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Copyright
All rights reserved. No unauthorised reproduction of this manual or part thereof in any
form is allowed.
Expected Outcomes
Students completing this course are expected:
1. To understand the logic underlying social science research
2. To become a critical consumer of social science research
3. To be confident in applying appropriate research methods to answer their own research
questions
Table of Contents
LECTURE 1: MEANING AND SOME DEFINITIONS
1 Session objectives
1.1 Meaning of Research
1.1.1 Some Definitions
1.1.2 The Need for Research
1.1.2.1 What is an Objectives?
1.1.2.2 Examples of Objectives
1.2 Importance of Research
1.2.1 Role of Research in Business and Management
1.2.2 Importance of Business Research in Management Functions:
1.2.2.1 Testing New Products
1.2.2.2 Ensuring Adequate Distribution
1.2.2.3 Measuring Advertising Effectiveness
1.2.2.4 Studying the Competition
1.2.3 Motivation in Research
1.2.3.1 Importance of Research to Individuals
1.2.3.2 Importance of Research to Organizations
1.3 Session Review
1.4 Session further reading
Historical Research
Correlational Studies
2.2.4
2.2.5
Experimental Research
2.2.6
2.2.7
Time constraints
2.3.2
Availability of Data
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
Session Review
2.3.6
Session Review
3.11
5.2
Session Review
5.3
Session Review
Further Reading materials for the Session
7.5
Interpretation
of
conclusions
8.4.3.2 Drawing Conclusions
8.5 Session Review
Research
Findings
and
Drawing
Session Review
8.3.6
LECTURE 10:
9.3.5
Session Review
9.3.6
LECTURE 10:
10
10.3.5
Session Review
10.3.6
1 Lecture objectives:
By the end of this session;
- the learner should be able to define in different ways the meaning of research and the
meaning of other research terminologies
-the learner should also be able to explain the importance of research to individuals,
organizations and to countries
-the learner should be able to use relevant examples in the definitions and explanations
11
Having understood what research is, let us now consider why research is important. The
discussion below includes the need for and objectives of research, as well as examples of
objectives.
1.1.2 The Need for Research
One of the characteristics of scientific research is that it must have an aim or purpose. In
order to understand the aim of research, we need to understand objectives of research.
Below we discuss the characteristics of research objectives followed by examples of
objectives that researchers would aim to achieve.
1.1.2.1 What is an Objective?
An objective is the aim or goal someone wants to achieve. Objectives must be SMART,
that is, they must be;
Measurable, that is, they must be stated in terms that allow them to be verified,
Realistic in that they must be based on facts and situations as they really are
Timely so that they may help solve the problem or make informed decisions for
which they are generated.
12
Now, after the definition, research objectives and examples of research objectives, let us
now consider types of research in the next section.
1.2 Importance of Research
Research is a critical component of any business organization and to individuals. In the
following sub-section we discuss some of the reasons why organizations carry out
research as well as to individuals. We begin by discussing the role of research in business
and management, the importance of research in business and management functions then
move to the importance of research to individuals and finally to organizations.
1.2.1 Role of Research in Business and Management
The main aim of research in business and management is to solve business and
management problems:
1.2.1.1 Business problems: drop in sales, drop in customer base, consumer complaints,
high product rejection, negative word of mouth (WOM), class between customers and
sales people, high interest rates, poor ROI, poor turn-over/revenue (profits), etc
1.2.1.2 Management problems: high employee turn-over/complaints/grievances, class
between customers and sales people, run down institutions, promotion/demotion of
employees, transfers, management employee relations, etc.
It is good to take note that the prime managerial value of business research is to reduce
uncertainty by providing information that improves the decision making process.
Decision making process involves following interrelated stages.
Identifying problems and opportunities
Diagnosis and assessment
Selecting and implementing a course of action
Evaluating the course of action: includes Evaluation research and Performance
monitoring research
-Evaluation Research: is the formal, objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to
which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives.
13
14
people have seen the commercials. Companies also use business research to see if
consumers recall the message or slogan of their commercials.
1.2.2.4 Studying the Competition
Companies often use business research to study key competitors in their markets.
Companies will often start with secondary research information or information that is
already available. There are many reasons why a business should study the competitor,
for example to be able to counter the competitor moves, to be able to develop superior
strategies than those of the competitor so as to to achieve competitive advantage, etc.
15
awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform
research operations.
1.2.3.2 Importance of Research to Organizations
If you are asked the following questions, what would be your responses?
i. Why do organizations carry out research?
ii. What is the importance of research to organizations?
Let us now consider more answers to the above two questions. Research helps
organizations to understand;
1. Why consumers may prefer products from certain firms.
This means finding out what the consumers/customers feel is appealing about your firm
can help you find others just like them.
2. What the same consumers/customers are trying to avoid from certain firms. This is
also important in helping shape business practices and strategy.
3. . Who are your real competitors- why must an organization learn about its competitor?
