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BigFivepersonalitytraits
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inpsychology,theBigFivepersonalitytraitsarefivebroaddomainsordimensionsofpersonalitythatare
usedtodescribehumanpersonality,thefivefactormodel(FFM)[1]Thefivefactorsareopenness,
conscientiousness,extraversion,agreeableness,andneuroticism.Acronymscommonlyusedtorefertothe
fivetraitscollectivelyareOCEAN,NEOAC,orCANOE.Beneatheachglobalfactor,aclusterofcorrelated
andmorespecificprimaryfactorsarefoundforexample,extraversionincludessuchrelatedqualitiesas
gregariousness,assertiveness,excitementseeking,warmth,activity,andpositiveemotions.[2]
TheBigFivemodelisabletoaccountfordifferenttraitsinpersonalitywithoutoverlapping.Empirical
researchhasshownthattheBigFivepersonalitytraitsshowconsistencyininterviews,selfdescriptionsand
observations.Moreover,thisfivefactorstructureseemstobefoundacrossawiderangeofparticipantsof
differentagesandofdifferentcultures.[3]

Contents
1Fivefactors
1.1Opennesstoexperience
1.1.1Sampleitems
1.2Conscientiousness
1.2.1Sampleitems
1.3Extraversion
1.3.1Sampleitems
1.4Agreeableness
1.4.1Sampleitems
1.5Neuroticism
1.5.1Sampleitems
2History
2.1Earlytraitresearch
2.2Hiatusinresearch
2.3Renewedattention
3Biologicalanddevelopmentalfactors
3.1Heritability
3.2DevelopmentoftheBigFiveduringchildhoodandadolescence
3.2.1Extraversion/PositiveEmotionality
3.3DevelopmentoftheBigFivethroughoutadulthood
3.4Brainstructures
4Groupdifferences
4.1Genderdifferences
4.2Birthorderdifferences
5Culturaldifferences
6Relationships
6.1Personalitydisorders
6.2Commonmentaldisorders
6.3Education
6.3.1Academicachievement

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6.3.1Academicachievement
6.3.2Learningstyles
6.4Worksuccess
7Nonhumans
8Measurements
9Criticisms
9.1Limitedscope
9.2Methodologicalissues
9.3Theoreticalstatus
10Seealso
11References
12Externallinks

Fivefactors
AsummaryofthefactorsoftheBigFiveandtheirconstituenttraits,suchthattheyformtheacronym
OCEAN:[4]
Opennesstoexperience:(inventive/curiousvs.consistent/cautious).Appreciationforart,emotion,
adventure,unusualideas,curiosity,andvarietyofexperience.Opennessreflectsthedegreeof
intellectualcuriosity,creativityandapreferencefornoveltyandvarietyapersonhas.Itisalso
describedastheextenttowhichapersonisimaginativeorindependent,anddepictsapersonal
preferenceforavarietyofactivitiesoverastrictroutine.Somedisagreementremainsabouthowto
interprettheopennessfactor,whichissometimescalled"intellect"ratherthanopennessto
experience.
Conscientiousness:(efficient/organizedvs.easygoing/careless).Atendencytobeorganizedand
dependable,showselfdiscipline,actdutifully,aimforachievement,andpreferplannedratherthan
spontaneousbehavior.
Extraversion:(outgoing/energeticvs.solitary/reserved).Energy,positiveemotions,surgency,
assertiveness,sociabilityandthetendencytoseekstimulationinthecompanyofothers,and
talkativeness.
Agreeableness:(friendly/compassionatevs.analytical/detached).Atendencytobecompassionate
andcooperativeratherthansuspiciousandantagonistictowardsothers.Itisalsoameasureofone's
trustingandhelpfulnature,andwhetherapersonisgenerallywelltemperedornot.
Neuroticism:(sensitive/nervousvs.secure/confident).Thetendencytoexperienceunpleasant
emotionseasily,suchasanger,anxiety,depression,andvulnerability.Neuroticismalsoreferstothe
degreeofemotionalstabilityandimpulsecontrolandissometimesreferredtobyitslowpole,
"emotionalstability".
TheBigFiveModelwasdefinedbyseveralindependentsetsofresearchers.[5]Theseresearchersbeganby
studyingknownpersonalitytraitsandthenfactoranalyzinghundredsofmeasuresofthesetraits(inself
reportandquestionnairedata,peerratings,andobjectivemeasuresfromexperimentalsettings)inorderto
findtheunderlyingfactorsofpersonality.[4][6][7][8][9]TheBigfivepersonalitytraitswasthemodelto
comprehendtherelationshipbetweenpersonalityandacademicbehaviors.[10]

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TheinitialmodelwasadvancedbyErnestTupesandRaymondChristalin1961[11]butfailedtoreachan
academicaudienceuntilthe1980s.In1990,J.M.Digmanadvancedhisfivefactormodelofpersonality,
whichLewisGoldbergextendedtothehighestleveloforganization.[12]Thesefiveoverarchingdomains
havebeenfoundtocontainandsubsumemostknownpersonalitytraitsandareassumedtorepresentthe
basicstructurebehindallpersonalitytraits.[13]Thesefivefactorsprovidearichconceptualframeworkfor
integratingalltheresearchfindingsandtheoryinpersonalitypsychology.
Atleastfoursetsofresearchershaveworkedindependentlyfordecadesonthisproblemandhaveidentified
generallythesamefivefactors:TupesandCristalwerefirst,followedbyGoldbergattheOregonResearch
Institute,[14][15][16][17][18]CattellattheUniversityofIllinois,[7][19][20][21]andCostaandMcCraeatthe
NationalInstitutesofHealth.[22][23][24][25]Thesefoursetsofresearchersusedsomewhatdifferentmethods
infindingthefivetraits,andthuseachsetoffivefactorshassomewhatdifferentnamesanddefinitions.
However,allhavebeenfoundtobehighlyintercorrelatedandfactoranalyticallyaligned.[26][27][28][29][30]
StudiesindicatethattheBigFivetraitsarenotnearlyaspowerfulinpredictingandexplainingactual
behaviorasarethemorenumerousfacetorprimarytraits.[31][32]
EachoftheBigFivepersonalitytraitscontainstwoseparate,butcorrelated,aspectsreflectingalevelof
personalitybelowthebroaddomainsbutabovethemanyfacetscalesthatarealsopartoftheBigFive.[33]
Theaspectsarelabeledasfollows:VolatilityandWithdrawalforNeuroticismEnthusiasmand
AssertivenessforExtroversionIntellectandOpennessforOpenness/IntellectIndustriousnessand
OrderlinessforConscientiousnessandCompassionandPolitenessforAgreeableness.[33]

