details of a
varying terrain
small area

Extent of For rough topographical For preparation of

survey
map
detailed map for
meant
for
initialexecution of work
assessment only

Time and If less time and

resources resources are
available available

If more time and

resources are available

(Table 4.1)

4.2 Methods of contouring

Broadly speaking
contour surveying:

there

are

two methods

(i)

Direct method: It
method out of all, in
contour is traced and
These lines are then
they can be mapped.

(ii)

Indirect methods: In this method, the spot

levels of selected guide points are taken with
a level and their levels are computed. The
horizontal positions of these points are
measured or computed and the points are
plotted on the plan. The contours are then
drawn by a process called interpolation of
contours from the levels of the guide points.
The following are the indirect methods are
commonly used for locating contours.
14

is the most
which the line
marked on the
plan surveyed

of

precise
of each
ground.
so that

(a)

Grid method: It is the most commonly

used method, where the area to be surveyed
is divided into a grid or series of squares using
a ranging rod. The elevation of points located
at the intersections is then determined by
leveling. Contour lines are then drawn by
interpolation. The size of the squares you lay
out depends on the accuracy needed. (Fig 4.1)

(b)
Radiating method: In this method
several radial lines at selected angle interval
are taken from a point in the area. On these
lines at selected distances points are marked
and levels determined. This method is
particularly used for large and hilly areas.
Theodolite
with
tachometry
facility
is
commonly used in this method. (Fig 4.2)

15

Table 4.2 below summarizes the pros and cons, as well as the
features that differentiate each of the two methods in indirect
Direct Method

Indirect Method

Not very accurate but

Very accurate but slow and tedious
quicker and less
tedious.

Expensive

Reasonable cost

Suitable for large

projects requiring
Appropriate for small projects
moderate to low
requiring high accuracy, e.g., layout accuracy, e.g., layout
3
of building, factory, structural
of highway, railway,
foundations, etc.
canal, etc.

More suitable for low undulating

terrain.

Suitable for hilly

terrain.

Calculations need to be carried out Calculation in the field

in the field
is not mandatory.

Calculations can be
After contouring, calculation cannot
checked as and when
be checked.
needed

contouring.

16

(Table 4.2)

4.3 Characteristics of contour lines

Contours show distinct characteristic features of the
terrain as follows:
(i)

All points on a contour line are of the same

elevation.

(ii)

Two contour lines can meet or cross each other

except in the rare case of an overhanging
vertical cliff or wall

(iii) Closely spaced contour lines indicate steep

slope
(iv) Widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle
slope
(v)

Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope

(vi) Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.

(vii) Closed contour lines with increasing values
towards center indicate hills

17

(viii)

(viii) Closed contour lines with decreasing values

towards center (Fig. 4.3) indicate a pond or

other depression.
(ix) Contour lines of ridge show higher elevation
within the loop of the contours. Contour lines
cross ridge at right angles (Fig. 4.4).
(x)

Contour lines of valley show reducing elevation

Fig 4.2

Fig 4.1

within the loop of the contours. Contour lines

cross valley at right angles (Fig. 4.5).
(xi) Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the
limits of the plan.
(xii) If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it
shows existence of a vertical cliff (Fig. 4.6).

18

4.3
Fig 4.4

4.4 Uses of contour maps

Contour maps are extremely useful for various
engineering works:
(i) Finding out the nature of the ground to identify.
(ii) It is possible to identify suitable site for any
project from the contour map of the region.
(iii) By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible
to find out profile of the
Fig 4.5
Fig 4.6
ground along that line. It
helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if
formation level of road/railway is decided.
(iv)

(iv) Inter-visibility of any two points can be found by

drawing profile of the ground along that line. This
is most useful for locating communication towers.
(v) The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer
lines can be decided so as to minimize and
balance earthworks.
19

The process of determining the elevations of a

series of points at measured intervals lengthwise
along the centerline of a proposed road. This
process provides data from which the depth of fill
or cut required to bring the existing surface up to,
or down to, the grade elevation required for the
highway can be determined.

5.
Longitudinal
Cross Section
5.1

Section

(Profile)

and

Longitudinal Section (Profile)

The process of determining the elevations of a series
of points at measured intervals lengthwise along the
centerline of a proposed road. This process provides
data from which the depth of fill or cut required to
bring the existing surface up to, or down to, the
grade elevation required for the highway can be
determined.

