1.

Composition of saliva :
99%water, 1% solid substances formed by mineral salts such as chloride ion,
phosphate ion and bicarbonate ion of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and also ions
of chlorides, iodide and fluoride.
enzyme salivary amylase ; pytaline : able to hydrolyzed cooked starch, beginning of
degradation, intermediary products ( dextrines, amylodextrines,erythrodextrines,
acrodextrines )are obtained.
mucin : secreted by mucous cells of salivary glands, important in formation of
alimentary bolus, it facilitates deglutition,mastication and protect the buds against
aggression .
Small amounts of :
1.lysosomes (bactericide substances)
2. Amino acids, glycoproteins.
3. Kallikriens ( bradikinines, local hormone produce vasodilation in salivary glands).
4. Silogastriin, local hormone which inhibits gastric secretion.
5. Parotin, reduce calcium in blood.
6. Salivary proglucagon, hyperglycemic hormone.
7. Products of metabolism , urea, uric acid, creatinine small amount of lipids,
carbohydrates.
8. Agglutinogen (antigens) , agglutinin ( antibody ), corresponding to their blood
groups .

2. Role of saliva:
1. In mastication,degulition and speaking.
2. It is important in solving the nutrient contained by the food and also it
stimulate taste buds.
3. Bactericide role, presence of bactericide and lysosomes.
4. Excretory role, eliminating many substances ( toxic substances Pb ,
bacteria, viruses, bacillus, mononucleosis, tuberculosis, parainfluenza and
other severe diseases.
5.Digestive role, carbohydrates digestion.
6.Homeostasis: regulation of the body temperature.
3. Salivary amylase, ptylainrole:
Able to hydrolyzed cooked starch. Beginning of the degradation, intermediary
products ( dextrines, amylodextrines,erythrodextrines, acrodextrines )are obtained.
finally, we will obtain 87% maltose , 13% glucose.
This final degradation up to glucose is not enough the action of ptylaine or salivary
amylase so to complete this degradation another enzyme is required which is
maltose.

4. Degulition (times ) :
Is a chain of reflexes due to which alimentary bolus is formed( oral cavity->
pharynx->esophagus->stomach)
speed is high in phyranx ( contractility ).
1) ORAL time: when bolus is formed in the mouth, lasts for 0.2 sec. Helping of
masticatory muscle and the tongue muscles at the beginning it is voluntary
then it becomes involuntary (reflex).
2) PHARYNGEAL time: shortest time of deglutition lasts for 0.1sec, it is totally
involuntary and it is made in ADNEA (without breathing) at this time all the
openings are closed and only the communication with esophagus will stay
(opened).
3) ESOPHAGEAL time: last and the longest period of deglutition last for 5-6sec
during this period bolus is pushed from the high to low speed by the help of
peristaltical wave,3 types of peristaltical waves, 1 primary wave, 2
secondary wave, 3 tertiary wave . pressure in the esophagus 2-7water
centimeter , opens the cardia -> bolus ->

5. Gastric Juice composition :

99% water, 1% solid substances = 0.6% inorganic and 0.4% organic .
For the first category ,HCl , chlorides of sodium and phosphorus , phosphate of
calcium, phosphate of magnesium, ions of Mg+2, ions of K+ , ions of Ca+2.
All these ions concentration here is less than their concentration in plasma except
the potassium ion which is higher ( 4 times more ).
Synthesis of HCl :
It is secreted by the oxyntic cells of gastric glands ( parietal cells ). These cells are
playing the role of ducts or channels in plasma ( intra-cellular channels ) One way
permeability for H+ and Cl- ions. pH inside the channels is an acidic pH while
outside the channels cytoplasm pH is 7.2 pH. HCl is the most important component
of gastric juice. It is synthesized only inside the channels for H+ and Cl-. The salts
for H+ ions represented by carbonic acid, synthesized in parietal cells, from water
and carbondioxide in the presence of carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic acid dissociation
results in H+ and carbonate ion. H+ ion will be secreted actively in the channels
and carbonate ion will go back to the blood from parietal cells.