Opennesstoexperience
Opennessisageneralappreciationforart,emotion,adventure,unusualideas,imagination,curiosity,and
varietyofexperience.Peoplewhoareopentoexperienceareintellectuallycurious,opentoemotion,
sensitivetobeautyandwillingtotrynewthings.Theytendtobe,whencomparedtoclosedpeople,more
creativeandmoreawareoftheirfeelings.Theyarealsomorelikelytoholdunconventionalbeliefs.
Aparticularindividual,however,mayhaveahighoverallopennessscoreandbeinterestedinlearningand
exploringnewculturesbuthavenogreatinterestinartorpoetry.Thereisastrongconnectionbetween
liberalethicsandopennesstoexperiencesuchassupportforpoliciesendorsingracialtolerance.[34]Another
characteristicoftheopencognitivestyleisafacilityforthinkinginsymbolsandabstractionsfarremoved
fromconcreteexperience.Peoplewithlowscoresonopennesstendtohavemoreconventional,traditional
interests.Theyprefertheplain,straightforward,andobviousoverthecomplex,ambiguous,andsubtle.
Theymayregardtheartsandscienceswithsuspicionorviewtheseendeavorsasuninteresting.Closed
peoplepreferfamiliarityovernoveltytheyareconservativeandresistanttochange.[24]
Sampleitems
Ihavearichvocabulary.
Ihaveavividimagination.
Ihaveexcellentideas.
Iamquicktounderstandthings.
Iusedifficultwords.
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Iamfullofideas.
Iamnotinterestedinabstractions.(reversed)
Idonothaveagoodimagination.(reversed)
Ihavedifficultyunderstandingabstractideas.(reversed)[35]

Conscientiousness
Conscientiousnessisatendencytoshowselfdiscipline,actdutifully,andaimforachievementagainst
measuresoroutsideexpectations.Itisrelatedtothewayinwhichpeoplecontrol,regulate,anddirecttheir
impulses.Highscoresonconscientiousnessindicateapreferenceforplannedratherthanspontaneous
behavior.[36]Theaveragelevelofconscientiousnessrisesamongyoungadultsandthendeclinesamong
olderadults.[37]
Sampleitems
Iamalwaysprepared.
Ipayattentiontodetails.
Igetchoresdonerightaway.
Ilikeorder.
Ifollowaschedule.
Iamexactinginmywork.
Ileavemybelongingsaround.(reversed)
Imakeamessofthings.(reversed)
Ioftenforgettoputthingsbackintheirproperplace.(reversed)
Ishirkmyduties.(reversed)[35]

Extraversion
Extraversionischaracterizedbybreadthofactivities(asopposedtodepth),surgencyfromexternal
activity/situations,andenergycreationfromexternalmeans.[38]Thetraitismarkedbypronounced
engagementwiththeexternalworld.Extravertsenjoyinteractingwithpeople,andareoftenperceivedas
fullofenergy.Theytendtobeenthusiastic,actionorientedindividuals.Theypossesshighgroupvisibility,
liketotalk,andassertthemselves.[39]
Introvertshavelowersocialengagementandenergylevelsthanextraverts.Theytendtoseemquiet,low
key,deliberate,andlessinvolvedinthesocialworld.Theirlackofsocialinvolvementshouldnotbe
interpretedasshynessordepressioninsteadtheyaremoreindependentoftheirsocialworldthan
extraverts.Introvertsneedlessstimulationthanextravertsandmoretimealone.Thisdoesnotmeanthat
theyareunfriendlyorantisocialrather,theyarereservedinsocialsituations.[40]
Sampleitems
Iamthelifeoftheparty.
Idon'tmindbeingthecenterofattention.
Ifeelcomfortablearoundpeople.
Istartconversations.
Italktoalotofdifferentpeopleatparties.
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Idon'ttalkalot.(reversed)
IthinkalotbeforeIspeakoract.(reversed)
Idon'tliketodrawattentiontomyself.(reversed)
Iamquietaroundstrangers.(reversed)[35]
Ihavenointentionoftalkinginlargecrowds.(reversed)

Agreeableness
Theagreeablenesstraitreflectsindividualdifferencesingeneralconcernforsocialharmony.Agreeable
individualsvaluegettingalongwithothers.Theyaregenerallyconsiderate,kind,generous,trustingand
trustworthy,helpful,andwillingtocompromisetheirinterestswithothers.[40]Agreeablepeoplealsohave
anoptimisticviewofhumannature.
Becauseagreeablenessisasocialtrait,researchhasshownthatone'sagreeablenesspositivelycorrelates
withthequalityofrelationshipswithone'steammembers.Agreeablenessalsopositivelypredicts
transformationalleadershipskills.Inastudyconductedamong169participantsinleadershippositionsina
varietyofprofessions,individualswereaskedtotakeapersonalitytestandhavetwoevaluationscompleted
bydirectlysupervisedsubordinates.Leaderswithhighlevelsofagreeablenessweremorelikelytobe
consideredtransformationalratherthantransactional.Althoughtherelationshipwasnotstrong,(r=0.32,
=0.28,p<0.01)itwasthestrongestoftheBigFivetraits.However,thesamestudyshowednopredictive
powerofleadershipeffectivenessasevaluatedbytheleader'sdirectsupervisor.[41]Agreeableness,however,
hasbeenfoundtobenegativelyrelatedtotransactionalleadershipinthemilitary.AstudyofAsianmilitary
unitsshowedleaderswithahighlevelofagreeablenesstobemorelikelytoreceivealowratingfor
transformationalleadershipskills.[42]Therefore,withfurtherresearchorganizationsmaybeableto
determineanindividual'spotentialforperformancebasedontheirpersonalitytraits.
Disagreeableindividualsplaceselfinterestabovegettingalongwithothers.Theyaregenerally
unconcernedwithothers'wellbeing,andarelesslikelytoextendthemselvesforotherpeople.Sometimes
theirskepticismaboutothers'motivescausesthemtobesuspicious,unfriendly,anduncooperative.[43]
Sampleitems
Iaminterestedinpeople.
Isympathizewithothers'feelings.
Ihaveasoftheart.
Itaketimeoutforothers.
Ifeelothers'emotions.
Imakepeoplefeelatease.
Iamnotreallyinterestedinothers.(reversed)
Iinsultpeople.(reversed)
Iamnotinterestedinotherpeople'sproblems.(reversed)
Ifeellittleconcernforothers.(reversed)[35]