5.2

Cross Sections

20

Cross sections are short profiles made at right angle

to the center line of the project. Cross sections are
usually taken at regular
intervals
along
the
length wise line of the
highway and at sudden
changes in the profile
(intermediate breaks in
the ground). The cross
sections must extend a
sufficient distance on
each side of the center line to provide
a view of the surrounding terrain.

These two types of sections are used in linear facilities

such as highways, railways, transmission lines, canals and
water mains.

21

6.

Earthwork Calculations

On any highway or road construction project, the single

largest cost item is almost always the earthwork; therefore
it is something that transportation projects seldom avoid.
When designers engineer a road, it is important to make
the best possible determination of the quantity of soil and
rock materials that must be moved on the project, which
includes the excavation of existing earth material and any
placement of fill material required for constructing the
embankment. The methods used to determine earth
excavation and embankment amounts are discussed
below.

22

6.1 Areas
To

be able to
calculate
the
volume of
earthwork,
the
area of the
crosssections
along the center line at each station must be
calculated. These areas tell us the amount of cut and
fill.
The ground levels may be horizontal, sloped and
even variable across the section; accordingly several
methods are used to determine the area of crosssection.
(i)

Level Across:

23

(ii)

Section with Cross Fall

(iii) Part Cut Part Fill

(iv)

Sec
tio
of Variable
Level

24

6.2 Volumes
Earthwork is expressed in
units of volumes (cubic

meters in metric.)
To determine the amount of
earthwork to occur on a given
site,
the
volumes
are
calculated, depending on the
shape of the site, in three
ways:
i

By cross-sections, generally used for long,

narrow works such as roads, railways, pipelines,
etc.

25

ii

By contours, generally used for larger areas

such as reservoirs, landscapes, redevelopment
sites, etc.
By spot height, generally used for small areas
such as underground tanks, basements, building
sites, etc.

iii

Since this report is concerned with roads, then

volume calculations are done by relating crosssections along the center line to the distances
between them.
There are three methods of Calculating volumes
using cross-sections:
(a)

Mean Area Method:

The mean area of cross sections A 1 to An is found,

and multiplied by the distance between A1 and An.
This method is the least accurate out of all, as it is
an approximation.

(b)

End Area Method:

In this method, the area between two consecutive

cross-sections is averaged, and then multiplied by

the distance between them. When dealing with

road construction, this method uses the
Trapezoidal rule for volumes. It assumes that there
26

is no variation between two successive sections,

and that the area of the midway section is the
mean.

(c)

Volume by Prismoidal Method:

The geometrical shape and size of a substance

must
be
known in order to
calculate
volume, and since
in
most
approaches
a
mass of earth has no regular geometrical figure,
this method is used. It is accurate, however
necessitates a long time to obtain any desired
result.

Where Am is the area of the plane in between the

two
cross-sections,
and L is
the distance
between
A1 and A2.

Most excavated materials are found to increase in

volume after excavation (bulking), but after being recompacted by roller or other means, soils in
particular might be found to occupy less volume than
originally, i.e. a 'shrinkage' has taken place when
compacted in the in situ volume.

6.3 Mass-Haul Diagram (MHD)

27

Mass diagrams (or mass-haul diagrams) are a

graphical representation of the cumulative volumes
of cut and fill (earthwork moved) along an alignment.
At any station, the value is the accumulated cut
volume minus the accumulated fill volume up to that
point. The difference in Mass Haul between two
points indicates the volume of surplus (positive
difference) or deficit (negative difference). By using
this diagram, engineers can minimize material waste
or borrow. It also provides quick, qualitative
information about the cut and fill movements.
To construct the Mass Haul Diagram manually:
The cross-sectional area at each station must be
calculated.
The net volume between two successive
stations is then calculated; cuts have a positive
value, net fills have a negative value. The shrink
factor is applied.
The value at the first station (origin) is equal to
0.
The cumulated volume of each succeeding
station; equal to the algebraic sum of the
volumes to that point, is then plotted against
the chaiange.
Characteristics of Mass-Haul Diagrams:
(i)

They are a diagrammatic representation of

earthwork volumes along a linear profile,
presenting a picture of the earthwork
requirements.
(ii) Horizontal stationing is plotted along the Xaxis.
(iii) Cumulative earthwork values from the origin to
that point are plotted along the Y-axis.
28

(iv) Net cut values are plotted above the X-axis

(positive Y value.)
(v) Net fill values are plotted below the X-axis
(negative Y value.)
(vi) Upward sloping curves indicate (rising left to
right) indicate a cut.
(vii) Downward sloping (falling left to right) curves
occur in a fill section.
(viii) Peaks indicate a change from cut to fill and
valleys occur when the earthwork changes
from fill to cut Mass Haul Diagrams.
(ix) The accumulated volume of earthwork at the
horizontal axis (Y=0) is 0.
(x) When a horizontal line intersects two or more
points along the curve, the accumulated
volumes at those points are equal.
(xi) A negative value at the end of the curve
indicates that borrow is required to complete
the fill.
(xii) A positive value at the end of the curve
indicates that a waste operation will be the net
result.

