Chapter 1

ELECTRICITY THEFT
1.1 PROBLEM
An electric power system can never be 100% secure from theft. In many systems the
amount of theft is small (12%) in terms of the electricity generated. But, the financial
loss is high due to the large amount of electricity distributed. Nesbit (2000) noted that,
In the US, the consensus seems to be that theft costs between 0.5% and 3.5% of annual
gross revenues in the US. That seems like a small amountuntil you consider that US
electricity revenues were in the $280 billion range in 1998.Therefore, between $1 and $10
billion worth of electricity was stolen. Some power systems may forfeit more than 15%
of power generated to various types of theft. Transparency International (1999) report
explains the situation in Bangladesh. In fiscal 199899 Bangladesh Power Development
Board (BPDB) generated 14,150 MkWh of electricity, purchased another 450 MkWh
from private sources, but billed for only 11,462 MkWh, giving a system loss of 22%.This
was better than Dacca Electric Supply Authority (DESA) 40% but poorer than Rural
Electrification Board (REB) 17%.The weighted average system loss in the power sector
as a whole is estimated at 35%, which includes 21% technical loss.
The balance 14% y was due to pilferage, theft and unauthorized use. The financial losses
are critical to many electric power organizations. Lost earnings can result in lack of
profits, shortage of funds for investment in power system capacity and improvement, and
a necessity to expand generating capacity to cope with the power losses. Some power
systems in worst affected countries are near bankrupt. Corruption increases and becomes
entrenched as favors can be bought from power sector employees in the form of
inaccurate billing and allowing illegal connections. Political leaders intervene to ensure
that cronies and supporters are not prosecuted.
In 1998, the situation deteriorated in Pakistan to the extent that, The government took
action and employed 35,000 army men to recover Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA) dues and curb the theft. They have been conducting house-to-house
raids with the staff of WAPDA, checking for any tampering of power meters. In the last
year the army has found 100,993 instances of power theft, recovered Rs.2.4 billion in
fines and penalties and arrested 1188 people. Embarrassingly, many of the thefts were
discovered in the houses, farms and mills of the ruling party legislators, 13 of whom were
WAPDA officials Even the Minister for Population y resigned from her cabinet post on
1

power theft charges (Rizvi, 2000). Electricity theft is a complex phenomenon with many
facets. In this article, electricity theft is defined and various types of theft are described.
The international scope and trends of theft will be examined. How theft can become
institutionalized as part of the political, economic and managerial culture of governance
will be noted. Lastly, some methods of dealing with the problem of electricity theft are
examined.

1.2 DEFINING ELECTRICITY THEFT

Four kinds of theft are prevalent in all power systems. The extent of the theft will
depend upon a variety of factorsfrom cultural to how the power utility is managed.
1.2.1

Fraud

Fraud is when the consumer deliberately tries to deceive the utility. A common practice is
to tamper with the meter so that a lower reading of power use is shown than is the case.
This can be a risky procedure for an amateur, and many cases of electrocution have been
reported. In Malaysia, professionals have approached residents and managers of
businesses offering to fix the meter for a moderate fee (New Straits Times,
1999).During 2 months of raids in Malaysia on suspected areas 587 (86%) out of 684
inspected were confirmed to have tampered with their meters or stolen electricity (The
Star, 1998).The losses can be substantial when fraud is by large organizations. In
Aurangabad, India, The 22 proprietors of Jalnas seven mini-steel plants accused of
massive power theft detected in Mondays raids by the Maharashtra State Electricity
Board (MSEB) are absconding following the rejection of their plea for anticipatory bail
by the Sessions Court by The MSEB has conclusive proof of the Rs 20 crore (Rs 200
million) power theft y (including) extremely sophisticated equipment the steel plants used
to doctor their electricity metersy (Indian Express, 1998.
1.2.2

Stealing Electricity

Electricity theft can be arranged by rigging a line from the power source to where it is
needed bypassing a meter. In South Asian countries this practice is quite common in poor
residential areas where those wanting electricity may not have lines allocated and may not
be able to pay if they were connected called the Kunda system in Pakistan, this practice
is often accepted by power managers as a fact of life in poor communities. In Soweto,
South Africa 6 tons of spider web cable used for such connections was recovered in 6
months by the electrical authority in raids (Campbell, 1999).

In Mexico, The millions of illegal customers, who steal electricity with wires
known as diablitos, or little devils, have pushed an overburdened electrical grid over the
edge. By thousands of homes and businesses have been hit with power outages that
electric company officials blame largely on pirates. Published reports say the thefts result
in the loss of as much as $475 million revenues annually (Sullivan, 2002). The illegal
lines are easy to detect as they are often above ground and highly visible. However, one
finds reports of staff being assaulted and needing police security to carry out the removal
of the lines. Corrupt staff from the electricity organization may take bribes to allow the
practice to continue .On a larger scale, businesses may bribe power organization staff to
rig direct lines to their buildings or offices and the power does not go through a meter.
The bribes can be much less than the cost of the power. Money also can be given to
inspectors to keep them from finding and/or reporting the theft.
1.2.3

Billing Irregularities

Billing irregularities can occur from several sources. Some power organizations may not
be very effective in measuring the amount of electricity used and unintentionally can give
a higher or lower figure than the accurate one. The unintentional irregularities may even
out over time. However, it is also very easy in some systems to arrange for much lower
bills to be given than for the power actually used. Employees may be bribed to record the
meter at a lower number than is shown. The consumer pays the lower bill and the meterreader earns unofficial salary.
In another type of billing irregularity, office staff can move the decimal point to the left
on the bill so that a person or company pays $47.48 instead of $474.80. Consumers may
know that some power organization staff are on-the-take for providing these services.
Employees may keep payments. A scheme in operation in Malaysia in the late 1990s
diverted $1.59 million to private accounts before detection (BRDC, 2000).The staff can
easily earn from this type of corruption, as it is not easy to detect. Corrupt practices may
become institutionalized to the extent that employees regard the illicit payments as part of
the job.