There are various reasons. Let us consider a few of them;
-To understand what strategies competitors is adopting in order that that firm counters
them
-In order to borrow selectively those that would benefit that firm
-To understand how ones own firm is performing compared to their competitor in order
that they device strategies to attain competitive advantage
-Etc
4. How prospective consumers/customers see their greatest challenges.
-This would help firms understand what is on prospective clients' minds and how they are
likely to describe and talk about those issues.
5. What the real benefit a firm provides for its consumers/customers
Organizations must attempt to learn the true benefit of their service in order to enhance it
or even develop new services with other true benefits.
16
Image is everything. Therefore through feedback from research firms can strategize to
improve their image
17
18
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods 8th edition New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.
5.
Collis, Jice: Business Research 2nd ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
2 Lecture Objectives
By the end of this session the learner should be able to;
1. Group research into related categories/types
2. Be able to identify the two main bases of research classification
3. Give examples of research work in each category
4. Explain why the categories are needed
5. Identify the type of research
6. Discuss the factors that determine the type of research to be undertaken
19
One way is to classify research on the basis of its purpose i.e. the degree to which the
research findings are applicable to an educational setting and the degree to which they are
generalizable.
The other way is to classify research on the basis of the method employed in research.
Taking purpose as the basis of classification, research is considered to be two typesBasic and Applied (including Developmental research).
2.1.3 Classification Based on Purpose Method
The other basis for classifying research is by the method it employs.
Research method is characterized by the techniques employed in collecting and
analyzing data.
On the basis of method, research can be classified as historical, descriptive,
correlational, ex-post facto and experimental.
2.2 Types of Research
Let us now discuss the various types of research. In social Sciences, there are many
research types. There are eleven types of research depending on whether it is primarily
fundamental or applied in nature. They are as follows:
2.2.1 Historical Research
What is historical research and what are its characteristics?
This is a research about past event and
The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes
or effects of past occurrences.
This may help in explaining present events and anticipating future events.
The data are not gathered by administering instruments to individuals, but
Rather, they are collected from original documents (secondary data) or by interviewing
the eye-witnesses (primary source of information).
In case primary sources are not available, data are collected from those other than eyewitnesses (secondary sources).
The data thus collected are subjected to scientific analysis to assess its authenticity and
accuracy.
20
Nancy Burton and Lyle Jones (1982) examined trends in achievement levels of African
American versus White children.
They examined high school graduation rates between these 2 ethnic groups who were
born before 1913, between 1913 and 1922, between 1923 and 1932, etc.
They also examined a variety of historical indicators in more recent groups of African
American and White children.
One of their conclusions is that differences in achievements between these groups are
decreasing.
2.2.2. Descriptive Research
Let us understand what a descriptive research is;
Descriptive research studies deal with collecting data and testing hypotheses or
answering questions concerning the current status of the subject of study.
It deals with the question WHAT IS of a situation.
It concerns with determining the current practices, status or features of situations.
Another aspect of descriptive research is that data collection is either done through
asking questions from individuals in the situation (through questionnaires or interviews)
or by observation.
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. It
tries to discover answers to the questions who, what, when and sometimes how. Here the
researcher attempts to describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group
of problems, people, or events. The major purpose of descriptive research is description
of the state of affairs as it exists at present
Below is an example of Descriptive Research
Peter O. Peretti and Kris G. Majecen (1992) interviewed 58 elderly individuals, from 68
to 87 years of age, using a structured interview to investigate the variables that affect
emotional abuse among the elderly.
As a result of the interviews, they found 9 variables are common to elderly abuse,
including lack of affection, threats of violence and confinement.
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22
Two types of research can answer this: (1) quasi-experimental research and (2)
experimental research.
Experimental research is where participants are assigned to groups based on some
selected criterion often called treatment variable.
Quasi-experimental research is where participants are pre-assigned to groups based on
some characteristic or quality such as differences in sex, race, age, neighborhood, etc.
23
These group assignments have already taken place before the experiment begins, and
the researcher has no control as to what the people will belong to each group.
The primary characteristic of experimental research is manipulation of at least one
variables and control over the other relevant variables so as to measure its effect on one
or more dependent variables.
The variables (s) which is manipulated is also called independent variables, a treatment,
an experimental variables or the cause.
Some of the examples of independent variables could be: temperature, pressure,
chemical concentration, type of material and conductivity.
Consider the following example of Experimental Research
Experimental research will always have two or more groups for comparison on the
dependent variables.
It is the only type of research which can establish truly the cause and effect relations.
Let us consider the following Example;
A researcher in technician education is interested in studying the effects of two methods
of instruction structured lecture method and programmed instruction on the achievement
of students in a course of one semester in Applied Mechanics.
Sixty students in the class are divided randomly into two groups of thirty each.
The groups receive the specified treatment for an equal amount of time during the
semester.
The participants are measured for their performance on the achievement test before and
after the program so as to measure the gain.