Roles of HCl :
1. HCl activates pepsinogen into pepsin.
2. HCl makes combination the proteins from the food forming acids albumins or
cytonines which are more easily digested .
3. HCl facilitates the precipitation of the carcinogen in milk.
4. It stimulates all the digestive tract secretion under it. ( after stomach
example: pancreatic juice secretion )
5. Stimulates the peristatltic activity.
6. Facilitates the transportation of Fe+3 into Fe+2.
7. Inhibits the multiplication of bacteria , if they have been ingested by mistake.
6. YAVORSKY UNITS :
1 clinical unit represents number of ml of the hydroxide of sodium (0.1)N,
concentration used for neutralizing the acidity from 100ml of gastric juice.
The total acidity must be about 40 clinical units.
* measure for the acidity of the gastric juice.
7. Enzymes of gastric juice :
1) Pepsin : a proteolytic enzyme, secreted by principal cells of gastric glands.
Inactive form known as pepsinogen. Activated by HCl by self catalytic
process. Small amount of pepsinogen is delivered to plasma, kidney and level
in urine under the form of uropepsinogen. Optimum pH is 1.5 for the
activation of pepsin. Acts upon the acid albumins or cytonines. If gastric pH is
3 pepsin is not activated and if pH goes more than 5 , it will be destroyed.
2) Cathepsin : A proteolytic enzyme , pH 3-5 , not activated in adults (weak
E ) , but it is an active E in children specially newborns.
3) Gastric Lipase: Secreted by the principal cells, pH 4-4.5, it is a weak
lipolytic E in adults ( active in newborns ) degrading the emulsified lipid from
the milk.
4) Chymosin/gastric renin/ lab ferment : A proteolytic enzyme ,secreted by
principal cells of gastric glad. Initially as prolab-ferment activated by HCl , 44.5 pH ( only in newborns ). It produces milk coagulation ( transformation of
soluble carcinogen ) in para casein together with Ca+2 forms paracaseinate
of calcium which precipitates in the stomach of newborn . Result : Digestion
of milk and evacuation of milk is smaller.
5) Carbonic anhydrase : It is important for the synthesis of carbonic acid and
this enzyme is not secreted but can be found due to disintegration of the
epithelial cells from stomach are destroyed.
8. Motor function of stomach :
When the stomach is empty , it present contraction described by hunger
contraction. There intensity increases progressively and they are not
tolerated by newborns so he or she will start to cry, the hunger secretion will

disappear temporarily during a fiction meallike chewing gum by mastication

and deglutition. On the other hand, when the food enters in stomach after
few minutes begins peristaltic waves which are propagated to pylorus.
Contraction increase in intensity 10-15sec to 10-15 sec . Due to this
contraction food is mixed with gastric juice and form gastric chime =>
pushed to pylorus => digestion of proteins begins with pepsin.
9. Pancreatic Juice secretion and composition :
Secretion : A liquid secreted by pancreatic acines, which is collected by two
ducts : wirsung and santorini, they open into second part of duodenum. The
pancreatic juice is secreted 1500ml daily. It is a colourless liquid with alkaline
pH, more than 8.4 which is given by high concentration of Sodium
bicarbonate.
Compostion : 98.5% water , 1.5% solid substances in which 0.7% organic and
0.8% inorganic .
Inorganic substances Sodium bicarbonate ( neutralization ), Ions of Sodium,
Calcium, Potassium, Phosphorus, chlorine and carbonate.
Organic substances represented by Enzymes:
1. Proteolytic enzyme : Trypsin, chemotrypsin, carboxypeptidase,
ribonuclease.
2.Lipolytic Enzyme: Phosphatages, triglycerides,estrases, cholesterol
estrases, pancreatic lipase.
3. Glycolytic enzyme, pancreatic amylase.
10.Trypsin and chemotrypsin :
They are endopeptidases, act in intermediate products, resulted after pepsin
action, they continue the protein degradation to small polypeptides such as
tetrapeptidase, tripeptidase,dipeptidase and very small amount of
aminoacids.
Trypsin => secreted by pancrease => inactive ( trypsinogen)
intestine enterolunase - > secreted by peyers patches.
11.Pancreatic amylase or amylopsin :
It is a powerful enzyme, able to degradate both cooked and fresh starch,
obtaining maltose and glucose finally. Optimum pH is 6.5-7.2.
12.Pancreatic lipase or steapsin :
It hydrolysis the neutral lipids, successively in diglycerides than
monoglycerides and then fattyacids anglycerol, it is most important lipase in
digestive tractm, best pH is 9 for its action. The activity of this enzyme lipase
is facilitated by biliary salts from bile which emulsify them and then come
lipase to digest them.
13.Control of pancreatic juice secretion :