1.2.4

Unpaid Bills

Some persons and organizations do not pay what they owe for electricity. Residential or
business consumers may have left the city or an enterprise has gone bankrupt. In South
Africa a culture of non-payment is evident (Mkhwanazi, 1999).
In Armenia, Nonpayment levels of 8090% are typical in the residential sector. T&D
losses are over 40% (Tacis, 1998).The practice is widespread, some systems have
chronic non-payersthe very rich and politically powerful who know that their
electricity will not be cut regardless of whether they pay or not.
In India, farmers in some states regard electricity as a free service from government, and
some political leaders and parties curry favor by promoting this practice and prevent the
State Electricity Boards from collecting. Another chronic non-payment group can be
government departments and agencies. The Pakistan Army discovered that some of the
largest amounts owed to WAPDA were from government agenciesincluding the Army
itself. The Karachi Electric Supply Corporation Director reported in 2000 that only 52
percent of the 1.67 million customers were paying their bills (News International, 2000).
In Indonesia in 2000, the military owed Rp.23 billion (US$3.1 million) to Perusahaan
Listrik Negara (PLN). This was a large part of the companys total unpaid claims of about
Rp.157 billion (Jakarta Post, 21 March 2000).Some analysts may not regard non-payment
by as theft. However, when it becomes institutionalized and people and organizations
expect that they can get away with it, unpaid bills should fall into the theft category.
Non-payment is a problem not confined to poor countries.
Lundin (2001) has explained the growing problem in the USA. In all countries, as
electricity increases in price, some people have trouble paying their ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.B. Smith / Energy Policy 32 (2004) 20672076 2069 bills regularly. This may
encourage them to find ways of reducing their bills, such as tampering with the meter. In
a more conventional definition of electricity theft the category of Unpaid Bills may not
appear. However, in some power systems the extent of the problem and its impact has
serious consequences. Data on non-payment is not available easily that can be used for a
comparative analysis for the purposes of this paper. The analysis in this paper deals
primarily with theft in terms of billing irregularities, fraud and stolen electricity
1.2.5

Measuring Electricity Theft

Electricity theft can be estimated, but not measured exactly. The most accurate estimate of
theft is by conducting a thorough analysis of the power system.

The revenue protection section of the Arizona Public Service Company (APS) carried out
a recent study that is unique (Culwell,2001).The APS provides electric power to the
Phoenix metropolitan region and 11 of Arizonas countiescovering 40,000 miles2 with
868,000 customers.
The APS wanted a research project that would go beyond the usual studies that target
meter tampering. They wanted to know the extent of meter tampering and the financial
loss in such a way as to be able to extend the research to the whole of the APS system
with a 95% confidence. The study involved selecting randomly 550 meters out of the
868,000, ensuring that they were spread among the urban and rural users (35% rural) and
residential and industrial (12%) users. Each meter was thoroughly inspected
disconnected, opened, tested, and 52 items of information recorded about the meter. For
determining theft the beyond a reasonable doubt criterion was used. Suspected theft
required evidence that was clear and convincing. The research study was implemented
beginning on 3 April 2000 and was completed by 30 June the same year.
The findings include:

Definite meter tampering rate0.72%.

Probable meter tampering rate1.00%.

Actual loss in dollars$330,148.

The data was extrapolated to the APS system to estimate that nearly 15,000 meters had
been tampered with and show that the tampering losses per year were estimated to be
$7,967,279 that was 0.518% of revenue loss for the APS. The APS study noted that the
estimated loss ($5.1 million) was much higher among commercial accounts than the
residential consumers. The standard method of measuring power theft is by analysis of
transmission and distribution losses (T&D losses).
The method takes the difference between the amount of electricity generated (minus
system use and gratis) in relationship to the amount metered and sold. If an accurate
calculation is made of technical line losses, theft may compose a large part of the
unaccounted amountthe non-technical line losses in the distribution network. Very
efficient power systems have less than 6% T&D lossestheft may be 12%.Less
efficient systems may have 912% T&D loss and inefficient systems have line losses of
over 15%.

The Malaysian Tenaga system has T&D losses of 11% that includes theft losses estimated
at 4%.Bangladesh estimates are T&D losses of 35% with 14% as theft. In Budapest, Elmu
estimates that half of its 13% losses are due to theft (East European Energy Report,
1999).Indonesias PLN estimated theft in power distribution in Jakarta at 7% in 1994 and
3.77% in 1996 (Priatna, 1999).Thus, a system operating with 22% T&D losses could lead
analysts to estimate that around 1015% are due technical T&D losses. The remaining 7
12% of the electricity disappeared, probably due to theft of various types. This is a blunt
method for estimating theft and does not include non-payment.

1.3 POWER THEFT

A comparative and historical perspective Information is available on T&D losses for
many countries from the World Bank. However, World Bank data on T&D losses for
some countries is inaccurate and misleading as 0 T&D losses are recorded, or the
figure given is less than 1%.This is impossible because some electricity always is lost
during transmission and distribution. It is neither realistic nor feasible to assess T&D
losses in all countries given the limitations in the data. For this study, a sample of 102
countries was chosen. The basic data for the countries is from the World Banks
Development Indicators (2003).
The main criteria for selection are:

Available data on T&D losses for 1980 and 2000 to enable an historical perspective.

Reasonable confidence in the accuracy of the data and that system use was not
included.

Countries selected have a good record in the collection of data in other social,
economic and power sector variables.

The confirmation of the country data by a second source such as the US EIA, reports
on energy development, and statistics bureaus and electricity organizations in the
selected countries.

The lowest T&D losses (less than 6%) are in countries known for efficiency in
management such as Finland, Germany, Japan, Republic of Korea, Netherlands,
Singapore, Belgium, Austria, France and Switzerland. The power organizations are
managed to ensure the deterrence, detection and prosecution of people and organizations
engaged in electricity theft. While there is a low percentage of theft, the economic losses
can be high due to the large amount of electricity generated. High losses (over 30%) are
in countries such as Albania, Haiti, Myanmar, Kyrgyz Republic, Nigeria, and Bangladesh.
7

Common features are poverty and that each country has experienced political, economic
and social turmoil.
In tumultuous times government organizations cease to function efficiently, become prone
to corrupt practices, investment is not made in system management, and the consumers
take advantage of the system Variations in T&D losses within each country may be large.
In the Philippines the T&D losses were estimated to be 17% in 1997.However,
assessment of regional variations shows that six of 15 regions had losses below 17%.One
region has over 27% loss and five were between 20% and 27%.The Meralco region
(Manila) reported losses of 12.4%, well below the rural areas (National Economic
Development Authority, 1998, Table 5.4). India has overall T&D losses of over 26%, but
the losses vary in the 22 states. Losses of nearly 50% are experienced in Delhi, Jammu
and Kashmir, and Orissa. Even Maharashtra, with the best record, has nearly 15% losses.

