Moon - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

10/29/2015
MoonWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Moon
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
ThisarticleisaboutEarth'snaturalsatellite.Formoonsingeneral,seeNaturalsatellite.Forother
uses,seeMoon(disambiguation).
TheMoon(inGreek:Selene,inLatin:Luna)
isEarth'sonlynaturalsatellite.[e][9]Itisoneofthe
largestnaturalsatellitesintheSolarSystem,and,
amongplanetarysatellites,thelargestrelativetothe
sizeoftheplanetitorbits(itsprimary).[f][g]Itisthe
seconddensestsatelliteamongthosewhosedensities
areknown(afterJupiter'ssatelliteIo).
Moon
TheMoonisthoughttohaveformedapproximately
4.5billionyearsago,notlongafterEarth.Thereare
severalhypothesesforitsoriginthemostwidely
acceptedexplanationisthattheMoonformedfromthe
debrisleftoverafteragiantimpactbetweenEarthand
aMarssizedbodycalledTheia.
TheMoonisinsynchronousrotationwithEarth,
alwaysshowingthesamefacewithitsnearside
markedbydarkvolcanicmariathatfillbetweenthe
brightancientcrustalhighlandsandtheprominent
impactcraters.Itisthesecondbrightestregularly
visiblecelestialobjectinEarth'ssky(aftertheSun),as
measuredbyilluminanceonEarth'ssurface.Although
itcanappearaverybrightwhite,itssurfaceisactually
dark,withareflectancejustslightlyhigherthanthatof
wornasphalt.Itsprominenceintheskyanditsregular
cycleofphaseshave,sinceancienttimes,madethe
Moonanimportantculturalinfluenceonlanguage,
calendars,art,andmythology.
TheMoon'sgravitationalinfluenceproducestheocean
tides,bodytides,andtheslightlengtheningoftheday.
TheMoon'scurrentorbitaldistanceisaboutthirty
timesthediameterofEarth,causingittohavean
apparentsizeintheskyalmostthesameasthatofthe
Sun.ThisallowstheMoontocovertheSunnearly
preciselyintotalsolareclipse.Thismatchingof
apparentvisualsizeisacoincidence.TheMoon's
lineardistancefromEarthiscurrentlyincreasingata
rateof3.820.07centimetres(1.5040.028in)per
year,butthisrateisnotconstant.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon
FullmoonasseenfromEarth'snorthernhemisphere
Designations
Adjectives
lunarselenic
Orbitalcharacteristics
Perigee
362 600km
(356 400370 400km)
Apogee
405 400km
(404 000406 700km)
Semimajoraxis 384 399km(0.002 57AU)[1]

Eccentricity
0.0549 [1]
Orbitalperiod
27.321 582d
(27d7h43.1min[1])
Synodicperiod 29.530 589d

(29d12h44min2.9s)
Averageorbital 1.022km/s
speed
Inclination
5.145totheecliptic[2][a]
Longitudeof
regressingbyonerevolutionin
ascendingnode 18.6years
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TheSovietUnion'sLunaprogrammewasthefirstto
reachtheMoonwithunmannedspacecraftin1959the
UnitedStates'NASAApolloprogramachievedthe
onlymannedmissionstodate,beginningwiththefirst
mannedlunarorbitingmissionbyApollo8in1968,
andsixmannedlunarlandingsbetween1969and
1972,withthefirstbeingApollo11.Thesemissions
returnedover380kgoflunarrocks,whichhavebeen
usedtodevelopageologicalunderstandingofthe
Moon'sorigin,theformationofitsinternalstructure,
anditssubsequenthistory.AftertheApollo17
missionin1972,theMoonhasbeenvisitedonlyby
unmannedspacecraft.
Contents
1Nameandetymology
2Formation
3Physicalcharacteristics
3.1Internalstructure
3.2Surfacegeology
3.2.1Volcanicfeatures
3.2.2Impactcraters
3.2.3Lunarswirls
3.2.4Presenceofwater
3.3Gravitationalfield
3.4Magneticfield
3.5Atmosphere
3.5.1Dust
3.6Seasons
4RelationshiptoEarth
4.1Orbit
4.2Relativesize
4.3AppearancefromEarth
4.4Tidaleffects
4.5Eclipses
5Observationandexploration
5.1Ancientandmedievalstudies
5.2Byspacecraft
5.2.120thcentury
5.2.1.1Sovietmissions
5.2.1.2UnitedStates
missions
5.2.1.31980s2000
5.2.221stcentury
6AstronomyfromtheMoon
7Legalstatus
8Inculture
9Seealso
Argumentof
perigee
progressingbyonerevolutionin
8.85years
Satelliteof
Earth
Physicalcharacteristics
Meanradius
1 737.10km (0.273Earths)[1][3][4]
Equatorial
radius
1 738.14km (0.273Earths)[3]
Polarradius
1 735.97km (0.273Earths)[3]
Flattening
0.001 25
Circumference
10 921km (equatorial)
Surfacearea
3.793 107km2 (0.074Earths)
Volume
2.1958 1010km3 (0.020Earths)
Mass
7.3477 1022kg (0.012 300Earths[1])
Meandensity
3.3464g/cm3[1]
0.606Earth
Surfacegravity 1.622m/s2 (0.1654g)

Momentof
inertiafactor
0.3929 0.0009[5]
Escapevelocity 2.38km/s
Sidereal
27.321 582d (synchronous)
rotationperiod
Equatorial
4.627m/s
rotationvelocity
Axialtilt
1.5424toecliptic
6.687toorbitplane[2]
Albedo
0.136[6]
Surfacetemp.
Equator
min
100K
70K
85N [7]
Apparent
magnitude
Angular
diameter
mean
220K
130K
max
390K
230K
2.5to12.9[b]
12.74 (meanfullmoon)[3]
29.3to34.1arcminutes[3][c]
Atmosphere[8]
Surface
pressure
107Pa (day)
1010Pa (night)[d]
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9Seealso
10References
10.1Notes
10.2Citations
10.3Bibliography
11Furtherreading
12Externallinks
12.1Cartographicresources
12.2Observationtools
12.3General
Compositionby HeArNeNaKHRn
volume
Nameandetymology
Seealso:listoflunardeities
TheusualEnglishpropernameforEarth'snaturalsatelliteis"the
Moon".[10][11]Thenounmoonderivesfrommoone(around1380),
whichdevelopedfrommone(1135),whichderivesfromOld
Englishmna(datingfrombefore725),which,likeallGermanic
languagecognates,ultimatelystemsfromProtoGermanic
*mnn.[12]Occasionallythename"Luna"isused,forexamplefor
apersonifiedMooninpoetry,ortodistinguishitfromothermoons
insciencefiction.[13]
TheprincipalmodernEnglishadjectivepertainingtotheMoonis
lunar,derivedfromtheLatinLuna.Alesscommonadjectiveis
TheMoon,tintedreddish,duringa
selenic,derivedfromtheAncientGreekSelene(),from
lunareclipse
[14][15]
whichtheprefix"seleno"(asinselenography)isderived.
BoththeGreekSeleneandtheRomangoddessDianawerealternativelycalledCynthia.[16]Thenames
Luna,CynthiaandSelenearereflectedinterminologyforlunarorbitsinwordssuchasapolune,
pericynthionandselenocentric.ThenameDianaisconnectedtodies,meaning'day'.
TheMoon
NearsideoftheMoon FarsideoftheMoon
Lunarnorthpole
Lunarsouthpole
Formation
Mainarticles:OriginoftheMoonandGiantimpacthypothesis
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SeveralmechanismshavebeenproposedfortheMoon'sformation4.5270.010billionyearsago,[h]some
3050millionyearsaftertheoriginoftheSolarSystem.[17]RecentresearchpresentedbyRickCarlson
indicatesaslightlylowerageofbetween4.40and4.45billionyears.[18][19]Thesemechanismsincludedthe
fissionoftheMoonfromEarth'scrustthroughcentrifugalforce[20](whichwouldrequiretoogreataninitial
spinofEarth),[21]thegravitationalcaptureofapreformedMoon[22](whichwouldrequireanunfeasibly
extendedatmosphereofEarthtodissipatetheenergyofthepassingMoon),[21]andthecoformationof
EarthandtheMoontogetherintheprimordialaccretiondisk(whichdoesnotexplainthedepletionof
metalsintheMoon).[21]Thesehypothesesalsocannotaccountforthehighangularmomentumofthe
EarthMoonsystem.[23]
TheprevailinghypothesistodayisthattheEarthMoonsystem
formedasaresultofagiantimpact,whereaMarssizedbody
(namedTheia)collidedwiththenewlyformedprotoEarth,
blastingmaterialintoorbitarounditthataccretedtoformthe
Moon.[24][25]
Thishypothesisperhapsbestexplainstheevidence,although
notperfectly.EighteenmonthspriortoanOctober1984
conferenceonlunarorigins,BillHartmann,RogerPhillips,and
TheevolutionoftheMoonandatourof
JeffTaylorchallengedfellowlunarscientists:"Youhave
theMoon
eighteenmonths.GobacktoyourApollodata,gobacktoyour
computer,dowhateveryouhaveto,butmakeupyourmind.