The pancreatic juice is not secreted between digestion period. The secretion
begins at 3-5 minutes after food ingestion and then become maximum, after
2-3 hours, when the chime ( food ) enters in the duodenum and it stops
approximately after 5 hours. Also pancreatic juice secretion is controlled by
unconditioned reflexes, produced by the stimulation of receptors from oral
cavity( stimulation by fiction meal ).Also it secetions stimulates by vagus
nerve ( parasympathetic reflex ) and also pancreatic secretions are
stimulated by conditioned reflexes like smell , taste etc.
By secretin and PZCCK :
It consist of secretion of two local hormones from the duodenal mucosa i-e
secretin and PZCCK.These two hormones are poured in blood and going
directly to pancreatic gland and stimulate directly the pancreatic juice
secretion.
BRADYKININ hormone which by vasodilation improves the circulation in
pancreas, improves the oxygen which is brought here and improves the
synthesis of hormone ( insulin and glucagon ).Also GASTRIN influenced the
secretion , which stimulates pancreatic juice secretion and on other hand
somatostatins and glucagon inhibits it.
Secretion also influenced by type of food ingested.
Bread ingestion produces the maximum pancreatic juice secretion.
Meat contain substances which neutralize HCl from gastric chyme results in
reduced secretion of secretin and PZCCK.
14.Biliary secretion ( Types of bile, pH, Composition )
It is secreted by liver continuously permanently between 500-1200ml
dailyand is eliminated in second part of duodenum during digestion
period.Bile is accumulated in gall bladder during interdigestion period.
Capacity of gall bladder is 40-70 ml.
Three types of biles:
1. A BILE : which is clear ,yellow-greenish liquid coming from choledocian
duct, then is collected.
2. B BILE : This is dark brown with high viscosity and very rich in mucous ,
whichcomes from gall bladder and finally is collected.
3. C BILE : which is yellow-goldish , clear bile comes from biliary duct which
are in liver.
Generally, bile is an alkaline liquid , with pH 7.8-8.7
Components of Bile: Its main component are biliary acids , biliary pigments
and cholesterol.
BILARY ACIDS :
Primary acids : Cholic ,Chendeoxichoclic .
Secondary acids : Deoxicholic acids, Litocholic acid .
15.Bilary acids :
Primary acids : Cholic ,Chendeoxichoclic are formed in the heptocytes . At
this level, they are conjugated with glycol or taurine resulting in glycocholic
acid, glycochendeoxicholic and taurocholic , taurochendeoxicholic

respectively.
Secondary acids : are not formed in hepatocytes, they are formed in large
intestion from the primary biliary acids.
Hepatoenterohepatic cycle : 50% from the biliary salts in large intestine
under the action of microbial flora undergoes chemical reaction
dehydroxlation and deconjugation resulting in the secondary biliary acids.
Deoxicholic acids ; It behaves as a primary biliary acid and also reabsorbed
and goes to liver, where it is conjugated with glycol and taurine and then
eliminated by bile.
Litocholic acid : It has very reduced solubility and reabsorbed in very small
amount, these small amount going back to liver where gets sulphur
conjugated and what will not reabsorbed remain in large intestine and is
eliminated by feces.

16.Roles of biliary salts :

1. Biliary salts emulsify the lipids and facilitates pancreatic lipase action.
2. It is important for lipid absorbtion and for lipo soluble vitamins A,D,E,F,K.
3. It maintains cholesterol as a suspension in bile, ratio between biliary salts
and cholesterol must be 20:1.
4. They stimulate bile formation from hepatocytesbiligenesis.
5. It neutralize gastric chyme acidity.
6. As an excretory role, bile pigments and some medicines are eliminated by
bile.
7. It has bacteriostatic role, stop multiplication of bacteria like Escherichia
coli.
8. Biliary salts facilitates cholesterol absorbtion in lymph.
9. It stimulates the motor function ( contraction ) of all the digestive tract.
17.Fermentation:
It takes place in the proximal part of large intestine, under the action of
aerobic flora and consist in the degradation of carbohydrates which have not
been digested or reabsorbed before.
Lactic acid, Acetic acid, Butyric acid, Propionic acid , they explain the acidic
pH of feces.
pH of feces = 5-7.
18.Cholesterol:
It is found in the bile, ( in the bile of liver Bile C in 50-70 mg /% and in
Bile B
bile of gall bladder ( viscous ) , cholesterol is 70 % more concentrated.
Cholesterol from bile is mainly synthesized in hepatocytes. In bile, cholesterol
is found in free form, non esterified but the hepatocytes has the ability to
esterified the cholesterol and to eliminate it as esterified form.Cholesterol
enters in duodenum with the bile and then enters in intestine in the presence
of bacterial flora , where the part of it is transformed into COPROSTEROL and

then is eliminated by feces and the other part of it is reabsorbed from the
proximal part of large intestine and goes back in liver.
19. Intestinal

innervations ( intrinsic and extrinsic ) :

The smooth muscles of intestine have the ability to contract
automatically , by self stimulation due to existence of the
intrinsic innervations of intestine, which consists of AUERBACH
plexus and MIESSNER plexus. These two plexus are layers of
neurons, one of them is called external layer or motor plexus or
AUERBACH plexus.
On the other hand , the internal plexus is the sensitive one and
it is MIESSNER plexus. Besides the intrinsic innervations , the
intestines represents an extrinsic innervations
( parasympathetic and sympathetic system ) or vegetative
innervetion.
By parasympathetic stimulation results in increase the
secretion and stimulation of contraction of muscle and
relaxation of sphincters.
On the other hand , sympathetic stimulation results in the
decrease of secretion on the digestive tract and relax the
smooth muscles of intestine and contract the sphincters.