1.4 GOVERNENCE AND ELECTRICITY THEFT

Understanding governance has emerged as an important element in explaining patterns of
social, economic and political development Kaufmann et al., 1999).Electricity theft is
related to a broader culture of governance or mal-governance. The World Bank Institutes
Governance, Regulation and Finance Unit have compiled useful data. Attempting to
measure governance, Kaufmann and associates developed six measures to assess the
various dimensions of governance. Multiple indicators were used to measure each
dimension for 175 countries. The dimensions are:

Voice and accountability:

Aspects of the political process, civil liberties and political rights. Political instability and
violence: The likelihood that the government may be overthrown by violent means.

Government effectiveness:

The quality of public service provision and the bureaucracy, competence of civil servants
and the independence of the civil service from political pressure. Regulatory burden:
Incidence of market un-friendly policies such as price controls, and perceptions of
burdens imposed by excessive regulation.

Rule of law:

Abiding by the rules of society, effectiveness of the judiciary, and enforceability of

contacts.

Graft and corruption:

The exercise of public power for personal gain, bribery, impact of corruption on business.
In the Indian, Pakistan and Bangladesh cases, the overwhelming evidence is that corrupt
practices are widespread in the electricity sector. The Lucknow Electrical Services
Authority General Manager conceded that, Out of 110 million unit of electricity
supplied to the residents of Lucknow, at least 33% are pilfered and resulting in losses
worth Rs 100 crores (Rs 1 billion) every year. He also admitted that most of the pilferage
took place in connivance with power employees (Tripathi, 2000).

1.5 THE CONSEQUENCES OF ELECTRICITY THEFT

From a business perspective, electricity theft results in economic losses to the utility.
Some may argue that large utilities providing essential services give poor service, overcharge, make too much money anyway, and, therefore, some theft will not break the
company or drastically affect its operations and profitability. Others looking at the same
situation would argue that theft is a crime and should not be allowed.
An International Utilities Revenue Protection Association has been established to
promote the detection and prevention of power theftmainly for the financial security of
power utility companies. The consequences of theft in the worst case systems are
important to the viability of the services provided.
The combined losses (including non-payment of bills) in some systems have severe
impacts resulting in utilities operating at a loss and must continually increase electricity
charges. Locked into a culture of inefficiency and corruption, the electricity utilities have
difficulty delivering reliable service. Even in reasonably efficient power systems, such as
Malaysias Tenaga, power theft accounts for losses of RM$500 million ($132 million)
annually (Malay Mail, 1999).For large systems a 1% theft loss can be substantial.
With sales of over $13 billion, 1% of theft for the Korea Electric Power Corporation is
over $130 million. Lovei and McKechnie (2000) make a case that power theft impacts
upon the poor by perpetuating a system that benefits the wealthy and powerful. Power
systems may also promote Grand Theft by awarding lucrative contracts and
monopolies that lead the enrichment of favored individuals. Indias power system is an
illustration of a worst-case situation. In constant turmoil, State Electricity Boards (SEBs)
have a high theft level and consumers do not pay their bills.

The SEBs seldom have profits and are heavily subsidized for their losses (Smith,
1993).Only three SEBs made a profit in 1996/97 and the combined commercial losses
were over 71 billion Rupees (about $1.6 billion). The SEBs cannot pay their bills for
power purchased from the central government or IPPs nor for plant equipment and the
railways for coal delivery. The whole system has been on the verge of financial collapse
ARTICLE IN PRESS Table 3 Governance indicators and T&D losses Governance
dimension Correlation T&D losses Level of significance Voice and accountability. IPPs,
especially foreign owned ones, are reluctant to enter the power field for fear that SEBs
will not be able to pay them for power supplied.

1.6 WHAT CAN BE DONE?

Electricity theft can never totally be eradicated in any power system. In the very efficient
systems of Japan, Western Europe and North America effort has been devoted to the
technological and managerial methods necessary to reduce theft to levels tolerable. Many
of these systems operate in a governance culture that promotes organizational efficiency
and theft law enforcement. This does not mean that electricity consumers necessarily love
their power company, but few will try to steal electricity.
Power system strategies for dealing with theft vary. Some organizations pay little
attention to theft problems, perhaps hoping theft will disappear and not become a public
issue. Other power systems treat electricity theft as highest priority. The first-step in
electricity theft reduction is to become knowledgeable about the theft problem. Few
detailed studies of power theft exist and the work of the Prayas Energy Group (2002) in
India provides many insights. Unless the nature and extent of power theft is known in
great detail, any attempts to deal effectively with the problem are prone to fragmented and
limited action that have little over-all success. Therefore, power systems, whether
national or regional, should be encouraged to initiate a detailed power theft analysis.
The analysis must go beyond conventional engineering and managerial frameworks and
understand and explain why theft occurs and what factors perpetuate theft.The
information derived is essential to design an appropriate strategy for dealing with theft

1.7REDUCING POWER THEFT

Three methods of reducing power theft are identified here:

10

1.7.1 Technical/engineering Methods

Electric power is not a new technology and innovations taking place enable very efficient
systems to be installed and maintained. Many power systems devote inadequate resources
and effort to transmission and distribution systems and do not use the latest technologies.
The investment necessary to reduce losses includes upgrading power lines,
transformers, information technology monitoring systems, and installing and maintenance
of modern metering systems that are at the interface of the organization and the
consumers of the electricity. Significant technological advancement in metering has
occurred.
Since much theft is from meter tampering, it is important to replace old, easy to tamperwith meters. New high-tech sealed meters that cannot be altered in any way and can be
read automatically are costly, but can reduce theft when required of moderate to heavy
power users (see Arruda, 2000; Iyer, 2000; Rajan, 1998). Szilvagyi (1999) makes a strong
case that the investment in high technology metering requires a sound and complex
infrastructure in place to make the system work effectively.
1.7.2 Managerial Method
Electric power organizations are very large entities that operate as bureaucracies even
though many are private sector organizations. Combining strong technical improvements
with an intelligent and active anti-theft program may result significant improvements (see
Ahmedabad Electricity Co.Ltd., 2000). Inspection and monitoring power users at regular
intervals is essential to reducing theft (Gower, 2000).In Brazil, CEMIG had losses of $12
million.By spending $2.1 million on tests and inspection, $6.2 million was recovered
(Arruda, 2000).
The focus should be on areas or facilities that have the greatest potential amount of
electricity theft in terms of electricity use.Studies have shown that the wealthy steal
power for residential use, factories, and businesses (BRDC, 2000).More people may be
stealing power in urban slum areas, but the amount of power is small by comparison.
Yet inspection often targets the poor of the community. Singapores former Prime
Minister Lee Kuan Yew commented that corruption was a fact of life and in Singapore
it should not become a way of life. The same comment could apply to electricity theft.
Theft may be prevalent in all power systems to varying degrees as a fact of life.
Clearly, some power systems appear to be operating where electricity theft has become a
way of life.

