Chapter 8 Slides

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques
A First Course in Digital Communications

Ha H. Nguyen and E. Shwedyk
February 2009
1/46
Introduction
There are benefits to be gained when M -ary (M = 4)
signaling methods are used rather than straightforward binary
signaling.
In general, M -ary communication is used when one needs to
design a communication system that is bandwidth efficient.
Unlike QPSK and its variations, the gain in bandwidth is
accomplished at the expense of error performance.
To use M -ary modulation, the bit stream is blocked into
groups of bits the number of bit patterns is M = 2 .
The symbol transmission rate is rs = 1/Ts = 1/(Tb ) = rb /
symbols/sec there is a bandwidth saving of 1/ compared
to binary modulation.
Shall consider M -ary ASK, PSK, QAM (quadrature amplitude
modulation) and FSK.
2/46
Optimum Receiver for M-ary Signaling

mi

r (t )
si (t )

m i
w (t )
w(t) is zero-mean white Gaussian noise with power spectral

density of N20 (watts/Hz).
Receiver needs to make the decision on the transmitted signal
based on the received signal r(t) = si (t) + w(t).
The determination of the optimum receiver (with minimum
error) proceeds in a manner analogous to that for the binary
case.
3/46
Represent M signals by an orthonormal basis set, {n (t)}N

n=1 ,
N M:
si (t) = si1 1 (t) + si2 2 (t) + + siN N (t),
Z Ts
sik =
si (t)k (t)dt.
0
Expand the received signal r(t) into the series

r(t) = si (t) + w(t)
= r1 1 (t) + r2 2 (t) + + rN N (t) + rN +1 N +1 (t) +
For k > N , the coefficients rk can be discarded.
Need to partition the N -dimensional space formed by
~r = (r1 , r2 , . . . , rN ) into M regions so that the message error
probability is minimized.
4/46
N dimensiona l observatio n space
r = (r1 , r2 , , rM )
1
Choose s1 (t ) or m1
M
Choose s M (t ) or mM
2
Choose s2 (t ) or m2
The optimum receiver is also the minimum-distance receiver:

Choose mi if
PN
2
2
(r
s
ik ) <
k=1 k
k=1 (rk sjk ) ;
j = 1, 2, . . . , M ; j 6= i.
PN
5/46
M-ary Coherent Amplitude-Shift Keying (M-ASK)

r
2
cos(2fc t), 0 t Ts
Ts
r
2
= [(i 1)]1 (t), 1 (t) =
cos(2fc t), 0 t Ts ,
Ts
i = 1, 2, . . . , M.
si (t) = Vi
s1 (t )
s2 ( t )
s3 (t )
si (t )
r (t )
sk (t )
sM 1 (t )
(k 1)
kTs
(M 2)
t = kTs
( )dt
( k 1) Ts
r1
sM (t )
1 (t )
(M 1)
!
"
m i
w (t )
1 (t )
N0
WGN, strength
watts/Hz
2
6/46
Minimum-Distance Decision Rule for M-ASK

sk (t), if k 32 < r1 < k 12 , k = 2, 3, . . . , M 1

.
Choose
s (t), if r1 <
2

1
sM (t), if r1 > M 32
f (r1 sk (t ) )
r1
0
(k 1)
Choose s1 (t )
# Choose s (t )
M
Choose sk (t )
7/46
Error Performance of M-ASK

f (r1 sk (t ) )
r1
P [error] =
M
X
P [si (t)]P [error|si (t)].
i=1
p

P [error|si (t)] = 2Q / 2N0 , i = 2, 3, . . . , M 1.
p

P [error|si (t)] = Q / 2N0 , i = 1, M.