7.

A Case Study

Abstract
This project revolves around locating and designing the
most suitable and economical road alignment between
two specific points, while referring to a contour map of
specific area, and calculating the earthwork quantities
involved in the alignment. As a result, three types of
diagrams are constructed. The methodology behind these
diagrams has been explained in section 5 and section 6.3,
and is applied in section 7.3 and 7.5. These are:
Longitudinal Section (Profile.)
29

 Cross-Section.
Mass-Haul Diagram.

7.1 Introduction
The project is to locate and draw the best route
between two selected points on a contour map, and
to calculate the amount of earthwork needed to
construct it.

7.2 Contouring and

Route Location
Planning with respect to
road construction takes
into account present and
future
uses
of
the
transportation system; satisfying maximum service
with a minimum of financial and environmental cost.
Therefore, the road designed has to be efficient and
economical.
The two selected points A and B on the contour map
(size 62.5x46cm, scale 1:7000) are located in a
mountainous region, at an elevation of 400m and
360m (relative to Mean Sea level.) When the route
was designed, certain standards had to be met; the
slope between any two stations had to be less than
4%, balance between cut and fill, and only one curve
was allowed. Other aspects were taken into account
as well, such as physical environmental factors
(topography) and safety.
Once route design was complete, reduced levels of
stations along the center line where interpolated
30

using

trigonometry. The technique is described below.

Where LA = R.L of A R.L of B = Contour interval.

Detailed interpolation of the Reduced Level for
stations 2,3,5,6,8,11 and 12 is found in appendix C,
D, E, F, G, H and I. Stations 1, 4, 7, 9, 10 and 13 did
not need any interpolation as they were located on a
contour line of known height.
The reduced levels along with the chianages of the
stations are found in appendix J.

31

A Brief Insight into the route designed:

Total distance of the route on map is 35cm, scale
1:7000.
It has 13 stations along the center line starting at
A and ending at B.
The horizontal distance between each station is
3cm, except for the distance between station 9
and 10 which is 2cm.

7.3 Profile and Cross-Sections

The reduced levels of the stations along the
formation level are calculated using algebraic
equations; each slope has its own equation.
Therefore, substituting the chainage x into the
equation gives its reduced level y.
Formation Level Equations:
Chainage
0+000 to
0+420
0+420 to
0+630
0+630 to
1+300
1+300 to
2+450

Equation
y= 0.0049286x +400.00
y= 0.0377619x +386.21
y= -0.0074627x +414.70
y= -0.0391304x +455.87

The longitudinal section (profile) includes the reduced

levels of both the formation levels as well as the
ground level (y-axis), plotted against the chainage (xaxis). (Refer to appendix K)
32

The
every

cross-section of
station
is
a
trapezium.
Further details are found in section 8.4.1. The crosssection of station (5) is found in appendix L as an
example.

7.4 Calculations of Earthwork

7.4.1

Areas of cross-sections

For each station, the cross-sectional area has been

found using the trapezium rule.
With a road width set to 10m, a depth of cut/Fill
(x), and each side slope of width 2(x), the equation
above was derived. Values of the cross-sectional
areas for each station are found appendix M.

2x

10 m

2x

x
10

7.4.2

Volumes of Earthwork

Excavation and embankment are calculated with

cross sections using the average end area method.
Firstly, the area between the existing ground and
proposed ground is calculated at each crosssection. Secondly, the area between two
consecutive cross-sections (A1 and A2) is averaged.
33

Lastly, this area is multiplied by the distance (L)

between two cross-sections (See Diagram 7.1.) Cut
volumes are taken to be positive and fill volumes
to be negative. The corrected volume is calculated
by taking in consideration a shrinkage factor of 0.8
applicable to fill. The list of Data about volumes,
corrected volumes and cumulative volumes are
found appendix M.

A volume of cut and fill exits in between station 8

and 9 (wedge); therefore the resultant of those two
had to be calculated (see Diagram7.2.) This was
done by finding the intersection point of the
formation
level
with the
ground
level, then calculating the volumes before and
after
that
Diagram
Diagram
point.
The
7.2
7.1
method is explained in appendix N.

