1

ORGANOMETALLICS Fundamentals You Need to Know:

1. Electronegative/Electropositive concepts
Where do the positive and negative partial charges in a molecule reside? This is important for
determining how much electron (e-) density will be donated from a ligand to a metal and where a
nucleophile or electrophile will likely attack for chemical reactions.
2. Lewis dot structures and valence electron counts
Important for determining the number of electrons on a ligand and what the charge of the ligand is. We
almost always deal with ligands with even # of electrons. If a ligand has an odd # of electrons we add
additional electrons to get to an even #, usually to form a closed shell electron configuration with a
formal negative charge(s).
3. Organic line notation for drawing structures
Cl

Cl Cl
Cl
R2P

Ni

Cl
PR2

Cl

Cl
Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Ni
R2P

PR2

Cl
Ni
R2P

Cl
PR2

2
General Trends for the Transition Metals

Group 8 Metals
d3
21

d4
22

d5

d6

d7

d8

27

d 10
28

d 10s 1

23

24

25

Sc Ti

Cr

Mn Fe Co Ni Cu

Scandium

Titanium

Vanadium

Chromium

Manganese

Iron

Cobalt

Nickel

Copper

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

Zr

Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

Yttrium

Zirconium

Niobium

Molybdenum Technetium

Ruthenum

Rhodium

Palladium

Silver

57

72

73

74

76

77

78

79

75

26

d9

29

La Hf Ta W

Re Os Ir

Pt Au

Lanthanum

Rhenium

Platinum

Hafnium

Tantalum

Early Transiton Metals

Tungsten

Osmium

Iridium

Late Transition Metals

low electronegativities

higher electronegativities

higher oxidation states

lower oxidation states

harder metal centers

softer metal centers

OXOPHILLIC!!

Gold

3
Review of Some Important Ligand Nomenclature
Chelate Effect
chelate is from the Greek meaning claw or to grab on to. The chelate effect or
chelation is one of the most important ligand effects in transition metal coordination chemistry. Since most
metal-ligand bonds are relatively weak compared to C-C bonds, M-L bonds can often be broken rather
easily, leading to dissociation of the ligand from the metal. Consider the two metal ligand complexes shown
below:

L
M

L
L

L
L

The second metal complex is much less likely to lose one of the ligands due to the bridging group that holds
the ligands in proximity to the metal center. From a kinetic viewpoint, if one of the ligands dissociates, it
will remain close enough to the metal center to have a high probability of re-coordinating before another
ligand can get in and bind. From a thermodynamic viewpoint, multidentate ligands remove the entropic
driving force for dissociation thereby making more particles in solution (more disorder). The chelate effect
can be extremely dramatic. There are cases known where the presence of a chelate will change the
equilibrium constant by a factor of 1010 favoring the coordinated form of the ligand to the metal over the
dissociated form. Naturally, the longer and more flexible the bridging group in a chelating ligand, the less
dramatic the chelating effect. It is possible to design ligands with sterically enforced chelates.

kappa-x is a label that can be used with chelating ligands to show how many donor atoms are
bonded to the same metal center. For instance, some polydentate ligands may not have all the
potential donor atoms coordinated to the metal. In this case, the kappa symbol is useful in a formula
to show how many metal-ligand bonds are present.

eta-x was originally developed to indicate how many carbons of a -system were coordinated to a
metal center. Hapticity is another word used to describe the bonding mode of a ligand to a metal
center. You will occasionally see hx used instead of x, although this usually an error caused by
forgetting to turn a regular font h into the symbol font on most word processors in order to get a
Greek . An 5-cyclopentadienyl ligand, for example, has all five carbons of the ring bonding to the
transition metal center.

x values for carbon ligands where the x value is odd usually (but not always) indicate anionic carbon
ligands (e.g., 5-Cp, 1-CH3, 1-allyl or 3-allyl, 1-CH=CH2). Even x values usually indicate neutral
carbon -system ligands (e.g., 6-C6H6, 2-CH2=CH2, 4-butadiene, 4-cyclooctadiene). The # of electrons
donated by the ligand in the even (neutral) case is usually just equal to x.

M
M
5-Cp

3-Cp

M
3-allyl

1-allyl

4
The nomenclature, however, has been generalized by most in the organometallic field to include noncarbon ligands when there is some question as to the bonding mode (or hapticity) of the ligand donor atoms
to the metal. For example, the bisphosphine Ph2PCH2CH2PPh2 (dppe) is normally a chelating ligand, but
there are metal complexes known where only one of the phosphine atoms is coordinated to the metal center
and the other is dangling.
The nomenclature for such a singly coordinated bisphosphine ligand would be: M(1-dppe) -- meaning
that only one of the two possible phosphorus atoms is bonded to the metal. Note that in cases like this,
having an odd hapticity does NOT mean that the ligand is anionic (it is,
however, a 2 electron donor!). When dppe is coordinated in its normal
chelating mode, one usually omits the 2-designation, as this is considered
M PPh2
PPh2
redundant. Note that many authors use x instead of x when referring to
non-carbon ligands.
1-dppe

mu-x is the nomenclature used to indicate the presence of a

bridging ligand between two or more metal centers. The x refers to the number of metal centers
being bridged by the ligand. Usually most authors omit x = 2 and just use to indicate that the
ligand is bridging the simplest case of two metals.

Problem: Which of the following ligands will chelate the strongest to a transition metal
center? Why?

A)

B)
Me2P

PMe2
Me2P

C)

PMe2

D)
Me2P

PMe2

Me2P

PMe2

5
Order of ligands and metals in formulae: There is no set method of naming or ordering the listing of
metal and ligands in a metal/ligand complex that most authors follow. There are IUPAC formalisms, but
hardly any inorganic/organometallic chemists follow them.
There are some qualitative rules that most authors seem to use in American Chemical Society (ACS)
publications:
1)

in formulas with Cp (cyclopentadienyl) ligands, the Cp usually comes first, followed by the metal
center: Cp2TiCl2

2)

other anionic multi-electron donating ligands are also often listed in front of the metal, e.g.,
trispyrazolylborate anion (Tp)

3)

in formulas with hydride ligands, the hydride is sometimes listed first. Rules # 1 & 2, however, take
precedence over this rule: HRh(CO)(PPh3)2 and Cp2TiH2

4)

bridging ligands are usually placed next to the metals in question, then followed by the other ligands
(note that rules 1 & 2 take precedence): Co2(-CO)2(CO)6 , Rh2(-Cl)2(CO)4 , Cp2Fe2(-CO)2(CO)2

5)

anionic ligands are often listed before neutral ligands: RhCl(PPh3)3, CpRuCl(=CHCO2Et)(PPh3)
(neutral carbene ligand), PtIMe2(CCR)(bipy).

Problem: Sketch structures for the following:

a) CpRuCl(=CHCO2Et)(PPh3)

b) Co2(-CO)2(CO)6 (Co-Co bond, several possible structures)

c) trans-HRh(CO)(PPh3)2 [Rh(+1) = d8]

d) Ir2(-Cl)2(CO)4

e) Cp2TiCl2

[Ir(+1) = d8]

L
L

L
p z px

py
s

px

py

pz

Metal d
Orbitals

dx2 -y 2
dz 2

*
LUMO
(lowest unoccupied
molecular orbital)

HOMO
(highest occupied
molecular orbital)

Ligand
Orbitals

M-L bonding
Orbitals

7
18 Electron "Rule"
Organic compounds, of course, follow the 8 electron rule: there can only be a maximum of 8 valence
electrons around a carbon center.
The vast majority of stable diamagnetic organometallic compounds have 16 or 18 valence electrons due to
the presence of the five d orbitals which can hold 10 more electrons relative to C, O, N, etc.
Electron counting is the process of determining the number of valence electrons about a metal center in a
given transition metal complex. Unfortunately, there are two methods of electron counting, the ionic model
(aka American Method) and the covalent or neutral model (aka British/European Method). Both are shown
here, but I feel the covalent model is easier to use since it doesnt rely on knowledge of the metal oxidation
state, which can sometimes be ambiguous. However, the ionic model is more intuitive when dealing with
early transition metal complexes, and is a more natural extension of coordination chemistry. Whichever you
use, just be consistent to avoid mistakes.
To determine the electron count for a metal complex using the covalent method:
1)

Determine the number of electrons contributed by the transition metal center(s) using the metal
centers neutral d-electron count. This simply corresponds to the metals group number.

2)

Determine the number of electrons contributed by the ligands.

a) Negatively charged ligands donate 1 electron per charge
b) Neutral ligands donate 2 electrons
c) For multidentate ligands, simply treat each donor site as an individual donor and sum up the total
electrons donated for the whole ligand

3)

Add up the electron counts for the metal center and ligands

4)

If the molecule has an overall formal charge, add one electron for each negative charge and subtract
one electron for each positive charge

To determine the electron count for a metal complex using the ionic method:
1)

Determine the oxidation state of the transition metal center(s) and the metal centers resulting delectron count. To do this one must:
a) note any overall charge on the metal complex
b) know the charges of the ligands bound to the metal center (neutral, anionic or cationic)
c) know the number of electrons being donated to the metal center from each ligand (anionic ligands
donate 2 electrons per charge, neutral donors donate 2 electrons per bound atom)

2)

Add up the electron counts for the metal center and ligands

8
Complexes with 18 e- counts are referred to as saturated, because there are no empty low-lying orbitals
to which another incoming ligand can coordinate. Complexes with counts lower than 18e- are called
unsaturated and can electronically bind additional ligands.

