Motors and Generators

E-fields

E-field lines near a single 
 E-field lines near a single 


positive point charge negative point charge
 E-fields

POSITIVE = AWAY NEGATIVE = TOWARDS

E-fields
 The force that an E-field exerts on charge

• When a charge is placed in an electric field (E-field), it experiences

an electric force.
The electric field E that exists at a given spot can exert a variety of forces. The force
exerted depends on the magnitude of and sign of charge placed at the spot.

(a) The force on a positive charge points in the same direction as E, while (b) the force on
the negative charge points in the opposite direction to E.
postive proton negative electron
• If an object having an electric
charge q is at a point in space
where the electric field is E, the
force is given by:

F = qE
Magnets and B-fields
 The force that an B-field exerts on a moving charge

The following 2 conditions are required for a charge to experience a magnetic

force when placed in a B-field:

1.The charge must be moving, because no magnetic force acts on a stationary

charge.

2.The velocity of the moving charge must have a component that is

perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
No magnetic force acts on a charge moving with a velocity v that is parallel or
antiparallel to a magnetic field B.
The charge experiences a maximum force
Fmax when the charge moves perpendicular
to the field.
If the charge moves at an angle 𝜃 with
respect to B, only the velocity component
perpendicular to B gives rise to a magnetic
force F, which is smaller than Fmax. This
component is vsin𝜃
The direction of the magnetic force F is
perpendicular to both the velocity v and the
magnetic field B.

In other words, F is perpendicular to the plane

defined by v and B.
As an aid in remembering the direction of the
force, we use the Right Hand Palm Rule No.
1 (RHR-1).
 For the Proton (Positve Charge)
Right Hand Rule No. 1

Extend the right hand so the fingers point

along the direction of the magnetic field B
and the thumb points along the velocity v of
the charge.

The palm of the hand then faces in the

direction of the magnetic force F that acts on
a positive charge.
 For the Electron
Magnetic Force F direction for
the proton (positive charge) (Negative Charge)
Right Hand Rule No. 1

IMPORTANT!!
If the moving charge is negative instead of
positive, the direction of the magnetic force
is opposite to that predicted by RHR-1.

Magnetic Force F direction for

the electron (negative charge)
F = qvBsin𝜃
FIGURE 21.7 (c)
vsin𝜃
 Questions to be completed

1. In class: Magnetism pg. 130-131 - The Ultimate Regent’s Physics Q&A Book
2. In class/homework: The Magnetic Field pg.467-471 - Schaum’s 3000 Solved Physics
Problems in Physics, Chapter 28
Representing perpendicular B-field lines
Comparing particle motion in electric and magnetic fields
 The electric force F that acts on a The magnetic force F that acts on a
positive charge is parallel to the E-field. positive charge is perpendicular to both
the B-field and the velocity v.
The work done on a charged particle moving through
electric and magnetic fields

IMPORTANT!!
 
Which of the 3 paths 1, 2, or 3 will the particle follow?

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A positively charged particle is
moving perpendicular to a constant/
uniform magnetic field. 


The magnetic force F causes the

particle to move on a circular path.
The magnetic force always remains
perpendicular to the velocity and is
directed toward the centre of the
circular path.
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What is a motor? And how does it spin?
Magnetic force on a current carrying wire

Previously, we had learnt about the force a

moving positive or negative charge
experiences once it enters an externally
applied uniform magnetic field.

But what happens when you have charges

present within a conductive material and
the material such as a copper wire enters
the same externally applied uniform
magnetic field?
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 How can we express the total force due to all
moving charges?

First, we need to be able to describe:

• What is current?
• How do charges move within a wire?
• How do we define an expression for moving charges per unit volume?
 How can we express the total force due to all
moving charges?

First, we need to be able to describe:

• What is current? Moving charges over time (dQ/dt). What is conventional

current? Always the direction of the movement of positive charge.

• How do charges move within a wire? Forwards but with difficulty due to
random collision = drift velocity. Also positive charges move with E-field
and negative charges move against.

• How do we define an expression for moving charges per unit volume?


i.e. current density is J = I/A = nqvd
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 The direction of current flow

The drift of moving charges through a conductor can be interpreted in terms of work and energy.

The electric field E does work on the moving charges.

The resulting kinetic energy is transferred to the material of the conductor by means of collisions
with the ions, which vibrate in the crystalline structure of the conductor.

This energy transfer increases the average vibrational energy of the ions and therefore the
temperature of the material.

Thus much of the work done by the electric field goes into heating the conductor, not into
making the moving charges move ever faster and faster.
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17c42Pc 7]RS7VUc4YSS7PWcFPc W7SOVc Q:c WD7c 6SF:Wc [7JQ4EW^c Q:cWD7
We define the current through the cross-
4QPUF67Sc 2C2FPc WD7c UFWZ2WFQPc Q:c (ECc c 2c 4QP6Z4WQSc \EWD
sectional area A to be the net charge flowing
2P6c2Pc 7J74WSE4c;H7K6c6ES74W76c:SQOcK7:WcWQc SECDWc0Qc37CEP
through the area per unit time.
WD7c :S77c 4D2SC7Uc FPc WD7c 4QP6Y4WQSc 2S7c RQUEWF[7#c WD7Pc WD7c
U2O7c 6FS74WFQPc2Uc WD7c >7J6c
Thus if the net charge dQ flows through an area
/YRRQU7c WD7S7c 2S7c + OQ[EPCc 4D2SC76c R2TWE4J7Uc R7Sc ZPF
in time dt, the current I through the area is:
2/ %/:6:'2/@ Q:c R2SWE4K7U$c FWUc /+c ZPFWc FUcOc %UUZO7c WD2
\FWDcWD7c U2O7c 6SE:Wc[7JQ4FW^c\FWDc O2CPEWZ67c "
@ +Pc 2cWEO7cF
dQ
FJ
I=
OQ[7Uc 2c 6FUW2P47c "@ %+ 0D7c R2SWF4K7Vc WD2Wc AQ\c QZWc Q:cWD7c

.(&-3 J ) J dt
4^JFP67Sc \FWDcK7PCWDc ;"@ %+ 6YSFPCc %+ 2S7cWD7cR2SWE4J7Vc WD2Wc\
)1J