2(M 1) p
P [error] =
Q / 2N0 .
M
8/46
Modified M-ASK Constellation

The maximum and average transmitted energies can be reduced, without
any sacrifice in error probability, by changing the signal set to one which
includes the negative version of each signal.
r
2
si (t) = (2i 1 M )
cos(2fc t), 0 t Ts , i = 1, 2, . . . , M.
2} Ts
|
{z
Vi
'()
$
'*)
&
3
2
PM
1 (t )
3
2
$
2
1 (t )
M
(M 2 1)2
2 X
(2i 1 M )2 =
.
M
4M i=1
12
r
Es
(M 2 1)2
(12 log2 M )Eb
Eb =
=
=
log2 M
12 log2 M
M2 1
Es
i=1
Ei
9/46
Probability of Symbol Error for M-ASK

s
2(M 1)
P [error] =
Q
M
6Es
(M 2 1)N0
2(M 1)
=
Q
M
s
2(M 1)
1
P [bit error] = P [symbol error] =
Q
M log2 M
6 log2 M Eb
M 2 1 N0
6 log2 M Eb
M 2 1 N0
!
(with Gray mapping)
10
10
M=16
(W=1/4Tb)
P[symbol error]
10
M=8
(W=1/3T )
b
10
M=4
(W=1/2T )
b
10
M=2
(W=1/Tb)
10
10
10
15
20
25
E /N (dB)
b
W is obtained by using the W Ts = 1 rule-of-thumb. Here 1/Tb is the bit rate (bits/s).
10/46
Example of 2-ASK (BPSK) and 4-ASK Signals

Baseband information signal
1
0
1
0
Tb
2Tb
3Tb
4Tb
5Tb
6Tb
7Tb
8Tb
9Tb
10Tb
7Tb
8Tb
9Tb
10Tb
BPSK Signalling
2
0
2
0
Tb
2Tb
3Tb
4Tb
5Tb
6Tb
4ASK Signalling
2
0
2
0
2Tb
4Tb
6Tb
8Tb
10Tb
11/46
M-ary Phase-Shift Keying (M-PSK)

(i 1)2
si (t) = V cos 2fc t
,
M
0 t Ts ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , M ; fc = k/Ts , k integer; Es = V 2 Ts /2 joules

(i 1)2
(i 1)2
si (t) = V cos
cos(2fc t)+V sin
sin(2fc t).
M
M
V cos(2fc t)
V sin(2fc t)
, 2 (t) =
.
Es
Es

p
p
(i 1)2
(i 1)2
si1 = Es cos
, si2 = Es sin
.
M
M
The signals lie on a circle of radius Es , and are spaced every

2/M radians around the circle.
1 (t) =
12/46
Signal Space Plot of 8-PSK

(i 1)2
,
M
0 t Ts ,

2 (t )
s3 (t ) 011
010 s4 (t )
s2 (t ) 001
Es
110 s5 (t )
0
s1 ( t ) 000
1 (t )
s8 (t ) 100
111 s6 (t )
s7 (t ) 101
13/46
Signal Space Plot of General M-PSK

(i 1)2
,
M
0 t Ts ,

2 (t )
s 2 (t )
Es
2 M
0
s1 (t )
2 M
1 (t )
s M (t )
14/46
Optimum Receiver for M-PSK

,
Ts
t = Ts
r1
()dt
Compute
2
(r1 si1 )2 + (r+
2 si 2 )
r (t )
1 (t )
Ts
for i = 1, 2,
t = Ts
and choose
r2
( )dt
m i
,M
the smallest
2 (t )
P [error]
r2
=
=
Region 2
Choose s2 (t )
P [error|s1 (t)]
ZZ
1
f (r1 , r2 |s1 (t))dr1 dr2 .
r1 ,r2 Region 1
s2 ( t )
Es
M
0
s1 (t )
r1
Region 1
Choose s1 (t )
15/46
Lower Bound of P [error] of M-PSK

r2
Region 2
Choose s2 (t )
r2
s2 ( t )
Es
M
0
s2 ( t )
Es sin ( M )
s1 (t )
r1
Region 1
Choose s1 (t )
M
0
s1 (t )
Es ,0
r1
P [error|s1 (t)] > P [r1 , r2 fall in 1 |s1 (t)], or

n p
o
P [error|s1 (t)] > Q sin
2Es /N0 .
M
16/46
Upper Bound of P [error] of M-PSK

r2
s2 ( t )
Es sin ( M )
r2
s1 (t )
Region 2
Choose s2 (t )
Es ,0
Es ,0
r1
s2 ( t )
Es
M
0
r2
s1 (t )
r1
Region 1
Choose s1 (t )
r1
s1 (t )
Es sin ( M )
s M (t )
P [error] < P [r1 , r2 fall in 1 |s1 (t)] + P [r1 , r2 fall in 2 |s1 (t)], or
p