In this experiment, the experimental or independent variables is the method of
instruction and the dependent variable, is the achievement of students.
The difference in the gain on achievement between the two groups will show the effect
of the methods of instruction.
2.2.6 Applied Vs. Basic Research
The most basic distinction between the two research is that basic research is research
that has no immediate application, whereas applied research is research that does.
24
However, such distinctions are somewhat ambiguous as almost all basic research
eventually
results in some worthwhile application in the long range.
Applied research, also known as decisional research, use existing knowledge as an aid
to the solution of some given problem or set of problems.
Fundamental research- frequently called basic or pure research, seeks to extend the
boundaries of knowledge in a given area with no necessary immediate application to
existing problems.
2.2.7 Other Types of Research
There are other types of research which may not fall in the above types. These include
but not limited to;
1. Futuristic research: Futures research is the systematic study of possible future
conditions. It includes analysis of how those conditions might change as a result of the
implementation of policies and actions, and the consequences of these policies and
actions.
2. Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes beyond description and attempts to
explain the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive research only observed. The
research would use theories or at least hypothesis to account for the forces that caused a
certain phenomenon to occur.
3. Predictive research: If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has
occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict when and in what situations the event will
occur. This research is just as rooted in theory as explanation.
This research calls for a high order of inference making. In business research, prediction
is found in studies conducted to evaluate specific courses of action or to forecast current
and future values.
4. Analytical research: The researcher has to use facts or information already available,
and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
25
26
4.
Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods 8th edition New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.
5.
Collis, Jice: Business Research 2nd ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
27
3 Lecture Objectives
By the end of this session the learner should be able to;
1. Define what business research is;
2. Describe the scientific research methods and discuss the characteristics of
scientific research;
3. Discuss each of the types of research;
4. Describe the functions of research objectives, research questions and research
hypotheses
5. To illustrate each of the descriptions and discussions mentioned above.
3 Introduction
In this session we are interested in discovering the how of the research process. Before
looking at the research process, let us remind ourselves of the meaning of research from a
business perspective.
3.1 What is Business Research?
Business research can be defined as the systematic and objective process of generating
information for aid in making business decisions.
This definition suggests that:
Research information is neither intuitive nor haphazardly gathered.
Business research must be objective meaning it must be detached personal opinion
and (it should be impersonal and unbiased)
It facilitates the managerial decision process for all aspects of a business.
It is a process of determining, acquiring, analysing, synthesizing, and disseminating
relevant business data, information, and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilize
the organization to take appropriate business actions that, in turn, maximize business
performance.
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This means that worthwhile and/or meaningful research must be scientific and that
conclusions must be arrived at in a scientific manner. Let us now discuss what a scientific
method of inquiry is like;
3.2 Scientific Method of Research
Let us try to understand what a scientific method of research is.
The scientific method is the result of recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs
influence our perceptions and interpretations of natural phenomena.
Through the use of standard procedures and criteria, it is possible to minimize those
influences when developing a theory.
The term scientific method implies the principles that guide scientific research and
experimentation, and the philosophical bases of those principles.
Both pure and applied research employs scientific method to answer questions.
Use of SM in applied research assures objectivity in research.
iii.
iv. There should be careful recording, documenting, archival and sharing of all data
and methodology (full disclosure) to make it available for scrutiny by other
researchers, thereby allowing them to verify results by attempting to reproduce
them.
c) Scientific research is subject to generalizability (for the sample to be representative
of the population). It aims at generalizing findings to larger groups by discovering
general principles that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. This calls for
careful sampling procedures to ensure that the sample is representative of the larger
group.
d) Scientific research Testability- (as proof of the conclusions reached)
e) Scientific research must be subjected to replicability in order to guard against
mistake or confusion in any research
f) Scientific research must be subjected to pprecision and confidence/pparsimonythis means that researchers must take extreme care in use of resources and efforts
g) Scientific research must be subjected to objectivity in order to reduce biased
interpretations of results
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Assess
relevant
existing
knowledge
Formulate
concepts &
Propositions
Acquire
empirical
data
Statement
of
Hypotheses
Analyze &
evaluate
data
Provide
explanation
state new
problem
In Human Resource area: High rate of employee turnover (Why would employee
leave an organization in large numbers- whether sacked or voluntarily?; Why
would employees remain agitated, always engaging in strikes, conflict with
management over and again?; etc)
ii)
In the area of marketing: Drop in sales which may mean consumers are reducing
consumption of that organizations goods and/or services: What is the reason
behind this drop in sales? Or it could be that a product/service is receiving minimal
attention from the target consumers meaning it has been rejected. A researcher
would want to establish the reasons for the low level acceptability of a new product
by the target market.