Exceptions to the 18e Rule

Group 8 Metals
d3
21

d4
22

d5

d6

d7

d8

27

d 10
28

d 10s 1

23

24

25

Sc Ti

Cr

Mn Fe Co Ni Cu

Scandium

Titanium

Vanadium

Chromium

Manganese

Iron

Cobalt

Nickel

Copper

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

Zr

Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

Yttrium

Zirconium

Niobium

Molybdenum Technetium

Ruthenum

Rhodium

Palladium

Silver

57

72

73

74

76

77

78

79

75

26

d9

29

La Hf Ta W

Re Os Ir

Pt Au

Lanthanum

Rhenium

Platinum

Hafnium

Tantalum

Early Transition
Metals
16e and sub-16e
configurations
are common
Coordination
geometries
higher than 6

Tungsten

Osmium

Iridium

Gold

Middle Transition
Metals

Late Transition
Metals

18e
configurations
are common

16e and sub-16e

configurations
are common

Coordination
geometries
of 6 are common

Coordination
geometries
of 5 or lower

9
Ligands, Bonding Types, Charges, and Electron Donor Numbers

Ligand Name

Formal
Charge

Bonding Type

Molecular Hydrogen: H2

Electrons
Donated
Covalent
Method

M
H
Hydride: H

M-H

-1

Hydride: H

-1

Halide: X

M-X

-1

Halide: X
bridging

-1

3
(-1 charge
& lone
pair)

-1

1 or 3

-1

3
(-1 charge
& lone
pair)

-2

-2

2
(1 to each
M)

-2

Alkoxide, thiolate: OR, SR

M
M- OR

Alkoxide, thiolate: OR, SR

bridging

R
O
M

Peroxide: O22
2
Peroxide: O22
2 bridging
Oxide, sulfide: O2, S2

M
O
O
M

M O

M O
Amine, phosphine, arsine:
NR3, PR3, AsR3

M-NR3
M-PR3

10
Amide, phosphide:
NR2, PR2

M N

M P

R
R

M N

Amide, phosphide:
NR2, PR2 bridging:

-1

1
3

RR

-1

3
(-1 charge
& lone
pair)

-2

2 (bent)

P
M

M
R

Imido: NR2

M N

4 (linear)

M N R
-2

2 or 4
(-2 charge
alone or w/
lone pair)

MN:

-3

Nitrosyl: NO
linear form

M N O

+1

Nitrosyl: NO
bent form

M N

-1

Nitrosyl: NO
bridging

+1

2 to each
metal

Imido: NR2
bridging

R
N

N
M

Nitride, phosphide:
N3, P3

N
M

Carbonyl: CO

M C O
O

Carbonyl: CO
,2 mode

C
M

11
0

1 to each
metal

1 to each
metal

C R

2 or 4

2 to each
metal

2 to each
metal

Carbonyl: CO
bridging

C
M

Isocyanide: CN-R

M C N R
R

Isocyanide: CN-R
bridging

N
C
M

Alkene: R2C=CR2
2 bonding mode

M
Alkyne: RCCR
2 bonding mode

R C
M

Alkyne: RCCR
bridging

M
Dienes: R2C=CH-CH=CR2
4 bonding mode

Dienes: R2C=CH-CH=CR2
bridging

M
Benzene: C6H6
6 bonding mode
Ketones, aldehydes:
2 bonding mode

M
R
R

O
M

12
Alkyl: CH3, CH2R
1 bonding mode
Aryl: C6H5
1 terminal
Alkenyl (vinyl), alkynyl:
CH=CH2, CCH
1 terminal

M CR 3

-1

-1

-1

-1

3
(1 to M via
bond, 2
to M via
bond)

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

M
R

M
Cyclopropenyl: C3H3
3 terminal

Allyl: C3H5
3 terminal

Allyl: C3H5
1 terminal

Alkenyl (vinyl):
CH=CH2
2 terminal
Alkenyl (vinyl), alkynyl:
CH=CH2, CCH
,2 terminal

-1

M
M

Pentadienyl: C5H7
5 terminal

M
Pentadienyl: C5H7
3 terminal

13
Pentadienyl: C5H7
1 terminal

Cyclopentadienyl: C5H5
5

-1

-1

-1

2
(consider it
neutral)

M
M

Cyclopentadienyl: C5H5
3

M
Carbene: =CYR
where Y is a substituent
capable of interaction with
the carbene carbon atom
Alkylidene: =CR22
where no substituents capable
of bonding to the carbene
carbon atom are present
Carbyne or Alkyidyne:
CR3

R
M C
Y
R

-2

M C

2
(consider it
dianionic)

M C R

-3

14

How do I Figure Out Ligand Charges & Donor #s ??

(without memorizing that entire !#&!@%$* list)
First, you should know the charges and donor # for the common ligands (this will significantly speed up your
counting). Also, I like to stick with using the covalent (neutral) counting method because this avoids
confusion caused by weird oxidation states:
Neutral 2e- donors:

Anionic donors:

PR3 (phosphines), CO (carbonyl), R2C=CR2 (alkenes), RCCR (alkynes,

can also donate
4 e-), NCR (nitriles)
Cl (chloride), Br (bromide), I (iodide), CH3 (methyl), CR3 (alkyl),

Ph (phenyl), H (hydride)
The following can also donate e- from lone pairs if needed, but initially
count them as monoanionic donors (unless they are bridging ligands):
OR (alkoxide), SR (thiolate), NR2 (amide), PR2 (phosphide)

Multielectron Anionic donors:

O2 (oxide), S2 (sulfide), NR2 (imido), CR22 (alkylidene), N3

(nitride) and from the previous list: OR (alkoxide), SR (thiolate), NR2
(inorganic amide), PR2 if lone pairs are used

Anionic donors:

C3H5 (allyl), C5H5 (cyclopentadienyl, Cp)

In class please note that we are using the Covalent or Neutral Method of electron-counting. Most
organometallic chemists prefer this method since it is simpler. For example, for anionic ligands, the ligand
donates 1 electron per charge, unless it is bridging. Neutral ligands usually donate 2 electrons per atom
bound to the metal center. For multidentate ligands, just count up the individual donor atoms. For ligands
with hapticity labels, the number of electrons it donates is merely the superscript next to the label. For
example, C5H5- (Cp) can be 1, 3, or 5, which means it acts as a 1, 3 or 5 electron donor, respectively.

15
Simple Example using the neutral method:

CH3
R 3P

Re
CO

CO
PR3

1) There is no overall charge on the complex

2) There is one anionic ligand (CH3, methyl group). All other ligands are neutral.
3)

Since there is no overall charge on the complex (it is neutral), and since we have one anionic ligand
present, the Re metal atom must have a +1 charge to compensate for the one negatively charged ligand.
The +1 charge on the metal is also its oxidation state. So the Re is the in the +1 oxidation state. We
denote this in two different ways: Re(+1), Re(I), or ReI. I prefer the Re(+1) nomenclature because it is
clearer. Most chemistry journals, however, prefer the Roman numeral notation in parenthesis after the
element.
However, using the neutral method, we dont need to determine the oxidation state for electron
counting. Looking at the Periodic Table, we see that Re is in Group 7, hence donates 7 electrons.

4)

All the neutral ligands, CO, PR3 and C2H4 (ethylene) donate 2 electrons (none are bridging).

Now we can do our electron counting using the neutral method on the left and the ionic on the right. Both
methods give the same result.
Re
2 PR3
2 CO
CH3
CH2=CH2

7e4e4e1e2eTotal:

18e-

Re(I) (d6)
2 PR3
2 CO
CH3
CH2=CH2

6e4e4e2e2eTotal:

18e-

16
Next Electron-Counting Example:

H3CNC

H3CNC
H3CNC

CNCH3
Mo

2+

CNCH3

CNCH3
CNCH3

1) There is a +2 charge on the complex

2)

The CNCH3 (methyl isocyanide) ligand is neutral, but lets check the Lewis Dot structure to make sure
that is correct:

C
3)

NCH3

Because there is a +2 charge on the complex and there are all neutral ligands present, the Mo ion is the
only source of the charge and therefore must have an oxidation state of Mo(II).

Now we can do our electron counting, again with neutral on the left and ionic on the right:
Mo
7 CNCH3
+ 2 charge
Total:

6e14e- 2e18e-

Mo(+2) (d4)
7 CNCH3

4e14eTotal:

18e-

In the ionic method, the charge was incorporated into the oxidation state of the metal. In the neutral method,
the charge was taken into account separately. The result is still the same.

17

More Complicated Metal Compound Analysis:

1) There is no overall charge on the complex
2) There is one anionic ligand (3-C3H5, allyl).
H

H
H

H
H

Me

+e-

H
H

Rh

H
H

H
H

H
H

PPh3

+e-

H
H

Rule of Thumb: -based carbon ligands that have odd number attachments to the metal center are usually
anionic (except for CO and CNR [isocyanide] ligands) and donate one more electron than the number of
carbons bonded to the metal center. So our 3-C3H5-, allyl ligand is anionic and donates 3e- to the metal
center using neutral electron counting rules (consider it a combination of an anionic 1 alkyl ligand and a
neutral 2 alkene ligand).
The C5H5Me ligand is NOT a simple anionic cyclopentadienyl ligand. It is a neutral ligand with two alkenes
that each act as neutral 2e- donors to the metal:
If you work out the Lewis Dot structure for this ligand you get an even # of
electrons so there is no need to add an electron to get an anionic ligand. Note that
it is EASY to forget that there is an H on the Cp carbon that has the methyl group
attached if you are not thinking about organic line notation.
3)

Me
H

Because the complex is neutral and there is one anionic ligand present, the Rh atom must have a +1
charge to compensate for the one negatively charged ligand. So the Rh atom is in the (I) oxidation
state.