DontcometoourconferenceunlessyouhavesomethingtosayabouttheMoonsbirth."Atthe1984
conferenceatKona,Hawaii,thegiantimpacthypothesisemergedasthemostpopular.
Beforetheconference,therewerepartisansofthethree"traditional"theories,plusafewpeople
whowerestartingtotakethegiantimpactseriously,andtherewasahugeapatheticmiddle
whodidntthinkthedebatewouldeverberesolved.Afterwardtherewereessentiallyonlytwo
groups:thegiantimpactcampandtheagnostics.[26]
GiantimpactsarethoughttohavebeencommonintheearlySolarSystem.Computersimulations
modellingagiantimpactareconsistentwithmeasurementsoftheangularmomentumoftheEarthMoon
systemandthesmallsizeofthelunarcore.ThesesimulationsalsoshowthatmostoftheMooncamefrom
theimpactor,notfromtheprotoEarth.[27]However,morerecenttestssuggestmoreoftheMooncoalesced
fromEarthandnottheimpactor.[28][29][30][31]MeteoritesshowthatotherinnerSolarSystembodiessuchas
MarsandVestahaveverydifferentoxygenandtungstenisotopiccompositionstoEarth,whereasEarthand
theMoonhavenearlyidenticalisotopiccompositions.Postimpactmixingofthevaporizedmaterial
betweentheformingEarthandMooncouldhaveequalizedtheirisotopiccompositions,[32]althoughthisis
debated.[33]
Thelargeamountofenergyreleasedinthegiantimpacteventandthesubsequentreaccretionofmaterialin
EarthorbitwouldhavemeltedtheoutershellofEarth,formingamagmaocean.[34][35]Thenewlyformed
Moonwouldalsohavehaditsownlunarmagmaoceanestimatesforitsdepthrangefromabout500km
(300miles)totheentireradiusoftheMoon(1,737km(1,079miles)).[34]
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Despiteitsaccuracyinexplainingmanylinesofevidence,therearestillsomedifficultiesthatarenotfully
explainedbythegiantimpacthypothesis,mostoftheminvolvingtheMoon'scomposition.[36]
OceanusProcellarum("OceanofStorms")
Ancientriftvalleysrectangularstructure
Ancientrift
Ancientriftvalleyscloseup
(visibletopographyGRAILgravitygradients) valleyscontext. (artist'sconcept).
In2001,ateamattheCarnegieInstituteofWashingtonreportedthemostprecisemeasurementofthe
isotopicsignaturesoflunarrocks.[37]Totheirsurprise,theteamfoundthattherocksfromtheApollo
programcarriedanisotopicsignaturethatwasidenticalwithrocksfromEarth,andweredifferentfrom
almostallotherbodiesintheSolarSystem.Becausemostofthematerialthatwentintoorbittoformthe
MoonwasthoughttocomefromTheia,thisobservationwasunexpected.In2007,researchersfromthe
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyannouncedthattherewaslessthana1%chancethatTheiaandEarthhad
identicalisotopicsignatures.[38]Publishedin2012,ananalysisoftitaniumisotopesinApollolunarsamples
showedthattheMoonhasthesamecompositionasEarth,[39]whichconflictswithwhatisexpectedifthe
MoonformedfarfromEarth'sorbitorfromTheia.Variationsonthegiantimpacthypothesismayexplain
thisdata.
Physicalcharacteristics
Internalstructure
Mainarticle:InternalstructureoftheMoon
Chemicalcompositionofthelunarsurface
regolith(derivedfromcrustalrocks)[40]
Composition(wt%)
Compound Formula
StructureoftheMoon
Highlands
silica
SiO2
45.4%
45.5%
alumina
Al2O3
14.9%
24.0%
lime
CaO
11.8%
15.9%
iron(II)oxide
FeO
14.1%
5.9%
magnesia
MgO
9.2%
7.5%
titaniumdioxide
TiO2
3.9%
0.6%
sodiumoxide
Na2O
0.6%
0.6%
99.9%
100.0%
Total
Maria
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TheMoonisadifferentiatedbody:ithasageochemicallydistinctcrust,mantle,andcore.TheMoonhasa
solidironrichinnercorewitharadiusof240km(150mi)andafluidoutercoreprimarilymadeofliquid
ironwitharadiusofroughly300km(190mi).Aroundthecoreisapartiallymoltenboundarylayerwitha
radiusofabout500km(310mi).[41]Thisstructureisthoughttohavedevelopedthroughthefractional
crystallizationofaglobalmagmaoceanshortlyaftertheMoon'sformation4.5billionyearsago.[42]
Crystallizationofthismagmaoceanwouldhavecreatedamaficmantlefromtheprecipitationandsinking
ofthemineralsolivine,clinopyroxene,andorthopyroxeneafteraboutthreequartersofthemagmaocean
hadcrystallised,lowerdensityplagioclasemineralscouldformandfloatintoacrustontop.[43]Thefinal
liquidstocrystallisewouldhavebeeninitiallysandwichedbetweenthecrustandmantle,withahigh
abundanceofincompatibleandheatproducingelements.[1]Consistentwiththis,geochemicalmapping
fromorbitshowsthecrustismostlyanorthosite,[8]andmoonrocksamplesofthefloodlavaseruptedonthe
surfacefrompartialmeltinginthemantleconfirmthemaficmantlecomposition,whichismoreironrich
thanthatofEarth.[1]Geophysicaltechniquessuggestthatthecrustisonaveragecirca50km(31mi)
thick.[1]
TheMoonistheseconddensestsatelliteintheSolarSystemafterIo.[44]However,theinnercoreofthe
Moonissmall,witharadiusofabout350km(220mi)orless,[1]around20%oftheradiusoftheMoon.Its
compositionisnotwellconstrained,butitisprobablymetallicironalloyedwithasmallamountofsulfur
andnickelanalysesoftheMoon'stimevariablerotationindicatethatitisatleastpartlymolten.[45]
Surfacegeology
Mainarticles:GeologyoftheMoonandMoonrocks
ThetopographyoftheMoonhasbeenmeasuredwithlaseraltimetry
andstereoimageanalysis.[46]Themostvisibletopographicfeature
isthegiantfarsideSouthPoleAitkenbasin,some2,240km
(1,390mi)indiameter,thelargestcraterontheMoonandthe
secondlargestconfirmedimpactcraterintheSolarSystem.[47][48]
At13km(8.1mi)deep,itsflooristhelowestpointonthesurfaceof
theMoon.[47][49]ThehighestelevationsonthesurfaceoftheMoon
arelocateddirectlytothenortheast,andithasbeensuggestedthat
TopographyoftheMoon
thisareamighthavebeenthickenedbytheobliqueformationimpact
oftheSouthPoleAitkenbasin.[50]Otherlargeimpactbasins,such
asImbrium,Serenitatis,Crisium,Smythii,andOrientale,alsopossessregionallylowelevationsand
elevatedrims.[47]Thelunarfarsideisonaverageabout1.9km(1.2mi)higherthanthenearside.[1]
Volcanicfeatures
Mainarticle:Lunarmare
Thedarkandrelativelyfeaturelesslunarplainsthatcanclearlybeseenwiththenakedeyearecalledmaria
(Latinfor"seas"singularmare),becausetheywerebelievedbyancientastronomerstobefilledwith
water.[51]Theyarenowknowntobevastsolidifiedpoolsofancientbasalticlava.Althoughsimilarto
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terrestrialbasalts,lunarbasaltshavemoreironandnomineralsalteredbywater.[52][53]Themajorityof
theselavaseruptedorflowedintothedepressionsassociatedwithimpactbasins.Severalgeologic
provincescontainingshieldvolcanoesandvolcanicdomesarefoundwithinthenearsidemaria.[54]
Almostallmariaareonthenearsideof
theMoon,covering31%ofthesurface
onthenearside,[55]comparedwitha
fewscatteredpatchesonthefarside
coveringonly2%.[56]Thisisthoughtto
beduetoaconcentrationofheat
producingelementsunderthecruston
thenearside,seenongeochemical
mapsobtainedbyLunarProspector's
Evidenceofyounglunar
gammarayspectrometer,whichwould
Lunarnearsidewithmajormariaand
volcanism
havecausedtheunderlyingmantleto
craterslabeled
heatup,partiallymelt,risetothe
surfaceanderupt.[43][57][58]MostoftheMoon'smarebasaltserupted
duringtheImbrianperiod,3.03.5billionyearsago,althoughsomeradiometricallydatedsamplesareas
oldas4.2billionyears.[59]Untilrecently,theyoungesteruptions,datedbycratercounting,appearedto
havebeenonly1.2billionyearsago.[60]In2006,astudyofIna,atinycraterinLacusFelicitatis,found