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And lastly
(iv) Evaluating the problem for its research ability
To achieve this, you review the literature related to the problem to know what other
researchers have done and discovered and to identify the possible methodology for
conducting the research. We shall look at literature review in a more detailed manner in
Session 4
Once the problem is selected and defined, the researcher then moves to describe the
methodology of research as is discussed below;
3.4.1.3 Describing Methodology of Research
Defining research methodology is critical in that it serves as a path finder for the
researcher. The researcher needs to state the purpose of the study and to define the
problem clearly. This guides you in deciding the methodology of research which
involves:
a) Identifying the method of research that is what is the research design for the study?
What is the roadmap for the current research?
b) Specifying the subjects of study (e.g. heat flow problem, etc.);
c) selecting an adequate representative sample of subjects;
d) selecting/constructing valid and reliable instruments for measuring the variables in
the problem;
e) Selecting a research design and describing the procedure to be employed for
conducting the research study.
3.5 Example of decision making that could necessitate research include;
i. When a firm wants to expand to new markets research would help then
understand the needs, wants, tastes and preferences of the new target market
ii. When a firm wants to increase its product scope a research would be necessary to
gauge the level of acceptability for the proposed new products range
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34
4.1 Introduction
This is done to establish the existing information related to the problem at hand. Review
involves thoroughly discussing the concepts and theories. The researcher here reviews
previous research findings. An analytical review of existing literature should help the
research to define the overall research objective or research question or research
purpose. In one sentence the researcher should be able to say what is to be achieved by
conducting the study.
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an early review is needed to establish the context and rationale for your study and to
confirm your choice of research focus/question;
as the study period gets longer, you need to make sure that you keep in touch with
current, relevant research in your field, which is published during the period of your
research;
As you prepare your final report or thesis, you need to relate your findings to the
findings of others, and to identify their implications for theory, practice, and research.
This can involve further review with perhaps a slightly different focus from that of
your initial review.
This applies especially to people doing PhDs on a part-time basis, where their research
might extend over six or more years. You need to be able to demonstrate that you are
aware of current issues and research, and to show how your research is relevant within a
changing context.
4.1.4 How Do Researchers carry out a Literature Review?
Carrying out literature review is very important to the researcher and also to the reader of
the thesis developed thereafter. Here are some of the benefits of a literature review.
A literature review goes beyond the information search. It helps you identify and
articulate the relationships between the literature and your field of research. The
following are the basic purposes for a literature review:
It ensures the research has not been done before (or that it is not just a "replication
study") or there are gaps in previous researches,
It shows where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge,
It shows that the work is adding to the understanding and knowledge of the field, and
37
Besides these basic points, a literature review can also help the researcher to;
38
to have a pile of journals actually on your desk, and to look through the contents pages,
and the individual articles.
Often hand searching of journals will reveal ideas about focus, research questions,
methods, techniques, or interpretations that had not occurred to you. Sometimes even a
key idea can be discovered in this way. It is therefore probably worth allocating some
time to sitting in the library, with issues from the last year or two of the most relevant
journals for your research topic, and reviewing them for anything of relevance.
sources
of
information
include;
books,
journals;
internal
Newspapers,
magazines,
conference
proceedings,
theses
and
dissertations, etc.
iv. The next step for the researcher is to consider how he is going to critically analyze the
identified sources of data. Such issues as the how clearly the book or article author
has identified the statement problem, its significance, relevance, clear objective for
research, etc
v. The code for the book or article should be well classified, creating an outline for the
review and synthesizing the gathered information
39
These are some of the things to consider if and when a researcher is preparing his
literature review. Besides these considerations, what do you think are some of the
challenges a researcher is likely to encounter when formulating the literature review?
Below we discuss a few of them;
4.4 Challenges Faced when Formulating Literature Review
i. The problem of failing to match the current research to the selected review materials.
This would be the case in a situation where the selected review materials are mere
listings instead of them being comprehensive research materials.
ii. The second challenge is the poor presentation of the review materials. Example of
poor presentation include too many short paragraphs (including a one sentence onethree) making the work to be quite disjointed. The result may be that the researcher
will not adequately understand that kind of review material. Other examples include
starting each paragraph with the authors name instead of varying it with quoting
directly the authors opinion. Not all studies to be used for review are the same and
therefore, the researcher should give stress and emphasis on those that are more
important and relevant
iii. Some researchers have the habit of reading and reviewing too much material for their
topic. Literature review should only be a survey of the published works related to a
researchers work
iv. Other challenges include lack of documentation, lack of critique and failure to review
current studies.
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5 Session Objectives
By the end of the session the learner should be able to;
vi. Define what a research design is;
vii. Classify the various research designs
viii.
5 Introductions
In the previous session we looked at how to identify relevant sources of information, let
us now consider how to use a section of the population to collect data that can be
generalized to the population parameters. This entails developing the research developing
a research design and identifying the appropriate sampling procedure. We shall also
discuss about what sampling procedure is appropriate in which situation later in this
session.
5.1 Research Design
What is a research design?
Some researchers have thought of a research design as the structure of the research as it
links all the elements of a research together. It is the blueprint or outline for fulfilling
objectives and answering questions.
