Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Psychological Benefits of an
Active Lifestyle: What We
Know and What We Need to
Know
ARTICLE in QUEST -ILLINOIS- NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION- AUGUST 1996
Impact Factor: 1.02 DOI: 10.1080/00336297.1996.10484201
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1 AUTHOR:
B. G. Berger
Bowling Green State Uni
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SEE PROFILE
Psychological Benefits
of an Active Lifestyle:
What We Know and What
We Need to Know
Bonnie G. Berger
A multitude of psychological benefits are associated with an active lifestyle
(e.g.. International Society of Sport Psychology, 1992: Morgan & Goldston, 1987;
Singer, Murphey, & Tennant, 1993). Accumulating evidence suggests that for
members of the general population, planned and structured physical activity is
associated with psychological benefits in four broad areas: enhanced mood, stress
reduction, a more positive self-concept, and higher quality of life. The psychological benefits of exercise may be even more pronounced in special populations such
as individuals who are clinically depressed or anxious, coronary heart disease patients, the elderly, and those who have specific diseases. Exercise, especially if it is
habitual, is also associated with a host of physical benefits. As reported at the 1994
Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education meetings, the course of many
illnesses can be changed with regular physical activity. TTiese include coronary
heart disease; hypertension; end-stage renal disease; osteoporosis; type 11 diabetes
mellitus; and cancer of the breast, colon, lung, and reproductive tract {e.g.. Blair,
1995; Leon & Norstrom, 1995; Pate et al., 1995; Shephard. 1995: Spirduso, 1995:
Wood, 1994). From a utilitarian approach of decreasing health care costs, it is
important for most of us to be physically active. Because of the broad-based benefits of exerci.se. researchers as well as practitioners are searching for ways to
increase the number of people who pursue active lifestyles.
PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEHTS
331
Obviously, knowledge (that a particular behavior has either good or deleterious influences on our health) does not consistently affect our behavior. Most
individuals, for example, are aware that smoking is unhealthy, but many people
smoke. A diet high in fat is unhealthy, yet we eat french fries and ice cream. It
seems that personal enjoyment, emotional reactions, habit, and convenience are
more important determinants of our behavior than is knowledge aboul benefits
and/or the health consequences. Elucidating factors that influence exercise adoption and its maintenance and adherence is of critical importance to diverse populations: physical and health educators, the medical community, therapists, weightcontrol centers, parents concerned about their children, and adult children concerned about their older parents.
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BERGER
being, and focusing on the moment! Personal reasons for exercising have been
difficult for researchers to examine, and relatively little information is available.
Discovering the many personal meanings and values in physical activity is an underdeveloped area in sport and exercise psychology. Although personal meaning
remains speculative, it cannot be overlooked (Berger & Mackenzie, 1980; Fahlberg,
Fahiberg. & Gates, 1992; Graham, 1981; Sacks, 1984). The search for the myriad
of meanings in physical activity is basic to understanding the unique role exercise
can play in self-expression, personal fulfillment, and enjoyment of the activity.
From a utilitarian, health-related approach, the psychological benefits of
physical activity can provide a source of personal meaning and have important
implications for encouraging a larger portion of the American population to be
physically active. If exercise is a pleasant, enjoyable, and meaningful activity, it is
likely to become a high priority in an individual s life. Too often, exercise is something one "should" do, but which one simply does not "have the time" to do, at
least today. Since exercise has many benefits, especially as an avenue of personal
meaning and expression, it is important to explore ways in which exercise might
become something one "wants" to do several days a week. Possible sources of
enjoyment and motivation for physical activity may include "feeling better" or
mood alteration; stress reduction; and enhancement of self-concept, self-awareness, and even self-knowledge.
Mood Elevation
Mood enhancement is a major psychological benefit of habitual physical
activity. Mood states serve as a looking glass for one's life. Although mood states
fluctuate and are highly changeable, they critically influence the quality of one's
life. Mood has been defined as a pervasive, global set of affective states that influences a broad range of thought processes and behavior (Morris, 1989, p. vii). It is
equated with the host of feeling states that a person chooses to ignore and/or celebrate at various times throughout a day in a "properly lived life" (Morris, 1989, p.
1). Mood is distinct from another closely allied constructemotionwhich tends
to be both stronger and more situationally specific, as illustrated by the emotion of
anger. Mood can be defined as having specific subcomponentssuch as tension,
depression, anger, fatigue, vigor, and confusion (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman.
1992)or as having more inclusive dimensions. Two recetit models of mood include two macrodimensions. One system separates mood into positive and negative affect (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The other model separates mood
into dimensions closely associated with general bodily arousal: energy (vs. tiredness) and tension (vs. calmness; Thayer, 1989; Thayer, Newman, & McClain, 1994;
see Figure 1). In conclusion, mood can be thought of as a summary affective response to extemal and intemal forces that a person encounters at a particular point
in time (Feldman, 1995).
Moods alter our affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses (Morris, 1989).