Now we can electron-count using the neutral method:

Rh
PR3
4-C5H5Me
3-C3H5

9e2e4e3eTotal:

18e-

18
Metal-Metal Bonded Example:

R2
P

P
R2

Mo

Cl

Mo

Cl
C

R2
P

P
R2

At this point we will consider metal-metal (M-M) bonds to be simple covalent bonds with each metal
contributing 1e- to the bond. Most M-M bonded complexes are symmetrical, which means that one only has
to e- count one metal center. If the metals are different, however, one does need to figure out each metal
center.
The simple rule for M-M bonding is that if you have two metal atoms next to one another and each has an
odd electron-count, you pair the odd electrons to make a M-M bond. This is electron-counted as a 1edonation from one metal to the other.
This example also has -Cl ligands. Bridging ligands with at least 2 lone pairs almost always donate 2e- to
each metal center.
Oxidation state determination: There are a total of two anionic ligands for two metal centers (overall
complex is neutral). Thus each metal center needs to have a +1 oxidation state to balance the anionic
ligands.
Very Common Mistake: Students determining the oxidation state for complexes with 2 or more metal
centers often add up all the anionic ligands and then figure out the oxidation state for only one of the metal
centers based on this. You need to take into account the charge (if any) on the complex and divide up the
anionic ligand charges between all the metal centers present. Each metal in the complex shown above is in
the +1 oxidation state NOT +2. For this reason, the neutral method of electron counting is better, since it
avoids this problem in the first place.

Now we can electron-count:

Note that each bridging chloride is donating
1e- to one Mo center and 2e-, a lone pair, to
the other. In order to keep the symmetry as
high as possible, we consider each Mo to
have one anionic Cl ligand and another Cl
forming a coordinate covalent bond using a
lone pair.

Mo
2PR3
2CO
2-Cl

6e4e4e(1+2)e-

Sub-total:
*Mo-Mo
TOTAL:

17e1e18e-

*This is the number of electrons PER METAL! Of course, a Mo-Mo single bond will have two electrons in
total. For a Mo=Mo double bond, each metal contributes 2 electrons; for a MoMo triple bond, each metal
contributes 3 electrons.
This structure is called an edge-sharing bioctahedron (i.e., two octahedral metal centers sharing a common
edge).

19
Practice Problems in Electron Counting

Mo

Re

Re

7e-

6-benzene

6e-

5-Cp

5e-

(MeO)3P
18e-

(MeO)3P

Cl

Cl

Ni

Ta

PR3

PR3
O
N

NMe2
Mo
Me2N

Cr
NMe2

NMe2

PMe3

Ti

Br

Br

OC

OC

CO

CO

PMe3

Pd

Ni
N
O

20

Mo

Mn
Ph3P

C
O

N
O

Sc

C
O

OMe

Co

OMe

Me 3 P

Me 3 P

PMe 3

R
PMe 3
CO

OC

Cr

OC

Ph2

OR
PMe 3

Ph2

CH 2 t-Bu

CH

21
Why is Electron Counting Important??
Below is an early proposed mechanism for catalytic hydroformylation of terminal alkenes (the formation of
aldehydes from alkenes, H2 and CO) catalyzed by one of the famous Wilkinsons Complexes. One of the
intermediate complexes drawn in the cycle below is highly unlikely and studies have shown that it does not
exist (as far as we can tell). Can you tell which one?
Cotton & Wilkinson, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd Edition (1972)

22

Carbonyl Ligands

Metal carbonyls form one of the oldest (and most important) classes of organometallic complexes.
Most metal carbonyls are toxic!

23
Physical Properties of Selected Metal Carbonyls
Color

mp C

Sym

IR CO cm1

V(CO)6

blue-black

70(d)

Oh

1976

paramagnetic, S = 1/2

Cr(CO)6

white

subl

Oh

2000

Cr-CO = 1.91 , air-stable

Mo(CO)6

white

subl

Oh

2004

Mo-CO = 2.06 , air-stable

W(CO)6

white

subl

Oh

1998

W-CO = 2.06 , air-stable in

solid state.

Fe(CO)5

yellow

-20

D3h

2034, 2013

Fe2(CO)9

gold plates

D3h

2082, 2019, 1829

Fe3(CO)12

green

low

complex

Ru(CO)5

colorless

-16

D3h

2035, 1999

Co2(CO)8

orange-red

51(d)

D3d

2107, 2069, 2042,

2031, 2023, 1991

Ni(CO)4

colorless

-25

Td

2057

Misc

bp = 103C, toxic, Fe-CO (ax) =

1.81 , Fe-CO (eq) = 1.83 , h
produces Fe2(CO)9
Fe-Fe = 2.46 , insoluble in
most solvents except for THF
where is dissociates to produce
Fe(CO)4 + Fe(CO)5
unstable, forms Ru3(CO)12
solid state structure has 2
-COs (1886, 1857 cm1).
Solution structure is unbridged.
Co-Co = 2.54 in solid-state.
bp 34C, highly toxic, COs
quite labile, Ni-CO = 1.84

24
Molecular Orbital Diagram for CO:

A simple MO diagram for CO is shown above. The highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) is
indicated by the pair of electrons. This is the 5 lone pair orbital mainly centered on the carbon and weakly
antibonding with respect to the C-O bond (although that isnt too clear from the orbital contour plot). The
weak C-O antibonding nature of this MO, however, is clearly seen in the experimental data presented below.
The LUMO is strongly * antibonding and is low enough in energy to act as a good acceptor orbital for
interacting with filled d-orbitals on metals.
Experimental Data Supporting Nature of MOs in CO
Species

Config

C-O

CO cm1

CO

(5)2

1.13

2143

CO+

(5)1

1.11

2184

5 MO is weakly antibonding

CO*

(5)1(2)1

S 1.24

1489

2 MO is strongly antibonding

T 1.21

1715

Comment

Three types (two of which are important) of CO-Metal bonding interactions:

M-C bond:
C-O bond:
CO freq:

increases
increases
increases

increases
decreases
decreases

increases
decreases
decreases

25
Carbonyl IR Stretching Frequencies

The position of the carbonyl bands in the IR depends mainly on the bonding mode of the CO (terminal,
bridging) and the amount of electron density on the metal being -backbonded to the CO.

The number (and intensity) of the carbonyl bands one observes depends on the number of CO ligands
present and the symmetry of the metal complex. There are also secondary effects such as Fermi
resonance and overtone interactions that can complicate carbonyl IR spectra.

Bonding Modes:
As one goes from a terminal CO-bonding mode to 2-bridging and finally 3-bridging, there is a
relatively dramatic drop in the CO stretching frequency seen in the IR.

O C

O C

M
M

CO IR (cm -1 )

free CO

terminal mode

2 bridging

3 bridging

2143

2120 - 1850

1850 - 1720

1730 - 1500

(for neutral metal complexes)

Note that these ranges are typical for neutral transition metal complexes with an average amount of
electron density on the metal center (see discussion below). Bridging carbonyls tend to have weaker and
broader IR bands.
Effect of Electron Density on Metal:
As the electron density on a metal center increases, more -backbonding to the CO ligand(s) takes place.
This futher weakens the C-O bond by pumping more electron density into the formally empty carbonyl *
orbital. This increases the M-CO bond strength making it
Complex
CO cm-1
more double-bond-like, i.e., the resonance structure
dx
M=C=O assumes more importance.
free CO
2143
This can clearly be seen on the table to the right that
illustrates the effect of charge and electronegativity on the
2204
[Ag(CO)]+
d10
amount of metal to CO -backbonding and the CO IR
Ni(CO)4
2060
stretching frequency.
Shown below is another example of the dramatic effect on
1890
[Co(CO)4]
the CO IR stretching frequencies on reducing Fe2(PPh2)2(CO)6 by 2 electrons to form the dianionic complex
1790
[Fe(CO)4]2
[Fe2(-PPh2)2(CO)6]2-. The average CO frequency shifts
almost 150 cm-1 to lower energy on reduction.
2090
[Mn(CO)6]+
d6

Cr(CO)6

2000

[V(CO)6]

1860

26

Ph2 Ph 2

P
OC

OC

Fe

Fe

C
O

C
O

CO

OC

2000

1900

Fe

C
O
2100

2-

Ph 2

O
C

CO

Fe
P

CO

C
O

Ph 2

1800

Wavenumbers (cm-1 )

The carbonyl region in the IR spectrum can be very distinctive and useful for help in assigning structures and
for indicating the relative amount of electron density present on the metal:

O
C

OC

Ni2 ( -CO)(CO) 2 (dppm) 2

Ni

CO
Ni

-CO

+CO

Ni 2 (CO) 4(dppm) 2

OC

OC

Ni

Ni
P

-CO

+CO
P

2 Ni(CO) 3 ( 1-dppm)

OC

OC

Ni
C
O

2000

1900

1800

Wavenumbers (cm -1)

1700

CO

CO

27
Ligand Donation Effects:
The ability of the ligands on a metal to donate electron density to the metal center certainly has
considerable effect on the absolute amount of electron density on that metal. This, in turn, naturally effects
the CO IR stretching frequencies in metal carbonyl complexes.
Complex
CO cm1
Ligands that are trans to a carbonyl can have a particularly large
effect on the ability of the CO ligand to effectively -backbond to Mo(CO) (PF )
2090, 2055
3 33
the metal. For example 2 trans -backbonding ligands will
2040, 1991
partially compete for the same d-orbital electron density, Mo(CO)3(PCl3)3
weakening each others net M-L -backbonding.
Mo(CO) [P(OMe) ]
1977, 1888
3

33

Mo(CO)3(PPh3)3

1934, 1835

Mo(CO)3(NCCH3)3

1915, 1783

Mo(CO)3(triamine)3

1898, 1758

Mo(CO)3(pyridine)3

1888, 1746

When the trans ligand is a -donating ligand, this can increase

the M-CO bond strength (more M=C=O character) by allowing unimpeded metal to CO -backbonding.
Pyridine and amines are not that strong -donors, but they are even worse -backbonding ligands. So the
CO has virtually no competition for -backdonation.
Based on CO IR stretching frequencies, the following ligands can be ranked from best -acceptor to worst:
NO > CO > PF3 > RNC > PCl3 > P(OR)3 > PR3 > RCN > NH3
Semi-Bridging Carbonyls:
~ 150

O
C

Unsymmetrical bridging form. * system accepts electron density from second metal
center. Usually accompanied by distortions away from a linear M-CO (180) or a
symmetrically bridging CO (120). Typical M-CO angle around 150 (but with considerable
variations).