P [error] < 2Q sin
2Es /N0 ,
M
17/46
Symbol Error Probability of M-PSK

10
M=32
10
P[symbol error]
M=16
10
10
10
M=8
Exact
M=4
5
M=2
10
10
Lower bound
Upper bound
10
15
20
25
E /N (dB)
b
With a Gray mapping, the bitq

error probability is approximated as:

1
2Eb
P [bit error]M -PSK log M Q
sin2 M
N0 .
2
18/46
Comparison of BPSK and M-PSK
P [error]M -PSK Q
2E
b
sin2
M N0
where Es = Eb .
p
P [error]BPSK = Q( 2Eb /N0 ).
M -ary BW/Binary BW
sin2 (/M )
M -ary Energy/Binary Energy
3
4
5
6
8
16
32
64
1/3
1/4
1/5
1/6
0.44
0.15
0.05
0.0144
3.6 dB
8.2 dB
13.0 dB
17.0 dB
19/46
M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (M-QAM)

M -QAM constellations are two-dimensional and they involve
inphase (I) and quadrature (Q) carriers:
r
2
I (t) =
cos(2fc t), 0 t Ts ,
Ts
r
2
Q (t) =
sin(2fc t), 0 t Ts ,
Ts
The ith transmitted M -QAM signal is:
r
r
2
2
0 t Ts
si (t) = VI,i
cos(2fc t) + VQ,i
sin(2fc t),
i = 1, 2, . . . , M
Ts
Ts
r
p
2
=
Ei
cos(2fc t i )
Ts
VI,i and VQ,i are the information-bearing discrete amplitudes of the

2
2
two quadrature carriers, Ei = VI,i
+ VQ,i
and
1
i = tan (VQ,i /VI,i ).
20/46
(1,7)
(4,4)
Rectangle
Triangle
Rectangle
M =8
M =4
(1,3)
21/46
R2
(4,12)
(8,8)
Triangle
R2
R1
(1,5,10)
M = 16
R1
R1
R2
Hexagon
Rectangle
22/46
A Simple Comparison of M-QAM Constellations

With the same minimum distance of all the constellations, a more
efficient signal constellation is the one that has smaller average
transmitted energy.
3456789: 4
./012
<=>?@AB
;
CDEDF
M =8
Es for the rectangular, triangular, (1,7) and (4,4) constellations are

found to be 1.502 , 1.1252 , 1.1622 and 1.1832 , respectively.
23/46
Rectangular M-QAM
Q (t )
M = 64
M = 16
M = 32
M =8
I (t )
M =4
The signal components take value from the set of discrete values
{(2i 1 M )/2}, i = 1, 2, . . . , M
2 .
24/46
Modulation of Rectangular M-QAM

Each group of = log2 M bits can be divided into I inphase bits
and Q quadrature bits, where I + Q = .
Inphase bits and quadrature bits modulate the inphase and
quadrature carriers independently.
Inphase bits
Select VI ,i
Infor. bits
GHI
JKLMNOL HP HQ
2
cos(2f c t )
Ts
Inphase ASK
si (t )
XYZ WN[VSL
Quadrature bits
Select VQ,i
Quadrature ASK
RST UQSVWJ NMMHQ

2
sin( 2f c t )
Ts
25/46
Demodulation of Rectangular M-QAM

Due to the orthogonality of the inphase and quadrature signals, inphase
and quadrature bits can be independently detected at the receiver.
t = Ts
Inphase
ASK
decision
Ts
( ) dt
0
r (t ) = si (t ) + w (t )
I ( t ) =
2
cos(2 f c t )
Ts
Ts
( ) dt
0
Q (t ) =
2
sin(2 f ct )
Ts
Decision
Multiplexer
t = Ts
Quadrature
ASK
decision
(b) Receiver
The most practical rectangular QAM constellation is one which