2Wc WD7c 37CFPPFPCc Q:c WD7c FPW7S[2Jc %+ 0D7c [QJZO7c Q:c WD7c 4^J
 WYSP76cQPc WD7c4YTT7PWcEPcWD7c A2VDJECDWcEVc 23QYWc c WQc c %"
Q:c 2c 42Sc 7PCFP7UcUW2SW7Sc
Current density OQWQSc EVc 2SQZP6cc %c &YSS7PWU
(extended)
4ES4YFWUc 2S7c ZUY2JJ^c 7]RS7UV76c FPc  !$+ c O%
Suppose there are n moving charged particles per unit
 !$+ c,%c J %c 2P6c 4YSS7PWUc FPc 4QORYW7Sc 4


volume.
 !$+ cP%c  !c %c "  !$+ c R%c 

We call n the concentration of particles; its SI unit is m−3

 
 
       
Assume that all the particles move with the same drift
17c42Pcwith
velocity 7]RS7VUc4YSS7PWcFPc
magnitude vd. W7SOVc Q:c WD7c
In a time 6SF:Wcdt,
interval [7JQ4EW^c
each Q:cWD7
4QPUF67Sc
particle 2C2FPc
moves aWD7c UFWZ2WFQPc
distance vddtQ:c(note
(ECc c 2c 4QP6Z4WQSc
v=x/t thus x=vt). \EWD
2P6c2Pc 7J74WSE4c;H7K6c6ES74W76c:SQOcK7:WcWQc SECDWc0Qc37CEP
The particles that flow out of the right end of the shaded
WD7c :S77c 4D2SC7Uc FPc WD7c 4QP6Y4WQSc 2S7c RQUEWF[7#c WD7Pc WD7c
cylinder with length vddt during the small time interval
U2O7c 6FS74WFQPc2Uc WD7c >7J6c
dt are the particles that were within this cylinder at the
/YRRQU7c WD7S7c 2S7c + OQ[EPCc 4D2SC76c R2TWE4J7Uc R7Sc ZPF
beginning of the interval dt.
2/ %/:6:'2/@ Q:c R2SWE4K7U$c FWUc /+c ZPFWc FUcOc %UUZO7c WD2
\FWDcWD7c
The volume U2O7c 6SE:Wc[7JQ4FW^c\FWDc
of the cylinder is Avddt, O2CPEWZ67c "
@ +Pc 2cWEO7cF
and the number of
OQ[7Uc 2cwithin
particles 6FUW2P47c
it is"@
nAv 0D7c R2SWF4K7Vc WD2Wc AQ\c QZWc Q:cWD7c
%+ddt.
FJ
4^JFP67Sc \FWDcK7PCWDc ;"@ %+ 6YSFPCc %+ 2S7cWD7cR2SWE4J7Vc WD2Wc\
.(&-3 J ) J
)1J



2Wc WD7c 37CFPPFPCc Q:c WD7c FPW7S[2Jc %+ 0D7c [QJZO7c Q:c WD7c 4^J
 WYSP76cQPc WD7c4YTT7PWcEPcWD7c A2VDJECDWcEVc 23QYWc c WQc c %"
Q:c 2c 42Sc 7PCFP7UcUW2SW7Sc
Current density OQWQSc EVc 2SQZP6cc %c &YSS7PWU
(extended)
4ES4YFWUc 2S7c ZUY2JJ^c 7]RS7UV76c FPc  !$+ c O%
If each particle has a charge q, the charge dQ that flows
 !$+ c,%c J %c 2P6c 4YSS7PWUc FPc 4QORYW7Sc 4


out of the end of the cylinder during time dt is:

 !$+ cP%c  !c %c "  !$+ c R%c 

dQ = q(nAvd dt) = nqvd Adt

 
 
       
and the current is:
17c42Pc 7]RS7VUc4YSS7PWcFPc W7SOVc Q:c WD7c 6SF:Wc [7JQ4EW^c Q:cWD7
4QPUF67Sc 2C2FPc WD7c UFWZ2WFQPc Q:c (ECc c 2c 4QP6Z4WQSc \EWD
dQ
= 6ES74W76c:SQOcK7:WcWQc
I 
2P6c2Pc 7J74WSE4c;H7K6c = nqvd A SECDWc0Qc37CEP
WD7c :S77c 4D2SC7Uc FPc WD7c dt
4QP6Y4WQSc 2S7c RQUEWF[7#c WD7Pc WD7c
U2O7c
The 6FS74WFQPc2Uc
current per unitWD7c >7J6c
cross-sectional area is called the
/YRRQU7c
current densityWD7S7c
J: 2S7c + OQ[EPCc 4D2SC76c R2TWE4J7Uc R7Sc ZPF
2/ %/:6:'2/@ Q:c R2SWE4K7U$c FWUc /+c ZPFWc FUcOc %UUZO7c WD2
I
J = = nqv
\FWDcWD7c U2O7c 6SE:Wc[7JQ4FW^c\FWDc O2CPEWZ67c "
@ +Pc 2cWEO7cF
d
FJ
OQ[7Uc 2c 6FUW2P47c "@ %+ 0D7c A R2SWF4K7Vc WD2Wc AQ\c QZWc Q:cWD7c
4^JFP67Sc \FWDcK7PCWDc ;"@ %+ 6YSFPCc %+ 2S7cWD7cR2SWE4J7Vc
per square WD2Wc\
.(&-3 J ) J The units of current density are amperes
)1J



2Wc WD7c(A/m
metre 37CFPPFPCc
2) Q:c WD7c FPW7S[2Jc %+ 0D7c [QJZO7c Q:c WD7c 4^J
5 .((%*((2 %5 &%.*&( 5 6 +7&B-"N '9?"&N   ;GN Kœ
 97N N @-7+
Magnetic force on a current-carrying

šœ šœ šœ  šœ šœ šœ @B> -+,BN @&+6&7BN 9'N N "97#E"B-7+N H->&
conductor
'-7 3$.67 : B,&N "E?>&7BN-@N'?96N !9BB96N B9N B9:N ,&N
 
We can compute the force on a current-carrying
$7YiRŠgaœ -œ :&7#-"E4
conductor >N B9N
starting with the B,&N :2 7&N
magnetic 9'N
force F B,&N $- +> 6
= qvB.