7.5 Mass-Haul Diagram

34

The concept behind the Mass-Haul Diagram has been

discussed in section 7.3. This is essentially a plot of
cumulative volume of soil against distance along the
road (chainage.) Cut volumes are taken to be positive
and fill volumes to be negative. (Refer to appendix O)

8.

Conclusion

The route designed runs a total horizontal distance of

2450m, with 13 stations starting at A and ending at B. The
distance between each station is 210m, except for the
distance between station 9 and 10 which is 140m. The
Road width is 10m, while side slopes width are two times
the depth of cut or fill. Throughout the project there are no
horizontal formation lines connecting two stations to
maintain water flow. There are 4 gradients:
(i) 0+000 to 0+420: 0.493%
(ii) 0+420 to 0+630: 3.78%
(iii) 0+630 to 1+300: -0.746%
(iv) 1+300 to 2+450: -3.91%
And last but not least, the cumulative volume result is
+11404.62 m3 excessive cut.

Appendices:
Appendix A:

35

Appendix B:

Appendix C:

36

x=0.9
y=(10*0.9)/(0.3)
=3
R.L= 403.00

Appendix D:
x=0.6
y=(10*0.6)/(2.9)
=2.07
R.L=402.07

Appendix E:
x=1
y=(10*1)/(2.9)
=3.45
R.L= 403.45

Appendix F:

x=1.1
y=(10*1.1)/(3.1)
=3.55
R.L= 393.55

Appendix G:
x=2.4
y=(10*2.4)/(5.4)
=4.44

37

R.L=394.44

Appendix H:

x=1.4
y=(10*1.4)/(2.4)
=5.83
RL=385.13
Appendix I:

x=1.2
y=(1.2*10)/(2.9)
=4.14
R.L=374.14

Appendix J:

Statio
n

Reduced
Level

Chainage

0+000

400.00

0+210

403.00

0+420

402.07

0+630

410.00
38

0+840

403.45

1+050

393.55

1+260

390.00

1+470

394.44

1+680

400.00

10

1+820

400.00

11

2+030

385.83

12

2+240

374.14

13

2+450

360.00

39

420.00

410.00

400.00

390.00

380.00

370.00

360.00

350.00

340.00

330.00
0

210

420

630

840

Appendix K:
Appendix L:

40

1050

1260

1470

1680

1820

2030

2240

Appendix M:

41

42

Mass-Haul Diagram
40000
20000
0
-20000 0

210

420

630

840

1050

1260

1470

-40000
-60000
-80000

Cumulative Volume

-100000
-120000
-140000
-160000
-180000
-200000
-220000

Chainage

Appendix O:

References:

43

1680

1820

2030

2240

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/RG018i002p00505/abstract
[online]
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Leveling [online]
http://www.engineeringcivil.com/explain-terms-used-in-contouring.html
[online]
http://theconstructor.org/surveying/contour-maps-uses/6441/ [online]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contour_line [online]
http://hcgl.eng.ohio-state.edu/~cegs400/lecture5intro2levels.pdf [online]
http://www.engineeringcivil.com/what-are-the-uses-of-contours.html
[online]
http://www.engineeringcivil.com/what-are-the-factors-governing-selectionof-contour-intervals.html [online]
http://www.ustudy.in/node/7799 [online]
http://theconstructor.org/surveying/methods-of-contouring/6451/ [online]
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105107122/modules/module5/html/97.htm
[online]
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fundamentals_of_Transportation/Earthwork
[online]
http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/t0099e/T0099e02.htm [online]
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/survey.html#IJvLxQAx7FYW
rLRo.99 [online]
http://www.whycos.org/fck_editor/upload/File/PacificHYCOS/Surface_Waters/Levelling_and_surveying.pdf [online]
http://www.trails.com/list_9909_contour-lines-found-topographicalmap.html [online]

Other Resources:
The polar planimeter and its use in Engineering Calculations
by J. Y. Wheatley, C. E.
Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics by
Charles D. Ghilani .and Paul R. Wolf

44

 Introduction to Leveling by Robert J. Mergel, P.E., P.S.

Watershed management field manual by T.C. Sheng.
Lecture Notes and Study Sheets by Prof. Khair Jadaan.
Earthwork and Mass Diagrams at NNOD Construction
Conference 2011.
Structure of Surveying Instruments by Prof. Dr. M. Zeki
Coskun.

Mass-Haul Diagrams by Sr Dr. Mohd Saidin Misnan.

45