jagged,relativelydustfreefeaturesthat,duetothelackoferosionbyinfallingdebris,appearedtobeonly2
millionyearsold.[61]Moonquakesandreleasesofgasalsoindicatesomecontinuedlunaractivity.[61]In
2014NASAannounced"widespreadevidenceofyounglunarvolcanism"at70irregularmarepatches
identifiedbytheLunarReconnaissanceOrbiter,somelessthan50millionyearsold.Thisraisesthe
possibilityofamuchwarmerlunarmantlethanpreviouslybelieved,atleastonthenearsidewherethedeep
crustissubstantiallywarmerduetothegreaterconcentrationofradioactiveelements.[62][63][64][65]Justprior
tothis,evidencehasbeenpresentedfor210millionyearsyoungerbasalticvolcanisminsideLowell
crater,[66][67]Orientalebasin,locatedinthetransitionzonebetweenthenearandfarsidesoftheMoon.An
initiallyhottermantleand/orlocalenrichmentofheatproducingelementsinthemantlecouldbe
responsibleforprolongedactivitiesalsoonthefarsideintheOrientalebasin.[68][69]
ThelightercolouredregionsoftheMoonarecalledterrae,ormorecommonlyhighlands,becausetheyare
higherthanmostmaria.Theyhavebeenradiometricallydatedtohavingformed4.4billionyearsago,and
mayrepresentplagioclasecumulatesofthelunarmagmaocean.[59][60]IncontrasttoEarth,nomajorlunar
mountainsarebelievedtohaveformedasaresultoftectonicevents.[70]
TheconcentrationofmariaontheNearSidelikelyreflectsthesubstantiallythickercrustofthehighlandsof
theFarSide,whichmayhaveformedinaslowvelocityimpactofasecondmoonofEarthafewtensof
millionsofyearsaftertheirformation.[71][72]
Impactcraters
Furtherinformation:ListofcratersontheMoon
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TheothermajorgeologicprocessthathasaffectedtheMoon'ssurfaceisimpactcratering,[73]withcraters
formedwhenasteroidsandcometscollidewiththelunarsurface.Thereare
estimatedtoberoughly300,000craterswiderthan1km(0.6mi)onthe
Moon'snearsidealone.[74]Someofthesearenamedforscholars,scientists,
artistsandexplorers.[75]Thelunargeologictimescaleisbasedonthemost
prominentimpactevents,includingNectaris,Imbrium,andOrientale,
structurescharacterizedbymultipleringsofupliftedmaterial,typically
hundredstothousandsofkilometresindiameterandassociatedwithabroad
apronofejectadepositsthatformaregionalstratigraphichorizon.[76]The
lackofanatmosphere,weatherandrecentgeologicalprocessesmeanthat
manyofthesecratersarewellpreserved.Althoughonlyafewmultiring
LunarcraterDaedalusonthe
basinshavebeendefinitivelydated,theyareusefulforassigningrelative
Moon'sfarside
ages.Becauseimpactcratersaccumulateatanearlyconstantrate,counting
thenumberofcratersperunitareacanbeusedtoestimatetheageofthe
surface.[76]TheradiometricagesofimpactmeltedrockscollectedduringtheApollomissionscluster
between3.8and4.1billionyearsold:thishasbeenusedtoproposeaLateHeavyBombardmentof
impacts.[77]
BlanketedontopoftheMoon'scrustisahighlycomminuted(brokenintoeversmallerparticles)and
impactgardenedsurfacelayercalledregolith,formedbyimpactprocesses.Thefinerregolith,thelunarsoil
ofsilicondioxideglass,hasatextureresemblingsnowandascentresemblingspentgunpowder.[78]The
regolithofoldersurfacesisgenerallythickerthanforyoungersurfaces:itvariesinthicknessfrom10
20km(6.212.4mi)inthehighlandsand35km(1.93.1mi)inthemaria.[79]Beneaththefinely
comminutedregolithlayeristhemegaregolith,alayerofhighlyfracturedbedrockmanykilometres
thick.[80]
Lunarswirls
Mainarticle:Lunarswirls
LunarswirlsareenigmaticfeaturesfoundacrosstheMoonssurface,
whicharecharacterizedbyhavingahighalbedo,appearingoptically
immature(i.e.havingtheopticalcharacteristicsofarelativelyyoung
regolith),and(often)havingasinuousshape.Theircurvilinearshapeis
oftenaccentuatedbylowalbedoregionsthatwindbetweenthebright
swirls.
LunarswirlsatReinerGamma
Presenceofwater
Mainarticle:Lunarwater
Liquidwatercannotpersistonthelunarsurface.Whenexposedtosolarradiation,waterquickly
decomposesthroughaprocessknownasphotodissociationandislosttospace.However,sincethe1960s,
scientistshavehypothesizedthatwatericemaybedepositedbyimpactingcometsorpossiblyproducedby
thereactionofoxygenrichlunarrocks,andhydrogenfromsolarwind,leavingtracesofwaterwhichcould
possiblysurviveincold,permanentlyshadowedcratersateitherpoleontheMoon.[81][82]Computer
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simulationssuggestthatupto14,000km2(5,400sqmi)ofthesurfacemaybeinpermanentshadow.[83]
ThepresenceofusablequantitiesofwaterontheMoonisanimportantfactorinrenderinglunarhabitation
asacosteffectiveplanthealternativeoftransportingwaterfromEarthwouldbeprohibitively
expensive.[84]
Inyearssince,signaturesofwaterhavebeenfoundtoexistonthelunarsurface.[85]In1994,thebistatic
radarexperimentlocatedontheClementinespacecraft,indicatedtheexistenceofsmall,frozenpocketsof
waterclosetothesurface.However,laterradarobservationsbyArecibo,suggestthesefindingsmayrather
berocksejectedfromyoungimpactcraters.[86]In1998,theneutronspectrometerlocatedontheLunar
Prospectorspacecraft,indicatedthathighconcentrationsofhydrogenarepresentinthefirstmeterofdepth
intheregolithnearthepolarregions.[87]In2008,ananalysisofvolcaniclavabeads,broughtbacktoEarth
aboardApollo15,showedsmallamountsofwatertoexistintheinteriorofthebeads.[88]
The2008Chandrayaan1spacecrafthassinceconfirmedtheexistenceofsurfacewaterice,usingtheon
boardMoonMineralogyMapper.Thespectrometerobservedabsorptionlinescommontohydroxyl,in
reflectedsunlight,providingevidenceoflargequantitiesofwaterice,onthelunarsurface.Thespacecraft
showedthatconcentrationsmaypossiblybeashighas1,000ppm.[89]In2009,LCROSSsenta2,300kg
(5,100lb)impactorintoapermanentlyshadowedpolarcrater,anddetectedatleast100kg(220lb)ofwater
inaplumeofejectedmaterial.[90][91]AnotherexaminationoftheLCROSSdatashowedtheamountof
detectedwatertobecloserto15512kg(34226lb).[92]
InMay2011,ErikHaurietal.reported[93]6151410ppmwaterinmeltinclusionsinlunarsample74220,
thefamoushightitanium"orangeglasssoil"ofvolcanicorigincollectedduringtheApollo17missionin
1972.TheinclusionswereformedduringexplosiveeruptionsontheMoonapproximately3.7billionyears
ago.ThisconcentrationiscomparablewiththatofmagmainEarth'suppermantle.Althoughof
considerableselenologicalinterest,Hauri'sannouncementaffordslittlecomforttowouldbelunarcolonists
thesampleoriginatedmanykilometersbelowthesurface,andtheinclusionsaresodifficulttoaccessthat
ittook39yearstofindthemwithastateoftheartionmicroprobeinstrument.
Gravitationalfield
Mainarticle:GravityoftheMoon
ThegravitationalfieldoftheMoonhasbeenmeasuredthrough
trackingtheDopplershiftofradiosignalsemittedbyorbiting
spacecraft.Themainlunargravityfeaturesaremascons,large
positivegravitationalanomaliesassociatedwithsomeofthegiant
impactbasins,partlycausedbythedensemarebasalticlavaflows
thatfillthesebasins.[94][95]Theseanomaliesgreatlyinfluencethe
orbitofspacecraftabouttheMoon.Therearesomepuzzles:lava
flowsbythemselvescannotexplainallofthegravitational
signature,andsomemasconsexistthatarenotlinkedtomare
volcanism.[96]
GRAIL'sgravitymapofthemoon
Magneticfield
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Mainarticle:MagneticfieldoftheMoon
TheMoonhasanexternalmagneticfieldofabout1100nanoteslas,lessthanonehundredththatofEarth.