It involves asking questions such as: What type of research will it be? Will it be
quantitative? Will it be qualitative? Will it be a survey? Will it be a case Study? Will it be
exploratory? Will it be descriptive? Or will it consist a multiple of these? What
techniques or methods will be used?
5.1.1 Functions of a Research Design
What would be the main purpose of a research design?
A well formulated research design would ensure that the information gathered is
consistent with the study objectives and that the data are collected by accurate
42
procedures. Since, research designs germinate from the objectives, the accuracy and
adequacy of a research design depends on the unambiguous framing of the objectives.
Research design helps the research on his research journey. It enables him to choose the
right population that will provide the information needed to enhance the attainment of the
research objectives. It will also influence the choice of research site and also the
instrument for data collecting.
A research design is formulated after the research problem has been generated in clear cut
terms. The researcher will have to state the theoretical, conceptual and contextual
structures within which the research would be conducted.
5.1.2 Classification of Research Types
Let us now look at the types of research designs a researcher could adopt for his work.
Researches can be categorized partly in terms of purpose, manner or the period
considered while carrying out the research. Below we discuss each of them in turn;
5.1.2.1 Descriptive Design
A researcher using a descriptive design is simply interested in describing the state of
affairs as they exist and may also help to formulate useful principles of knowledge and
finding solutions to significant problems.
There are different types of descriptive designs, for example a descriptive survey gathers
information through interviews or through use of a questionnaire. The design can be used
to collect qualitative data such as peoples attitude, perceptions, opinions and other
feelings.
A good example of a descriptive research design is establishing the importance of
education to families. A researcher would identify a certain group of families just to
establish their views on the importance of education to their lives.
5.1.2.2 Experimental Design
What do you understand by the term experimental research? This design takes into
account collecting data by subjecting a certain group of elements (which may include
people) to certain treatment while at the same time refraining from doing the same to
43
another group. The second group is referred to as the control group. These groups must
have certain characteristics in common and therefore the researcher will want to compare
the outcome between them.
In business circles, a researcher would want to find out how consumers respond to
changes in price. He will choose two stores and have one maintain their prices while
another would have prices being adjusted frequently. The responses of consumers on
these two stores would then be recorded signalling the changes in the sales volume.
The results may show causal relationship between the dependent and independent
variables.
In order to use this design successfully, the researcher must be able to identify which is
the dependent variable and which is the independent variable. For example, in the above
illustration the dependent variable is the sales volume which the dependent variable is the
pricing.
5.1.2.3 Case Study Design
For a researcher who wants to describe a unit of analysis in detail, s/he will use a case
study. The detail must be justified before the researcher decides to use this design. A
good example of a case study design is The impact of increase of prices of basic
commodities: A case study of residents in Kibera, Kenya.
Studying the impact of increase of prices of basic commodities in Kibera will allow the
researcher to gain a better understanding of the problems faced by consumers. Here the
research must justify why s/he has chosen Kibera to be a case study.
5.1.2.4 Cross-Sectional Design
This type of a design considers issues across different perspectives in terms of
geographical location (e.g. across different regions within a country or different
institutions that enjoy some commonalities, etc), time frame (using a period before the
implementation of a strategy, e.g. before the new constitution and after the new
constitution in Kenya) or even across different cultures.
Therefore, it is quite frequent to hear of longitudinal time series design. This means that a
researcher would consider research in different geographical locations and equally
44
different times. Cross section means considering responses of ones respondents found in
different places and equally at different periods of time, e.g. over a period of 5-10 years.
5.1.2.5 Hybrid/Combined Research Design
A hybrid or combined research design is found in a situation where a researcher has used
more than one type of research design. This is a common practice since it is not easy to
distinctively decide which design is the most suitable to use or one cannot successfully
separate a design from another.
A good example would be to carry out a survey design over a period of say, 2-3 years.
This becomes a time series survey or cross sectional survey design.
5.1.3 Why does a Researcher Need a Research Design?
A design is a blueprint or a road map. The preparation of such a design facilitates
research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the
function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved
depends mainly on the research purpose.
5.1.3.1 Categorization of Research Purposes
For every research to take place there is a reason for it. Below we discuss some of the
groups of purposes for which research is put into existence. Research purposes may be
grouped into four categories, viz.,
(ii)
Exploration,
(iii)
Description,
(iv)
Diagnosis, and
(v)
Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different
aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that
of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation
or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias
and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
45
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as beforeand-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal
designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square
design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select
one for his own project.
5.1.3.2 Considerations for the Preparation of Research Design
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) The means of obtaining the information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) The time available for research; and
(v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
46
2.
Cooper, DR & Schindler, PS; Business Research Methods 8th edition New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.
3.
4.