Example: Substituting 2 carbonyls in Fe2(-CO)3(CO)6 with a bipy ligand leads

considerable change in the structure, particularly in the bridging CO region. The better -donating
ligand increases the e- density on that Fe atom. This generates an asymmetrically charged complex.
higher partial negative charge on the bipy-substituted Fe center can be reduced by dumping some
specifically into the * orbital of one of the bridging carbonyls, turning it into a semi-bridging CO.
filled Fe d orbital

Fe

C
Cotton & Troup
JACS, 1974, 96, 1233

Fe
N

C
O

CO * empty antibonding
acceptor orbital

to a
bipy
The
of it

28
/ Bridging CO:

O
C

O
C

C
M

This is where the CO not only acts as a traditional -donor/-acceptor to one or more metal centers, but also
as a -donor to additional metals. This will occur for more electron deficent metal complexes where the
metal centers have less need to -backbond to the carbonyl, but have the empty orbitals to accept electron
density from the carbonyl -system. The CO ligand here can act as a 4 or 6 electron donor!

Problem: Which of the following metal carbonyl compounds will have the highest CO stretching
frequency in the IR? Why? Will this be the most electron-rich or deficient compound?

a)

b)

CO
F

Ir

CO

Br

CO

CO
Ir

CO

Br

CO

Br

c)

CO
Me2N

Me2N

Ir

CO

CO
NMe2

What about Nitrosyl, NO, ligands? They have an odd number of valence electrons (11). The MO diagram
resembles that of CO, but the extra electron populates the 2 (antibonding) orbital. As a result, NO can act as
a single electron donor due to the presence of a singly occupied HOMO (SOMO). Because the SOMO is *
symmetry with respect to the N-O bond, this means the NO ligand will adopt a bent M-N-O bond angle.
If the metal is electron deficient, the HOMO-1 orbital, which is the 3 (weakly antibonding) orbital, may get
involved in the M-NO bond. This results in a total of 3 electrons being donated to the metal center and
therefore a linear M-N-O bond angle.
The ability of the NO ligand to switch between 1 e- and 3 e- bonding modes is very useful for ligand
exchange reactions and catalysis involving transition metals.
O2 ligands also bind in a bent manner, but are considered 2 e- donors. However, they may also adopt side-on
bonding similar to alkenes (specifically the valence isoelectronic ethylene) and N2 ligands.

29

Phosphine Donors
All phosphorus ligands have the ability to act as -donors to metals using their lone pair of electrons.
However, like carbonyl ligands, phosphines and their related ligands can accept electron density from filled
metal orbitals that have the appropriate energy and -symmetry. This makes them very effective -acceptor
ligands whose properties can be manipulated by changing the R-groups on the P atom.
The exact nature of the orbitals that phosphine ligands use in -bonding has been debated upon and there are
two schools of thought regarding the bonding on phosphorus-containing ligands to metals. One concept
suggests that since P is a period 3 element, it possesses vacant 3d orbitals which are low enough in energy to
participate in bonding.
empty d orbitals on phosphine
can act as -acceptor orbitals

not very important unless R-groups are electron withdrawing

R
Phosphine ligands

Excellent "soft"-donor ligands

with a wide variety of easily adjusted
steric and electronic factors
neutral 2e- donor

R
R = carbon groups
R = OR groups

phosphine (N. Amer. & UK)

phosphane (Europe, esp. Germany)
phosphite

R = mixed carbon and OR groups

phosphinite

A more preferred theory, indeed one that explains experimental and theoretical data a bit more accurately, is
one that is more in line with molecular orbital considerations. In the case of CO, the CO * orbital accepts
electrons from the metal. In PR3, the molecule possesses three filled P-R bonding orbitals and therefore
also has three corresponding antibonding * orbitals. These * orbitals are empty and can therefore accept
electrons from the filled metal d-orbitals which possess bonding symmetry.

R
Empty P-R * orbital plays the role of acceptor in metal
complexes of PR3

P
R

vacant P-R * orbital

As the atom attached to P becomes more

electronegative, the empty P-X * orbital becomes more
stable and moves lower in energy, hence a better
acceptor of electron density from the metal

30

When the R groups become more electronegative, both the P-R bonding and antibonding orbitals become
lower in energy. At the same time, the phosphorus contribution to the * orbital increases (the orbital
becomes more localized on the P atom) so the size of the * lobe that points towards the metal increases. As
a result, we can show the order of increasing -acid character (-acceptor strength) according to the
following trend:
PMe3 P(NR2)3 < PAr3 < P(OMe)3 < P(OAr)3 < PCl3 < CO PF3
Because of the three R-groups on the phosphine ligand and the overall tetrahedral coordination geometry it is
the most versatile of the neutral 2-electron donor ligands. Variation of the three R-groups can effect:

large changes in the donor/acceptor properties of the phosphine (from excellent donor/poor -acceptor
to poor donor/excellent -acceptor)

large changes in the steric profile of the phosphine (from fairly small to enormous)

generation of a large number of polydentate polyphosphines (bis-, tris-, tetra-, penta-, and
hexaphosphine ligands are all known) that can adopt specific coordination geometries (cis-enforcing,
facial tridentate, bridging, bridging and chelating, etc.)
R2
P

P
R2

PR2

R2P

PR2

M(3-tripod)

racemic-M2(P4)

facial coordinating

binucleating phosphine
able to bridge and chelate 2 metals

Tolmans Cone Angle and Electronic Parameter

Phosphine ligands can be ordered in terms of their electron-donating ability and steric bulk.
The electron-donating ability of a phosphine ligand was determined by reacting one equivalent of the
phosphine (monodentate only) with Ni(CO)4 to make a Ni(CO)3(phosphine) complex. He then measured the
carbonyl CO IR stretching frequency (the very sharp a1 high energy mode) of the Ni(CO)3(phosphine)
complex. The more electron density the phosphine ligand donated to the metal center, the more -backbonding occurred to the carbonyl ligands, weakening the CO triple bond, thus lowering the CO IR
stretching frequency.
Lowest CO stretching
frequency:

most donating
phosphine

OC

O
C

C
O

Highest CO stretching
frequency:

least donating
phosphine
(best -acceptor)

31
The size or steric bulk of a phosphine ligand was determined from simple 3-D space-filling models of
the phosphine ligands. Tolman coined the name cone angle () to indicate the approximate amount of
space that the ligand consumed about the metal center.

cone angle

Phosphine Steric Bulk Ranked by Tolmans Cone Angle (smallest to largest)

PR3

mixed

P(OR)3

PX3

PMe3

118
Ph2PCH2PPh2

121

PMe2Ph

122
PMe2CF3

PCl3

Ph2PCH2CH2PPh2
PPh2H

124
125

P(OPh)3

128

P(O-i-Pr)3

130
PBr3

PEt3, PPr3, PBu3

()

PPh2(OMe)

131
132

PPh3

145

P(i-Pr)3

160

PCy3

PPh(t-Bu)2

170

P(t-Bu)3

182

P(C6F5)3

184

P(o-Tol)3

194

P(mesityl)3

212

Phosphine Donor Ability Ranked by Tolmans Electronic Parameter (most donating to least)
PR3

mixed

P(OR)3

PX3

, cm1

P(t-Bu)3

2056.1

PCy3

2056.4

P(i-Pr)3

2059.2

PBu3

2060.3

32
PEt3

2061.7

PMe3

2064.1

PPh3

2068.9
P(O-i-Pr)3

2075.9

P(OEt)3

2076.3

P(OMe)3

2079.5

P(O-2,4-Me-C6H3)3

PH3

P(OPh)3

2083.2
2085.3

P(C6F5)3

2090.9
PCl3

2097.0

PF3

2110.8

Commonly Used Monodentate Phosphines:

PPh3 (145, medium donor), triphenylphosphine, tpp The KING

air-stable, white crystalline material, no odor to speak of

Increasing -Donor Ability:

PMePh2 (136), PMe2Ph (122), PMe3 (118), PEt3 (132)
P(Cy)3 (170) tricyclohexylphosphine, P(t-Bu)3 (182)

the alkyl phosphines are strong -donors; usually colorless liquids, somewhat to very air-sensitive but
can be stable in water; horrible smelling (unless very high MW and non-volatile)

Poor -Donors, Good -Acceptors:

Phosphites: P(OMe)3 (107), P(OEt)3 (110), P(OPh)3 (128)

phosphites are relatively poor -donors, but can be fairly good -acceptor ligands (about half as good as
CO); low MW ones are usually colorless liquids, higher MW compounds are white solids; usually airstable but moisture sensitive; sometimes sweet smelling