Itdoesnotcurrentlyhaveaglobaldipolarmagneticfieldandonlyhascrustalmagnetization,probably
acquiredearlyinlunarhistorywhenadynamowasstilloperating.[97][98]Alternatively,someoftheremnant
magnetizationmaybefromtransientmagneticfieldsgeneratedduringlargeimpactevents,throughthe
expansionofanimpactgeneratedplasmacloudinthepresenceofanambientmagneticfieldthisis
supportedbytheapparentlocationofthelargestcrustalmagnetizationsneartheantipodesofthegiant
impactbasins.[99]
Atmosphere
Mainarticle:AtmosphereoftheMoon
TheMoonhasanatmospheresotenuousastobenearlyvacuum,witha
totalmassoflessthan10metrictons(9.8longtons11shorttons).[102]The
surfacepressureofthissmallmassisaround31015atm(0.3nPa)it
varieswiththelunarday.Itssourcesincludeoutgassingandsputtering,the
releaseofatomsfromthebombardmentoflunarsoilbysolarwind
ions.[8][103]Elementsthathavebeendetectedincludesodiumandpotassium,
producedbysputtering,whicharealsofoundintheatmospheresofMercury
andIohelium4andneon[104]fromthesolarwindandargon40,radon
222,andpolonium210,outgassedaftertheircreationbyradioactivedecay
withinthecrustandmantle.[105][106]Theabsenceofsuchneutralspecies
(atomsormolecules)asoxygen,nitrogen,carbon,hydrogenand
magnesium,whicharepresentintheregolith,isnotunderstood.[105]Water
vapourhasbeendetectedbyChandrayaan1andfoundtovarywith
latitude,withamaximumat~6070degreesitispossiblygeneratedfrom
thesublimationofwatericeintheregolith.[107]Thesegasescaneither
returnintotheregolithduetotheMoon'sgravityorbelosttospace,either
throughsolarradiationpressureor,iftheyareionized,bybeingsweptaway
bythesolarwind'smagneticfield.[105]
SketchbytheApollo17
astronauts.Thelunar
atmospherewaslaterstudied
byLADEE. [100][101]
Dust
ApermanentasymmetricmoondustcloudexistsaroundtheMoon,createdbysmallparticlesfromcomets.
Estimatesare5tonsofcometparticlesstriketheMoon'ssurfaceeach24hours.Theparticlesstrikethe
Moon'ssurfaceejectingmoondustabovetheMoon.TheduststaysabovetheMoonapproximately10
minutes,taking5minutestorise,and5minutestofall.Onaverage,120kilogramsofdustarepresent
abovetheMoon,risingto100kilometersabovethesurface.Thedustmeasurementsweremadeby
LADEE'sLunarDustEXperiment(LDEX),between20and100kilometersabovethesurface,duringasix
monthperiod.LDEXdetectedanaverageofone0.3micrometermoondustparticleeachminute.Dust
particlecountspeakedduringtheGeminid,Quadrantid,NorthernTaurid,andOmicronCentauridmeteor
showers,whentheEarth,andMoon,passthroughcometdebris.Thecloudisasymmetric,moredensenear
theboundarybetweentheMoon'sdaysideandnightside.[108][109]
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Seasons
TheMoon'saxialtiltwithrespecttotheeclipticisonly1.5424,[110]muchlessthanthe23.44ofEarth.
Becauseofthis,theMoon'ssolarilluminationvariesmuchlesswithseason,andtopographicaldetailsplay
acrucialroleinseasonaleffects.[111]FromimagestakenbyClementinein1994,itappearsthatfour
mountainousregionsontherimofPearyCraterattheMoon'snorthpolemayremainilluminatedforthe
entirelunarday,creatingpeaksofeternallight.Nosuchregionsexistatthesouthpole.Similarly,thereare
placesthatremaininpermanentshadowatthebottomsofmanypolarcraters,[83]andthesedarkcratersare
extremelycold:LunarReconnaissanceOrbitermeasuredthelowestsummertemperaturesincratersatthe
southernpoleat35K(238C397F)[112]andjust26K(247C413F)closetothewintersolstice
innorthpolarHermiteCrater.ThisisthecoldesttemperatureintheSolarSystemevermeasuredbya
spacecraft,coldereventhanthesurfaceofPluto.[111]AveragetemperaturesoftheMoon'ssurfaceare
reported,buttemperaturesofdifferentareaswillvarygreatlydependinguponwhetheraspotisinsunlight
orinshadow.[113]
RelationshiptoEarth
Orbit
Mainarticles:OrbitoftheMoonandLunartheory
TheMoonmakesacompleteorbitaroundEarthwithrespecttothe
fixedstarsaboutonceevery27.3days[i](itssiderealperiod).
However,becauseEarthismovinginitsorbitaroundtheSunatthe
sametime,ittakesslightlylongerfortheMoontoshowthesame
phasetoEarth,whichisabout29.5days[j](itssynodicperiod).[55]
Unlikemostsatellitesofotherplanets,theMoonorbitsclosertothe
eclipticplanethantotheplanet'sequatorialplane.TheMoon'sorbit
issubtlyperturbedbytheSunandEarthinmanysmall,complex
andinteractingways.Forexample,theplaneoftheMoon'sorbital
motiongraduallyrotates,whichaffectsotheraspectsoflunar
motion.Thesefollowoneffectsaremathematicallydescribedby
Cassini'slaws.[114]
EarthMoonsystem(schematic)
Relativesize
TheMoonisexceptionallylargerelativetoEarth:aquarterits
diameterand1/81itsmass.[55]ItisthelargestmoonintheSolar
DSCOVRsatelliteseestheMoon
Systemrelativetothesizeofitsplanet,thoughCharonislarger
passinginfrontofEarth
[115]
relativetothedwarfplanetPluto,at1/9Pluto'smass.
Earthand
theMoonareneverthelessstillconsideredaplanetsatellitesystem,
ratherthanadoubleplanet,becausetheirbarycentre,thecommoncentreofmass,islocated1,700km
(1,100mi)(aboutaquarterofEarth'sradius)beneathEarth'ssurface.[116]
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AppearancefromEarth
Seealso:Lunarphase,EarthshineandObservingtheMoon
Moonsettinginwesternskyoverthe
HighDesertinCalifornia
TheMoonisinsynchronousrotation:itrotatesaboutitsaxisin
aboutthesametimeittakestoorbitEarth.Thisresultsinitnearly
alwayskeepingthesamefaceturnedtowardsEarth.TheMoonused
torotateatafasterrate,butearlyinitshistory,itsrotationslowed
andbecametidallylockedinthisorientationasaresultoffrictional
effectsassociatedwithtidaldeformationscausedbyEarth.[117]The
sideoftheMoonthatfacesEarthiscalledthenearside,andthe
oppositesidethefarside.Thefarsideisofteninaccuratelycalled
the"darkside",butinfact,itisilluminatedasoftenasthenearside:
onceperlunarday,duringthenewmoonphaseweobserveonEarth
whenthenearsideisdark.[118]
TheMoonhasanexceptionallylowalbedo,givingitareflectancethatisslightlybrighterthanthatofworn
asphalt.Despitethis,itisthebrightestobjectintheskyaftertheSun.[55][k]Thisispartlyduetothe
brightnessenhancementoftheoppositioneffectatquarterphase,theMoonisonlyonetenthasbright,
ratherthanhalfasbright,asatfullmoon.[119]
Additionally,colourconstancyinthevisualsystemrecalibratestherelationsbetweenthecoloursofan
objectanditssurroundings,andbecausethesurroundingskyiscomparativelydark,thesunlitMoonis
perceivedasabrightobject.Theedgesofthefullmoonseemasbrightasthecentre,withnolimb
darkening,duetothereflectivepropertiesoflunarsoil,whichreflectsmorelightbacktowardstheSunthan
inotherdirections.TheMoondoesappearlargerwhenclosetothehorizon,butthisisapurely
psychologicaleffect,knownastheMoonillusion,firstdescribedinthe7thcenturyBC.[120]Thefullmoon
subtendsanarcofabout0.52(onaverage)inthesky,roughlythesameapparentsizeastheSun(see
eclipses).