Neuroticism

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Neuroticismisthetendencytoexperiencenegativeemotions,suchasanger,anxiety,ordepression.[44]Itis
sometimescalledemotionalinstability,orisreversedandreferredtoasemotionalstability.Accordingto
Eysenck's(1967)theoryofpersonality,neuroticismisinterlinkedwithlowtoleranceforstressoraversive
stimuli.[45]Thosewhoscorehighinneuroticismareemotionallyreactiveandvulnerabletostress.Theyare
morelikelytointerpretordinarysituationsasthreatening,andminorfrustrationsashopelesslydifficult.
Theirnegativeemotionalreactionstendtopersistforunusuallylongperiodsoftime,whichmeanstheyare
ofteninabadmood.Forinstance,neuroticismisconnectedtoapessimisticapproachtowardwork,
confidencethatworkimpedespersonalrelationships,andapparentanxietylinkedwithwork.[46]
Furthermore,thosewhoscorehighonneuroticismmaydisplaymoreskinconductancereactivitythanthose
whoscorelowonneuroticism.[45][47]Theseproblemsinemotionalregulationcandiminishtheabilityofa
personscoringhighonneuroticismtothinkclearly,makedecisions,andcopeeffectivelywithstress.
Lackingcontentmentinone'slifeachievementscancorrelatewithhighneuroticismscoresandincrease
one'slikelihoodoffallingintoclinicaldepression.[48]Moreover,individualshighonneuroticismtendto
experiencemorenegativelifeevents,[44][49]butneuroticismalsochangesinresponsetopositiveand
negativelifeexperiences.[44][49]
Attheotherendofthescale,individualswhoscorelowinneuroticismarelesseasilyupsetandareless
emotionallyreactive.Theytendtobecalm,emotionallystable,andfreefrompersistentnegativefeelings.
Freedomfromnegativefeelingsdoesnotmeanthatlowscorersexperiencealotofpositivefeelings.[50]
NeuroticismissimilarbutnotidenticaltobeingneuroticintheFreudiansense(i.e.neurosis.)Some
psychologistsprefertocallneuroticismbythetermemotionalstabilitytodifferentiateitfromtheterm
neuroticinacareertest.
Sampleitems
Iameasilydisturbed.
Ichangemymoodalot.
Igetirritatedeasily.
Igetstressedouteasily.
Igetupseteasily.
Ihavefrequentmoodswings.
Iworryaboutthings.
Iammuchmoreanxiousthanmostpeople.[51]
Iamrelaxedmostofthetime.(reversed)
Iseldomfeelblue.(reversed)[35]

History
Earlytraitresearch
SirFrancisGaltonin1884madethefirstmajorinquiryintoahypothesisthatbysamplinglanguageitis
possibletoderiveacomprehensivetaxonomyofhumanpersonalitytraits:thelexicalhypothesis.[4]In1936
GordonAllportandS.OdbertputSirFrancisGaltonshypothesisintopracticebyextracting4,504
adjectiveswhichtheybelievedweredescriptiveofobservableandrelativelypermanenttraitsfromthe
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dictionariesatthattime.[52]In1940,RaymondCattellretainedtheadjectives,andeliminatedsynonymsto
reducethetotalto171.[7]Heconstructedapersonalitytestfortheclustersofpersonalitytraitshefound
fromtheadjectives,calledSixteenPersonalityFactorQuestionnaire.Then,in1961,ErnestTupesand
RaymondChristalfoundfiverecurringfactorsfromthis16PFQuestionnaire.Therecurringfivefactors
were:"surgency","agreeableness","dependability","emotionalstability",andculture.[8]Thisworkwas
replicatedbyWarrenNorman,whoalsofoundthatfivemajorfactorsweresufficienttoaccountforalarge
setofpersonalitydata.Normannamedthesefactorssurgency,agreeableness,conscientiousness,emotional
stability,andcultureandthesefactorsarethroughwhichfivefactorconsensushasgrown.[9]

Hiatusinresearch
Forthenexttwodecades,thechangingzeitgeistmadepublicationofpersonalityresearchdifficult.Inhis
1968bookPersonalityandAssessment,WalterMischelassertedthatpersonalitytestscouldnotpredict
behaviorwithacorrelationofmorethan0.3.SocialpsychologistslikeMischelarguedthatattitudesand
behaviorwerenotstable,butvariedwiththesituation.Predictingbehaviorbypersonalitytestswas
consideredtobeimpossible.
Emergingmethodologieschallengedthispointofviewduringthe1980s.Insteadoftryingtopredictsingle
instancesofbehavior,whichwasunreliable,researchersfoundthattheycouldpredictpatternsofbehavior
byaggregatinglargenumbersofobservations.[53]Asaresult,correlationsbetweenpersonalityandbehavior
increasedsubstantially,anditwasclearthat"personality"didinfactexist.[54]Personalityandsocial
psychologistsnowgenerallyagreethatbothpersonalandsituationalvariablesareneededtoaccountfor
humanbehavior.[55]Traittheoriesbecamejustified,andtherewasaresurgenceofinterestinthisarea.
By1980,thepioneeringresearchbyTupes,Christal,andNormanhadbeenlargelyforgottenby
psychologists.LewisGoldbergstartedhisownlexicalproject,independentlyfoundthefivefactorsonce
again,andgraduallybroughtthembacktotheattentionofpsychologists.[56]Helatercoinedtheterm"Big
Five"asalabelforthefactors.

Renewedattention
Ina1980symposiuminHonolulu,fourprominentresearchers,LewisGoldberg,NaomiTakemotoChock,
AndrewComrey,andJohnM.Digman,reviewedtheavailablepersonalitytestsoftheday.Theyconcluded
thatthetestswhichheldthemostpromisemeasuredasubsetoffivecommonfactors,justasNormanhad
discoveredin1963.[57]Thiseventwasfollowedbywidespreadacceptanceofthefivefactormodelamong
personalityresearchersduringthe1980s.[58]PeterSavilleandhisteamincludedthefivefactor"Pentagon"
modelwiththeoriginalOPQin1984.PentagonwascloselyfollowedbytheNEOfivefactorpersonality
inventory,publishedbyCostaandMcCraein1985.