šœ šœ šœ *?@AN B, BN A,&N 69F-7+N ", ?+&@N ?&N :9@-
The drift velocity vd is upward, perpendicular to B.
šœ Nœ

Nœ Nœ B,&JN ?&N 7&+ B-F& N
The average force on each charge is F = qvdB directed to
Nœ Nœ the left; since,&N #?-'ANF&29"-BJNG
vd and MN
-@NE:H
B are perpendicular, the ?$N :&>:
magnitude
", >+&N -@N
of the force is F =
qv dB.
 2#: Kœ N $->&"A&#N B9N A,&
Nœ Nœ Nœ
‡œ ?&N:&>:&7#-"E4
The number of charges per unit?Nvolume
B,&N 6 is+7-BE#&N 9'N B,&
n; a segment
Nœ Nœ Nœ Nœ Nœ of conductor with length l has volume Al and contains a
&N " 7N #&>-F&N 7N &I:>&@@-97N '9>N B,&
number of charges equal to nAl.
Nœ Nœ Nœ Nœ šœ 4&7+B,N =œ 9'N "97#E"B9>N H-B,N ">9@@@&"A-
:   :  :
The total force F on all the moving charges in this segment
šœ šœ šœ
 šœ šœ šœ
E@&#N
has magnitude: -7N <@N 7#N
F94E6&N -@N .: N @&+6&7AN 9'N "97#E"B9?N H
9'N &"A

F = (nAl)(qvd B) = (nqvd A)(IB)

7E6!&>N 9'N ", >+&@N &=E 4N B9N 8C N ,&N B
*'œ 5 )+( *5 0 (5 )$%*5 &5 !4*5  Magnetic force on a current-carrying

(( )55.((%*5;œ %5*5 (* &%5&5 >œ 5 ?96N =N  : B,&N "E??&7BN #&7@-BJN -@N Cœ
conductor .29#
: ,&N :?9$E"B


$%* 5 &(5&%5 * )5)$%*5 )5'('%3

?&7ANBœ @9NH&N " 7N>&H>-B&N = N  : @N
 .!(5 *&5 &*5 %5 *5 $%* 5 !5  From the current density J = nkvd the product JA is the
total current I, so we rewrite the previous eqn. as:
$(7 :$#7 Qœ‘•‰Trgj•œ 5'7 YSA›sgœ
7 &$+/47 6œ ,N


2))!07
!7 $)
7
07 R‚œRgzcœ 7 0$7 7
!07 7 +: F = IlB
'NB,&N
*&4#N -@N79BN :&>:&7#-"E2 >N A9N B,&N H->&N!EBN6 1&@N 7N
DOe|l’—[^œlŽœ 5œ ?@1
xœ wn1œm}œ.†œ
  
, 7$2&N B,&N @-BE B-97N A,&N @ 6&N H JN H&N $-#N -7N &"B-97N  : '
:k gt™bœV›œ•jbœ‰tgj•iT]œ‹˜{bœ
72JN B,&N "96:97&7AN 9'N
 :&>:&7$-"E4 >N B9N B,&N H->&N  7$NA9NA,
 *1%!7%7
If the B field is not perpendicular to the wire but makes an
B,&N ",θ>+&@N
angle &I&>D@N
only the N '9>"&N B,-@N
component of B "96:97&7AN -@N  N
perpendicular to the @-7KN
wire 


97NA,&N
(and toH-?&N@&+6&7BN-@NA,&7N
the drift velocities of the charges) exerts a force;
this component is Bsinθ.
7  7,"7 7 4œ  5 N  5N@-7NKN
The magnetic force on the wire segment is then:
,&N '9>"&N -@N 2H J@N :&?:&7$-"E4 ?N A9N !9A,NB,&N "97#E"B9>N 7
#-?&"B-97N #&B&>6-7&#N!JNB,&N @ 6&N ?-+,A
, 7$N ?E4&N H&N E@&$N '9>
",
F = IlBsin θ
>+&N -+ N  : &7"&N B,-@N '9>"&N " 7N !&N &I:?&@@&#N @N N F
4-1&NA,&N'9?"&N97N N@-7+2&N69F-7+N", ?+&N &N>&:?&@&7BNA,&N@&+
*'œ 5 )+( *5 0 (5 )$%*5 &5 !4*5  Magnetic force on a current-carrying

(( )55.((%*5;œ %5*5 (* &%5&5 >œ 5 ?96N =N  : B,&N "E??&7BN #&7@-BJN -@N Cœ
conductor .29#
: ,&N :?9$E"B


$%* 5 &(5&%5 * )5)$%*5 )5'('%3

?&7ANBœ @9NH&N " 7N>&H>-B&N = N  : @N
 .!(5 *&5 &*5 %5 *5 $%* 5 !5 
$(7 :$#7 Qœ‘•‰Trgj•œ 5'7 YSA›sgœ
7 &$+/47 6œ
 ,N
2))!07
!7 $)
7
07 R‚œRgzcœ 7 0$7 7
!07 7 +: 'NB,&N
*&4#N -@N79BN :&>:&7#-"E2 >N A9N B,&N H->&N!EBN6 1&@N 7N
DOe|l’—[^œlŽœ 5œ ?@1
xœ wn1œm}œ.†œ
  
, 7$2&N
TheB,&N @-BE is
force B-97N A,&N @ perpendicular
always 6&N H JN H&N $-#N
to -7N
both&"B-97N
the  : '
:k gt™bœV›œ•jbœ‰tgj•iT]œ‹˜{bœ
9'N
 :&>:&7$-"E4
 *1%!7%7
72JN B,&N "96:97&7AN
conductor and the field, >N B9N B,&N
with the direction H->&N  7$NA9NA,
determined
B,&Nby
", the
>+&@N
same&I&>D@N N '9>"&N B,-@N
right-hand rule "96:97&7AN
we used for-@Na N @-7KN 
moving 

97NA,&N H-?&N@&+6&7BN-@NA,&7N
positive charge.

7  7,"7 7 4œ  5 N  5N@-7NKN

,&N '9>"&N -@N 2H J@N :&?:&7$-"E4 ?N A9N !9A,NB,&N "97#E"B9>N 7

#-?&"B-97N #&B&>6-7&#N!JNB,&N @ 6&N ?-+,A
, 7$N ?E4&N H&N E@&$N '9>
", >+&N -+ N  : &7"&N B,-@N '9>"&N " 7N !&N &I:?&@@&#N @N N F
4-1&NA,&N'9?"&N97N N@-7+2&N69F-7+N", ?+&N &N>&:?&@&7BNA,&N@&+
 (+8 1P,:!,$,!32!+': MP
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6!1:23!-,: #,#P
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03: 3 !2: 5P
7.122!-,: (-,: 3 : 6!0: 3-: ,:
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Torque
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 Torque

When you push on a door with force F, as in part (a), the

door opens more quickly when the force is larger.

Other things being equal, a larger force generates a

larger torque.

However, the door does not open as quickly if you

apply the same force at a point closer to the hinge, as
in part (b), because the force now produces less
torque.