I = Q = /2, i.e., M is a perfect square and the rectangle is a square.
26/46
Symbol Error Probability of M-QAM

For square constellations:

2
P [error] = 1 P [correct] = 1 1 PM [error] ,
s
!

1
3Es
P M [error] = 2 1
Q
,
(M 1)N0
M
where Es /N0 is the average SNR per symbol.
For general rectangular constellations:
s
"
!#2
3Es
P [error] 1 1 2Q
(M 1)N0
s
!
3Eb
4Q
(M 1)N0
where Eb /N0 is the average SNR per bit.
27/46
10
M=256
10
P[symbol error]
M=64
10
M=16
10
10
M=4
5
M=2
10
10
Exact performance
Upper bound
5
10
15
20
25
Eb/N0 (dB)
28/46
Performance Comparison of M-PSK and M-QAM

q

2Es
For M -PSK, approximate P [error] Q

sin
M .
q N0

3Eb
For M -QAM, use the upper bound 4Q
(M 1)N0 .
Comparing the arguments of Q() for the two modulations
gives:
3/(M 1)
M =
.
2 sin2 (/M )
10 log10 M
8
16
32
64
256
1024
1.65
4.20
7.02
9.95
15.92
21.93
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
29/46
Performance Comparison of M-ASK, M-PSK, M-QAM

1
10
P[symbol error]
10
10
4QAM or QPSK
4
10
M=4, 8, 16, 32
5
10
10
MASK
MPSK
MQAM
10
Eb/N0 (dB)
15
20
30/46
M-ary Coherent Frequency-Shift Keying (M-FSK)

si (t) =
V cos(2fi t),
0,
0 t Ts
, i = 1, 2, . . . , M,
elsewhere
where fi are chosen to have orthogonal signals over [0, Ts ].

(k i) 1 , (coherently orthogonal)
2Ts
fi =
, i = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(k i) 1 , (noncoherently orthogonal)
Ts
2 (t )
s 2 (t )
Es
0
s3 ( t )
Es
s1 (t )
1 (t )
Es
3 (t )
31/46
Minimum-Distance Receiver of M-FSK

Choose mi if
M
M
X
X
2
(rk sik ) <
(rk sjk )2
k=1
k=1
j = 1, 2, . . . , M ; j 6= i,
Ts
ri > rj ,
Choose mi if
j = 1, 2, . . . , M ; j 6= i.
t = Ts
( )dt
r1
r (t )
s (t )
1 (t ) = 1
Es
Ts
\]^^_`
a]`
bcde` _a
Decision
t = Ts
()dt
rM
M ( t ) =
s M (t )
Es
32/46
Symbol Error Probability of M-FSK

P [error] = P [error|s1 (t)] = 1 P [correct|s1 (t)].
P [correct|s1 (t)] = P [(r2 < r1 ) and and (rM < r1 )|s1 (t) sent].
Z
=
P [(r2 < r1 ) and and (rM < r1 )|{r1 = r1 , s1 (t)}]f (r1 |s1 (t))dr.
r1 =
P [(r2 < r1 ) and and(rM < r1 )|{r1 = r1 , s1 (t)}] =

P [rj < r1 |{r1 = r1 , s1 (t)}] =
P [correct] =
r1
M
Y
P [(rj < r1 )|{r1 = r1 , s1 (t)}]
j=2

1
2
exp
d.
N0
N0

M1
1
2
exp
d
N0
N0
r1 =
=

1
(r1 Es )2
exp
dr1 .
N0
N0
Z
r1
33/46
10
10
M=64
P[symbol error]
10
M=4
M=32
M=2
10
M=16
5
10
M=8
6
10
10
1
P [error] = 1
2
4
y
x2 /2
6
8
Eb/N0 (dB)
dx
M 1
10
1
exp
2
12
14
16
2 log2 M Eb
N0
!2
dy.
34/46
Bit Error Probability of M-FSK

Due to the symmetry of M -FSK constellation, all mappings
from sequences of bits to signal points yield the same bit
error probability.
For equally likely signals, all the conditional error events are
equiprobable and occur with probability
Pr[symbol error]/(M
1) = Pr[symbol error]/(2 1).