Biologicalanddevelopmentalfactors
Heritability

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Twinstudiessuggestthatheritabilityandenvironmentalfactorsequallyinfluenceallfivefactorstothe
samedegree.[59]Amongfourrecenttwinstudies,themeanpercentageforheritabilitywascalculatedfor
eachpersonalityanditwasconcludedthatheritabilityinfluencedthe
fivefactorsbroadly.Theselfreportmeasureswereasfollows:
opennesstoexperiencewasestimatedtohavea57%genetic
influence,extraversion54%,conscientiousness49%,neuroticism
48%,andagreeableness42%.[60]

DevelopmentoftheBigFiveduringchildhoodand
adolescence
ResearchontheBigFive,andpersonalityingeneral,hasfocused
Personalityresearchconductedon
primarilyonindividualdifferencesinadulthood,ratherthanin
twinsubjectssuggestthatboth
[61][62][63]
heritabilityandenvironmentalfactors
childhoodandadolescence.
Yet,recentstudieshavebegun
contributetotheBigFivepersonality
toexplorethedevelopmentaloriginsandtrajectoriesoftheBigFive
traits.
amongchildrenandadolescents.[61][62][63]Contrarytosome
researcherswhoquestionwhetherchildrenhavestablepersonality
traits,BigFiveorotherwise,[64]mostresearcherscontendthattherearesignificantpsychological
differencesbetweenchildrenthatareassociatedwithrelativelystable,distinct,andsalientbehavior
patterns.[61][62][63]Someofthesedifferencesareevidentat,ifnotbefore,birth.[62][63]Forexample,both
parentsandresearchersrecognizethatsomenewborninfantsarepeacefulandeasilysoothedwhileothers
arecomparativelyfussyandhardtocalm.[63]
Althoughdevelopmentalpsychologistsgenerallyinterpretindividualdifferencesinchildrenasevidenceof
temperamentratherthanpersonalitytraits,[62]someresearchersarguethattemperamentsandpersonality
traitsareagespecificmanifestationsofvirtuallythesamelatentqualities.[63][65]Alternatively,early
childhoodtemperamentsmaybecomeadolescentandadultpersonalitytraitsasindividuals'basicgenetic
characteristicsactively,reactively,andpassivelyinteractwiththeirchangingenvironments.[61][62][63]
Thestructure,manifestations,anddevelopmentoftheBigFiveinchildhoodandadolescencehasbeen
studiedusingavarietyofmethods,includingparentandteacherratings,[66][67][68]preadolescentand
adolescentselfandpeerratings,[69][70][71]andobservationsofparentchildinteractions.[61]Resultsfrom
thesestudiessupporttherelativestabilityofpersonalitytraitsacrossthehumanlifespan,atleastfrom
preschoolagethroughadulthood.[61][63][72][73]Morespecifically,researchsuggeststhatfouroftheBigFive
namelyExtraversion,Neuroticism,Conscientiousness,andAgreeablenessreliablydescribepersonality
differencesinchildhood,adolescence,andadulthood.[61][63][72][73]However,someevidencesuggeststhat
Opennessmaynotbeafundamental,stablepartofchildhoodpersonality.Althoughsomeresearchershave
foundthatOpennessinchildrenandadolescentsrelatestoattributessuchascreativity,curiosity,
imagination,andintellect,[74]manyresearchershavefailedtofinddistinctindividualdifferencesin
Opennessinchildhoodandearlyadolescence.[61][63]Potentially,Opennessmay(a)manifestinunique,
currentlyunknownwaysinchildhoodor(b)mayonlymanifestaschildrendevelopsociallyand
cognitively.[61][63]OtherstudieshavefoundevidenceforalloftheBigFivetraitsinchildhoodand
adolescenceaswellastwootherchildspecifictraits:IrritabilityandActivity.[75]Despitethesespecific
differences,themajorityoffindingssuggestthatpersonalitytraitsparticularlyExtraversion,Neuroticism,
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Conscientiousness,andAgreeablenessareevidentinchildhoodandadolescenceandareassociatedwith
distinctsocialemotionalpatternsofbehaviorthatarelargelyconsistentwithadultmanifestationsofthose
samepersonalitytraits.[61][63][72][73]
Extraversion/PositiveEmotionality
InBigFivestudies,Extraversionhasbeenassociatedwithsurgency.[62]ChildrenwithhighExtraversionare
energetic,talkative,social,anddominantwithchildrenandadultswhereas,childrenwithlowExtraversion
tendtobequiet,calm,inhibited,andsubmissivetootherchildrenandadults.[61][76]Individualdifferences
inExtraversionfirstmanifestininfancyasvaryinglevelsofpositiveemotionality.[77]Thesedifferencesin
turnpredictsocialandphysicalactivityduringlaterchildhoodandmayrepresent,orbeassociatedwith,the
behavioralactivationsystem.[62][76]Inchildren,Extraversion/PositiveEmotionalityincludesfoursubtraits:
activity,dominance,shyness,andsociability.
Activity:Childrenwithhighactivitytendtohavehighenergylevelsandmoreintenseandfrequent
motoractivitycomparedtotheirpeers.[66][76][78]Salientdifferencesinactivityreliablymanifestin
infancy,persistthroughadolescence,andfadeasmotoractivitydecreasesinadulthood[79]or
potentiallydevelopsintotalkativeness.[76][80]
Dominance:Childrenwithhighdominancetendtoinfluencethebehaviorofothers,particularlytheir
peers,toobtaindesirablerewardsoroutcomes.[76][81][82]Suchchildrenaregenerallyskilledat
organizingactivitiesandgames[83]anddeceivingothersbycontrollingtheirnonverbalbehavior.[84]
Shyness:Childrenwithhighshynessaregenerallysociallywithdrawn,nervous,andinhibitedaround
strangers.[76]Intime,suchchildrenmaybecomefearfulevenaroundknownothers,especiallyif
theirpeersrejectthem.[76][85]
Sociability:Childrenwithhighsociabilitygenerallyprefertobewithothersratherthanalone.[76][86]
Duringmiddlechildhood,thedistinctionbetweenlowsociabilityandhighshynessbecomesmore
pronounced,particularlyaschildrengaingreatercontroloverhowandwheretheyspendtheir
time.[76][87][88]

DevelopmentoftheBigFivethroughoutadulthood
Manystudiesoflongitudinaldata,whichcorrelatepeople'stestscoresovertime,andcrosssectionaldata,
whichcomparepersonalitylevelsacrossdifferentagegroups,showahighdegreeofstabilityinpersonality
traitsduringadulthood.[89]Itisshownthatthepersonalitystabilizesforworkingageindividualswithin
aboutfouryearsafterstartingworking.Thereisalsolittleevidencethatadverselifeeventscanhaveany
significantimpactonthepersonalityofindividuals.[90]Morerecentresearchandmetaanalysesofprevious
studies,however,indicatethatchangeoccursinallfivetraitsatvariouspointsinthelifespan.Thenew
researchshowsevidenceforamaturationeffect.Onaverage,levelsofagreeablenessandconscientiousness
typicallyincreasewithtime,whereasextraversion,neuroticism,andopennesstendtodecrease.[91]Research
hasalsodemonstratedthatchangesinBigFivepersonalitytraitsdependontheindividual'scurrentstageof
development.Forexample,levelsofagreeablenessandconscientiousnessdemonstrateanegativetrend