11

12

Corruption is one of the most difficult problem areas for electricity organizations because
power theft occurs with the connivance of employees of the power organization.
Increased investigation and surveillance may provide opportunity for more corruption
(Anuradha, 2000).Employees may even extort money from electricity consumers not to
disclose theft.
It is important to detect and prosecute corrupt power sector employeesthis includes, if
necessary, the ones at the very top of the organization. Employees should be paid
adequately so that they will not have to resort to bribes in order to support a family.
ARTICLE IN PRESS T.B. Smith / Energy Policy 32 (2004) 20672076 2073
The organizational factor in the power industry is important. Power utilities are very
large, complex organizations. By the number of employees it can be a countrys largest
organization. EGAT and the two distribution agencies in Thailand have over 60,000
employees, Indonesias PLN has over 50,000.Tenaga in Malaysia has 23,000 and
WAPDA in Pakistan has over 100,000.Nearly one million work in Indias state electricity
boards.
Most of the tasks are routine and in many organizations a bureaucratic culture is
promoted whether private or public enterprise. Electricity utility employees must
interface extensively with the consumers of electricityin residences, factories and
offices
This allows street level decision making to take place (Lipsky, 1980; Hudson, 1993).
Employees can exercise discretion by not reporting infringements or may alter bills.Since
the typical power sector organization must operate at the consumer level, employees are
scattered throughout the far corners of the country, making control and coordination from
the central office difficult.
When the product delivered is a scarce and essential commodity, as is electric
power in South Asian countries, employees can exercise considerable discretion. Routine
allocation found in some power systems becomes discretionary in others. For example,
who will get connected to power? When will the connection be made? Where and when
will power blackouts take place? How much should the user pay for power? These
discretionary decisions can be for sale by the employees.

13

The organizations management and employees thrive on power scarcity and there is little
incentive to increase supply or to operate a more efficient or effective service. The legal
aspects of power theft have received attention in some countries. Outdated laws treat theft
as a common crime. Several countries recently have adopted laws governing power theft
and treat it as a special crime.
The Andhra Pradesh amendments to the Indian Electricity Act (1910) contains
punishments from 6 months to 5 years imprisonment, fines of between 5000 to 50,000
Rupees, and depriving the thief of electric power for up to 6 years. In Malaysia half-page
ads newspapers warn consumers of the illegality of power theft with fines of up to RM
100,000 and imprisonment of up to 5 years. The new laws make the punishment for theft
much easier to implement and the fines and penalties imposed a deterrent to future theft.
The problem of arrears or non-payment is a difficult one. Electricity is an essential
commodity and a no pay, no electricity policy may not be politically acceptable in
some countries. Disconnection also can be dangerous as a World Bank (1999) study
noted, In Albania, consumers with guns y threatened to shoot the utility officials who
attempted to disconnect defaulting customers. The scope of this problem can be so
serious that the financial viability of the organization is jeopardized. Contracting the bill
collection to a private agency may promote some effectiveness in revenue collection.
Alternative methods and places for bill payment may also help. Some power systems
have promoted prepaid cards as a method to ensure payment. However, changing a
culture of non-payment has no easy solutions (Barnes, 2000; Landin, 2001).In some cases
those owing the most money are government agencies, and collecting can confront legal
and political hurdles.
1.7.3 System Change
In the systems where power theft is the highest, electricity sector organizations are state
owned and managed enterprises.
Some power sector state enterprises have operated with substantial efficiency (in
Singapore, for instance), so one cannot argue a case that the public sector is incapable of
running services effectively and efficiently. However, a case can be made that state owned
and operated enterprises are not managed as true businesses and therefore do not try to
optimize profits. The organizations may be intertwined into the political and bureaucratic
structures and processes and there are few incentives to reduce theft .In the Indian case,
theft did not slowly emerge, it has been around for many decadesit is just that nothing

14

was ever done about it. Political leaders, power consumers and SEB managers and
employees have benefited from the system.
A world trend has been deregulation and the transformation of public sector enterprises
into the private sector. In the past decade many power systems were privatized and now
operate as businesses with shares traded on the stock exchanges (Bacon, 1999).The total
power sector is difficult to privatize into effective private sector enterprises because
transmission and distribution are natural monopolies, and competition is essential to spur
businesses to be more efficient. National and state level power systems have been
transformed in the past decade and the creation of an independent regulatory commission
for electricity has been a common reform.
The problem of how to deal with technical and non-technical losses is a complex one for
the new commissions. The issues to grapple with include setting levels of acceptable
loss, whether utilities should be allowed to pass on theft and other inefficiency costs to
customers, and whether utilities should be penalized if they do not achieve reductions in
T&D and theft. The transformation of electric power systems into more business-like
enterprises means for many countries the elimination of subsidies provided by the state
that kept electricity prices low for consumers.
As prices in poor countries rise to international levels, many consumers are trapped. Their
own income is by local standardsperhaps $2 to $5 per day, but their electricity
ARTICLE IN PRESS 2074 T.B. Smith / Energy Policy 32 (2004) 20672076 charges are
the same as for a customer in Los Angeles who earns $80 per day. Under these conditions,
consumers may feel that there is no alternative but to engage in electricity theft or not pay
their bills. Logic and theory suggests that private owned power organizations will be
more concerned with theft than public sector organizations. Contrasting Malaysias
privatized system with Thailands public enterprise system regarding electricity theft is
interesting (Smith, 2003).Both systems have similar T&D losses of around 11%.In 1994
Malaysia divested Tenaga, the power generation, transmission and distribution enterprise
for peninsular Malaysia.
Government maintains majority ownership, but its shares are traded on the Kuala Lumpur
stock exchange. Independent power producers (IPPs) were permitted from the mid-1990s
to produce power and sell it to Tenaga for distribution. In the Thai case, the EGAT is a
public enterprise that generates and transmits power to two large distribution public
enterprises, the Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA) and the Metropolitan Electricity
Authority (MEA). Attempts to privatize Thai electricity have been discussed for nearly 20
15

years, but the 32,000 member EGAT employees union has vigorously opposed the
change. Electricity theft is not a big issue in Thailand because EGAT, PEA and MEA
appear to have no concerted effort to deal with it. The enterprises make sufficient profits
to keep the government happy and to provide the employees with free electricity as well
as a substantial end of year bonus in EGAT equal to about US$1000 per employee.