There are k ways in which k bits out of may be in error
The average number of bit errors per -bit symbol is

X
Pr[symbol error]
21
=
Pr[symbol error].
k
k
2 1
2 1
k=1
The probability of bit error is simply the above quantity

divided by :
Pr[bit error] =
21
Pr[symbol error].
2 1
35/46
Union Bound on the Symbol Error Probability of M-FSK

P [error] = P [(r1 < r2 ) or (r1 < r3 ) or, , or (r1 < rM )|s1 (t)].
Since the events are not mutually exclusive, the error
probability is bounded by:
P [error] < P [(r1 < r2 )|s1 (t)]+
P [(r1 < r3 )|s1 (t)] + + P [(r1 < rM )|s1 (t)].
p

But P [(r1 < rj )|s1 (t)] = Q
Es /N0 , j = 3, 4, . . . , M .
Then

p

p
Es /N0 < M Q
Es /N0 < M eEs /(2N0 ) .
P [error] < (M 1)Q
n 2o
where the bound Q(x) < exp x2 has been used.
36/46
An Upper Bound on Q(x)

Q(x) =
Q(x) and its simple upper bound
10
2
2
1
x
exp
d < exp
2
2
2
2
exp(x /2)
5
10
Q(x)
10
10
15
10
4
x
8
37/46
Interpretations of P [error] < MeEs /(2N0 )

1
Let M = 2 = e ln 2 and Es = Eb . Then

P [error] < e ln 2 eEb /(2N0 ) = e(Eb /N0 2 ln 2)/2 .
As , or equivalently, as M , the probability of
error approaches zero exponentially, provided that
Eb
> 2 ln 2 = 1.39 = 1.42 dB.
N0
Since Es = Eb = V 2 Ts /2, then

P [error] < e ln 2 eV
2 T /(4N )
s
0
= eTs [rb ln 2+V
2 /(4N
0 )]
If rb ln 2 + V 2 /(4N0 ) > 0, or rb < 4NV0 ln 2 the probability or

error tends to zero as Ts or M becomes larger and larger.
38/46
Comparison of M-ary Signaling Techniques

A compact and meaningful comparison is based on the bit rate-to
bandwidth ratio, rb /W (bandwidth efficiency) versus the SNR per
bit, Eb /N0 (power efficiency) required to achieve a given P [error].
M -ASK with single-sideband (SSB) transmission, W = 1/(2Ts ) and
r
b
= 2 log2 M (bits/s/Hz).
W SSB-ASK
M -PSK (M > 2) must have double sidebands, W = 1/Ts and
r
b
= log2 M, (bits/s/Hz),
W PSK
(Rectangular) QAM has twice the rate of ASK, but must have
double sidebands QAM and SSB-ASK have the same bandwidth
efficiency.
For M -FSK with the minimum frequency separation of 1/(2Ts ),
M
M
M
W = 2T
= 2(/r
= 2 log
rb , and
s
b)
2M
r
2 log2 M
b
=
.
W FSK
M
39/46
USSB Transmission of BPSK Signal

cos(2 f ct )
m(t )
sUSSB (t )
+
LTI Filter
h (t )
H( f )
H ( f ) = j sgn( f )
m (t )
sin(2 f ct )

Z
1
1 m(t )
m(t)
= m(t) h(t) = m(t)

=
d
t

40/46
Example of USSB-BPSK Transmitted Signal

(a) BPSK signal
V
0
Tb
2Tb
3Tb
4Tb
5Tb
6Tb
t
(b) USSBBPSK signal
V
0
V
0
Tb
2Tb
3Tb
4Tb
5Tb
6Tb
7Tb
8Tb
t
41/46
Power-Bandwidth Plane (At P [error] = 105)