PF3 (104) v. poor donor; strong -acceptor, almost as good as CO

33
Commonly Used Polydentate Phosphines:

Ph2P

Ph2P

PPh2

Me2P

PPh2

PMe2

dppm (121)

dppe (125)

dmpe (107)

diphenylphosphinomethane
bis(diphenylphosphino)methane

diphenylphosphinoethane
bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane

dimethylphosphinoethane
bis(dimethylphosphino)ethane

bridging ligand

chelating ligand

chelating ligand
electron-rich, strong donor

Ph2P

PPh2
O

dppp (127)
diphenylphosphinopropane
bis(diphenylphosphino)propane

chelating ligand
forms 6-membered rings
typical P-M-P
angle for a
6-membered
chelate ring
88-92

Ph2P

PPh2

86.9

Ph2P

Rh

Rh

Ni

S
Ph2P

PPh2

A-Frame bimetallic

Rh2(-S)(CO)2(dppm)2
Kubiak & Eisenberg
JACS, 1977, 99, 6129

PPh2

Cl

Cl
95.5

typical P-M-P angle for a

5-membered chelate ring
82-87

NiCl2(dppe)
van Koten, et al
Acta Crys. C, 1987, 43, 1878

34
Problem:
For each of the following pairs of metal complexes, which should have the highest
average carbonyl IR stretching frequency.
a) CpFeBr(CO)2 -or- CpRuCl(CO)(PMe3)
b) MnCl(CO)5 -or- Cr(CO)6
c) (3-allyl)Co(PPh3)(CO)2 -or- (3-allyl)Co(PMe3)(CO)2
d) [Rh(CO)2(P(OPh)3)2]+ -or- Rh(CH3)3(CO)(dmpe)
e) Mo(CO)4(PMe3)2 -or- W(CO)4{P(OMe)3}2

31P NMR Spectroscopy

The 31P (P-31) nucleus has a nuclear spin of and is 100% abundant! This makes it functionally equivalent
to the 1H nucleus: therefore, 31P NMR is an extremely valuable tool in studying phosphines in general, and
M-PR3 complexes in particular. This is another reason why phosphines are such valuable ligands.
The typical chemical shift region for 1H NMR spans about 20 ppm. The 31P NMR chemical shift region,
however, is much larger and can span almost 1000 ppm (including phosphide ligands)! Chemical shifts for
some phosphines are listed below:

P compound

Chemical Shift (ppm)

P compound

Chemical Shift (ppm)

PCl3

220

0 (reference in D2O)

PMeCl2

191

H3PO4
P(CF3)3

PCy(OBu)2

184

PPh3

-6

P(OMe)3

140

PEt3

-20

P(OPh)3

126

NaPPh2

-24

PEt2Cl

119

PMePh2

-28

-2

35
PPh2(OMe)

115

PPr3

-33

PF3
PMe2Cl

97

PMe2Et

-50

96

PMe3

-62

PMe2(O-t-Bu)

91

P(CN)3

-135

O=P(CH2OH)3
O=PMe3

45

PH3
KPH2

-238

36

-255

It is important to note that the positive and negative convention for chemical shifts for 31P NMR compounds
changed in the early 1970s. In these older references, free PMe3 would be listed with a +62 ppm chemical
shift.
31

P NMR, as with 1H and

complexes and structures:

13

C methods, can be exceptionally useful in characterizing metal-phosphine

125 Hz

125 Hz

Ph 2 P
OC

OC
+23 ppm

- 23 ppm

PPh 2

Ni
C
O

The 31P NMR spectrum shows the Ni complex possesses two phosphorus environments. The phosphine
ligand is bis(diphenylphosphino)methane (abbreviated dppm). It is structurally related to the monodentate
ligand, PMePh2, which has a 31P chemical shift of -28 ppm when not bound to a metal. The spectrum of the
complex above shows a doublet of doublets with largely different chemical shifts. One doublet is at -23 ppm,
which is very close to what we may expect for an unbound dppm molecule. The other doublet is at +23 ppm,
and is likely from the P atom bound to the Ni center. The coupling constants for both doublets are identical,
suggesting the splitting results from the coupling of one P environment to another.
Problem: Which of the following complexes will have the highest CO stretching frequency in the IR?
Why?
A)
B)
C)

+
[Mn(CO)3{P(OPh)3}3]
W(CO)3(PEt3)3
[(PF3)Ag(CO)]+

Problem: Which of the following complexes will have the lowest CO stretching frequency in the IR?
Why?
A)
B)
C)

Ni(CO)(PMe3)3
Fe(CO)4(PPh3)
[Re(CO)2{P(OMe)3}4]+

36

Hydride Ligands

Considered a 1e- donor using the neutral electron counting method, similar to a halide or alkyl.
Hydride nomenclature comes from the NMR behavior:
M-H ~

5 to 25 ppm
for d1to d9 metals!!
upfield shift indicates hydridic chemical nature

HCo(CO)4

1H NMR = 10.7 ppm

H+ + Co(CO)4
strong acid in H2O, MeOH
similar to HCl !!

BUT: HCo(CO)4

d0
d10

Cp*2ZrH2

= + 7.5 ppm

[HCu{P(p-tolyl)3}]6

= + 3.5 ppm

The presence of partially filled d orbitals on the transition metal has a considerable shielding effect (moves
the chemical shift of the NMR resonance to more negative ppm) on the hydride 1H NMR chemical shift
position.
IR Spectra:

M-H
M2(-H)

2200 - 1600 cm1 } can be very weak or absent

1600 - 800 cm1 } broader (weak or absent)
Late Transition Metals: tend to be more protic
Early Transition Metals: tend to be more hydridic
(plenty of exceptions; charge on complex important)

Structural Features: Hydride is the smallest ligand and as a result, M-H distances are typically quite short:
1.8 to about 1.5 , depending on the metal. Periodic trends are followed, as noted for phosphine-metal
distances. Hydrides can be quite difficult to observe via X-ray diffraction (the most common technique used
to determine structures) due to the very small number of electrons on the hydride vs. adjacent atoms,
especially the metal. Therefore, neutron diffraction studies are considered best for accurately locating and
identifying hydrides on metal centers. However, neutron diffraction still requires much larger single crystals
than X-ray diffraction, and the technique requires a high energy source of neutrons, like the Canadian Light
Source (www.lightsource.ca) in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. This makes it a very expensive and still rarely
used technique.

Synthesis: For moderately electron-rich metals with 2 or more d electrons, the oxidative addition of
molecular H2 to the metal center is quite common and very important for catalysis:

37

MLn + H2

H2MLn

H
Ph3P

Rh

Ph3P

PPh3

Cl

Ph3P

+ H2

Rh

Ph3P

PPh3

H
Cl

Non-classical hydride complexes: Occasionally, if the metal center has the right amount of electron
density (not too much, not too little) non-classical hydrides or molecular H2 complexes can form (so called
dihydrogen complexes):

PMe3
CO H

OC

W
H

OC
PMe3

H-H = 0.84
(0.74 in free H2)

W(H2)(CO)3(PMe3)2
Note how one writes
molecular H2 bound to
a metal.

First molecular
H2 metal complex
Greg Kubas
(Los Alamos)

These dihydrogen complexes still have a significant H-H bond character. Think of it as approaching an
oxidative addition, but not fully pulling electrons from the metal center (no oxidation of the metal occurs).
The bonding in a dihydrogen complex can be described as shown below. The electrons in H2 can be
donated to a suitable empty orbital on the metal, while the empty * orbital of the ligand can accept electron
density from occupied d orbitals of the metal. The result is an overall weakening and lengthening of the H-H
bond in comparison with free H2. Typical H-H distances in dihydrogen complexes range from 0.82 to 0.90
compared to 0.74 in free H2. Too much backbonding results in breaking of the H-H bond, so the metal
must not be too effective a donor. The presence of other strong acceptor ligands (like CO and PR3)
increases the likelihood of dihydrogen complex formation over the formation of a classical dihydride
complex.

H
M

M
H
Sigma donation
from H-H bonding orbital
to empty M d orbital

H
Pi acceptance
from filled M d orbital
to H-H antibonding orbital

Hydrides can also be formed from the oxidative addition of active hydrogen sources such as silanes
(HSiR3) or acids:

RhCl(PMe3)3 + HSiR3
Os(CO)3(PPh3)2 + HX

HRhCl(SiR3)(PMe3)2
[HOs(CO)3(PPh3)2](Cl)

Naturally, hydride sources like LiAlH4, borohydrides, or even NaH can be used to substitute off more weakly
coordinated ligands like halides.

38

Alkyl, Aryl, Carbene, Alkylidene & Carbyne Ligands

R
M

CH3

R
R

Alkyls are typically very strong anionic -donors, second only to hydrides. They have virtually no acceptor ability.
ethyl
Increasing the carbon substitution (replacing hydrogens with hydrocarbon groups, methyl
isopropyl) usually increases the donor strength, but steric factors can come into play and weaken the
metal-alkyl bond (e.g., t-butyl groups are often too sterically hindered to bind well).
Replacing the hydrogens with fluorine atoms (very electron withdrawing) dramatically reduces the donor
ability of the alkyl (aryl). For example, CF3- and C6F5- are not very strong donors.
Metal alkyls are also typically quite to extremely reactive to molecular O2, water, and a variety of other
ligands and reagents. As with hydrides, they play a very important and active role in catalysis.
-Hydride Elimination
One of the most common side reactions of alkyls is
called the -hydride elimination reaction:
The main driving force for -hydride elimination is the
formation of a stronger M-H bond (almost always
stronger than M-alkyl) and the generation of an alkene
ligand that reduces the unsaturation of the metal
complex. The reverse reaction, however, also can
occur and is called a migratory insertion. This is very
important in transition metal reaction chemistry and catalysis, as we will see in later chapters.
Note that in order to have a -hydride elimination you MUST have an empty orbital on the metal cis
(next) to the alkyl ligand. You also must have -hydrogens present on the alkyl.
In order to prepare stable M-alkyl complexes one, therefore, often needs to stay away from alkyls with hydrogens (or avoid metals with empty coordination sites). Some common ligands used to avoid -hydride
elimination reactions are shown below.