Collis, Jice: Business Research 2nd ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Kombo D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal Writing and Thesis Writing:
An Introduction
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Session Objectives
By the end of the session the learner should be able to;
i. Define the term sampling design
ii. Explain reasons why researchers use samples as opposed to population
iii. Explain factors that determine sampling and sample designs to be used
6.0 Introduction
To sample is to measure a small portion of something and then making a general
statement about the whole thing. It is a process of selecting a number of units for a study
in such a way that the units represent the larger group from which they are selected. The
sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the
nature of the inquiry and other related factors.
Before we go into the details of sampling design, let us consider from where the sample
is generated. A sample is a small portion of a whole and this whole is referred to as
population let us now understand how to use a part of a population instead of a whole.
This is what we are calling sampling. But before that let us understand why researchers
work predominantly with samples other than the entire population.
6.1 Why do Researchers Use Samples?
When conducting research, one must often use a sample of the population as opposed to
using the entire population. Before we go further into the reasons why, let us first discuss
what differentiates between a population and a sample.
A population can be defined as any set of persons/subjects having a common observable
characteristic. For example, all individuals who reside in the United States make up a
population. Also, all pregnant women make up a population. The characteristics of a
population are called a parameter. A statistic can be defined as any subset of the
population. The characteristics of a sample are called a statistic.
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be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as
the number of observations increases.
There is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or
use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money
and energy. In addition, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many
circumstances.
For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select
only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected
constitute what is technically called a sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as
the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the
plan to select of a citys 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.
Next let us discuss the two main sample designs which are probability samples or nonprobability samples. We shall start with probability followed by non-probability.
6.3 Types of Samples Designs
Let us now consider the various sample types in business research. Each sample is used
in relation to the researchers objectives in terms of the data required and the situation at
hand.
6.3.1 Probability Samples or Non-Probability Samples
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability
samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the
non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those
based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques. A
brief discussion of the important sample designs is as follows:
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When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it
is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant
range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the
resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being
selected. In case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is
controlled by the same probability and that successive selections are independent of one
another.
6.3.1.3 Systematic Sampling
This is an extremely careful way of arriving at the sample. It is done by selecting every
15th name on a list or every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this
type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced
into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to
start, e.g the 15th and 10th mentioned above.
When is this procedure useful? It becomes useful when sampling frame is available in
the form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random
point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
6.3.1.4 Stratified Sampling
There are times when a researcher is interested in collecting information from a
population that involves different levels, meaning that the population from which a
sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group. The best sampling
method here is stratified sampling technique which is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample.
In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items
selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first
stratification and then simple random sampling, is referred to as stratified random
sampling.
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such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the
technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is
described as multi-stage random sampling.
6.3.1.9 Sequential Sampling
This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not
fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of
information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under
acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the
same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that
normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and
sampling error can be estimated.
But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small
and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions
under which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for
reasons like convenience and low costs.
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Important internal source of secondary data is database marketing which involves the use
of computers to capture and track customer profiles and purchase details. The
information about customer profile would serve as the foundation for marketing
programmes or as an internal source of information related to preference of customers
preference of a particular product.
Published external secondary data refers to the data available without the company. There
is such a pool of published data available in the market that it is sometimes easy to
underestimate what is available and thereby bypass relevant information.
7.2.2 Sources of External data
They are:
a) General Business Data
-These can be guides or small booklets containing information about a particular trade or
business. Directories are helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect
specific data.
-Indexes used to locate information on a particular topic in several different publications
by using an index.
-Non-governmental statistical data refers to published statistical data of great interest to
researchers. Graphic and statistical analyses can be performed on these data to draw
meaning inference.
b) Government Sources
Census data is a report published by the Government containing information about the
population of the country.
Other Government publications may be pertaining to availability of train tickets just
before it leaves.
c) Computerized Databases
Online databases are databases consisting of data pertaining to a particular sector (e.g.,
banks) that is accessed with a computer through a telecommunication network.
-Internet databases are available in internet portals that can be accessed, searched, and
analyzed on the internet.
-Offline databases are databases available in the form of diskettes and CD-ROM disks.
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(ii) Whether the appropriate statistical methods were used by the primary data
enumerators and investigators.
(iii) Whether the data was collected at the proper time.
The researcher also must ascertain the data has the following characteristics in order that
satisfies the purpose for which it needed;
i.
ii.
Adequate
iii.
Accurate
iv.
Authentic
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The above discussion has focus much on primary data collection. Please take note that
primary data is collected only if the secondary data is not available or is insufficient to
solve the current problem or to make decisions on the issue at hand. Below we discuss
secondary data, with emphasis laid on the types of and the relevance sources of the
secondary data.
7.4 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments
What should a researcher do in order to refine the measuring instrument?
A researcher should conduct pilot testing to detect weaknesses in design and
instrumentation and to provide proxy data for selection of an appropriate sampling
design.
And how can this be done? It should be done by drawing subjects from the target
population and simulate procedures and protocols that have been designed for data
collection. Where the target population is small, pretesting may be conducting using
colleagues or surrogate respondents to help refine the measuring instrument.