ThehighestaltitudeoftheMoonintheskyvaries:althoughithasnearlythesamelimitastheSun,italters
withthelunarphaseandwiththeseasonoftheyear,withthefullmoonhighestduringwinter.The18.6
yearnodescyclealsohasaninfluence:whentheascendingnodeofthelunarorbitisinthevernalequinox,
thelunardeclinationcangoasfaras28eachmonth.ThismeanstheMooncangooverheadatlatitudesup
to28fromtheequator,insteadofonly18.TheorientationoftheMoon'screscentalsodependsonthe
latitudeoftheobservationsite:closetotheequator,anobservercanseeasmileshapedcrescentmoon.[121]
ThedistancebetweentheMoonandEarthvariesfromaround356,400km(221,500mi)to406,700km
(252,700mi)atperigees(closest)andapogees(farthest),respectively.On19March2011,itwascloserto
Earthwhenatfullphasethanithasbeensince1993,14%closerthanitsfarthestpositioninapogee.[122]
Reportedasa"supermoon",thisclosestpointcoincideswithinanhourofafullmoon,anditwas30%
moreluminousthanwhenatitsgreatestdistanceduetoitsangulardiameterbeing14%greater,because
.[123][124][125]Atlowerlevels,thehumanperceptionofreducedbrightnessasapercentageis
providedbythefollowingformula:[126][127]
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Whentheactualreductionis1.00/1.30,orabout0.770,theperceivedreductionisabout0.877,or1.00/
1.14.Thisgivesamaximumperceivedincreaseof14%betweenapogeeandperigeemoonsofthesame
phase.[128]
TherehasbeenhistoricalcontroversyoverwhetherfeaturesontheMoon'ssurfacechangeovertime.
Today,manyoftheseclaimsarethoughttobeillusory,resultingfromobservationunderdifferentlighting
conditions,poorastronomicalseeing,orinadequatedrawings.However,outgassingdoesoccasionally
occur,andcouldberesponsibleforaminorpercentageofthereportedlunartransientphenomena.Recently,
ithasbeensuggestedthataroughly3km(1.9mi)diameterregionofthelunarsurfacewasmodifiedbya
gasreleaseeventaboutamillionyearsago.[129][130]TheMoon'sappearance,likethatoftheSun,canbe
affectedbyEarth'satmosphere:commoneffectsarea22haloringformedwhentheMoon'slightis
refractedthroughtheicecrystalsofhighcirrostratuscloud,andsmallercoronalringswhentheMoonis
seenthroughthinclouds.[131]
ThemonthlychangesofanglebetweenthedirectionofilluminationbytheSunandviewing
fromEarth,andthephasesoftheMoonthatresult
Theilluminatedareaofthevisiblesphere(degreeofillumination)isgivenby
,where is
theelongation(i.e.theanglebetweenMoon,theobserver(onEarth)andtheSun).
Tidaleffects
Mainarticles:Tidalforce,Tidalacceleration,TideandTheoryoftides
ThetidesonEartharemostlygeneratedbythegradientinintensityoftheMoon'sgravitationalpullfrom
onesideofEarthtotheother,thetidalforces.ThisformstwotidalbulgesonEarth,whicharemostclearly
seeninelevatedsealevelasoceantides.[132]BecauseEarthspinsabout27timesfasterthantheMoon
movesaroundit,thebulgesaredraggedalongwithEarth'ssurfacefasterthantheMoonmoves,rotating
aroundEarthonceadayasitspinsonitsaxis.[132]Theoceantidesaremagnifiedbyothereffects:frictional
couplingofwatertoEarth'srotationthroughtheoceanfloors,theinertiaofwater'smovement,oceanbasins
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thatgetshallowernearland,andoscillationsbetweendifferentoceanbasins.[133]Thegravitational
attractionoftheSunonEarth'soceansisalmosthalfthatoftheMoon,andtheirgravitationalinterplayis
responsibleforspringandneaptides.[132]
GravitationalcouplingbetweentheMoonandthebulgenearesttheMoonactsasatorqueonEarth's
rotation,drainingangularmomentumandrotationalkineticenergyfromEarth'sspin.[132][134]Inturn,
angularmomentumisaddedtotheMoon'sorbit,acceleratingit,
whichliftstheMoonintoahigherorbitwithalongerperiod.Asa
result,thedistancebetweenEarthandMoonisincreasing,and
Earth'sspinisslowingdown.[134]Measurementsfromlunarranging
experimentswithlaserreflectorsleftduringtheApollomissions
havefoundthattheMoon'sdistancetoEarthincreasesby38mm
(1.5in)peryear[135](roughlytherateatwhichhumanfingernails
grow).[136]AtomicclocksalsoshowthatEarth'sdaylengthensby
about15microsecondseveryyear,[137]slowlyincreasingtherateat
whichUTCisadjustedbyleapseconds.Lefttorunitscourse,this
tidaldragwouldcontinueuntilthespinofEarthandtheorbital
periodoftheMoonmatched,creatingmutualtidallockingbetween
thetwo,asisalreadycurrentlythecasewithPlutoanditsmoon
ThelibrationoftheMoonovera
Charon.However,theSunwillbecomearedgiantlongbeforethat,
singlelunarmonth.Alsovisibleisthe
engulfingEarth.[138][139]
slightvariationintheMoon'svisual
sizefromEarth.
Thelunarsurfacealsoexperiencestidesofaround10cm(4in)
amplitudeover27days,withtwocomponents:afixedonedueto
Earth,becausetheyareinsynchronousrotation,andavaryingcomponentfromtheSun.[134]TheEarth
inducedcomponentarisesfromlibration,aresultoftheMoon'sorbitaleccentricityiftheMoon'sorbit
wereperfectlycircular,therewouldonlybesolartides.[134]Librationalsochangestheanglefromwhichthe
Moonisseen,allowingabout59%ofitssurfacetobeseenfromEarth(butonlyhalfatanyinstant).[55]The
cumulativeeffectsofstressbuiltupbythesetidalforcesproducesmoonquakes.Moonquakesaremuchless
commonandweakerthanearthquakes,althoughtheycanlastforuptoanhourasignificantlylongertime
thanterrestrialearthquakesbecauseoftheabsenceofwatertodampouttheseismicvibrations.The
existenceofmoonquakeswasanunexpecteddiscoveryfromseismometersplacedontheMoonbyApollo
astronautsfrom1969through1972.[140]
Eclipses
Mainarticles:Solareclipse,LunareclipseandEclipsecycle
EclipsescanonlyoccurwhentheSun,Earth,andMoonareallinastraightline(termed"syzygy").Solar
eclipsesoccuratnewmoon,whentheMoonisbetweentheSunandEarth.Incontrast,lunareclipsesoccur
atfullmoon,whenEarthisbetweentheSunandMoon.TheapparentsizeoftheMoonisroughlythesame
asthatoftheSun,withbothbeingviewedatclosetoonehalfadegreewide.TheSunismuchlargerthan
theMoonbutitistheprecisevastlygreaterdistancethatcoincidentallygivesitthesameapparentsizeas
themuchcloserandmuchsmallerMoonfromtheperspectiveofEarth.Thevariationsinapparentsize,due
tothenoncircularorbits,arenearlythesameaswell,thoughoccurringindifferentcycles.Thismakes
possiblebothtotal(withtheMoonappearinglargerthantheSun)andannular(withtheMoonappearing
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smallerthantheSun)solareclipses.[142]Inatotal
eclipse,theMooncompletelycoversthediscofthe
Sunandthesolarcoronabecomesvisibletothenaked
eye.BecausethedistancebetweentheMoonandEarth
isveryslowlyincreasingovertime,[132]theangular
diameteroftheMoonisdecreasing.Also,asitevolves
towardbecomingaredgiant,thesizeoftheSun,and
itsapparentdiameterinthesky,areslowly
increasing.[l]Thecombinationofthesetwochanges
meansthathundredsofmillionsofyearsago,the
MoonwouldalwayscompletelycovertheSunon
solareclipses,andnoannulareclipseswerepossible.