M
M

CH3
Me
methyl

Me

Si
Me

Me

neopentyl

benzyl

Me

Me

trimethylsilylmethyl

39
Problems:
a)

Why doesnt a M-phenyl do a -hydride elimination?

Me
H

M
H

Me

Me

b) Would a 16 e- M-(t-butyl) complex be stable or not? Why?

-Hydride Elimination
A less common reaction with metal alkyls is the -hydride elimination, where a hydrogen atom on the carbon is added to the metal to generate a M=CR2 (carbene or alkylidene) group and a hydride:
Me

Me
H

Me

-hydride

Cl

Cl

Ta
P
Cl

P
could also
be considered
an oxidative
addition

Me

Me

Me

Me

elmination
P

Me

Me

migratory
insertion

Cl

Ta

Ta

P
Cl

Cl

Practice your electron counting!!

Note that just as with a -hydride elimination, it is important to have an empty orbital cis to the hydrogen in order to have the -hydride elimination occur. In the next section on carbene/alkylidene
ligands, we will see that depending on how you electron count, an -hydride elimination can also be
considered to be a C-H bond oxidative addition (see that section as well).
Synthesis:
The most common way of making metal alkyls is to do what is called a transmetallation, that is react a
transition metal halide with a alkali or main group metal alkyl, which is typically far more ionic and reactive:

MX + LiR

MR

+ LiX

Other reactive alkyl reagents: RMgX (Gignard), R2Zn, R2Hg, R2Cu, AlR3

WCl6 + 6AlMe3

WMe6 + 6AlClMe2

40
Problem: Based on core photoelectron spectroscopy, which complex is more electron-rich at the metal
W(CH3)6 or W(CO)6 ? Why?

The other common way of making M-alkyls is to react a moderately electron-rich metal center with an alkyl
halide (RCl, RBr or RI):

MLn + RBr

RMLnBr

This, once again, is called an oxidative addition.

CH3
P

Rh

I
CO

+ MeI

Rh

I
CO

I
This will be discussed more fully in the oxidative addition reaction chapter.
Aryl Ligands
Aryl ligands are relatively strong anionic two electron donors, essentially just like alkyls. Since
they cannot easily -hydride eliminate (formation of the benzyne intermediate is
typically too unstable), metal aryl complexes are usually relatively stable compared to M
alkyls with -hydrogens. But stable is a relative term since transition metal aryl
complexes are also quite air-sensitive and reactive.
Aryls do have the potential for both -donation and -backbonding through the filled aryl -orbitals and
empty * antibonding orbitals. This can provide additional stability to a metal complex, depending on
whether the metal needs additional electrons from the ligand or wants to dump excess electron density onto
the ligand.
Problem: Cp2Re-CH2CH3 is very stable under inert atmosphere, but Cp2Sc-CH2CH3 readily
decomposes. Why?

41

Fischer Carbenes
In 1964 Fischers group prepared the first transition metal carbon double bond, which he called a carbene,
after the very reactive neutral organic CR2 fragment.
O
(OC)5W
CH3

(CH3)3O+

W(CO)6 + CH3Li

CH3

(OC)5W
CH3
O
(OC)5W
CH3

The reaction of Cr(CO)6 with Li[N(i-Pr)2], followed by reaction with Et3O+ generated the analogous Cr
carbene complex with Et and N(i-Pr)2 groups on the carbene. A crystal structure of this complex revealed
the following unusual features of the Cr=C(Et)[N(i-Pr)2] group:

2.13 (Cr-R single bond

distances are 2.0-2.2 )

OEt

1.35 (normal distance should be

1.41 , a 0.06 shortening)

N(iPr)2

1.33 (normal distance should be

1.45 , a 0.12 shortening)

Cr

Thus, the X-ray structure indicated that the actual electronic structure of this carbene was really more like
one of these resonance hybrids:

OEt

OEt

Cr

Cr
N(iPr)2

N(iPr)2

The presence of 5 electron-withdrawing CO ligands would certainly help suck up the formal negative
charge that these resonance structures put on the metal.
The bonding description commonly used to describe Fischer Carbenes is to treat the carbene as a neutral 2edonor ligand that really only makes a single bond to the metal (BUT, we often draw it as a double bond!!).
In considering the carbene as a neutral ligand, it has one filled orbital (sp2 hybrid) that donates its lone pair to
an empty orbital on the metal in a typical ligand fashion. But it also has one empty orbital (pure p character)
that wants to interact with a lone pair of electrons in order to form a stabilizing bonding interaction. This is a
singlet-state carbene formalism and the possible orbital interactions are shown below:

42

If the metal is electron deficient (perhaps due to all the good -acceptor CO ligands) then it cant -donate
very well to the carbene. Thus we end up with a formal M-C single bond (even though we draw a double
bond!) and some multiple bond character between the carbene carbon and the -donor groups attached to it
(like a NR2, OR, SR, Ph, etc).
Most Fischer Carbenes have d 6 metal configurations (assuming that we electron count the carbene ligand as
a neutral 2 e- donor), but d 4 and d 8 systems are known.
The bond strength in Fischer Carbenes depends on several factors:

Metal

Carbene groups

Weak M=C

Strong M=C

Electron-deficient at M

Electron-rich at M

(electron withdrawing ligands

like CO, NO, small 3d transition
metal)

(electron donating ligands,

large 5d transition metal)

Good donating functional

groups that can -bond to the
carbene (like NR2, SR, OR,
Ph); more than one donating
group really weakens the M-C
bond!!

Simple sigma donors like H or

CH3 that cant -donate to the
Carbene carbon atom.

Note that most Fischer Carbenes favor the weak bonding situation, where the metal has a d 6 configuration
(counting the carbene as neutral ligand), CO ligands, and the carbene has -donating groups. The d6
configuration naturally favors the middle to late transition metals. The strong carbene bonding situation is
actually considerably more reactive, much like the reactivity of a C=C double bond vs. a C-C single bond.
The C=C double bond is stronger than the single bond, but it is kinetically considerably more reactive due to
its unsaturation.

43
Problem: Choose the complex that has the stronger M=C bond. Is there a large or small difference in
bond strengths? Explain.
a) [Cp(CO)2(PPh3)Mo=CH2]+ -or-

[Cp(CO)2(PPh3)W=CH2]+

b) [Cp(CO)2(PPh3)W=CH2]+ -or-

[Cp(CO)2(PEt3)W=CH2]+

Problem: Order the following Fischer Carbenes from the weakest to the strongest M=C bond.
Explain.

a)

Ph
H3C

b)

OMe

Ph

Re

(MeO)3P

c)

Me

MeO

C
Me3P

P(OMe)3

C O

Re

Me3P

PMe3

Mn

Cl

OMe
C

Cl

The other reactivity characteristic of Fischer Carbenes is that because the carbene carbon atom formally has
an empty p orbital, it is very susceptible to nucleophillic attacks there. On the other hand, electrophiles tend
to attack the metal center where there are a number of metal based lone pairs available.

Schrock Alkylidenes
In 1973 Richard Schrock, while working at DuPont central research, prepared the first early transition metal
complex with a M=C double bond:

(t-butyl-CH2)3TaCl2 + 2Li(CH2-t-butyl)
-elimination
Ta(CH2-t-butyl)5

(t-butyl-CH2)3 Ta

Me

unstable intermediate

Me

Me

+ neopentane

This turned out to be a key development in early transition metal chemistry.

44
Unlike most Fischer Carbenes, these early transition metal alkylidene complexes did have clear-cut and
strong metal=carbon double bonds. For example, the crystal structure of the Cp2Ta(=CH2)(CH3) complex
has the following bond distances:

138

Ta

CH3

2.24
The Ta=CH2 bond is distinctly shorter
than the Ta-CH3 single bond!

CH2
2.03

The reason that Schrock gave these carbene complexes a different name (alkylidenes) was not just because
of the structural differences. These early transition metal alkylidene complexes had very different (almost
opposite) reactivities compared to Fischer Carbenes.

Fischer Carbenes

Schrock Alkylidenes

Nucleophillic attacks at carbon atom of carbene

(carbon is electron deficient)

Electrophillic attacks at carbon atom of alkylidene

(carbon is electron-rich)

Electrophillic attacks on metal center (metal is more

electron-rich, often d6 18 e- system)

Nucleophillic attacks on metal center (metal is

electron-deficient, usually d2 or d0 16 or 14 ecount)

Carbene is stabilized by heteroatom groups that

can -bond to it. Likes NR2, SR, OR, or Ph groups.

Alkylidene is destabilized by heteroatom groups

that can -bond to it. Strongly prefers H or simple
alkyl groups.

Later transition metals favored, especially with d6

counts (carbene as neutral 2e- donor ligand)

Early transition metals favored, especially with d0

centers (alkylidene as dianionic 4e- donor)

The bonding description commonly used to describe

Schrock Alkylidenes is to treat the alkylidene as a
dianionic 2e- donor ligand, which is what the electron
counting and valence rules would indicate.
The filled p-orbital on the alkylidene carbon nicely
explains the tendency for electrophiles to attack at this
site, while in a Fischer carbene this same orbital is
formally empty and thus susceptible to a nucleophillic
attack.