And finally, if your push was nearly aligned with the

door and hinge as in part (c), you will have a hard time
opening the door at all, because the torque is nearly
zero.
The torque depends on:

• the magnitude of the force

• the point where the force is applied relative to

the axis of rotation (the hinge)

• the direction of the force

*(:<,+V #m 6 *#'&-6 #6 6 #'6 #-+6 6 %#"*6)6
! m *6 %'#-*6 #6 *6#'6 !"*-6 "6 +6
1'6 '!6 #6 *6#'6

4>V H3,V "3, *4 ,4 /* 4".!-%#1(3',,4

,V (>+V /,4 !,4 m *4-*4.($/ 4 *4$")/ 3
3  3
@;(>,V
 43 -4
H(H5?>V
43
(3 +4GS
(;?>2V
"
?H3V 3
V " (GV
-?B*,V
" I3,V  4  4 4 -4 4
"
"***4 -)/4 !-4 m
+4, 4  0 (4 4 4
 -4 4 3
33

PV KG,V
G,V H3,V
33 - *4 -4 /* 4"2*3 ',,4  /-4 ",4
m *4 ,*4 -'%/ 4*4 +0
3 3
  3
:,M,BV
The drawing shows the line of action and the lever arm of the force, two concepts that are
important in the definition of torque.

The line of action is an extended line drawn colinear with the force.

The lever arm is the distance l between the line of action and the axis of rotation, measured
on a line that is perpendicular to both.
9V ?BV ,>,B2PV
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Torque on a current-carrying coil
 Electromotive Force (emf) and Circuits

For a conductor to have a steady current flow, it must be part of a path that
forms a closed loop or complete circuit.

Complete 

Circuit
If the circuit is incomplete, i.e. an isolated conductor (e.g. a piece
of wire) with sufficient resistance, current will begin to flow if we also
have an E-field (E1) established.

Remember! E-Field and I direction (conv. current)

always the same.

As a result a net positive charge quickly accumulates at one end of

the conductor and a net negative charge accumulates at the other
end.
These charges themselves produce an E-field of their own (E2)
in the opposite direction to E1, causing the total electric field
and hence the current to decrease.

Within a very small fraction of a second enough charge builds

up on the conductor ends that the total E-Field E = E1 + E2 = 0
inside the conductor.

Then the charge density j=0 as well, and the current stops
altogether.

So there can be no steady motion of charge in such an

incomplete circuit.
 To see how to maintain a steady current in a complete circuit, we must understand
a basic fact about electric potential energy:

If a charge q goes around a complete circuit and returns to its starting point,
the potential energy must be the same at the end of the round trip as at the
beginning.

There is always a decrease in potential energy when charges move through an

ordinary conducting material with resistance.

So there must be some part of the circuit in which the potential energy
increases.
GPE increasing

The problem is analogous to a water fountain that recycles its

water.

The water pours out the of openings at the top, cascades

down over the terraces and spouts (moving in the direction
of decreasing gravitational energy), and collects in a basin
at the bottom.

A pump then lifts it back to the top (increasing the potential

energy) for another trip.

Without the pump, the water would just fall to the bottom and
stay there.

Water GPE decreasing

pump
 Electromotive Force (emf)

In an electric circuit there must be a device somewhere in the loop that acts like the
water pump in a water fountain.

In this device a charge travels “uphill”, from lower to higher potential energy even
though the electrostatic force (opposite charges attract and same charge repels) is
trying to push it from higher to lower potential energy.

The direction of current in such a device is from lower to higher potential, just the
opposite of what happens in an ordinary conductor.

The influence that makes current flow from lower to higher potential is called
electromotive force (emf).

This is a poor term because emf is not a force but an energy-per-unit-charge quantity
like potential.
The SI unit of emf is the same as that for potential, the volt (1V = 1 J/C)

A typical torch battery has an emf of 1.5 V; this means that the battery does 1.5 J of
work on every coulomb of charge that passes through it.

The symbol for emf is 𝓔.

Every complete circuit with a steady current must include some device that
provides emf. Such a device is called a source of emf.
Batteries, electric generators, solar cells, thermocouples, and fuel cells are all
examples of sources of emf.

All such devices above convert energy of some form

(mechanical, chemical, thermal etc.) into electrical
potential energy and transfer it into the circuit to which
the device is connected.
 Ideal sources of emf

An ideal source of emf maintains a constant potential difference between

its terminals, independent of the current through it.

We define emf quantitatively as the magnitude of this potential difference.

Such an ideal source is mythical like the frictionless plane and the massless
rope.
The diagram to the left is of an ideal source of emf that
maintains a potential difference between conductors a and b,
called the terminals of the device.

Terminal a, marked +, is maintained at higher potential than

terminal b, marked −.

With this potential difference is an E-Field (E) in the region

around the terminals, both inside and outside the source.

The E-Field inside the device is directed from a to b, as shown.

A charge q within the source experiences an electric force 


Fe = qE.

But the source also provides an additional influence, which we

represent as a nonelectrostatic force Fn.
This force, operating inside the device, pushes charge from b
to a in an “uphill” direction against the electric force Fe.

Thus Fn maintains the potential difference between the

terminals.

If Fn were not present, charge would flow between the

terminals until the potential difference was zero.

The origin of the additional influence Fn depends on the kind of

source:

• In a generator it results from B-Field forces on moving charges.

• In a battery or fuel cell it is associated with diffusion processes
and varying electrolyte concentrations resulting from chemical
reactions.
• In an electrostatic machine (Van da Graff), an actual mechanical
force is applied by a moving belt.
If a positive charge q is moved from b to a inside the source,
the nonelectrostatic force Fn does a positive amount of work
Wn = q𝓔 on the charge.

This displacement is opposite to the electrostatic force Fe, so

potential energy associated with the charge increases by an
amount equal to qVab, where Vab = Va − Vb is the (positive)
potential of point a with respect to point b.

For an ideal source of emf described, Fe and Fn are equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction, so the total work done
on the charge q is zero.

There is an increase in potential energy but no change in

the kinetic energy of the charge.

It’s like lifting a book from the floor to a high shelf at constant
speed.
The increase in potential energy is just equal to the non-
electrostatic work Wn, so q𝓔 = qVab, or

Vab = 𝓔 (ideal source of emf)

Now let’s make a complete circuit by connecting a wire with
resistance R to the terminals of the source (see left).

The potential difference between terminals a and b sets up an

E-Field within the wire; this causes current to flow around the
loop from a towards b, from higher to lower potential.

Where the wire bends, equal amounts of positive and negative

charge persist on the “inside” and “outside” of the bend. These
charges exert the forces that cause the current to follow the
bends in the wire.

From Ohm’s law (V=IR) the potential difference between the

ends of the wire (left diagram) is given by Vab = IR.

Combining with Vab = 𝓔 we have:

𝓔 = Vab = IR (ideal source of emf)

That is, when a positive charge q flows around the circuit, the
potential rise 𝓔 as it passes through the ideal source is
numerically equal to the potential drop Vab = IR as it passes
through the remainder of the circuit.