16

The recent economic crisis severely dented Tenagas profitability. Low profits affect the
stock market price of shares forced to run efficiently, Tenaga management turned, in a
very serious way, to the reduction of power theft that causes losses of M$500 million a
year. Caution needs to be exercised about promoting privatization as a panacea for the ills
of inefficiency. The Orissa (India) electricity sector was privatized in 1996 with the
corporatization of the Orissa State Electricity Board, the establishment of the Grid
Corporation of Orissa to manage T&D of electricity and the Orissa Electricity Regulatory
Commission to regulate the system.
The record shows uneven improvement (see Dixit et al., 1998).Power tariffs went up by
76%, T&D losses soared to 45%, and revenue collection was only at 54% of those billed
(Dhume, 1999). 11. Conclusions The evidence points to the increasing levels of power
theft in many countries and the financial losses for some systems are so immense that the
utility is in financial turmoil.
Investment in improving the system and adding additional capacity cannot be undertaken,
loans and payments cannot be met, and the consumer faces increased electricity charges.
Even in efficient systems, theft losses can account for millions of dollars each year in lost
revenue. Electricity theft in its various forms can be reduced and kept in check only by
the strong and assertive action of power sector organizations.
The strategy and the action should be based upon a thorough understanding of the specific
nature of the theft problem. A strong case can be made that each power system (including
consumers attitudes and behavior) has its own unique qualities and only by knowing the
system and the problem can effective solutions be designed and implemented.
Since a high level of power theft is linked with corruption, the analysis cannot be
confined to technical and managerial perspectives and needs to be multi-disciplinary in
approach. Theft as an activity in some systems is closely intertwined with governance and
with the social, economic and political environment.
Corruption and electricity theft thrives off each other.
In an overall culture of corruption as a way of life, electricity theft can be reduced to
smoderate levels by technical/engineering methods. But it is an uphill battle to reduce the
electricity theft rate drastically as long as extensive corruption continues. Reduction in
power theft and keeping it within reasonable bounds is more likely to be successful in
systems with a good governance culture. This is because the theft reduction mechanisms
find a friendly environment for initiation and implementation.

17

As part of generating and sustaining good governance in communities, electric power

systems have the opportunity to take the lead in promoting sound corporate governance.
The technological innovations make this task easier should the managerial skills and
desire exist. Electric power systems can be restructured to make power sector
organizations operate in competitive environments where efficiency and effectiveness in
service delivery.

18

Chapter 2

EMBEDDED SYSTEM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Embedded system is a computer system designed for specific control functions within a
larger system, often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a
complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a generalpurpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to
meet a wide range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in
common use today.
Embedded systems contain processing cores that are typically either microcontrollers or
digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however, is being dedicated to
handle a particular task. Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design
engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the
reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from
economies of scale.
Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and
MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the
systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single
microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted
inside a large chassis or enclosure. Embedded systems span all aspects of modern life and
there are many examples of their use.
Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone
switches for the network to mobile phones at the end-user. Computer networking uses
dedicated routers and network bridges to route data. Consumer electronics include
personal digital assistants (PDAs), mp3 players, mobile phones, videogame consoles,
digital cameras, DVD players, GPS receivers, and printers. Many household appliances,
such as microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers, are including embedded
systems to provide flexibility, efficiency and features. Advanced HVAC systems use
networked thermostats to more accurately and efficiently control temperature that can
change by time of day and season. Home automation uses wired- and wirelessnetworking that can be used to control lights, climate, security, audio/visual, surveillance,
etc., all of which use embedded devices for sensing and controlling.

19

Transportation systems from flight to automobiles increasingly use embedded systems.

New airplanes contain advanced avionics such as inertial guidance systems and GPS
receivers that also have considerable safety requirements. Various electric motors
brushless DC motors, induction motors and DC motors are using electric/electronic
motor controllers. Automobiles, electric vehicles, and hybrid vehicles are increasingly
using embedded systems to maximize efficiency and reduce pollution. Other automotive
safety systems include anti-lock braking system (ABS), Electronic Stability Control
(ESC/ESP), traction control (TCS) and automatic four-wheel drive.
Medical equipment is continuing to advance with more embedded systems for vital signs
monitoring, electronic stethoscopes for amplifying sounds, and various medical imaging
(PET, SPECT, CT, and MRI) for non-invasive internal inspections.
Embedded systems are especially suited for use in transportation, fire safety, safety and
security, medical applications and life critical systems as these systems can be isolated
from hacking and thus be more reliable. For fire safety, the systems can be designed to
have greater ability to handle higher temperatures and continue to operate. In dealing with
security, the embedded systems can be self-sufficient and be able to deal with cut
electrical and communication systems.
In addition to commonly described embedded systems based on small computers, a new
class of miniature wireless devices called motes are quickly gaining popularity as the
field of wireless sensor networking rises. Wireless sensor networking, WSN, makes use of
miniaturization made possible by advanced IC design to couple full wireless subsystems
to sophisticated sensors, enabling people and companies to measure a myriad of things in
the physical world and act on this information through IT monitoring and control systems.
These motes are completely self-contained, and will typically run off a battery source for
many years before the batteries need to be changed or charged.

2.2 CHARACTERSTICS
1. Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a generalpurpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have time performance constraints that
must be met, for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no
performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.

20

2. Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems
2consist of small, computerized parts within a larger device that serves a more general
purpose.
3. The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware,
and are stored in read-only memory or Flash memory chips. They run with limited
computer hardware resources: little memory, small

2.3 USER INTERFACE

Embedded systems range from no user interface at all dedicated only to one task to
complex graphical user interfaces that resemble modern computer desktop operating
systems. Simple embedded devices use buttons, LEDs, graphic or character LCDs (for
example popular HD44780 LCD) with a simple menu system.
More sophisticated devices which use a graphical screen with touch sensing or screenedge buttons provide flexibility while minimizing space used: the meaning of the buttons
can change with the screen, and selection involves the natural behavior of pointing at
what's desired. Handheld systems often have a screen with a "joystick button" for a
pointing devices.

2.4 TOOLS REQUIRED

As with other software, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers, and
debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they may also use some more
specific tools.

In circuit debugger or emulators (see next section)

Utilities to add a checksum or CRC to a program, so the embedded system can check

if the program is valid.

For systems using digital signal processing, developers may use a math workbench
such as Scilab /Scicos, MATLAB / Simulink, EICASLAB, Mathcad, Mathematical, or
Flowstone DSP to simulate the mathematics. They might also use libraries for both
the host and target which eliminates developing DSP routines as done in DSPnano

RTOS and Unison Operating System.