45
Similarly, the d0 metal center in the typical Schrock alkylidene usually only has a 12 to 16 e- count (often 14
e-), this means that there are several empty low energy orbitals that are very attractive to any nucleophile that
can sterically access the metal center. In Fischer carbenes, the metal is typically d6 and 18e-, thus there are
no empty orbitals on the metal for a nucleophile to attack.
One other way to view a Schrock alkylidene is as a neutral ligand, just as
with a Fischer carbene, but that it is in the triplet carbene state and
interacting with a spin unpaired d2 metal center:
The view of an alkylidene as a neutral triplet carbene forming a strong
covalent double bond to a triplet metal center is very analogous to the
covalent C=C double bond in organic chemistry. Molecular orbital (MO)
diagrams for generic Schrock alkylidene and Fischer carbene ligands are
shown below starting with both carbon fragments as neutral triplet (alkylidene) and singlet (carbene)
groupsNote that the higher energy early transition metal orbitals match up much better with the higher
energy triplet alkylidene orbitals this leads to considerably stronger covalent bonding (both MO diagrams
are on the same energy scale).

46

So How Should I Electron Count??

Using the neutral electron counting method, the solution is much simpler than using the ionic method:

Treat both as 2 e- donor ligands (but still draw a M=C double bond)
It is somewhat important to be able to tell the difference between the two types since Schrock alkylidenes
almost always have stronger (but often still very reactive) M=C bonds compared to Fischer carbenes. So on
a question asking you to order a series of carbene and/or alkylidene complexes, it is generally important to
figure out which is which. On this type of question Ill only give you a maximum of one Schrock alkylidene
since the factors determining alkylidene bond strengths are not anywhere as clear cut as those for Fischer
carbenes.

Example: Identify the following complexes as Fischer carbene or Schrock alkylidene.

Ta

Cl

CH2
Early TM prefer high oxidation states
using neutral carbene indicates Ta(+3)
but using a Schrock alkylidene indicates Ta(+5)

OC

OC

Re
RO

Mid-TM have variable oxidation states

using neutral carbene indicates Re(+1)
but using an alkylidine gives Re(+3)
EN O on carbene suggests a Fisher
carbene complex

NMR Data
There isnt any clear cut spectroscopic way of distinguishing Fischer carbenes from Schrock alkylidenes.
Some complexes, of course, will fall in between either category (shades of gray) and cant be clearly
identified.
13C
13
Class
Compound
C NMR data is potentially one of the best ways
(ppm)
of distinguishing between carbenes and
alkylidenes because the chemical shift of the
Cp2Ta(=CH2)(Me)
224
Schrock
carbene carbon is usually quite sensitive to the
chemical environment, electron density, and
(t-BuCH2)3Ta(=CH(t-Bu)
250
Schrock
bonding factors. Unfortunately, the NMR data,
although sometimes useful, generally wont allow
(OC)5Cr(=CH(NMe2))
246
Fischer
one to identify when a system is a carbene or
alkylidene, as shown in the table to the right.
(OC)5Cr(=CPh(OMe))
351
Fischer
1
H NMR data has provided useful information
(OC)5Cr(=CPh2)
399
Fischer
about carbene rotational barriers. As with most
double bonds, there is a rotational barrier for the
M=CR2 bond. For Schrock alkylidenes this is usually quite high (G > 100 kJ/mol), but for the more
weakly bonded Fischer carbenes this can often be readily determined from variable temperature 1H NMR
studies.

47
The Cr carbene shown below actually has more double
H3C
bond character between the carbene carbon and the -OMe
O
group relative to the Cr=C bond. At 25C the methoxy
(OC)
(OC)5 Cr
5 Cr
CH3 group shows a single 1H NMR resonance indicating
CH3
that there is relatively fast rotation about the C-OMe bond,
trans
cis
while at 40C there are two resonances for the methoxy
CH3 group, one for the cis and trans conformers, consistent with partial double bond character.

CH3

CH3

The Hot Carbene Ligand

The hottest new ligands are imidazole-based N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) shown below. The
flanking N atoms and R groups provides steric and electronic
R
stabilization making this a reactive, but synthetically accessible
N
ligand. NHCs are usually strong -donors, often exceeding the
N
N
donor ability of an alkylated PR3 ligand (see plot below). The
R
R
N
backbone double bond may or may not be present (along with
other R groups).
R

Note that this ligand is usually drawn with a single bond to the metal. But it is NOT an anionic alkyl and
there is NOT an H atom on the carbon atom bound to the metal center!! It is typically electron-counted as a
neutral Fischer carbene. Because of the two flanking N atoms that can -donate into the empty carbene porbital, it is not considered to be a good -acceptor. This -donation, however, does help make it a stronger
-donor by compensating for the -withdrawing electronegative N atoms.

PPh3

2070

2060

Ph

Pri

P(p-tol)3

N Me

PiPr3

PEt3

Ph

Tolman Parameter

Crabtree's abnormal NHC

PMePh2
PMe2Ph

PCy3

2050
Ph

2040
2000

Pri

2010

2020

Bu

Ph

Me

2030

Bu

R2= 0.91

2040

2050

ave(CO) for Ir(CO)2Cl(L) (cm)-1

48
Problem: Order the following M=C complexes from the one with the highest M=CR2 rotational
barrier to the lowest. What factors affect the M=C rotational barrier? Identify each complex as
either a Fisher carbene or a Schrock alkylidene.

a)

b)

Me

Ph

Me
C

C
H 3C

Os

CH3

Me3P

Me3P

H 3C

Br
Br

CH3

c)

Me2N
O C

d)

NMe2
C

Ru

PMe3

Fe

Ph

OMe
C

P(OMe)3

Fe
Cl

Cl

(MeO)3P

Cl

Cl

Carbynes/Alkylidynes

E. O. Fischer accidentally prepared the first MC-R triple bonded compound in 1973:

MeO

planned rxn
didn't work

CO

CO

OC
OC

OC
OC

CO + BX3

OC

CO

CO

R
C

M = Cr, Mo, W
X = Cl, Br, I
R = Me, Et, Ph

CO

OC
OC

CO

M
X

He called this a carbyne after alkyne, which refers to a CC triple bond. Early transition metal versions were
prepared first by Schrock in 1978 via -deprotonation of the alkylidene:

1. PMe3
Cl

Cl

Ta

H
R

2. Ph3P=CH2

Cl

Me3P

+ [Ph3PCH3]Cl

Ta
C

49
These were called alkylidynes by Schrock. Fortunately, while there are some differences between early and
later transition metal carbon triple bonds, we can treat them as basically being the same. Thus, one can
simply treat carbynes and alkylidynes as trianionic (-3) 3e- donating ligands. They are very strong donors as
might be expected from the relatively low electronegativity of carbon and the -3 formal charge.

Ph
CO = 1938 cm-1

Ph
C

CO

CO

Cl
Me3P

PMe3

Cl
Me3P

Cl

PMe3

CO = 1870 cm-1

Py

A remarkable X-ray structure of one of Schrocks compounds that contains a W-C single bond, a W=C
double bond, and a WC triple bond is shown below and beautifully illustrates the dramatic and progressive
shortening of the W-C bonds as you increase the bond order:

Ph
C

1.78
P

2.25
CMe3
CH2

1.94

Me3C
Problem: Which of the following ligands will coordinate the strongest to the empty coordination site
on the metal complex shown below.
CO, PMe3, P(OMe)3, CH3, F, CF3
Mn(CO)5+
Problem: Professor Kozak instructed his graduate student Fred Fasthands to make a
Pd(alkyl)2(PPh3)2 complex. Fred immediately rushed into the lab and ran the following reaction:
PdCl2 + 2PMe3 + 2EtMgBr

icky black stuff + ethylene (g)

Thelma Thinksalot, a younger yet wiser undergraduate in the lab (who was taking Prof. Kozaks
organometallics class), noticed this and suggested that Fred use the exact same conditions except that
he should use PhCH2MgBr (benzyl Grignard) instead of EtMgBr. Fred frantically did so and found
that the reaction now gave a quantitative yield of orange Pd(CH2Ph)2(PMe3)2.
Why didn't the first reaction work and why did the second work fine? What other alkyl groups might
work?

50

Alkenes & Alkynes

Alkenes act as neutral 2e- donors (per C=C double bond). Due to the presence of empty * antibonding
orbitals, there is the possibility of some -backbonding:

C
M

M
C

Dewar-ChattDuncanson
bonding
model (1953)

C
-back donation via the
empty alkene -system

-donation via the

filled alkene -system

Alkenes are typically relatively weakly coordinating ligands. They are also extremely important substrates
for catalytic reactions. The strongest alkene-metal bonds occur with third row 5d metals (as with almost all
ligands) and when one can get more -backbonding to occur. The amount of -backbonding depends
strongly on how electron-rich the metal center is and whether or not there are electron-withdrawing groups
on the alkene to make it a better acceptor ligand.
H

NC

PR3

Cl

Pt

PR3
Pt

Pt

Cl

Cl
H

NC

PR3

PR3

NC
NC

Pt(2+)
C=C = 1.37
Zeiss's Salt

Pt(0)
C=C = 1.43

Pt(+2)
C--C = 1.49
metallocyclopropane

In extreme cases, as shown above to the right, if the metal is electron-rich enough and if there are electronwithdrawing groups on the alkene (like the CNs), one can actually get a formal oxidation of the metal via
the transfer of 2e- to the alkene to form a dianionic metallocyclopropane ligand that is now coordinated via
two anionic alkyl -bonds (thus the assignment of Pt(+2)).
F
Another interesting comparison is shown to the right where we have two
different alkenes coordinating to the same metal center. The electronwithdrawing fluorine groups on the F2C=CF2 alkene makes it a better acceptor ligand. This weakens the C=C bond, but strengthens the alkenemetal bond.