Once 𝓔 and R are known, this relationship determines the

current in the circuit.
Current is not “used up” in a circuit
 Internal Resistance

Real sources of emf in a circuit don’t behave in exactly the

way we have described; the potential difference across a real
source in a circuit is not equal to the emf as in 𝓔 = Vab = IR.

The reason is that charge moving through the material of any

real source encounters resistance.

We call this internal resistance of the source, with symbol r.

If this resistance behaves according to Ohm’s law, r is constant

and independent of the current I.
 As the current moves through r, it experiences an associated
drop in potential Ir.

So when a current is flowing through a source from the

Vab = 𝓔 − negative terminal b to the positive terminal a, the potential
Ir difference Vab between the terminals is:

Vab = 𝓔 − Ir
(terminal voltage, source with internal resistance)
 The potential Vab, called the terminal voltage, is less than the
emf 𝓔 because of the term Ir representing the potential drop
across the internal resistance r.
Vab = 𝓔 −
Ir Expressed another way, the increase in potential energy qVab
as a charge q moves from b to a within the source is now less
than the work q𝓔 done by the non-electrostatic force Fn, since
some potential energy is lost traversing the internal
resistance.
 A 1.5 V battery has an emf of 1.5 V, but the terminal voltage
Vab is equal to 1.5 V only if no current is flowing through it
so that I=0 in Vab = 𝓔 − Ir , i.e Vab = 𝓔.
Vab = 𝓔 −
Ir If the battery is part of a complete circuit through which current
is flowing, the terminal voltage will be less than 1.5 V.
A battery is not a “current source”
 Electromagnetic Induction

current flow

We know that an emf is required for a current to flow in a

source of emf circuit.

For the vast majority of electric devices that are used in

industry and in the home (including any device that you
plug into a power point), the source of emf is not a battery
but an electrical generating station.
Such a station produces electrical energy by converting other
forms of energy:

• gravitational potential energy at a hydroelectric plant,

• chemical energy in a coal or oil-fired plant,
• nuclear energy at a nuclear plant

How is this energy conversion done?

The answer is electromagnetic induction

In a power-generating station, magnets move relative to coils

of wire to produce a changing magnetic flux in the coils
and hence an emf.

Other key components of electrical power systems, such as

transformers, also depend on magnetically induced emfs.
 The central principle of electromagnetic induction is Faraday’s law.

This law relates induced emf to changing magnetic flux in any

loop, including a closed circuit.

We also will look into Lenz’s law, which helps to predict the
directions of induced emfs and currents.

Michael Faraday Electromagnetic induction tells us that a time-varying magnetic

field can act as a source of electric field.

We will also see how a time-varying electric field can act as a

source of magnetic field.

Heinrich Lenz
Motional emf - The emf induced in a moving conductor

When a conducting rod moves through a constant B-field, an

emf is induced in the rod.

This special case of electromagnetic induction occurs as a

result of the magnetic force that acts on a moving charge
(F=qvBsin𝛉).

The velocity v of the rod in Figure (a) (left) is constant and is

perpendicular to a uniform B-field B. Each charge q within the
rod also moves with a velocity v and experiences a magnetic
force of magnitude F=qvB as sin90 = 1.

By using the RHR, it can be seen that the mobile, free electrons
are driven to the bottom of the rod, leaving behind an equal
amount of positive charge at the top.

Remember to reverse the direction of the force that RHR

predicts since electrons have negative charge.
Like we said, the magnetic force causes the free charges in the
rod to move, creating an excess of positive charge at the
upper end a and negative charge at the lower end b.

This in turn creates an E-Field E within the rod, in the

direction from a toward b (opposite to the magnetic force).

Charge continues to accumulate at the ends of the rod until E

becomes large enough for the downward electric force (with
magnitude qE) to cancel exactly the upward magnetic force
(with magnitude qvB).

Then qE = qvB and the charges are in equilibrium.

The separated charges on the ends of the moving conductor

give rise to an induced emf, called a motional emf because
it originates from the motion of charges through a B-field.
The emf exists as long as the rod moves.

If the rod is brought to a stop, the magnetic force vanishes,

with the result that the attractive electric force reunites the
positive and negative charges and the emf disappears.

The emf of the moving rod is analogous to the emf between the
terminals of a battery. However, the emf of a battery is
produced by chemical reactions.

The fact that the electric and magnetic forces balance at

equilibrium, this can be used to determine the magnitude
of the motional emf 𝓔.
As we said earlier, the magnitude of the electric force acting on
positive charge q at the top of the rod is F=Eq, where E is the
magnitude of the E-field due to the separated charges.

And according to E=V/d, the electric field magnitude is given

by the voltage between the ends of the rod (the emf 𝓔) divided
by the length L of the rod (in place of d for distance between
charged plates).

Thus, the electric force is Eq=(𝓔/L)q.

Since we are dealing with a positive charge, the magnetic force

is q(vsin90)B=qvB, because the charge q is moving
perpendicular to the B-field.

Since these two forces balance, it follows that (𝓔/L)q=qvB.

The emf, then, is:

𝓔=vBL
As expected, 𝓔=0V when v=0 m/s, because no motional emf is
developed in a stationary rod.

Greater speeds and stronger magnetic fields lead to

greater emfs for a given length L.

As with batteries, 𝓔 is expressed in volts.

In Figure (b) (left), the rod is sliding on conducting rails that

form part of a closed circuit, and L is the length of the rod
between the rails.

Due to the emf, electrons flow in a clockwise direction around

the circuit.

Positive charge would flow in the opposite direction to the

electron flow, so conventional current I is drawn
counterclockwise in the picture.
Motional emf arises because a magnetic force acts on the charges in a conductor that is moving
through a B-field.

Whenever this emf causes a current, a second magnetic force enters the picture (due to the
motor effect i.e. current carrying wire in a B-field experiences a force).

The current, and hence the rod, experiences a magnetic force F whose magnitude is given by
F=BILsin90.

The direction of F is specified by the RHR and is opposite to the velocity v of the rod, and thus
lies to the left.
By itself, F would slow down the rod, and here lies the problem.

To keep the rod moving to the right with a constant velocity, a counterbalancing force
must be applied to the rod by an external agent, such as a hand in the picture.

This force is labelled Fhand in the drawing.

If the counterbalancing force was removed, the rod would decelerate under the influence
of F and eventually come to rest. During the deceleration, the motional emf would decrease
and the light bulb would eventually go out.
Magnetic flux
A general expression for magnetic flux

In the figure to the left, the direction of the magnetic field B is

perpendicular to the surface swept out by the moving rod.