Likewise,hundredsofmillionsofyearsinthefuture,
theMoonwillnolongercovertheSuncompletely,
andtotalsolareclipseswillnotoccur.[143]
FromEarth,theMoonandSunappearthesamesize,
asseeninthe1999solareclipse(left),whilefrom
theSTEREOBspacecraftinanEarthtrailingorbit,
theMoonappearsmuchsmallerthantheSun
(right). [141]
BecausetheMoon'sorbitaroundEarthisinclinedbyabout5totheorbitofEartharoundtheSun,eclipses
donotoccurateveryfullandnewmoon.Foraneclipsetooccur,theMoonmustbeneartheintersectionof
thetwoorbitalplanes.[144]TheperiodicityandrecurrenceofeclipsesoftheSunbytheMoon,andofthe
MoonbyEarth,isdescribedbythesaros,whichhasaperiodofapproximately18years.[145]
AstheMooniscontinuouslyblockingourviewofahalfdegreewidecircularareaofthesky,[m][146]the
relatedphenomenonofoccultationoccurswhenabrightstarorplanetpassesbehindtheMoonandis
occulted:hiddenfromview.Inthisway,asolareclipseisanoccultationoftheSun.BecausetheMoonis
comparativelyclosetoEarth,occultationsofindividualstarsarenotvisibleeverywhereontheplanet,nor
atthesametime.Becauseoftheprecessionofthelunarorbit,eachyeardifferentstarsareocculted.[147]
Observationandexploration
Ancientandmedievalstudies
Mainarticles:ExplorationoftheMoon:Earlyhistory,SelenographyandLunartheory
UnderstandingoftheMoon'scycleswasanearlydevelopmentofastronomy:bythe5thcenturyBC,
Babylonianastronomershadrecordedthe18yearSaroscycleoflunareclipses,[148]andIndianastronomers
haddescribedtheMoon'smonthlyelongation.[149]TheChineseastronomerShiShen(fl.4thcenturyBC)
gaveinstructionsforpredictingsolarandlunareclipses.[150]Later,thephysicalformoftheMoonandthe
causeofmoonlightbecameunderstood.TheancientGreekphilosopherAnaxagoras(d.428BC)reasoned
thattheSunandMoonwerebothgiantsphericalrocks,andthatthelatterreflectedthelightofthe
former.[151][152]AlthoughtheChineseoftheHanDynastybelievedtheMoontobeenergyequatedtoqi,
their'radiatinginfluence'theoryalsorecognizedthatthelightoftheMoonwasmerelyareflectionofthe
Sun,andJingFang(7837BC)notedthesphericityoftheMoon.[153]Inthe2ndcenturyADLucianwrote
anovelwheretheheroestraveltotheMoon,whichisinhabited.In499AD,theIndianastronomer
AryabhatamentionedinhisAryabhatiyathatreflectedsunlightisthecauseoftheshiningoftheMoon.[154]
TheastronomerandphysicistAlhazen(9651039)foundthatsunlightwasnotreflectedfromtheMoonlike
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amirror,butthatlightwasemittedfromeverypartoftheMoon's
sunlitsurfaceinalldirections.[155]ShenKuo(10311095)ofthe
Songdynastycreatedanallegoryequatingthewaxingandwaning
oftheMoontoaroundballofreflectivesilverthat,whendoused
withwhitepowderandviewedfromtheside,wouldappeartobea
crescent.[156]
InAristotle's(384322BC)descriptionoftheuniverse,theMoon
markedtheboundarybetweenthespheresofthemutableelements
(earth,water,airandfire),andtheimperishablestarsofaether,an
influentialphilosophythatwoulddominateforcenturies.[157]
However,inthe2ndcenturyBC,SeleucusofSeleuciacorrectly
theorizedthattideswereduetotheattractionoftheMoon,andthat
theirheightdependsontheMoon'spositionrelativetotheSun.[158]
Inthesamecentury,Aristarchuscomputedthesizeanddistanceof
theMoonfromEarth,obtaininga
valueofabouttwentytimesthe
radiusofEarthforthedistance.
Thesefiguresweregreatlyimproved
byPtolemy(90168AD):hisvalues
ofameandistanceof59times
Earth'sradiusandadiameterof
0.292Earthdiameterswerecloseto
thecorrectvaluesofabout60and
0.273respectively.[159]Archimedes
(287212BC)designeda
planetariumthatcouldcalculatethe
motionsoftheMoonandother
objectsintheSolarSystem.[160]
MapoftheMoonbyJohannes
HeveliusfromhisSelenographia
(1647),thefirstmaptoincludethe
librationzones
Galileo'ssketchesofthe
MoonfromSidereusNuncius
DuringtheMiddleAges,beforethe
inventionofthetelescope,theMoon
wasincreasinglyrecognisedasasphere,thoughmanybelievedthat
itwas"perfectlysmooth".[161]
AstudyoftheMoonbyRobert
Hooke'sMicrographia,1665
In1609,GalileoGalileidrewoneofthefirsttelescopicdrawingsof
theMooninhisbookSidereusNunciusandnotedthatitwasnotsmoothbuthadmountainsandcraters.
TelescopicmappingoftheMoonfollowed:laterinthe17thcentury,theeffortsofGiovanniBattista
RiccioliandFrancescoMariaGrimaldiledtothesystemofnamingoflunarfeaturesinusetoday.Themore
exact183436MappaSelenographicaofWilhelmBeerandJohannHeinrichMdler,andtheirassociated
1837bookDerMond,thefirsttrigonometricallyaccuratestudyoflunarfeatures,includedtheheightsof
morethanathousandmountains,andintroducedthestudyoftheMoonataccuraciespossibleinearthly
geography.[162]Lunarcraters,firstnotedbyGalileo,werethoughttobevolcanicuntilthe1870sproposalof
RichardProctorthattheywereformedbycollisions.[55]Thisviewgainedsupportin1892fromthe
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experimentationofgeologistGroveKarlGilbert,andfromcomparativestudiesfrom1920tothe1940s,[163]
leadingtothedevelopmentoflunarstratigraphy,whichbythe1950swasbecominganewandgrowing
branchofastrogeology.[55]
Byspacecraft
Seealso:RoboticexplorationoftheMoon,ListofproposedmissionstotheMoon,Colonizationofthe
MoonandListofartificialobjectsontheMoon
20thcentury
Sovietmissions
Mainarticles:LunaprogramandLunokhodprogramme
TheColdWarinspiredSpaceRacebetweenthe
SovietUnionandtheU.S.ledtoanaccelerationof
interestinexplorationoftheMoon.Oncelaunchers
hadthenecessarycapabilities,thesenationssent
unmannedprobesonbothflybyandimpact/lander
missions.SpacecraftfromtheSovietUnion'sLuna
programwerethefirsttoaccomplishanumberof
goals:followingthreeunnamed,failedmissionsin
1958,[164]thefirsthumanmadeobjecttoescape
Earth'sgravityandpassneartheMoonwasLuna1
thefirsthumanmadeobjecttoimpactthelunar
surfacewasLuna2,andthefirstphotographsofthe
normallyoccludedfarsideoftheMoonweremade
byLuna3,allin1959.
Luna2,thefirsthumanmadeobjecttoreachthe
surfaceoftheMoon(left)andSovietmoonrover
Lunokhod1
ThefirstspacecrafttoperformasuccessfullunarsoftlandingwasLuna9andthefirstunmannedvehicleto
orbittheMoonwasLuna10,bothin1966.[55]RockandsoilsampleswerebroughtbacktoEarthbythree
Lunasamplereturnmissions(Luna16in1970,Luna20in1972,andLuna24in1976),whichreturned
0.3kgtotal.[165]TwopioneeringroboticroverslandedontheMoonin1970and1973asapartofSoviet
Lunokhodprogramme.
UnitedStatesmissions
Mainarticles:ApolloprogramandMoonlanding
TheUnitedStateslaunchedunmannedprobestodevelopanunderstandingofthelunarsurfaceforan
eventualmannedlanding:theJetPropulsionLaboratory'sRangerprogramproducedthefirstcloseup
picturestheLunarOrbiterprogramproducedmapsoftheentireMoontheSurveyorprogramlandedits
firstspacecraftfourmonthsafterLuna9.NASA'smannedApolloprogramwasdevelopedinparallelafter
aseriesofunmannedandmannedtestsoftheApollospacecraftinEarthorbit,andspurredonbyapotential
Sovietlunarflight,in1968Apollo8madethefirstcrewedmissiontolunarorbit.Thesubsequentlanding
ofthefirsthumansontheMoonin1969isseenbymanyastheculminationoftheSpaceRace.[166]
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NeilArmstrongbecamethefirstpersontowalkontheMoonasthecommanderoftheAmericanmission
Apollo11byfirstsettingfootontheMoonat02:56UTCon21July1969.[167]Anestimated500million
peopleworldwidewatchedthetransmissionbytheApolloTVcamera,thelargesttelevisionaudiencefora
livebroadcastatthattime.[168][169]TheApollomissions11to17(exceptApollo13,whichabortedits
plannedlunarlanding)returned380.05kilograms(837.87lb)oflunarrockandsoilin2,196separate
samples.[170]TheAmericanMoonlandingandreturnwasenabledbyconsiderabletechnologicaladvances
intheearly1960s,indomainssuchas
ablationchemistry,softwareengineering
andatmosphericreentrytechnology,and
byhighlycompetentmanagementofthe
enormoustechnicalundertaking.[171][172]
Scientificinstrumentpackageswere
installedonthelunarsurfaceduringallthe
Apollolandings.Longlivedinstrument
stations,includingheatflowprobes,
seismometers,andmagnetometers,were
NeilArmstrongworkingat
Earthrise(Apollo8,1968)
installedattheApollo12,14,15,16,and
thelunarmodule
17landingsites.Directtransmissionof
datatoEarthconcluded
inlate1977dueto
"That'sonesmallstep..."
budgetary
MENU
0:00
[173][174]
considerations,
butasthestations'lunar
Problemsplayingthisfile?Seemediahelp.
laserrangingcorner
Moonrock(Apollo17,1972)
cuberetroreflectorarraysarepassiveinstruments,theyarestillbeingused.