7.5
Why would a researcher be bothered about ethics in research? The main reason for
this is that a research may at times be required to work with people and/or animals in the
course of carrying out their research. For example, it may involve changing the behaviour
of people which may cause pain or distress to them. Reasons why researchers need to
consider ethics in research include the following;
i. Cost-benefit analysis; it would be useless to carry out a research whose cost is far
much above the benefits sought therefore, before conducting a research, it is prudent
to establish the cost versus the benefits.
ii. All researchers need to obtain consent before they start to collect any data from the
filed and they should know that any participation should be voluntary.
iii. Confidentiality is vital for a researcher to maintain. All information given by
respondents should be held in confidence, including the respondents identity.
iv. Researchers should be responsible for their work and must be held accountable for it
at all times.
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v. Researchers need to be honest and open, to disclose all necessary information about
the intended research to the respondents before-hand. This would include the
purpose for which the research is being done.
vi. All respondents must be protected by the researcher, who should take a deliberate
effort to do so to prevent any harm on them.
7.6 Challenges Researchers Face in Data Collection
It is not smooth throughout the data collection session for the researcher. So, what
challenges do they face? Below is a discussion of some of these challenges;
i. Failure by the researcher to carry out a pilot study whose aim is to map out the
way for him. Pre-test, for example would enable the researcher to capture the short
comings of a research instrument.
ii. Failure to follow-up on non-respondents which may result in poor response rate
iii. Failure by the researcher to put adequate quality control measures in place.
Control can be done through use of observation, sample interviews and questionnaire
checking by the researcher to help detect errors.
iv. Poor targeting can also be a challenge. This has to do with poor defining and
selecting of the sample to be used in the study.
v. Last but not least is poor implementation of the collection process may result in
certain errors such as question errors, interview errors, recording errors and coding
errors.
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Lecture Objectives
8.1 Introduction
In the previous session we discussed a great deal on the research methodology in terms of
collecting primary and secondary data. We agreed that secondary data is given first
priority in order to be sure how much primary data will be required for a current research.
In this session we discuss in detail what it entails to analyse the data, whether primary or
secondary. We begin by understanding what a researcher should do to the data before
beginning to analyse it.
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i.
ii.
The second step is to develop a coding system or scheme that will enable the
researcher to capture all the relevant information from the data. A coding scheme is
an unambiguous set of prescriptions of how all possible responses can be represented
and what numerical codes to be assigned. For examples dichotomous responses of
Yes and No could be assigned figures 1 and 2 respectively while male and
female could be assigned 1 and 2 as well.
iii.
Then next step is deciding on the short time data storage to enable ease of analysis.
This could be done on paper which is easy to retrieve but bulky. There is also
electronic storage which is extensive but fragile.
iv.
Statistical software package to use to analyse data must then be chosen carefully
depending on the characteristics of the data to be analysed, the analyses to be
performed and the technical and financial constraints. Among the packages are word
processor, spread sheet, data bases and statistical systems
8.2 Meaning of Analysing and Interpreting Data
Analysing and interpreting results indicate that the research results of the study are being
generated.
The data are summarized, in other words analysed to provide information for testing the
hypotheses or answering the research questions.
How then does the researcher analyse the data? A researcher can perform the analysis
manually, by using a hand calculator or a computer as per the demands of the problem,
and the available facilities.
After completing the analysis results are tied together or summarized.
The results are interpreted in the light of the hypotheses and/or the research problem.
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These are then discussed in relation to: the existing body of knowledge, consistencies
and inconsistencies with the results of other research studies, and then the conclusions are
drawn.
This is followed by writing the research report.
8.3 Importance and Challenges of Data Analysis
Did you know that analysed data is one of the most important elements of a research?
Raw data does not mean anything to a researcher nor does it mean anything to the users
of the research work. Below we expound on this importance;
i. When data is analysed, it clearly shows the findings or results arrived at by the
researcher
ii. It also enables the researcher to identify areas or gaps for further research
iii. Equally important is the fact that it helps the researcher to know the results without
wasting time on primary and secondary data
iv. It can also enable the researcher to know the statistical methods used for analysing
data in a previous study
8.3.1 Data analysis and interpretation equally have their disadvantages. Let us
briefly look at some of these disadvantages;
i. It is important to know that some sources of data may be bias and therefore these
condition may affect the external validity of the statistical results
ii. Secondly, there are likely to be some errors in the methodology used hence lead to the
following;
iii. Wrong interpretation of results or wrong application of statistical packages
These are some of the advantages and disadvantages of data analysis in the area of
business research.
8.4 Qualitative or Quantitative Data Analysis?
Can data be analysed qualitatively and quantitatively? Yes, we need to realise that
data can be analysed qualitatively or quantitatively or both. Qualitative analysis is done
on data that is collected qualitatively and the opposite is true.
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8.3.1.2 What does the researcher look for in the process of analysis? In the process of
analysis, the researcher is interested in the relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses. These are subjected to tests of significance
to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).