In general, however, B may not be perpendicular to the surface.

For instance in Figure 22.9 the direction perpendicular to the

surface is indicated by the normal to the surface, but the
magnetic field is inclined at an angle 𝜙 with respect to this
direction.

In such a case the flux is calculated using only the component of

the field that is perpendicular to the surface, Bcos𝜙
A general expression for magnetic flux

The general expression for magnetic flux is:

𝚽B = (Bcos𝜙)A = BAcos𝜙

The unit of magnetic flux is the tesla meter2 (Tm2).

This unit is called a weber (Wb), after the German physicist

Wilhelm Weber (1804-1891): 1 Wb = 1 Tm2.
 A graphical interpretation for magnetic flux

It is possible to interpret the magnetic flux graphically because the

magnitude of the B-field is proportional to the number of field
lines per unit area that pass through a surface perpendicular to
the lines.

For example, the magnitude of B in Figure 22.11a is three times

larger than it is in part b of the drawing, since the number of field
lines drawn through the identical surfaces is in the ratio of 3:1.

Because 𝚽 is directly proportional to B for a given area, the flux in

part a is also three times larger than the flux in part b.

Therefore, the magnetic flux is proportional to the number of

field lines that pass through a surface.
The graphical interpretation of flux also applies when the surface is oriented at an angle with
respect to B.

For example, as the coil in Figure 22.10 is rotated from 𝜙=0º to 60º to 90º, the number of magnetic
field lines passing through the surface (see the field lines in the regions shaded in blue) changes in
the ratio 8:4:0 or 2:1:0.
 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday discovered that whenever there is a change in flux through a loop of wire, an emf is induced
in the loop.

In this context, the word ‘change’ refers to a change as time passes.

A flux that is constant in time creates no emf.

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is expressed by bringing together the idea of magnetic
flux and the time interval during which it changes.

In fact, Faraday found that the magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the time rate of change
if the magnetic flux.

This is consistent with the relation to motional emf: 𝓔=−𝚫𝚽/𝚫t

Often the magnetic flux passes through a coil of wire containing more than one loop (or turn).

If the coil consists of N loops, and if the same flux passes through each loop, it is found
experimentally that the total induced emf is N times that induced in a single loop.

An analogous situation occurs in a flashlight when two 1.5 V batteries are stacked in series on top of
one another to give a total emf of 3.0 volts.
Faraday’s law states than an emf is generated if the magnetic flux changes for any reason.

Since the flux is given by 𝚽B = BAcos𝜙, it depends on three factors, B, A, and 𝜙, any of which may
change.
 Lenz’s Law

As we’ve seen, an induced emf drives current around a circuit just as emf of a battery does.

With a battery, conventional current is directed out of the positive terminal, through the attached
device, and into the negative terminal.

The same is true for an induced emf, although the location of the positive and negative terminals
are generally not as obvious.

Therefore, a method is needed for determining the polarity of algebraic sign of the induced emf, so
the terminals can be identified.

As we discuss this method, it will be helpful to keep in mind that the net magnetic field penetrating a
coil of wire results from two contributions.
One is the original magnetic field that produces the changing flux that leads to the induced
emf.

The other arises because of the induced current, which, like any current, creates its own
magnetic field.

The field created by the induced current is called the induced magnetic field.

To determine the polarity of the induced emf, we will use a method based on a discovery made by
Russian physicist Heinrich Lenz (1804-1865).

This discovery is known as Lenz’s law.

RHR-2 for a loop of wire
OR
RHR-2 for a solenoid
How a generator produces an emf

Electric generators produce virtually all of the world's electrical

energy.

A generator produces electrical energy from mechanical work,

which is just the opposite of what a motor does.

In a motor, an input electric current causes a coil to rotate,

thereby doing mechanical work on any object attached to the shaft
of the motor.

In a generator, the shaft is rotated by some mechanical means,

such as an engine or a turbine, and an emf is induced in the coil.

If the generator is connected to an external circuit, an electric

current is the output of the generator.
The magnitude of the motional emf developed in a conductor moving through a magnetic field
is given by 𝓔 = vBL. To apply this expression to the left side of the coil, whose length is L, we
need to use the velocity component v that is perpendicular to the B-field.

Letting 𝛉 be the angle between v and B, it follows that v = sin𝛉, and, with the aid of 𝓔 = vBL,
the emf can be written as:

𝓔 = vBL = vBLsin𝛉

The emf induced in the right side has the same magnitude as that in the left side.

Since the emfs from both sides drive current in the same direction around the loop, the emf for
the complete loop is 𝓔 = 2vBLsin𝛉. If the coil consists of N loops, the net emf is N times as
great as that of one loop, so

𝓔 = N(2vBLsin𝛉)
 How a generator produces an emf - alternative explanation

As we know in a generator both the B-field and area of the loop are constant, but the magnetic
flux through the loop changes continuously as the loop rotates.

The induced current is removed from the rotating loop by brushes that press up against
rotating slip rings.

The flux through the coil is:

Φm = BA cosθ = BA cos ω t
where 𝝎 is the angular frequency (𝝎=2π𝑓) with which the coil rotates. The induced emf is given
by Faraday’s law:
dΦm d
ε coil = −N = −NBA (cos ω t) = ω NABsin ω t
dt dt
 dΦm d
ε coil = −N = −NBA (cos ω t) = ω NABsin ω t
dt dt

where N is the number of turns on the coil.

Here it’s best to use the signed version of
Faraday’s law 𝓔 = −d𝚽m/dt to see how the
sign of 𝓔coil alternates between positive and
negative.

Because the emf alternates in sign, the

current through resistor R alternates back and
forth in direction. Hence the generator in
Figure 34.37 is an alternating-current
generator, producing what we call an AC
voltage.
 CLARIFICATION
Although the equation 𝓔 = NBA𝝎sin𝝎t = 𝓔0sin𝝎t where 𝝎 = 2π𝑓
was derived for a rectangular coil, the result is valid for any
planar shape of area A (e.g. circular) and shows that the emf
values varies sinusoidally with time.

The peak, or maximum, emf 𝓔0 occurs when sin𝝎t = 1 and has the
value 𝓔0 = NAB𝝎.

Figure 22.1 shows a plot of 𝓔 = NBA𝝎sin𝝎t = 𝓔0sin𝝎t and reveals

that the emf changes polarity as the coil rotates.

If the external circuit connected to the generator is a closed circuit,

an alternating current results that changes direction at the
same frequency 𝑓 as the emf changes polarity.
The electrical energy delivered by a generator and the counter torque

Some power-generating stations burn fossil fuel (coal, gas or oil) to

heat water and produced pressured steam for turing the blades of a
turbine whose shaft is linked to the generator.