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duringchildhoodandearlyadolescencebeforetrendingupwardsduringlateadolescenceandinto
adulthood.[92]Inadditiontothesegroupeffects,thereareindividualdifferences:differentpeople
demonstrateuniquepatternsofchangeatallstagesoflife.[93]
Inaddition,someresearch(Fleeson,2001)suggeststhattheBigFiveshouldnotbeconceivedofas
dichotomies(suchasextraversionvs.introversion)butascontinua.Eachindividualhasthecapacityto
movealongeachdimensionascircumstances(socialortemporal)change.Heisorsheisthereforenot
simplyononeendofeachtraitdichotomybutisablendofboth,exhibitingsomecharacteristicsmoreoften
thanothers:[94]
Researchregardingpersonalitywithgrowingagehassuggestedthatasindividualsentertheirelderyears
(7986),thosewithlowerIQseearaiseinextraversion,butadeclineinconscientiousnessandphysical
wellbeing.[95]
ResearchbyCobbClarkandSchurerindicatesthatpersonalitytraitsaregenerallystableamongadult
workers.Theresearchdoneonpersonalityalsomirrorspreviousresultsonlocusofcontrol.[96]

Brainstructures
Someresearchhasbeendonetolookintothestructuresofthebrain
andtheirconnectionstopersonalitytraitsoftheFFM.Twomain
studiesweredonebySatoetal.(2012)[97]andDeYoungetal.
(2009).[98]Resultsofthetwoareasfollows:
Neuroticism:negativelycorrelatedwithratioofbrainvolume
toremainderofintracranialvolume,reducedvolumein
dorsomedialPFCandasegmentofleftmedialtemporallobe
includingposteriorhippocampus,increasedvolumeinthe
midcingulategyrus.
Extraversion:positivelycorrelatedwithorbitofrontalcortex
metabolism,increasedcerebral,volumeofmedial
orbitofrontalcortex.
Agreeableness:negativelycorrelatedwithleftorbitofrontal
lobevolumeinfrontotemporaldementiapatients,reduced
volumeinposteriorleftsuperiortemporalsulcus,increased
volumeinposteriorcingulatecortex.
Conscientiousness:volumeofmiddlefrontalgyrusinleft
lateralPFC.
Opennesstoexperience:Noregionslargeenoughtobe
significant,althoughparietalcortexmaybeinvolved.

Importantresearchonpersonality
traitsandbrainstructureshavebeen
conducted,providingcorrelations
betweentheBigFivepersonality
traitsandspecificareasofthebrain.

Groupdifferences
Genderdifferences

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CrossculturalresearchhasshownsomepatternsofgenderdifferencesonresponsestotheNEOPIRand
theBigFiveInventory.[99]Forexample,womenconsistentlyreporthigherNeuroticism,Agreeableness,
warmth(anextraversionfacet)andopennesstofeelings,andmenoftenreporthigherassertiveness(afacet
ofextraversion)andopennesstoideasasassessedbytheNEOPIR.[100]
Astudyofgenderdifferencesin55nationsusingtheBigFiveInventoryfoundthatwomentendedtobe
somewhathigherthanmeninneuroticism,extraversion,agreeableness,andconscientiousness.The
differenceinneuroticismwasthemostprominentandconsistent,withsignificantdifferencesfoundin49of
the55nationssurveyed.Genderdifferencesinpersonalitytraitsarelargestinprosperous,healthy,and
moregenderegalitariancultures.Aplausibleexplanationforthisisthatactsbywomeninindividualistic,
egalitariancountriesaremorelikelytobeattributedtotheirpersonality,ratherthanbeingattributedto
ascribedgenderroleswithincollectivist,traditionalcountries.[100]Differencesinthemagnitudeofsex
differencesbetweenmoreorlessdevelopedworldregionswereduetodifferencesbetweenmen,not
women,intheserespectiveregions.Thatis,meninhighlydevelopedworldregionswerelessneurotic,
extraverted,conscientiousandagreeablecomparedtomeninlessdevelopedworldregions.Women,onthe
otherhandtendednottodifferinpersonalitytraitsacrossregions.[101]Theauthorsofthisstudyspeculated
thatresourcepoorenvironments(thatis,countrieswithlowlevelsofdevelopment)mayinhibitthe
developmentofgenderdifferences,whereasresourcerichenvironmentsfacilitatethem.Thismaybe
becausemalesrequiremoreresourcesthanfemalesinordertoreachtheirfulldevelopmentalpotential.The
authorsalsoarguedthatduetodifferentevolutionarypressures,menmayhaveevolvedtobemorerisk
takingandsociallydominant,whereaswomenevolvedtobemorecautiousandnurturing.Ancienthunter
gatherersocietiesmayhavebeenmoreegalitarianthanlateragriculturallyorientedsocieties.Hence,the
developmentofgenderinequalitiesmayhaveactedtoconstrainthedevelopmentofgenderdifferencesin
personalitythatoriginallyevolvedinhuntergatherersocieties.Asmodernsocietieshavebecomemore
egalitarian,again,itmaybethatinnatesexdifferencesarenolongerconstrainedandhencemanifestmore
fullythaninlessdevelopedcultures.Currently,thishypothesisremainsuntested,asgenderdifferencesin
modernsocietieshavenotbeencomparedwiththoseinhuntergatherersocieties.[101]

Birthorderdifferences
FrankSullowayarguesthatfirstbornsaremoreconscientious,moresociallydominant,lessagreeable,and
lessopentonewideascomparedtolaterborns.Largescalestudiesusingrandomsamplesandselfreport
personalitytests,however,havefoundmildereffectsthanSullowayclaimed,ornosignificanteffectsof
birthorderonpersonality.[102][103]

Culturaldifferences
TheBigFivehavebeenreplicatedinavarietyoflanguagesandcultures,suchasGerman,[104]Chinese,[105]
Indian,[106]etc.[107]Forexample,ThompsonhasdemonstratedtheBigFivestructureacrossseveralcultures
usinganinternationalEnglishlanguagescale.[108]Cheung,vandeVijver,andLeong(2011)suggest,
however,thattheOpennessfactorisparticularlyunsupportedinAsiancountriesandthatadifferentfifth
factorissometimesidentified.[109]