RangingtothestationsisroutinelyperformedfromEarthbasedstations
withanaccuracyofafewcentimetres,anddatafromthisexperimentarebeingusedtoplaceconstraintson
thesizeofthelunarcore.[175]
1980s2000
Afterthefirstmoonracetherewereyearsofnearquietudebutstartinginthe1990s,manymorecountries
havebecomeinvolvedindirectexplorationoftheMoon.In1990,Japanbecamethethirdcountrytoplacea
spacecraftintolunarorbitwithitsHitenspacecraft.Thespacecraftreleasedasmallerprobe,Hagoromo,in
lunarorbit,butthetransmitterfailed,preventingfurtherscientificuseofthemission.[176]In1994,theU.S.
sentthejointDefenseDepartment/NASAspacecraftClementinetolunarorbit.Thismissionobtainedthe
firstnearglobaltopographicmapoftheMoon,andthefirstglobalmultispectralimagesofthelunar
surface.[177]Thiswasfollowedin1998bytheLunarProspectormission,whoseinstrumentsindicatedthe
presenceofexcesshydrogenatthelunarpoles,whichislikelytohavebeencausedbythepresenceofwater
iceintheupperfewmetersoftheregolithwithinpermanentlyshadowedcraters.[178]
India,Japan,China,theUnitedStates,andtheEuropeanSpaceAgencyeachsentlunarorbiters,especially
ISRO'sChandrayaan1hascontributedtoconfirmingthediscoveryoflunarwatericeinpermanently
shadowedcratersatthepolesandboundintothelunarregolith.ThepostApolloerahasalsoseentworover
missions:thefinalSovietLunokhodmissionin1973,andChina'songoingChang'e3mission,which
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deployeditsYuturoveron14December2013.TheMoonremains,
undertheOuterSpaceTreaty,freetoallnationstoexploreforpeaceful
purposes.
21stcentury
TheEuropeanspacecraftSMART1,thesecondionpropelled
spacecraft,wasinlunarorbitfrom15November2004untilitslunar
impacton3September2006,andmadethefirstdetailedsurveyof
chemicalelementsonthelunarsurface.[179]
Chinahaspursuedanambitiousprogramoflunarexploration,
beginningwithChang'e1,whichsuccessfullyorbitedtheMoonfrom5
Anartificiallycolouredmosaic
November2007untilitscontrolledlunarimpacton1March2009.[180]
constructedfromaseriesof53
Initssixteenmonthmission,itobtainedafullimagemapoftheMoon.
imagestakenthroughthree
ChinafollowedupthissuccesswithChang'e2beginninginOctober
spectralfiltersbyGalileo's
2010,whichreachedtheMoonovertwiceasfastasChang'e1,mapped
imagingsystemasthespacecraft
theMoonatahigherresolutionoveraneightmonthperiod,thenleft
flewoverthenorthernregionsof
lunarorbitinfavorofanextendedstayattheEarthSunL2Lagrangian
theMoononDecember7,1992.
point,beforefinallyperformingaflybyofasteroid4179Toutatison13
December2012,andthenheadingoffintodeepspace.On14
December2013,Chang'e3improveduponitsorbitalmissionpredecessorsbylandingalunarlanderonto
theMoon'ssurface,whichinturndeployedalunarrover,namedYutu(Chinese:literally"Jade
Rabbit").Insodoing,Chang'e3madethefirstlunarsoftlandingsinceLuna24in1976,andthefirstlunar
rovermissionsinceLunokhod2in1973.Chinaintendstolaunchanotherrovermission(Chang'e4)in
2015,followedbyasamplereturnmission(Chang'e5)in2017.
Between4October2007and10June2009,theJapanAerospaceExplorationAgency'sKaguya(Selene)
mission,alunarorbiterfittedwithahighdefinitionvideocamera,andtwosmallradiotransmittersatellites,
obtainedlunargeophysicsdataandtookthefirsthighdefinitionmoviesfrombeyondEarthorbit.[181][182]
India'sfirstlunarmission,ChandrayaanI,orbitedfrom8November2008untillossofcontacton27
August2009,creatingahighresolutionchemical,mineralogicalandphotogeologicalmapofthelunar
surface,andconfirmingthepresenceofwatermoleculesinlunarsoil.[183]TheIndianSpaceResearch
OrganisationplannedtolaunchChandrayaanIIin2013,whichwouldhaveincludedaRussianrobotic
lunarrover.[184][185]However,thefailureofRussia'sFobosGruntmissionhasdelayedthisproject.
TheU.S.colaunchedtheLunarReconnaissanceOrbiter(LRO)andtheLCROSSimpactorandfollowup
observationorbiteron18June2009LCROSScompleteditsmissionbymakingaplannedandwidely
observedimpactinthecraterCabeuson9October2009,[186]whereasLROiscurrentlyinoperation,
obtainingpreciselunaraltimetryandhighresolutionimagery.InNovember2011,theLROpassedoverthe
Aristarchuscrater,whichspans40km(25mi)andsinksmorethan3.5km(2.2mi)deep.Thecraterisone
ofthemostvisibleonesfromEarth."TheAristarchusplateauisoneofthemostgeologicallydiverseplaces
ontheMoon:amysteriousraisedflatplateau,agiantrillecarvedbyenormousoutpouringsoflava,fields
ofexplosivevolcanicash,andallsurroundedbymassivefloodbasalts",saidMarkRobinson,principal
investigatoroftheLunarReconnaissanceOrbiterCameraatArizonaStateUniversity.NASAreleased
photosofthecrateron25December2011.[187]
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TwoNASAGRAILspacecraftbeganorbitingtheMoonaround1January
2012,[188]onamissiontolearnmoreabouttheMoon'sinternalstructure.
NASA'sLADEEprobe,designedtostudythelunarexosphere,achieved
orbiton6October2013.
UpcominglunarmissionsincludeRussia'sLunaGlob:anunmanned
landerwithasetofseismometers,andanorbiterbasedonitsfailed
MartianFobosGruntmission.[189][190]Privatelyfundedlunarexploration
hasbeenpromotedbytheGoogleLunarXPrize,announced13
September2007,whichoffersUS$20milliontoanyonewhocanlanda
roboticroverontheMoonandmeetotherspecifiedcriteria.[191]
ShackletonEnergyCompanyisbuildingaprogramtoestablishoperations
onthesouthpoleoftheMoontoharvestwaterandsupplytheirPropellant
Depots.[192]
NASAbegantoplantoresumemannedmissionsfollowingthecallby
U.S.PresidentGeorgeW.Bushon14January2004foramannedmission
totheMoonby2019andtheconstructionofalunarbaseby2024.[193]
TheConstellationprogramwasfundedandconstructionandtestingbegun
onamannedspacecraftandlaunchvehicle,[194]anddesignstudiesfora
lunarbase.[195]However,thatprogramhasbeencancelledinfavorofa
mannedasteroidlandingby2025andamannedMarsorbitby2035.[196]
IndiahasalsoexpresseditshopetosendamannedmissiontotheMoon
by2020.[197]
Copernicus'scentralpeaksas
observedbytheLRO,2012
TheInaformation,2009
AstronomyfromtheMoon
Formanyyears,theMoonhasbeenrecognizedasanexcellentsitefortelescopes.[198]Itisrelatively
nearbyastronomicalseeingisnotaconcerncertaincratersnearthepolesarepermanentlydarkandcold,
andthusespeciallyusefulforinfraredtelescopesandradiotelescopesonthefarsidewouldbeshielded
fromtheradiochatterofEarth.[199]Thelunarsoil,althoughitposesaproblemforanymovingpartsof
telescopes,canbemixedwithcarbonnanotubesandepoxiesintheconstructionofmirrorsupto50meters
indiameter.[200]Alunarzenithtelescopecanbemadecheaplywithionicliquid.[201]
InApril1972,theApollo16missionrecordedvariousastronomicalphotosandspectrainultravioletwith
theFarUltravioletCamera/Spectrograph.[202]
Legalstatus
Mainarticle:Spacelaw
DuringtheColdWar,theUnitedStatesArmyconductedaclassifiedfeasibilitystudyinthelate1950s
calledProjectHorizon,toconstructamannedmilitaryoutpostontheMoon,whichwouldhavebeenhome
toabombingsystemtargetedatrivalsonEarth.Thestudyincludedthepossibilityofconductingalunar
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basednucleartest.[203]TheAirForce,whichatthetimewasincompetitionwiththeArmyforaleading
roleinthespaceprogram,developeditsown,similarplancalledLunex.[204][205]However,boththese
proposalswereultimatelypassedoverasthespaceprogramwaslargelytransferredfromthemilitarytothe
civilianagencyNASA.[205]
AlthoughLunalandersscatteredpennantsoftheSovietUnionontheMoon,
andU.S.flagsweresymbolicallyplantedattheirlandingsitesbytheApollo
astronauts,nonationclaimsownershipofanypartoftheMoon's
surface.[206]RussiaandtheU.S.arepartytothe1967OuterSpace
Treaty,[207]whichdefinestheMoonandallouterspaceasthe"provinceof
allmankind".[206]ThistreatyalsorestrictstheuseoftheMoontopeaceful
purposes,explicitlybanningmilitaryinstallationsandweaponsofmass
destruction.[208]The1979MoonAgreementwascreatedtorestrictthe
Mariuscrater
exploitationoftheMoon'sresourcesbyanysinglenation,butasof2014,it
hasbeensignedandratifiedbyonly16nations,noneofwhichengagesin
selflaunchedhumanspaceexplorationorhasplanstodoso.[209]Althoughseveralindividualshavemade
claimstotheMooninwholeorinpart,noneoftheseareconsideredcredible.[210][211][212]
Inculture
Furtherinformation:Mooninfiction,Lunarcalendar,Metoniccycle,Lunardeity,Lunareffectand
Bluemoon
TheMoon'sregularphasesmakeitaveryconvenienttimepiece,and
theperiodsofitswaxingandwaningformthebasisofmanyofthe
oldestcalendars.Tallysticks,notchedbonesdatingasfarbackas
2030,000yearsago,arebelievedbysometomarkthephasesof
theMoon.[213][214][215]The~30daymonthisanapproximationof
thelunarcycle.TheEnglishnounmonthanditscognatesinother
GermaniclanguagesstemfromProtoGermanic*mnth,whichis
connectedtotheabovementionedProtoGermanic*mnn,
indicatingtheusageofalunarcalendaramongtheGermanic
peoples(Germaniccalendar)priortotheadoptionofasolar
calendar.[216]ThePIErootofmoon,*mh1nt,derivesfromthePIE
Luna,theMoon,froma1550edition
ofGuidoBonatti'sLiberastronomiae
verbalroot*meh1,"tomeasure","indicat[ing]afunctionalconceptionofthemoon,i.e.markerofthe
month"(cf.theEnglishwordsmeasureandmenstrual),[217][218][219]andechoingtheMoon'simportanceto
manyancientculturesinmeasuringtime(seeLatinmensisandAncientGreek(meis)or(mn),
meaning"month").[220][221][222][223]
TheMoonhasbeenthesubjectofmanyworksofartandliteratureandtheinspirationforcountlessothers.