1.46

Rh
H

1.40

C
O C
O

Zr
C
O

F
H

1.46

Fe
1.36

Another series of structures is shown below for butadiene, Fe(4C4H6)(CO)3, and Cp2Zr(4-C4H6):
1.45

C=C = 1.40
Rh-C = 2.02

1.45

C=C = 1.35
Rh-C = 2.16

51
In this series one can see that the combination of -backdonation from the Fe and
-donation from the alkenes to the Fe weaken and lengthen the C=C bond. In the
Zr complex, however, we see an interesting reversal where the single bond across
the back of the butadiene shortens quite a bit. What is happening here is that the Zr
is in a very low oxidation state (+2, but it really wants to be +4) and is, therefore,
extremely electron-rich. It is so electron-rich that it transfers two electrons to the
butadiene via the -backdonation and generates a metallocyclopentene resonance
structure, shown schematically to the right.

Zr

Cyclobutadiene
Cyclic conjugated -systems are aromatic if the number of -electrons equals 4n + 2 (where n = an integer).
Cyclobutadiene is an anti-aromatic since it has 4 -electrons. The anti-aromaticity combined with the ring
strain makes this simple molecule too unstable to exist as a free organic compound.
A triumph of the early days of organometallic chemistry was the successful synthesis of (4-C4H4)2Ni2(Cl)2Cl2, a stable metal-coordinated butadiene molecule, by Criegee in 1959. This was actually predicted
theoretically by Longuet-Higgins and Orgel in 1956 using an early form of molecular orbital theory.
Me

Me

Me

Me

Cl

Me

Cl

+ Ni(CO)4

Ni

Cl

Me

Me

Me

Me

Me
Cl

Ni
Cl
Cl

Me

Me

An even simpler route was discovered shortly after this involving the cyclodimerization of diphenyl
acetylene by Fe(CO)5:
O
C
2 Ph

O
C

CO

Fe

Ph + Fe(CO)5
Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

The high stability of a cyclobutadiene coordinated to a metal arises from the mixing of the 4 electrons on
the cyclobutadiene with one of the metal d orbitals that has 2 e- and the right symmetry to mix in and form a
6 electron aromatic system! This is shown on the MO diagram below. Note that the high energy
(instability) of the non-bonding cyclobutadiene highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) allows it to
interact extremely well with the metal orbitals that are at approximately the same energy.

52

Fe

Fe

Fe

metal d
orbitals

non-bonding

Fe

Fe

Fe

cyclobutadiene
, non-bonding,
and * orbitals

Fe

Fe

Fe
Cyclopentadienyl - Cp
The cyclopentadienyl ligand is one of the most common and popular ligands in organometallic chemistry.
CH3

H3C
5estrong
donor

5e- stronger donor

bulky ligand

CH3

H3C
H3C

Cp

Cp*

It is an anionic ligand that normally coordinates in an 5 mode as a 6e- donor, but it can adopt 3- and 1coordination modes.

53

M
M

Free neutral cyclopentadiene, which is deprotonated with a strong base to generate the Cp, is unstable and
reacts with itself via a Diels-Alder reaction to make the dicyclopentadiene. One typically regenerates
cyclopentadiene by cracking it from the high boiling dimer solution and storing it in a refrigerator, but it
slowly re-dimerizes to make dicyclopentadiene. If too high a temperature is used, the dicyclopentadiene
dimer will also be collected and contaminate the monomer. For best yields, the CpH should be freshly
cracked and used immediately.

54

Brief History of Ferrocene:

1951

Kealy & Pauson

3C5H5MgBr + FeCl3

Cp2Fe + 0.5

+ 3MgBrCl

They were trying to make fulvalene!

They proposed that they had made:

1952

Fe

E. O. Fischer proposes a Double-cone structure

X-ray structural data
Diamagnetism
Chemical behavior

1952

Geoffrey Wilkinson & Robert Woodward: Sandwich Structure

IR spectroscopy
Diamagnetism
Dipole moment = 0
Woodward noted that the Cp rings were susceptible towards electrophillic
substitutions, similar to the aromatic behavior of benzene.
Thus the common name: ferrocene

1973

Fischer & Wilkinson receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discovery of ferrocene,
which played a key role in opening up the new area of organometallic chemistry.

For a short historical account see Chemical & Engineering News, Dec 3, 2001 or the special Ferrocene issue
of Journal of Organometallic Chemistry, Vol 637-639, Issue 1, 3 December 2001.

55
The structure of ferrocene does have a sandwich structure with a bonding interaction from each ring carbon
to the metal, although virtually all researchers only draw a single bond from the metal to the middle of the
Cp ring(s) as shown below in the structural diagram.

Fe

Some Properties of Metallocenes

Complex

Color

mp/C

Miscellaneous

Ti(C5H5)2

green

V(C5H5)2

purple

167

Nb(C5H5)2

yellow

Cr(C5H5)2

scarlet

173

Mo(C5H5)2

Black

several bimetallic isomers with fulvalene and h1,h5

bridges and terminal hydrides (structures shown later),
diamagnetic, air-sensitive.

W(C5H5)2

yellow-green

same as Mo

Mn(C5H5)2

brown

173

air-sensitive and easily hydrolyzed, interesting highspin to low-spin interconversion

Fe(C5H5)2

orange

173

air-stable, can be oxidized to blue-green [Fe(C5H5)2]+

which, in turn, is a good inert oxidizing agent.

Co(C5H5)2

purple-black

174

air-sensitive, paramagnetic 19e- complex, can be

oxidized to the air-stable 18e- yellow [Co(C5H5)2]+

Ni(C5H5)2

green

173

20e- complex, slow oxidation in air to the labile, orange

cation [Ni(C5H5)2]+

200
bimetallic with two m-H bridges and a fulvalene
(decomp.) bridging ligand (structure shown later)
very air-sensitive, paramagnetic
bimetallic with 1,5-C5H4 bridges and terminal
hydrides (structure shown later).
very air-sensitive

Adapted from Elschenbroich & Salzer, Organometallics, 3rd Ed. VCH.

56

Structural Features
The parallel sandwich structures have the following structural features:

Distances ()

M-C

C-C

CpCp

M-C

CpCp

C-C

Fe

2.04

3.29

1.42

[Fe]+

2.07

3.40

1.40

Ru

2.19

3.64

1.43

Os

2.19

3.61

1.45

Co

2.10

3.44

1.41

[Co]+

2.03

3.24

1.42

Ni

2.18

3.63

1.41

Note the various trends in the bond distances. The changes in the neutral Fe, Co, Ni metallocenes are a
direct result of going from 18e- (Fe) to 19e- (Co) to 20e- (Ni) counts. The extra electrons for the Co and Ni
complexes are going into M-Cp antibonding orbitals, which are delocalized and progressively weaken the MCp bonding, leading to the increase in bond distances. This in spite of the fact that the metals covalent
radius is decreasing as one goes from Fe
Ni (effective atomic number contraction effect).
The simple neutral bis-Cp complexes of the early transition metals are quite different because they are in
very low +2 oxidation states (very electron-rich) and quite unsaturated. Thus, they are very reactive towards
oxidative addition and other reactions.
Nb(C5H5)2, for example, is nominally a 15 e- complex with a highly reactive d3 Nb electronic
configuration. Two molecules of niobocene react with one another via C-H bond activation (oxidative
addition) to produce the structure shown to the right. Note
that two of the Cp rings are dianionic forming both a
traditional anionic 5 5e- -type donor to one metal, while
H
bridging over and acting as an anionic 1e- -donor to the
other metal center. Practice your electron counting on this.

Nb

Nb

Ti(C5H5)2, is nominally a 14 e- complex with a highly

reactive d2 electronic configuration. Two molecules of
H
titanocene also react with one another via C-H bond
activation (oxidative addition) to produce a bimetallic
complex that may well look just like the niobium complex
just discussed. But it has a further reaction (perhaps due to
steric crowding brought on by the smaller Ti centers) leading to the coupling of the two -bound Cps to
produce C-C bound bis-Cp and the complex shown below. The more sterically crowded pentamethyl-Cp
(Cp*) complex simply does a hydride abstraction and stops at the complex also shown below at right (this
structure is called a tuck-in derivative of decamethyltitanocene).

57

Me

Me

Me

Ti

Me

Ti

CH2

Me

Me

Ti

Me

Me

Me

Me

Me

Me

Ti

Me

Me

Me

Me

Me

Me

Ti-Ti = 2.99

Me

The first true parallel metallocene structure for Cp2Ti was discovered in 1998 by Hitchcock, Kerton and
Lawless who used a substituted Cp ligand, C5Me4(SiMe2tBu).

The Mo(C5H5)2 and W(C5H5)2 complexes might appear to have a reasonable 16 e- count, but they are
quite reactive, like their early transition metal cousins, and also self react with one another via C-H bond
activations to produce several isomeric bimetallic complexes shown below.

Mo-Mo = 3.19

Mo

Mo
THF

50C
H2O

Mo

100C

Mo

H
h
H
Mo
H

Mo

toluene
70C

Mo-Mo = 3.36

58

MO Comparison of Cp vs. Arene Ligands

Benzene-Metal
Complex

Cyclopentadienyl-Metal
Complex

metal d
orbitals

metal d
orbitals