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RecentworkhasfoundrelationshipsbetweenGeertHofstedesculturalfactors,Individualism,Power
Distance,Masculinity,andUncertaintyAvoidance,withtheaverageBigFivescoresinacountry.[110]For
instance,thedegreetowhichacountryvaluesindividualismcorrelateswithitsaverageextraversion,
whereaspeoplelivingincultureswhichareacceptingoflargeinequalitiesintheirpowerstructurestendto
scoresomewhathigheronconscientiousness.Althoughthisisanactiveareaofresearch,thereasonsfor
thesedifferencesareasyetunknown.
AttemptstoreplicatetheBigFiveinothercountrieswithlocaldictionarieshavesucceededinsome
countriesbutnotinothers.Apparently,forinstance,Hungariansdonotappeartohaveasingle
agreeablenessfactor.[111]Otherresearchershavefoundevidenceforagreeablenessbutnotforother
factors.[112]

Relationships
Personalitydisorders
Asof2002,therewereoverfiftypublishedstudiesrelatingtheFFMtopersonalitydisorders.[113]Sincethat
time,quiteanumberofadditionalstudieshaveexpandedonthisresearchbaseandprovidedfurther
empiricalsupportforunderstandingtheDSMpersonalitydisordersintermsoftheFFMdomains.[114]
Inherseminalreviewofthepersonalitydisorderliteraturepublishedin2007,Dr.LeeAnnaClarkasserted
that"thefivefactormodelofpersonalityiswidelyacceptedasrepresentingthehigherorderstructureof
bothnormalandabnormalpersonalitytraits".[115]
Thefivefactormodelhasbeenshowntosignificantlypredictalltenpersonalitydisordersymptomsand
outperformtheMinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)inthepredictionofborderline,
avoidant,anddependentpersonalitydisordersymptoms.[116]
ResearchresultsexaminingtherelationshipsbetweentheFFMandeachofthetenDSMpersonality
disorderdiagnosticcategoriesarewidelyavailable.Forexample,inastudypublishedin2003titled"The
fivefactormodelandpersonalitydisorderempiricalliterature:Ametaanalyticreview",[117]theauthors
analyzeddatafrom15otherstudiestodeterminehowpersonalitydisordersaredifferentandsimilar,
respectively,withregardtounderlyingpersonalitytraits.Intermsofhowpersonalitydisordersdiffer,the
resultsshowedthateachdisorderdisplaysaFFMprofilethatismeaningfulandpredictablegivenitsunique
diagnosticcriteria.Withregardtotheirsimilarities,thefindingsrevealedthatthemostprominentand
consistentpersonalitydimensionsunderlyingalargenumberofthepersonalitydisordersarepositive
associationswithneuroticismandnegativeassociationswithagreeableness.

Commonmentaldisorders
Neuroticismisaprospectiveriskfactorforthecommonmentaldisorders,includinganxiety,depression,
andsubstanceusedisorders,[118]andalsoshowssubstantialconcurrentoverlap.[49][118]

Education
Academicachievement
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Personalityplaysanimportantrolethataffectsacademicachievement.Astudyconductedwith308
undergraduateswhocompletedtheFiveFactorInventoryProcessesandofferedtheirGPAsuggestedthat
conscientiousnessandagreeablenesshaveapositiverelationshipwithalltypesoflearningstyles(synthesis
analysis,methodicalstudy,factretention,andelaborativeprocessing),whereasneuroticismhasaninverse
relationshipwiththemall.Moreover,extraversionandopennesswereproportionaltoelaborative
processing.TheBigFivepersonalitytraitsaccountedfor14%ofthevarianceinGPA,suggestingthat
personalitytraitsmakegreatcontributionstoacademicperformance.Furthermore,reflectivelearningstyles
(synthesisanalysisandelaborativeprocessing)wereabletomediatetherelationshipbetweenopennessand
GPA.Theseresultsindicatethatintellectualcuriousnesshassignificantenhancementinacademic
performanceifstudentscancombinetheirscholarlyinterestwiththoughtfulinformationprocessing.[119]
Studiesconductedoncollegestudentshaveconcludedthathope,whichislinkedtoagreeableness,hasa
positiveeffectonpsychologicalwellbeing.Individualshighinneurotictendenciesarelesslikelytodisplay
hopefultendenciesandarenegativelyassociatedwithwellbeing.[120]Personalitycansometimesbeflexible
andmeasuringthebigfivepersonalityforindividualsastheyentercertainstagesoflifemaypredicttheir
educationalidentity.Recentstudieshavesuggestedthelikelihoodofanindividual'spersonalityaffecting
theireducationalidentity.[121]
Learningstyles
Learningstyleshavebeendescribedas"enduringwaysofthinkingandprocessinginformation."[122]
Althoughthereisnoevidencethatpersonalitydeterminesthinkingstyles,theymaybeintertwinedinways
thatlinkthinkingstylestotheBigFivepersonalitytraits.[123]Thereisnogeneralconsensusonthenumber
orspecificationsofparticularlearningstyles,buttherehavebeenmanydifferentproposals.
Smeck,Ribicj,andRamanaih(1997)definedfourtypesoflearningstyles:
synthesisanalysis
methodicalstudy
factretention
elaborativeprocessing
Whenallfourfacetsareimplicatedwithintheclassroom,theywilleachlikelyimproveacademic
achievement.[124]Thismodelassertsthatstudentsdevelopeitheragentic/shallowprocessingor
reflective/deepprocessing.Deepprocessorsaremoreoftenthannotfoundtobemoreconscientious,
intellectuallyopen,andextravertedwhencomparedtoshallowprocessors.Deepprocessingisassociated
withappropriatestudymethods(methodicalstudy)andastrongerabilitytoanalyzeinformation(synthesis
analysis),whereasshallowprocessorspreferstructuredfactretentionlearningstylesandarebettersuited
forelaborativeprocessing.[124]Themainfunctionsofthesefourspecificlearningstylesareasfollow:
Name
Synthesis
analysis:

Function
processinginformation,formingcategories,andorganizingthemintohierarchies.Thisisthe
onlyoneofthelearningstylesthathasexplainedasignificantimpactonacademic
performance.[124]