A model based development tool like VisSim lets you create and simulate graphical
data flow and UML State chart diagrams of components like digital filters, motor
controllers, communication protocol decoding and multi-rate tasks. Interrupt handlers
can also be created graphically. After simulation, you can automatically generate Ccode to the VisSim RTOS which handles the main control task and preemption of

21

background tasks, as well as automatic setup and programming of on-chip

peripherals.

Custom compilers and linkers may be used to improve optimization for the particular
hardware.

An embedded system may have its own special language or design tool, or add
enhancements to an existing language such as Forth or Basic.

Another alternative is to add a real-time operating system or embedded operating

system, which may have DSP capabilities like DSPnano RTOS.

Modeling and code generating tools often based on state machines

Software tools can come from several sources:

Software companies that specialize in the embedded market

Ported from the GNU software development tools

Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the embedded
processor is a close relative to a common PC processor

As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher level tools and operating
systems are migrating into machinery where it makes sense. For example, cellphones,
personal digital assistants and other consumer computers often need significant
software that is purchased or provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the
electronics. In these systems, an open programming environment such as Linux,
NetBSD, OSGi or Embedded Java is required so that the third-party software provider
can sell to a large market.

2.4.1 Processor in Embedded System

Embedded processors can be broken into two broad categories: ordinary microprocessors
(P) and microcontrollers (C), which have many more peripherals on chip, reducing cost
and size. Contrasting to the personal computer and server markets, a fairly large number
of basic CPU architectures are used; there are Von Neumann as well as various degrees of
Harvard architectures, RISC as well as non-RISC and VLIW; word lengths vary from 4bit to 64-bits and beyond (mainly in DSP processors) although the most typical remain
8/16-bit. Most architectures come in a large number of different variants and shapes,
many of which are also manufactured by several different companies.
2.4.2 Microprocessor
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit
(CPU) on a single integrated circuit, (IC) or at most a few integrated circuits. It is a
22

multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as input, processes it

according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output. It is an
example of sequential digital logic, as it has internal memory.
Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral
system.
The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed modern society.
General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text
editing, multimedia display, and communication over the Internet. Many more
microprocessors are part of embedded systems, providing digital control of a myriad of
objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control.
Thousands of items that were traditionally not computer-related include microprocessors.
These include large and small household appliances, cars (and their accessory equipment
units), car keys, tools and test instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and electrical
circuit breakers, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi-fi audio/visual components
(from DVD players

to phonograph

turntables.)

Such

products

as

cellular

telephones, DVD video system and ATSC HDTV broadcast system fundamentally require
consumer devices with powerful, low-cost, microprocessors. Increasingly stringent
pollution control standards effectively require automobile manufacturers to use
microprocessor engine management systems, to allow optimal control of emissions over
widely varying operating conditions of an automobile. Non-programmable controls would
require complex, bulky, or costly implementation to achieve the results possible with a
microprocessor. A microprocessor control program can be easily tailored to different
needs of a product line, allowing upgrades in performance with minimal redesign of the
product. Different features can be implemented in different models of a product line at
negligible production cost.
Microprocessor control of a system can provide control strategies that would be
impractical to implement using electromechanical controls or purpose-built electronic
controls. For example, an engine control system in an automobile can adjust ignition
timing based on engine speed, load on the engine, ambient temperature, and any observed
tendency for knocking - allowing an automobile to operate on a range of fuel grades.
2.4.3 Microcontroller
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a
single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable
23

input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also
often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are
designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal
computers or other general purpose applications.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the
size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and
input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more
devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog
components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. Some microcontrollers may
use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power
consumption (mill watts or microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain
functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power
consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just Nano
watts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other
microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more
like a digital signal processor.
A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory
and peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.[5]The majority of
microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles,
telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. While some embedded
systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and
program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Typical input
and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, small or custom LCD
displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity,
light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or
other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack human interaction
devices of any kind.
2.4.3.1 Interrupts in microcontroller

24

Microcontrollers must provide real time (predictable, though not necessarily fast)
response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events
occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current
instruction sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt
handler").
The ISR will perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt before
returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device
dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an
analog to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input such as from a button being
pressed, and data received on a communication link. Where power consumption is
important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from
a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required to do something by a
peripheral even.
2.4.3.2 Programs in microcontroller
Typically microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory,
since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory.
Compilers and assemblers are used to convert high-level language and assembler
language codes into a compact machine code for storage in the microcontroller's memory.
Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory
that can only be programmed at the factory, or program memory may be field-alterable
flash or erasable read-only memory.
Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their microcontrollers in order to
help the hardware and software development of the target system. Originally these
included EPROM versions that have a "window" on the top of the device through which
program memory can be erased by ultraviolet light, ready for reprogramming after a
programming ("burn") and test cycle. Since 1998, EPROM versions are rare and have
been replaced by EEPROM and flash, which are easier to use (can be erased
electronically) and cheaper to manufacture. Other versions may be available where the
ROM is accessed as an external device rather than as internal memory, however these are
becoming increasingly rare due to the widespread availability of cheap microcontroller
programmers. The use of field-programmable devices on a microcontroller may allow
field update of the firmware or permit late factory revisions to products that have been
assembled but not yet shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time
required for deployment of a new product. Where hundreds of thousands of identical
25

devices are required, using parts programmed at the time of manufacture can be an
economical option. These "mask programmed" parts have the program laid down in the
same way as the logic of the chip, at the same time. A customizable microcontroller
incorporates a block of digital logic that can be personalized in order to provide additional
processing capability, peripherals and interfaces that are adapted to the requirements of
the application. For example, the AT91CAP from Atmel has a block of logic that can be
customized during manufacturer according to user requirements.
2.4.3.3 Other features of microcontroller
Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output
pins (GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state.
When GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or
external signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices
such as LEDs or motors.
Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the
purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret
and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog
signals that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to
convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common
feature on some microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the
processor to output analog signals or voltage levels.
A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to
control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU
resources in tight timer loops.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive
and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip
hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in
digital formats such as IC and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).

26

Chapter 3

ENERGY THEFT DETECTION: THEORY AND WORKING

MODEL
3.1 PROJECT IDEA
The aim of this project, as the title name suggests, is to detect the power theft that occurs
in our daily lives. We come across such a situation many times in our daily lives where
power and electricity get routed to some other destination through various means like
cross-wiring etc. Our idea to detect power theft is by using two meters, one at the load
end and one for the detection, which would indicate if any discrepancy occurs in the
power supply and if detected, would result in power supply cut-off immediately.