Others use nuclear fuel or falling water as a source of energy. As the

turbine rotates, the generator coil also rotates and mechanical work is
transformed into electrical energy.

The devices to which the generator supplies electricity are collectively

know as the “load” because they place a burden or load on the
generator by taking electrical energy from it.

If all the devices were switched off, the generator runs under a no-load
condition, because there is no current in the external circuit and the
generator does not supply electrical energy.
Then, work needs to be done on the turbine only to overcome friction
and other mechanical losses within the generator itself, and fuel
consumption is at a minimum.

Figure 22.22 shows a situation in which a load is connected to a

generator. Because there is now a current I = I1 + I2 in the coil of the
generator and the coil is situated in a magnetic field, the current
experiences a magnetic force F.
Figure 22.23 shows the magnetic force acting on the left side of the
coil, with the direction of F given by RHR-1.

A force of equal magnitude but opposite direction also acts on the

right side of the coil, although this force is not shown in the
drawing.

The magnetic force F gives rise to a counter torque that opposes the
rotational motion.

The greater the current drawn from the generator, the greater the
counter torque, and the harder it is for the turbine to turn the coil.

To compensate for this counter torque and keep the coil rotating at
a constant angular speed, work must be done by the turbine, which
means that more fuel must be burned.

This is another example of the law of conservation of energy, since

the electrical energy consumed by the load must ultimately come from
the energy source used by the turbine.
 The back emf generated by an electric motor

A generator converts mechanical work into electrical energy; in contrast an electric motor
converts electrical energy into mechanical work.

Both devices are similar and consist of a coil of wire that rotates in a magnetic field.

In fact, as the armature of a motor rotates, the magnetic flux passing through the coil changes
and an emf is induced in the coil.

Thus, when a motor is operating, two sources of emf are present:

1. the applied emf V that provides current to drive the motor (e.g. from a 240V outlet),
2. the emf 𝓔 induced by the generator-like action of the rotating coil.

The circuit diagram in Figure 22.24 shows these two emfs.

Consistent with Lenz’s law, the induced emf 𝓔 acts to oppose the applied emf V and is
called the back emf or the counter emf of the motor.

The greater the speed of the motor, the greater is the flux change through the coil, and
the greater is the back emf.

Because V and 𝓔 have opposite polarities, the net emf in the circuit is V − 𝓔.
In Figure 22.4, R is the resistance of the wire of the coil, and the current I drawn by the motor is
determined from Ohm’s law as the net emf divided by resistance:

V −ε
I=
R
The next example uses this result to illustrate that the current in a motor depends on both the
applied emf V and the back emf 𝓔.
 IMPORTANT!

Example 12 illustrates that when a motor is just starting, there is little back emf, and,
consequently, a relatively large current exists in the coil.

As the motor speeds up, the back emf increases until it reaches a maximum value when
the motor is rotating at normal speed.

The back emf becomes almost equal to the applied emf, and the current is reduced to a
relatively small value, which is sufficient to provide the torque on the coil needed to
overcome frictional and other losses in the the motor and to drive the load (e.g. a fan).
 Mutual Inductance

We have seen that an emf can be induced in a coil by keeping the

coil stationary and moving a magnet nearby, or by moving the coil
near a stationary magnet.

Figure 22.25 shows another important method of inducing an emf.

Here, two coils of wire, the primary coil and the secondary coil, are
placed close to each other.

The primary coil is the one connected to an ac generator, which

sends an alternating current Ip through it.

The secondary coil is not attached to a generator, although a

voltmeter is connected across it to register any induced emf.
 Mutual Inductance

The current-carrying primary coil is an electromagnet and creates a

B-field in the surrounding region.

If the two coils are close to each other, a significant fraction of this
magnetic field penetrates the secondary coil and produces a
magnetic flux.

The flux is changing, since the current in the primary coil and its
associated B-field are changing.

Because of the change in flux, an emf is induced in the

secondary coil.

The effect in which a changing current in one circuit induces an

emf in another circuit is called mutual induction.
 Mutual Inductance

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the

average emf 𝓔s induced in the secondary coil is proportional to
the change in flux 𝚫𝚽s passing through it.

However, 𝚫𝚽s is produced by the change in current 𝚫Ip in the

primary coil.

Thus, we can write: NsΦs ∝ Ip

Where Ns is the number of loops in the secondary coil and 𝚽s is the

flux through one loop (assumed to be the same for all loops).

The next flux is proportional to the magnetic field, which in turn,

is proportional to the current Ip in the primary coil.
 Self-Inductance

In all the examples of induced emfs presented so far, the magnetic

field has been produced by an external source, such as a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet.

However, the B-field need not arise from an external source.

An emf can be induced in a current-carrying coil by a change in

the B-field that the current itself produces.

For example, in Figure 22.27 shows a coil connected to an ac

generator. The alternating current creates an alternating
magnetic field that, in turn, creates a changing flux through the
coil.

The change in flux induced an emf in the coil, in accord with

Faraday’s law.
The effect in which a changing current in a circuit induces an
emf in the same circuit is referred to as self-induction.

When dealing with self-induction, as with mutual induction, it is

customary to recast Faraday’s law into a form in which the
induced emf is proportional to the change in the current in the
coil rather than the change in flux.

If 𝚽 is the magnetic flux that passes through one turn of the coil,
then N𝚽 is the net flux through a coil of N turns.

Since 𝚽 is proportional to the B-field, and the B-field is proportional

to the current I, it follows that:

NΦ ∝ I
 Transformers

One of the most important applications of mutual induction and self-induction takes place in a
transformer.

A transformer is a device for increasing or decreasing an ac voltage.

For example, whenever a cordless device (e.g. a mobile phone) is plugged into a wall socket
to recharge the batteries, a transformer plays a role in reducing the 240V ac voltage to a much
smaller value.

Typically between 3 and 9 V (5 V for an iPhone 5s).

Figure 22.28 shows a drawing of a transformer. The transformer consists of an iron core on
which two coils are wound: a primary coil with Np turns and a secondary coil with Ns turns.

The primary coil is the one connected to the ac generator.

For the moment, suppose that the switch in the secondary circuit is open, so there is no current
in this circuit.
The alternating current in the primary coil establishes a changing magnetic field in the iron
core.

Because iron is easily magnetised, it greatly enhances the B-field relative to that in an air core
and guides the field lines to the secondary coil.

In a well-designed core, nearly all magnetic flux 𝚽 that passes through each turn of the primary
also goes through each turn of the secondary.
Since the magnetic field is changing, the flux through the primary and secondary coils is also
changing, and consequently an emf is induced in both coils.