What example can we give here? Take for instance, if there are two samples of monthly
sales, each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city, giving
two different mean values, then our problem may be whether the two mean values are
significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of
statistical tests a researcher can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the
result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the researcher will
infer that the two samples come from different universes and if the difference is due to
chance, the researcher can conclude that the two samples belong to the same universe.
Apart from analysing the relationships, what else can a researcher look for from the
results of (analysed) data? A researcher can also use the technique of analysis of
variance (ANOVA) to help him to analyze whether three or more varieties of brands sold
in certain markets yield significantly different sales (and or profits) or not. There are
other statistical measures the researcher can analyse from the collected data, like homoscadasticity, etc.
8.3.2 Hypothesis-Testing
The above steps in data analysis are likely to help the researcher to test the hypotheses, if
he had formulated them earlier. His aim at this point would be to answer the following
question;
Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual
question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
There are various tests developed by statisticians for this purpose;
i. Chi square test,
ii. t-test,
iii. F-test
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The choice of the test will depend on the nature and object of research inquiry.
The main goal of hypothesis-testing is to either accept the hypothesis or reject it.
What if the researcher had no hypothesis to start with? If the researcher had no
hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as
hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
8.3.3 Generalizations and Interpretation
Generalizations are only arrived at if a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times
(meaning similar results are found). This is the same as building a theory.
8.3.3.1 Interpretation of Research Findings and Drawing conclusions
Why is it necessary for one to interpret the research findings? Interpretation of
research findings is necessary since without this, it would not be possible to use the
results of the research for problem solving or decision making. It is done in order to suit
the objectives for which the research was planned.
So how are Interpretation of Research Findings and Drawing conclusions done? If
there appears to be patterns and trends in the findings, then generalisations can be made,
which is the value of research. For example if there is generally an increase in sale
(and/or in profits and revenue) after a certain period of time and expenditure in
advertising then conclusions and interpretations can be done in relation to the two
variables, that is increase in expenditure on advertisement and increase in
sales/profit/revenue.
The researcher may seek to explain the findings on the basis of some theory. This is
known as interpretation. The process of interpretation often triggers off new questions
which lead to further research.
8.3.3.2 Drawing Conclusions
In order for us to understand why and how conclusions are done, we need to understand
what research is.
So What is Research?
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Research follows a scientific method and the following are results of research;
This means that it makes an integrated use of inductive (concluding from the
general/unknown to the specific/known) and deductive (concluding from the
specific/known to the general/unknown) reasoning.
This makes it very useful for explaining and/or predicting phenomena.
The basic assumption of the scientific method is that every effect has a cause.
It starts with the construction of hypotheses from casual observations and background
knowledge (inductive reasoning) to reasoning out consequences or implications of
hypotheses (deductive reasoning) followed by testing of the implications and
confirmation or rejection of the hypotheses.
Integrated use of inductive and deductive reasoning is the essence of scientific method.
8.3.3.3 What is the Importance of Generalizations in Research?
In essence, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations
about the sample used and the results produced. If the researcher had no hypothesis to
start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some earlier theory. It is
known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new
questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
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Lecture Objectives
9.1 Introduction
Did you know that it would not make sense if the research findings were not shared with
readers and other users? In this session we want to look at how a researcher would make
sensible use of what he has researched on by posing the following question;
What should the researcher do with the research findings after data analysis,
generalizations and/or interpretations?
The data collected and analysed would be useless if it is not reported and disseminated.
The researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report
must be done with great care keeping in respect to the following:
The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) An abstract
(iii) Details of the research (iv) the main text, and (v) the end matter/ Appendices. Below
is a short description of each of these.
9.2 Reporting the findings- At a minimum the research report should contain the
following:
9.2.1 Preliminary Pages
These include the title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there
should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if
any, given in the report.
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9.2.2 An abstract
This consists of a synopsis of the problem, findings and conclusions all in a single
paragraph.
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ii. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which
follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
v. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to research results.
vi. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified
by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
9.5 Problems Encountered by Researchers
Researchers carrying out empirical research face several problems. They include the
following;
1. Lack of and/or inadequate scientific training in research methodology
The research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Before undertaking
research projects, researchers should be well systematically equipped with all the
methodological aspects.
How can we solve such a problem?
Efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting this
requirement.
2. Insufficient
interaction/collaboration
between
the
university
research
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-There
is
need
to
develop
some
mechanisms
of
universityindustry
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researchers and that too well in time. University Grants Commission must play a dynamic
role in solving this difficulty.
7. Unsatisfactory library management and functioning at many places and much of
the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals,
reports, etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.
This problem is felt more in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the
state capitals. Thus, efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all
governmental publications to reach our libraries.
9. Difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government and
other agencies charged with this responsibility. Researcher also faces the problem on
account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences
in coverage by the concerning agencies.
10. Problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data
collection and related things.
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vi.
vii.
viii.
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