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. 3.1.Functional Block Diagram of Energy Theft Detector

27

28

3.3 WORKING
This project consists of mainly two sections. One section consists of energy meter,
isolator and receiver + comparator situated on our supply pole and the one consists of
energy meter isolator and transmitter, situated in our homes.
The energy meter 1 & 2 can measure the energy by measuring voltage and current.
Voltage can measure directly with the help of voltmeter provided on the energy meter but
for measuring current it requires a Current transformer (C.T.). The C.T. can measure
current by measuring magnetic field induced from a current carrying thick copper wire
using a coil. Energy meter consists of four LEDs to show the status. One LED
(transparent red LED) blinks with a constant time interval. This time interval reduces with
increase in LOAD.
The energy meter at our home measures the energy consumed by different LOADs. The
output from energy meter (from blinking LED) is given to transmitter section through
isolator. Isolator consists of a relay and a driver for switching it by energy meters output.
The isolator prevents the transmitter section from high voltage output of energy meter.
The isolator output is used to drive one out of four inputs of the transmitter. This signal is
decoded using encoder IC HT12E and transmitted using RF transmitter module.
At the pole the energy meter 1 will measure the supplied electric energy to the home by
similar method, by measuring voltage and current using C.T. The output of energy meter
is fed to the trigger input of the receiver section through isolator. This isolator also
consists of a relay and a transistor driver circuit.
The receiver section consists of RF receiver to receive the signal transmitted from the
home transmitter section. It consists of various LEDs to show the status. LED 5(orange
LED) will blink to show proper transmission from transmitter at home to the receiver at
pole. If this LED L5 does not blink, it indicates that there is a problem in the RF link
between Tx and Rx. LED 4 is by default ON. The triggered input wills ON the LED L3.
The next pulse received from the transmitter section OFF LED L3.Since the energy meter
at pole measure the same energy as measured by the home energy meter i.e. the energy
delivered to the LOAD (various appliances). The pulse rate of blinking LEDs of both
energy meters is same. In case of any theft i.e. bypassing the home energy meter or taking
energy before our home energy meter the pulse rate of blinking LED of the home energy
meter will reduce while the pulse rate of blinking LED at the pole energy meter will
remain same.
29

30

It will lead to continuous ON of LED L3. As LED L3 continuously glows for more than
one minute it will switch OFF the relay to cut the supply to the home. At this situation
LED L4 turn OFF and LEDs L2 and L3 will glow continuously to show the occurrence
of fault.
Internal description of the RF Transmitter and Receiver is:1. RF Transmitter
The RF Tx consists of RF Tx module, an encoder i.e. HT12E, four switches and the
transmitting antenna. The energy meter 2 is connected to RF Tx with the help of Isolator.
Isolators are nothing but relay circuit consists of a resistor, transistor and an inductor
connected to 12V supply and of course relay. RF Tx has four switches viz. S1, S2, S3 and
S4. Isolator relay is connected to S4 switch of the RF Tx. The main function of RF Tx is
to change the state of LED L4. If the LED is ON it will turn it OFF and if it is OFF it will
turn it ON. All the switches is then connected to the encoder HT12E whose output drives
the RF Tx module unit and then it is transmitted with the help of an antenna. The
transmitter module accepts serial data. The encoder IC takes in parallel data at the TX
side packages it into serial format and then transmits it with the help of a RF transmitter
module. At the RX end, the decoder IC receives the signal via the RF receiver module,
decodes the serial data and reproduces the original data in the parallel format.

Fig. 3.2. Encoder HT

12E

31

The 212 encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications.
They are capable of encoding information which consists of N address bits and 12_N data
bits. Each address/data input can be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed
addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared
transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal. The capability to select a TE trigger
on the HT12E or a DATA trigger on the HT12A further enhances the application
flexibility of the 212 series of encoders. The HT12A additionally provides a 38 kHz
carrier for infrared systems.

Fig. 3.3. Address and Data of Micro Controller

32

Note: D8~D11 are all data input and transmission enable pins of the HT12A.
TE is a transmission enable pin of the HT12E
The 2^12 series of encoders begin a 4-word transmission cycle upon receipt of a
transmission enable (TE for the HT12E or D8~D11 for the HT12A, active low). This
cycle will repeat itself as long as the transmission enable (TE or D8~D11) is held low.
Once the transmission enables returns high the encoder output completes its final cycle
and then stops as shown below.

Fig. 3.4. Transmission Timing for the HT12E

The TX433 wireless RF transmitter uses on/off keying to transmit data to the matching
receiver, RX433. The data input keys the saw resonator in the transmitter when the
input is +3 volts or greater, AM modulating the data onto the 433 MHz carrier. The data is
then demodulated by the receiver, which accurately reproduces the original data. The data
input is CMOS level Compatible when the unit is run on +5 volts.When driving with a
CMOS input, there must be enough level to achieve at least 3V on the data input, 5V is
preferable. This is due to the start-up time of the oscillator needing to be fast to accurately
reproduce your data.

33

If the voltage is too low, the oscillator will not start fast enough to accurately reproduce
your data, especially at higher data rates. Luckily not much drive is needed, so this should
be easy since it is 22K ohms of load. Almost any CMOS output will drive this without
any problems. There are some CMOS outputs which have very little drive capability
which may not work, so testing the voltage at the data input may be a wise choice if you
are having problems.

Fig. 3.5. 433 MHz Transmitter

2. RF Receiver
This section consists of five LEDs (four yellow and one orange), RF Rx module, decoder
HT 12D, and PIC microcontroller 16F73 and a receiving antenna. Antenna receives the
transmitted signal and that received signal is then fed to the RF Rx module whose output
is then provided to the decoder HT12D and then to the PIC 16F73.
The receiver shown in Figure also contains just one transistor. It is biased to act as a
regenerative oscillator, in which the received antenna signal causes the transistor to
switch to high amplification, thereby automatically arranging the signal detection. Next,
the raw demodulated signal is amplified and shaped-up by op-amps. The result is a
fairly clean digital signal at the output of the receiver. The logic high level is at about 2/3
of the supply voltage, i.e., between 3 V and 4.5 V. The range of the simple system shown
in Figures is much smaller than that of more expensive units, mainly because of the low
transmit power (approx. 1 mW) and the relative insensitivity and wide-band nature of the
receiver. Moreover, amplitude-modulated noise is not suppressed in any way.