Methodical
methodicalbehaviorwhilecompletingacademicassignments
study:
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Fact
focusingontheactualresultinsteadofunderstandingthelogicbehindsomething
retention:
Elaborative
connectingandapplyingnewideastoexistingknowledge
processing:
Opennesshasbeenlinkedtolearningstylesthatoftenleadtoacademicsuccessandhighergradeslike
synthesisanalysisandmethodicalstudy.Becauseconscientiousnessandopennesshavebeenshownto
predictallfourlearningstyles,itsuggeststhatindividualswhopossesscharacteristicslikediscipline,
determination,andcuriosityaremorelikelytoengageinalloftheabovelearningstyles.[124]
AccordingtotheresearchcarriedoutbyKomarraju,Karau,Schmeck&Avdic(2011),conscientiousness
andagreeablenessarepositivelyrelatedwithallfourlearningstyles,whereasneuroticismwasnegatively
relatedwiththosefour.Furthermore,extraversionandopennesswereonlypositivelyrelatedtoelaborative
processing,andopennessitselfcorrelatedwithhigheracademicachievement.[125]
Besidesopenness,allBigFivepersonalitytraitshelpedpredicttheeducationalidentityofstudents.Based
onthesefindings,scientistsarebeginningtoseethattheremightbealargeinfluenceoftheBigFivetraits
onacademicmotivationthatthenleadstopredictingastudent'sacademicperformance.[126]
RecentstudiessuggestthatBigFivepersonalitytraitscombinedwithlearningstylescanhelppredictsome
variationsintheacademicperformanceandtheacademicmotivationofanindividualwhichcanthen
influencetheiracademicachievements.[127]Thismaybeseenbecauseindividualdifferencesinpersonality
representstableapproachestoinformationprocessing.Forinstance,conscientiousnesshasconsistently
emergedasastablepredictorofsuccessinexamperformance,largelybecauseconscientiousstudents
experiencesfewerstudydelays.[126]Thereasonconscientiousnessshowsapositiveassociationwiththe
fourlearningstylesisbecausestudentswithhighlevelsofconscientiousnessdevelopfocusedlearning
strategiesandappeartobemoredisciplinedandachievementoriented.
However,theAmericanPsychologicalSocietyrecentlycommissionedareportwhoseconclusionindicates
thatnosignificantevidenceexiststomaketheconclusionthatlearningstyleassessmentsshouldbe
includedintheeducationsystem.TheAPAalsosuggestedintheirreportthatallexistinglearningstyles
havenotbeenexhaustedandthattherecouldexistlearningstylesthathavethepotentialtobeworthyof
beingincludedineducationalpractices.[128]Thus,itispremature,atbest,toconcludethattheevidence
linkingtheBigFiveto"learningstyles"or"learningstyles"tolearningitselfisvalid.

Worksuccess
ItisbelievedthattheBigFivetraitsarepredictorsoffutureperformanceoutcomes.Joboutcomemeasures
includejobandtrainingproficiencyandpersonneldata.[129]However,researchdemonstratingsuch
predictionhasbeencriticized,inpartbecauseoftheapparentlylowcorrelationcoefficientscharacterizing
therelationshipbetweenpersonalityandjobperformance.Ina2007article[130]coauthoredbysixcurrent
orformereditorsofpsychologicaljournals,Dr.KevinMurphy,ProfessorofPsychologyatPennsylvania
StateUniversityandEditoroftheJournalofAppliedPsychology(19962002),states:
Theproblemwithpersonalitytestsisthatthevalidityofpersonalitymeasuresaspredictorsofjob
performanceisoftendisappointinglylow.Theargumentforusingpersonalityteststopredict
performancedoesnotstrikemeasconvincinginthefirstplace.
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SuchcriticismswereputforwardbyWalterMischel,[131]whose
publicationcausedatwodecades'longcrisisinpersonality
psychometrics.However,laterworkdemonstrated(1)thatthe
correlationsobtainedbypsychometricpersonalityresearcherswere
actuallyveryrespectablebycomparativestandards,[132]and(2)that
theeconomicvalueofevenincrementalincreasesinprediction
accuracywasexceptionallylarge,giventhevastdifferencein
performancebythosewhooccupycomplexjobpositions.[133]
Therehavebeenstudiesthatlinknationalinnovationtoopennessto
experienceandconscientiousness.Thosewhoexpressthesetraits
haveshowedleadershipandbeneficialideastowardsthecountryof
origin.[134]

Controversyexistsastowhetheror
nottheBig5personalitytraitsare
correlatedwithsuccessinthe
workplace.

Somebusinesses,organizations,andinterviewersassessindividualsbasedontheBigFivepersonality
traits.Researchhassuggestedthatindividualswhoareconsideredleaderstypicallyexhibitloweramounts
ofneurotictraits,maintainhigherlevelsofopenness(envisioningsuccess),balancedlevelsof
conscientiousness(wellorganized),andbalancedlevelsofextraversion(outgoing,butnotexcessive).[135]
Furtherstudieshavelinkedprofessionalburnouttoneuroticism,andextraversiontoenduringpositivework
experience.[136]Whenitcomestomakingmoney,researchhassuggestedthatthosewhoarehighin
agreeableness(especiallymen)arenotassuccessfulinaccumulatingincome.[137]

Nonhumans
TheBigFivepersonalitytraitshavebeenassessedinsomenon
humanspecies.Inoneseriesofstudies,humanratingsof
chimpanzeesusingtheChimpanzeePersonalityQuestionnaire
(CPQ)revealedfactorsofextraversion,conscientiousnessand
agreeablenessaswellasanadditionalfactorofdominance
acrosshundredsofchimpanzeesinzoologicalparks,alarge
naturalisticsanctuary,andaresearchlaboratory.Neuroticismand
opennessfactorswerefoundinanoriginalzoosample,butwerenot
replicatedinanewzoosampleorinothersettings(perhaps
reflectingthedesignoftheCPQ).[138]Astudyreviewfoundthat
markersforthethreedimensionsextraversion,neuroticism,and
agreeablenesswerefoundmostconsistentlyacrossdifferentspecies,
followedbyopennessonlychimpanzeesshowedmarkersfor
conscientiousbehavior.[139]

TheBig5personalitytraitscanbe
seeninchimpanzees.