In the secondary coil the induced emf 𝓔s arises from mutual induction and is given by
Faraday’s law as:

ΔΦ
ε s = −N s
Δt
In the primary coil the induced emf 𝓔p is due to self-induction and is specified by Faraday’s law
as:

ΔΦ
ε p = −N p
Δt
The term 𝚫𝚽/𝚫t is the same in both of these equations, since the same flux penetrates each
turn of both coils. Dividing the two equations show that:

εs Ns
=
εp Np

In a high-quality transformer the resistances of the coils are negligible, so the magnitudes of
the emfs, 𝓔s and 𝓔p, are nearly equal to the terminal voltages, Vs and Vp, across the coils.

The relation of 𝓔s/𝓔p = Ns/Np is called the transformer equation and is usually written in terms of
terminal voltages:
Vs N s
=
Vp N p
According to the transformer equation, if Ns is greater than Np, the secondary (output) voltage
is greater than the primary (input) voltage.

In this case we have a step-up transformer.

On the other hand, if Ns is less than Np, the secondary voltage is less than the primary
voltage, and we have a step-down transformer.

The ratio Ns/Np is referred to as the turns ratio of the transformer.

A turns ratio of 8/1 (often written as 8:1) means, for example, that the secondary coil has eight
times more turns than the primary coil.

Conversely, a turns ratio of 1:8 implies that the secondary has one-eighth as many turns as the
primary.
A transformer operates with ac electricity and not dc.

A steady direct current in the primary coil produces a flux that does not change with time, and
thus no emf is induced in the secondary coil.

The ease in which transformers can change voltages from one value to another is a principal
reason why ac is preferred over dc.

With the switch in the secondary circuit of Figure 22.28 closed, a current Is exists in the circuit
and electrical energy is fed to the TV tube. This energy comes from the ac generator
connected to the primary coil.

Although the secondary voltage Vs may be larger or smaller than the primary voltage Vp,
energy is not being created or destroyed by the transformer.

Energy conservation requires that the energy delivered to the secondary coil must be the
same as the energy delivered to the primary coil, provided no energy is dissipated in
heating these coils or is otherwise lost.
In a well-designed transformer, less than 1% of the input energy is lost in the form of heat.

Noting that power is energy per unit time, and assuming 100% energy transfer, the average
power Pp delivered to the primary coil is equal to the average power Ps delivered to the
secondary coil: Pp = Ps. However, P=IV, so IpVp = IsVs, or:

I s Vp N p
= =
I p Vs N s
Observe that Vs/Vp is equal to the turns ratio Ns/Np, while Is/Ip is equal to the inverse turns
ratio Np/Ns.

Consequently, a transformer that steps up the voltage simultaneously steps down the
current, and a transformer that steps down the voltage steps up the current.

However, the power is neither stepped up nor stepped down, since Pp=Ps.
Remember! A transformer operates only on ac.

A dc current in the primary coil does not produce a changing

flux and therefore induces no emf in the secondary.

However, if a dc voltage is applied to the primary through a

switch, at the instant the switch is opened or closed there
will be an induced voltage in the secondary.

For example, if the dc is turned on and off as shown in Figure

29-25a, the voltage induced in the secondary is as shown in
Figure 29-25b.

Notice that the secondary voltage drops to zero when the dc

voltage is steady.
This is basically how, in the ignition system of a car, the high
voltage is created to produce the spark across the gap of a
spark plug that ignites the gas-air mixture.

The transformer is referred to as simply the “ignition coil”, and

transforms the 12V of the battery (when switched off in the
primary) into a spike of as much as 30 kV in the secondary.
 Transformers and the transmission of electricity

Transformers play an important role in the transmission of electricity.

Power plants are often situated some distance from metropolitan areas, so electricity must then
be transmitted over long distances.

There is always some power loss in the transmission lines, and the loss can be
minimised of the power is transmitted at high voltage, using transformers as the following
example shows.
The great advantage of ac, and a major reason it is nearly in universal use, is that the
voltage can easily be stepped up or down by a transformer.

The output voltage of an electric generating plant is stepped up prior to transmission. Upon
arrival in a city, it is stepped down in stages at electric substations prior to distribution.

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 Eddy Currents

In the examples of induction effects that we have studies, the induced

currents have been confined to well-defined paths in conductors and
other components forming a circuit.

However, many pieces of electrical equipment contain masses of

metal moving in magnetic fields or located in changing magnetic
fields.

In situations like these we can have induced currents that circulate

throughout the volume of a material.

Because their flow patterns resemble swirling eddies in a river, we can

these eddy currents.
As an example, consider a metallic disk rotating in a B-field
perpendicular to the plane of the disk but confined to a limited portion of
the disk’s area, as shown in Fig. 29.19a.

Sector Ob is moving across the field and has an emf induced in it.

Sectors Oa and Oc are not in the field, but they provide return
conducting paths for charges displaced along Ob to return from b to O.

The result is a circulation of eddy currents in the disk, somewhat as

sketched in Fig. 29.19b.

We can use Lenz’s law to decide on the direction of the induced current
in the neighbourhood of sector Ob.

This current must experience a magnetic force F = IL x B that opposes

the rotation of the disk, and so this force must be to the right in Fig.
29.19b.
Since B is directed into the plane of the disk, the current and hence L
have downward components.

The return currents lie outside the field, so they do not experience
magnetic forces.

The interaction between the eddy currents and the field causes a
braking action on the disk.

Such effects can be used to stop the rotation of a circular saw quickly
when the power is turned off.

Some sensitive balances use this effect to damp out vibrations. Eddy
current braking is used on some electrically powered rapid-transit
vehicles (trains).

Electromagnets mounted in train cars induce eddy currents in the rails;

the resulting magnetic fields cause braking forces on the
electromagnets and thus on the cars.
A particularly dramatic example of eddy currents in
action is Jupiter’s moon Io, which is slightly larger
than earth’s moon.

Io moves rapidly through Jupiter’s intense magnetic

field, and this sets up strong eddy currents within Io’s
interior.

These currents dissipate energy at a rate of 1012 W,

equivalent to setting of a one-kiloton nuclear weapon
inside Io every four seconds!

This dissipated energy helps to keep Io’s interior hot

and so helps to cause volcanic eruptions on its
surface. (Gravitational effects from Jupiter cause
even more heating).
Eddy currents also have undesirable effects.

In an alternating-current transformer, could wrapped around an iron core carry a sinusoidally

varying current.

The resulting eddy currents in the core waste energy through I2R heating and themselves set
up an unwanted opposing emf in the coils.

To minimise these effects, the core is designed so that the paths for eddy currents are as
narrow as possible.