Itisamotifinthevisualarts,theperformingarts,poetry,proseandmusic.A5,000yearoldrockcarving
atKnowth,Ireland,mayrepresenttheMoon,whichwouldbetheearliestdepictiondiscovered.[224]The
contrastbetweenthebrighterhighlandsandthedarkermariacreatesthepatternsseenbydifferentcultures
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astheManintheMoon,therabbitandthebuffalo,amongothers.Inmanyprehistoricandancientcultures,
theMoonwaspersonifiedasadeityorothersupernaturalphenomenon,andastrologicalviewsoftheMoon
continuetobepropagatedtoday.
TheMoonplaysanimportantroleinIslamtheIslamiccalendarisstrictlylunar,andinmanyMuslim
countriesthemonthsaredeterminedbythevisualsightingofthehilal,or
earliestcrescentmoon,overthehorizon.[225]Thestarandcrescent,
initiallyasymboloftheOttomanEmpire,hasrecentlybeenadoptedasa
widersymbolfortheMuslimcommunity.Thesplittingofthemoon
(Arabic:
)wasamiracleattributedtoMuhammad.[226]
TheMoonhasalongassociationwithinsanityandirrationalitythewords
lunacyandlunatic(popularshorteningloony)arederivedfromtheLatin
Astarandcrescentmoonare
namefortheMoon,Luna.PhilosophersAristotleandPlinytheElder
commonsymbolsofIslam.
arguedthatthefullmooninducedinsanityinsusceptibleindividuals,
believingthatthebrain,whichismostlywater,mustbeaffectedbythe
Moonanditspoweroverthetides,buttheMoon'sgravityistooslightto
affectanysingleperson.[227]Eventoday,peopleinsistthatadmissionstopsychiatrichospitals,traffic
accidents,homicidesorsuicidesincreaseduringafullmoon,althoughthereisnoscientificevidenceto
supportsuchclaims.[227]
Seealso
Formerclassificationofplanets
OthermoonsofEarth
2006RH120
Listofnaturalsatellites
TourismonMoon
Timelineofthefarfuture
References
Notes
a. Between18.29and28.58toEarth'sequator.[1]
b. Themaximumvalueisgivenbasedonscalingofthebrightnessfromthevalueof12.74givenforanequatorto
Mooncentredistanceof378000kmintheNASAfactsheetreferencetotheminimumEarthMoondistance
giventhere,afterthelatteriscorrectedforEarth'sequatorialradiusof6378km,giving350600km.The
minimumvalue(foradistantnewmoon)isbasedonasimilarscalingusingthemaximumEarthMoondistance
of407000km(giveninthefactsheet)andbycalculatingthebrightnessoftheearthshineontosuchanewmoon.
Thebrightnessoftheearthshineis[Earthalbedo(Earthradius/RadiusofMoon'sorbit)2]relativetothe
directsolarilluminationthatoccursforafullmoon.(Earthalbedo=0.367Earthradius=(polarradius
equatorialradius)=6367km.)
c. Therangeofangularsizevaluesgivenarebasedonsimplescalingofthefollowingvaluesgiveninthefactsheet
reference:atanEarthequatortoMooncentredistanceof378000km,theangularsizeis1896arcseconds.The
samefactsheetgivesextremeEarthMoondistancesof407000kmand357000km.Forthemaximumangular
size,theminimumdistancehastobecorrectedforEarth'sequatorialradiusof6378km,giving350600km.
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d. Luceyetal.(2006)give107particlescm3bydayand105particlescm3bynight.Alongwithequatorialsurface
temperaturesof390Kbydayand100Kbynight,theidealgaslawyieldsthepressuresgivenintheinfobox
(roundedtothenearestorderofmagnitude):107Pabydayand1010Pabynight.
e. ThereareanumberofnearEarthasteroids,including3753Cruithne,thatarecoorbitalwithEarth:theirorbits
bringthemclosetoEarthforperiodsoftimebutthenalterinthelongterm(Moraisetal,2002).Thesearequasi
satellitestheyarenotmoonsastheydonotorbitEarth.Formoreinformation,seeOthermoonsofEarth.
f. With27%thediameterand60%thedensityofEarth,theMoonhas1.23%ofthemassofEarth.Themoon
CharonislargerrelativetoitsprimaryPluto,butPlutoisnowconsideredtobeadwarfplanet.
g. AlthoughmostofthelargesatellitesintheSolarSystemorbitlargeplanets,mostsmallsatellitesalsoorbitlarge
planets.Thereisnostrongcorrelationbetweenthesizesofplanetsandthesizesoftheirsatellites,sothelarge
sizeoftheMoonrelativetoEarthhasnomajorsignificance.
h. Thisageiscalculatedfromisotopedatingoflunarrocks.
i. Moreaccurately,theMoon'smeansiderealperiod(fixedstartofixedstar)is27.321661days
(27d07h43min11.5s),anditsmeantropicalorbitalperiod(fromequinoxtoequinox)is27.321582days
(27d07h43min04.7s)(ExplanatorySupplementtotheAstronomicalEphemeris,1961,atp.107).
j. Moreaccurately,theMoon'smeansynodicperiod(betweenmeansolarconjunctions)is29.530589days
(29d12h44min02.9s)(ExplanatorySupplementtotheAstronomicalEphemeris,1961,atp.107).
k. TheSun'sapparentmagnitudeis26.7,whilethefullmoon'sapparentmagnitudeis12.7.
l. SeegraphinSun#Lifephases.Atpresent,thediameteroftheSunisincreasingatarateofaboutfivepercentper
billionyears.ThisisverysimilartotherateatwhichtheapparentangulardiameteroftheMoonisdecreasingas
itrecedesfromEarth.
m. Onaverage,theMooncoversanareaof0.21078squaredegreesonthenightsky.
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10/29/2015
(http://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2013/01/lunar_base_made_with_
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with3Dprinting
(http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Technology/Building_a_lunar_base_with_3D_printing))
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moon&oldid=686396181"
Categories: Moon Astronomicalobjectsknownsinceantiquity Objectsformerlyconsideredplanets
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TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
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10/29/2015

Semimajoraxis 384 399km(0.002 57AU)[1]

Synodicperiod 29.530 589d

3.793 107km2 (0.074Earths)

2.1958 1010km3 (0.020Earths)

7.3477 1022kg (0.012 300Earths[1])

Surfacegravity 1.622m/s2 (0.1654g)

90. Lakdawalla,Emily(13November2009)."LCROSSLunarImpactorMission:"Yes,WeFoundWater!" ".The

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