10
M=64
M=16
M=32
3
M=4
M=8
Bandwidthlimited
region: r /W>1
M=2
1
M=8
Powerlimited
region: r /W<1
r /W (bits/s/Hz)
M=64
M=16
M=16
0.5
M=32
0.3
0.2
0.1
10
M=64
5 1.6 0
PSK
QAM and ASK (SSB)
FSK
5
10
15
SNR per bit, Eb/N0 (dB)
20
25
30
42/46
Two Statements
Consider information transmission over an additive white Gaussian
noise (AWGN) channel. The average transmitted signal power is
Pav , the noise power spectral density is N0 /2 and the bandwidth is
W . Two statements are:
1
For each transmission rate rb , there is a corresponding limit

on the probability of bit error one can achieve.
For some appropriate signalling rate rb , there is no limit on

the probability of bit error one can achieve, i.e., one can
achieve error-free transmission.
Which statement sounds reasonable to you?
43/46
Shannons Channel Capacity

Pav
C = W log2 1 +
,
W N0
where W is bandwidth in Hz, Pav is the average power and N0 /2
is the two-sided power spectral density of the noise.
Shannon proved that it is theoretically possible to transmit
information at any rate rb , where rb C, with an arbitrarily
small error probability by using a sufficiently complicated
modulation scheme. For rb > C, it is not possible to achieve
an arbitrarily small error probability.
Shannons work showed that the values of Pav , N0 and W set
a limit on transmission rate, not on error probability!
The normalized channel capacity C/W (bits/s/Hz) is:

C
Pav
C Eb
= log2 1 +
= log2 1 +
.
W
W N0
W N0
44/46
Shannons Capacity Curve

10
Eb
N0
2C/W 1
C/W
Channel capacity
limit, C/W
M=64
M=16
M=32
M=16
M=4
M=8
Shannon limit
Bandwidthlimited
region: r /W>1
M=2
1
M=8
Powerlimited
region: rb/W<1
r /W (bits/s/Hz)
3
2
M=64
M=16
0.5
M=32
0.3
0.2
0.1
10
M=64
5 1.6 0
PSK
QAM and ASK (SSB)
FSK
5
10
15
SNR per bit, E /N (dB)
b
20
25
30
45/46
Spectrum Efficiency of DVB-S2 Standard

5
Example 2:
Spectrum Efficiency
4. 5
80 Mbit/s in 36MHz at 9.5dB with 8PSK
4
3. 5
3
2. 5
2
1. 5
1
Example 1:
0. 5
50Mbit/s in 36MHz at 4dB with QPSK
0
-4
-2
SNR (dB)
10
12
14
16
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Chapter 8 Slides

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Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

A First Course in Digital Communications

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Optimum Receiver for M-ary Signaling

w(t) is zero-mean white Gaussian noise with power spectral

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Represent M signals by an orthonormal basis set, {n (t)}N

Expand the received signal r(t) into the series

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

N dimensiona l observatio n space

The optimum receiver is also the minimum-distance receiver:

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

M-ary Coherent Amplitude-Shift Keying (M-ASK)

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Minimum-Distance Decision Rule for M-ASK

sk (t), if k 32 < r1 < k 12 , k = 2, 3, . . . , M 1

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Error Performance of M-ASK

P [si (t)]P [error|si (t)].

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Modified M-ASK Constellation

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Probability of Symbol Error for M-ASK

(with Gray mapping)

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Example of 2-ASK (BPSK) and 4-ASK Signals

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

M-ary Phase-Shift Keying (M-PSK)

i = 1, 2, . . . , M ; fc = k/Ts , k integer; Es = V 2 Ts /2 joules

The signals lie on a circle of radius Es , and are spaced every

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Signal Space Plot of 8-PSK

i = 1, 2, . . . , M ; fc = k/Ts , k integer; Es = V 2 Ts /2 joules

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Signal Space Plot of General M-PSK

i = 1, 2, . . . , M ; fc = k/Ts , k integer; Es = V 2 Ts /2 joules

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Optimum Receiver for M-PSK

f (r1 , r2 |s1 (t))dr1 dr2 .

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Lower Bound of P [error] of M-PSK

P [error|s1 (t)] > P [r1 , r2 fall in 1 |s1 (t)], or

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Upper Bound of P [error] of M-PSK

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Symbol Error Probability of M-PSK

With a Gray mapping, the bitq

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

Comparison of BPSK and M-PSK

M -ary Energy/Binary Energy

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 8: M -ary Signaling Techniques

M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (M-QAM)

With a Gray mapping, the bitq