34

Fig. 3.6. 433 MHz RF Receiver

The 2^12decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications.
They are paired with Holteks 2^12series of encoders (refer to the encoder/decoder cross
reference table.
For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and
data format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a
programmed 2^12 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an
IR transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously
with their local addresses.
If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes are decoded and then
transferred to the output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission.
The 2^12 series of decoders are capable of decoding in formations that consist of N bits
of address and 12_N bits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged to provide 8
address bits and 4 data bits, and HT12F is used to decode 12 bits of address information.

35

Fig. 3.7. HT12D Controller

For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and
data format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a
programmed 2^12 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an
IR transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously
with their local addresses. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a
programmed 2^12 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an
IR transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously
with their local addresses.

36

Fig. 3.8. HT12D Pin Diagram

The 2^12 series of decoders provides various combinations of addresses and data pins in
different packages so as to pair with the 2^ 12 series of encoders. The decoders receive
data that are transmitted by an encoder and interpret the first N bits of code period as
addresses and the last 12_N bits as data, where N is the address code number. A signal on
the DIN pin activates the oscillator which in turn decodes the incoming address and data.
The decoders will then check the received address three times continuously. If the
received address codes all match the contents of the decoders local address, the 12_N
bits of data are decoded to activate the output pins and the VT pin is set high to indicate a
valid transmission. This will last unless the address code is incorrect or no signal is
received. The output of the VT pin is high only when the transmission is valid. Otherwise
it is always low. Of the 2^12 series of decoders, the HT12F has no data output pin but its
VT pin can be used as a momentary data output. The HT12D, on the other hand, provides
4 latch type data pins whose data remain unchanged until new data are received. The
decoders will then check the received address three times continuously. If the received
address codes all match the contents of the decoders local address, the 12_N bits of data
are decoded to activate the output pins and the VT pin is set high to indicate a valid
transmission. This will last unless the address code is incorrect or no signal is received.
The output of the VT pin is high only when the transmission is valid. Otherwise it is
always low. Of the 2^12 series of decoders, the HT12F has no data output pin but its VT
pin can be used as a momentary data output. The HT12D, on the other hand, provides 4
latch type data pins whose data remain unchanged until new data are received.

37

Fig.3.9. PIC16F73 Block Diagram

38

3.4 CODING OF TRANSMITTER

int flag=0;
int counter=0;
void main()
{
PORTC.bit4=1
PORTC.bit5=0;
PORTC.bit6
PORTC.bit7=0;
While(1)
{
If(PORTB.bit0==1)
{
While (PORTB.bit0==1)
{
}
If(flag==1)
{
PORTC.bit6=1;
Counter=counter+1;
Delay..ms(1000);
}
If(flag==0)
{
Flag=1:
PORTC.bit5=1;
Delay..ms(200);
}
If(PORTC.bit0==1||PORTC.bit3==1)
{
While(PORTC.bit==1||PORTC.bit==1)
39

{
}
flag=0;
PORTC.bit5=0;
PORTC.bit6=0;
}
If(counter>4)
{
goto end
}
}
end:
PORTC.bit4=0;
PORTC.bit5=0;
PORTC.bit6=0;
PORTC.bit7=1;
}

3.5 RELAYS
A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current.
The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit. Relays
are like remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their
relative simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. They are used in a wide variety
of applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers
and automation systems.
3.5.1 How relay works?
All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current.
When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the
armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts.
When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the
switch mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to
another. The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit.
A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current.
The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit.
40

Fig. 3.10. Working of relay

3.5.2 Types of relay
1 Electromechanical Relay
2 Solid State Relay
1 Electromechanical Relay
Electromechanical relays have moving parts, whereas solid state relays have no moving
parts. Advantages of Electromechanical relays include lower cost, no heat sink is
required, multiple poles are available, and they can switch AC or DC with equal ease.
They are also known as General Purpose Relay. The general-purpose relay is rated by the
amount of current its switch contacts can handle. Most versions of the general-purpose
relay have one to eight poles and can be single or double throw. These are found in
computers, copy machines, and other consumer electronic equipment and appliances.

Power Relay: The power relay is capable of handling larger power loads 10-50
amperes or more

Contactor: A special type of high power relay, its used mainly to control high
voltages and currents in industrial electrical applications. Because of these high power
requirements, contactors always have double-make contacts.

41

Time-Delay Relay: The contacts might not open or close until sometime interval after
the coil has been energized. This is called delay-on-operate. Delay-on-release means
that the contacts will remain in their actuated position until some interval after the
power has been removed from the coil. A third delay is called interval timing.
Contacts revert to their alternate position at a specific interval of time after the coil
has been energized. The timing of these actions may be a fixed parameter of the relay,
or adjusted by a knob on the relay itself, or remotely adjusted through an external
circuit.

Solid State Relay

These active semiconductor devices use light instead of magnetism to actuate a switch.
The light comes from an LED, or light emitting diode. When control power is applied to
the devices output, the light is turned on and shines across an open space. On the load
side of this space, a part of the device senses the presence of the light, and triggers a solid
state switch that either opens or closes the circuit under control. Often, solid state relays
are used where the circuit under control must be protected from the introduction of
electrical noises.
Advantages of Solid State Relays include low EMI/RFI, long life, no moving parts, no
contact bounce, and fast response. The drawback to using a solid state relay is that it can
only accomplish single pole switching.

3.6 POWER SUPPLY

Power supply can be defined as electronic equipment, which is a stable source of D.C.
power for electronic circuits.
Power supply can be classified into two major categories:

Unregulated power supply

Regulated power supply

3.6.1 Unregulated Power Supply

These power supplies, supply power to the load but do not take into variation of power
supply output voltage or current with respect to the change in A.C. mains voltage, load
current or temperature variations. In other words, we can say that the output voltage or
current of an unregulated power supply changes with the change in A.C .mains voltage,
load current and temperature.

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Fig.3.11. Unregulated power supply

3.6.2 Regulated power supply
These power supplies are regulated over the change in source voltage or load current i.e.
its output remain stable.
Regulated power supplies are of two types: Current Regulated power supplies
These are constant current supplies in spite of change in load or input voltage
Voltage Regulated power supplies
These supplies supply constant output voltage with respect to the variation in load or
source input voltage

Fig.3.12. Regulated power supply

IN

OUT

COM

T1
10TO1
D1

D2

D3

C1
1000uF

D4

C2
0.1uF

Fig. 3.13. Circuit of regulated power supply with half wave rectifier and ic-7809 as a
regulator

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