Measurements
SeveralmeasuresoftheBigFiveexist:
InternationalPersonalityItemPool(IPIP)[140]
NEOPIR
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BigFiveInventory
Selfdescriptivesentencequestionnaires[112]
Lexicalquestionnaires[141]
Selfreportquestionnaires[142]
RelativescoredBig5measure[143]
ThemostfrequentlyusedmeasuresoftheBigFivecompriseeitheritemsthatareselfdescriptive
sentences[112]or,inthecaseoflexicalmeasures,itemsthataresingleadjectives.[141]Duetothelengthof
sentencebasedandsomelexicalmeasures,shortformshavebeendevelopedandvalidatedforusein
appliedresearchsettingswherequestionnairespaceandrespondenttimearelimited,suchasthe40item
balancedInternationalEnglishBigFiveMiniMarkers[108]oraverybrief(10item)measureoftheBig
Fivedomains.[144]Researchhassuggestedthatsomemethodologiesinadministeringpersonalitytestsare
inadequateinlengthandprovideinsufficientdetailtotrulyevaluatepersonality.Usually,longer,more
detailedquestionswillgiveamoreaccurateportrayalofpersonality.[145]Thefivefactorstructurehasbeen
replicatedinpeerreports.[146]However,manyofthesubstantivefindingsrelyonselfreports.
MuchoftheevidenceonthemeasuresoftheBig5reliesonselfreportquestionnaires,whichmakesself
reportbiasandfalsificationofresponsesdifficulttodealwithandaccountfor.[142]Ithasbeenarguedthat
theBigFivetestsdonotcreateanaccuratepersonalityprofilebecausetheresponsesgivenonthesetests
arenottrueinallcases.Forexample,questionnairesareansweredbypotentialemployeeswhomight
chooseanswersthatpainttheminthebestlight.[147]Thisbecomesespeciallyimportantwhenconsidering
whyscoresmaydifferbetweenindividualsorgroupsofpeopledifferencesinscoresmayrepresent
genuineunderlyingpersonalitydifferences,ortheymaysimplybeanartifactofthewaythesubjects
answeredthequestions.
ResearchsuggeststhatarelativescoredBigFivemeasureinwhichrespondentshadtomakerepeated
choicesbetweenequallydesirablepersonalitydescriptorsmaybeapotentialalternativetotraditionalBig
Fivemeasuresinaccuratelyassessingpersonalitytraits,especiallywhenlyingorbiasedrespondingis
present.[143]WhencomparedwithatraditionalBigFivemeasureforitsabilitytopredictGPAandcreative
achievementunderbothnormalandfakegoodbiasresponseconditions,therelativescoredmeasure
significantlyandconsistentlypredictedtheseoutcomesunderbothconditionshowever,theLikert
questionnairelostitspredictiveabilityinthefakingcondition.Thus,therelativescoredmeasureprovedto
belessaffectedbybiasedrespondingthantheLikertmeasureoftheBigFive.
AndrewH.Schwartzanalyzed700millionwords,phrases,andtopicinstancescollectedfromtheFacebook
messagesof75,000volunteers,whoalsotookstandardpersonalitytests,andfoundstrikingvariationsin
languagewithpersonality,gender,andage.[148]Schwartz'sresearchisadeparturefrommanyoftheefforts
thatotherresearchershavemadeinthatitusesdatathatwasnottakenspecificallyinordertodetermine
personality.

Criticisms
MuchresearchhasbeenconductedontheBigFive.Thishasresultedincriticism[149]andsupport[150]for
themodel.CriticsarguethattherearelimitationstothescopeofBigFiveasanexplanatoryorpredictive
theory.ItisarguedthattheBigFivedoesnotexplainallofhumanpersonality.Themethodologyusedto
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identifythedimensionalstructureofpersonalitytraits,factoranalysis,isoftenchallengedfornothavinga
universallyrecognizedbasisforchoosingamongsolutionswithdifferentnumbersoffactors.Another
frequentcriticismisthattheBigFiveisnottheorydriven,itismerelyadatadriveninvestigationofcertain
descriptorsthattendtoclustertogetherunderfactoranalysis.

Limitedscope
OnecommoncriticismisthattheBigFivedoesnotexplainallofhumanpersonality.Somepsychologists
havedissentedfromthemodelpreciselybecausetheyfeelitneglectsotherdomainsofpersonality,suchas
religiosity,manipulativeness/machiavellianism,honesty,sexiness/seductiveness,thriftiness,
conservativeness,masculinity/femininity,snobbishness/egotism,senseofhumour,andrisktaking/thrill
seeking.[151][152]DanP.McAdamshascalledtheBigFivea"psychologyofthestranger",becausethey
refertotraitsthatarerelativelyeasytoobserveinastrangerotheraspectsofpersonalitythataremore
privatelyheldormorecontextdependentareexcludedfromtheBigFive.[153]
Inmanystudies,thefivefactorsarenotfullyorthogonaltooneanotherthatis,thefivefactorsarenot
independent.[154][155]Orthogonalityisviewedasdesirablebysomeresearchersbecauseitminimizes
redundancybetweenthedimensions.Thisisparticularlyimportantwhenthegoalofastudyistoprovidea
comprehensivedescriptionofpersonalitywithasfewvariablesaspossible.

Methodologicalissues
Factoranalysis,thestatisticalmethodusedtoidentifythedimensionalstructureofobservedvariables,lacks
auniversallyrecognizedbasisforchoosingamongsolutionswithdifferentnumbersoffactors.[156]Afive
factorsolutiondependsonsomedegreeofinterpretationbytheanalyst.Alargernumberoffactorsmay,in
fact,underliethesefivefactors.Thishasledtodisputesaboutthe"true"numberoffactors.BigFive
proponentshaverespondedthatalthoughothersolutionsmaybeviableinasingledataset,onlythefive
factorstructureconsistentlyreplicatesacrossdifferentstudies.[157]

Theoreticalstatus
AfrequentcriticismisthattheBigFiveisnotbasedonanyunderlyingtheoryitismerelyanempirical
findingthatcertaindescriptorsclustertogetherunderfactoranalysis.[156]Althoughthisdoesnotmeanthat
thesefivefactorsdonotexist,theunderlyingcausesbehindthemareunknown.
JackBlocksfinalpublishedworkbeforehisdeathinJanuary2010drewtogetherhislifetimeperspective
onthefivefactormodel.[158]
Hesummarizedhiscritiqueofthemodelintermsof:
theatheoreticalnatureofthefivefactors.
their"cloudy"measurement.
themodelsinappropriatenessforstudyingearlychildhood.
theuseoffactoranalysisastheexclusiveparadigmforconceptualizingpersonality.
thecontinuingnonconsensualunderstandingsofthefivefactors.
theexistenceofunrecognizedbutsuccessfuleffortstospecifyaspectsofcharacternotsubsumedby
thefivefactors.
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Hewentontosuggestthatrepeatedlyobservedhigherorderfactorshierarchicallyabovetheproclaimed
BigFivepersonalitytraitsmaypromisedeeperbiologicalunderstandingoftheoriginsandimplicationsof
thesesuperfactors.

Seealso
Coreselfevaluations
Goalorientation
HEXACOmodelofpersonalitystructure
MyersBriggsTypeIndicator
Personalitypsychology
Szonditest
Traittheory
DISCassessment

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InternationalPersonalityItemPool(http://ipip.ori.org/),publicdomainlistofitemskeyedtothebig
fivepersonalitytraits.
Selectionfromthe"Handbookofpersonality:Theoryandresearch"
(http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~johnlab/bigfive.htm)forresearchers
Video(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avoCvBR_zk)YouTubevideoshowingthedistribution
oftheBigFivepersonalitytraitsonaworldmap.
Video(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2SrPoIsI42U)YouTubevideoshowingthehistoryand
statisticsoftheBigFivepersonalitytest.
RegionalPersonalityDifferencesinGreatBritain(http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?
id=10.1371/journal.pone.0122245)
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