They also inform us about our general state of being and reflect our appraisal of
our life circumstances (Mayer & Hanson, 1995; Morris, 1989, p. 2). The centrality
of mood in our lives renders it a key consideration in maintaining a high quality of
life. Because of the influence of mood on our lives, researchers have examined the
tendency of people to monitor their mood states, to self-regulate their moods to
comfortable levels, to make judgments and evaluate their moods, and to make
333
PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
HIGH AROUSAL
/
/
/
/
aroused
astonished
a&aid
angry
anxiuos
tense
excited
elated
\
\
\
r,\aA
gjaa
happy
pleased
NEGATIVE
VALENCE
1
\
satisfied
content
POSITIVE
VALENCE
\
\
\
depressed
sad
gloomy
calm
at ease
relaxed
/
/
/
tired
sJeepy
LOW AROUSAL
Figure 1 A two factor model of mood state. Based on Figure ] from Feldman (1995).
Reprinted by permission.
rudimentary change decisions (Thayer, 1989; Thayer et al., 1994; Wegner &
Pennebaker, 1993).
Exercise is one of several commonly employed strategies for mood enhancement. Asking Londoners, "What's the thing to do when you are feeling depressed?"
Rippere (1977) found the most effective techniques were associated with exercise,
social, cognitive, and direct action behaviors. More recently, a Gallup (Gallup &
Castelli, 1989) poll identified religious practices as most effective for relieving
depression, with a close second being exercise, and followed by social and distraction categories. Psychologists and psychiatrists who had an average of 17 years of
professional experience rated exercise as the most effective technique for changing a bad mood and are most likely to use exercise than other techniques to energize themselves (Thayer et ai.. 1994).
Supporting the common practice of using exercise as a mood-enhancing strategy, the International Society of Sport Psychology and other researchers have concluded that physical activity is associated with desirable short-term changes in
mood, especially decreases in anxiety, depression, anger, and fatigue as well as
increased sense of mental well-being, alertness, vigor, clear thinking, and energy
(e.g., Berger & Mclnman, 1993; Berger & Owen, 1983, 1988. 1992a, 1995;
Bouteher, 1993; International Society of Sport Psychology, 1992; King, Taylor, &
Haskell, 1993; Morgan & Goldston, 1987; Pierce. Madden, Siegel. & BlumenthaL
1993; Steptoe & Boiton. 1988; Thayer. et al., 1994). Conversely, physical inactivity has been indicated to be a risk factor for depressive symptoms in a prospective
of a large community sample (Farmer, Locke. Moscicki, Dannenberg, Larson, &
Radloff, 1988). Results of the study by Farmer and colleagues indicated that healthy
white women and men had almost a twofold elevation in depressive symptoms
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BERGER
The mood benefits associated with exercise are desirable, but they are not
automatic. The popular press and advertising agencies encourage us to believe that
exercise causes a variety of benefits. However, the results are far from clear. The
best evidence at the present time indicates that mood changes are associated with
exercise, but there is little evidence to suggest that the exercise itself causes the
benefits. Dishman (1995) recently emphasized that the underlying mechanisms
for explaining how exercise might reduce anxiety or depression still are unknown.
Pleasing or Enjoyable
A pleasing or enjoyable activity is a major requirement of the taxonomy.
Enjoyment, an optimal experience that results from performing an activity for its
own sake, often results in positive affect (Kimiecik & Harris, 1995). Inclusion of
enjoyment in the taxonomy emphasizes the important role of personal preference
when participating in sport, exercise, and dance activities. Some people may enjoy
the challenge and associated thrills of rock climbing; others may hate the activity.
Some exercisers may enjoy the monotonous activity of swimming and seek the
solitude; others may dread it. Still other people may enjoy the competitive interplay of a tennis match; others may find that losing a match is discouraging, even
depressing. The number of factors influencing exercise enjoyment seems endless.
Rather than try to list them all, the taxonomy emphasizes the need for enjoyment
PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
335
Researcher
Mode characteristics
Aerobic, or rhythmical abdominal
breathing
Absence of interpersonal
competition
Closed, predictable, or temporally
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BERGER
PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
337
or choose to cycle over either one" (1990, p. 210). Sheehan's observation reinforces that of Kabat-Zinn (1994) who has emphasized that
dwelling inwardly for extended periods, we come to know something of the
poverty of always looking outside ourselves for happiness, understanding, and
wisdom. It's not that God, the environment, and other people cannot help us to
be happy or to find satisfaction. It's just that our happiness, satisfaction, and
our understanding, even of God, will be no deeper than our capacity to know
ourselves inwardly . . . from an intimate familiarity with the ways of one s
own mind and body. (p. 96)
Individuals who select closed, predictable activities for participation may
enjoy the certainty of the activities. Other individuals clearly do not. Many individuals fmd closed sport activities boring and enjoy the unpredictability of open
sports such as tennis, rock climbing, and basketball. One advantage of open sport
modes is that during participation, one's inner self is stilled, or is at least less
ruminative than when participating in closed exercise modes. There is little or no
information conceming the mood benefits of open sports. Since many open exercise modes involve competition against at least one other person, examination of
acute mood effects associated with competing in open sports in both winning and
losing situations is greatly needed.
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BERGER
PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
339
exercise daily, as long as they are not depleting their bodies and energy levels by
"overtraining."
In conclusion, the taxonomy developed by my colleagues and myself includes seven factors that may influence the relationship between exercise and mood.
Undoubtedly there are other influences. Some of these include the temperature of
the water when swimming, air temperature when running, the presence and type
of music in the exercise area, and size of an exercise class (e.g.. Berger & Owen.
1986; Thayer et ai., 1994; Widmeyer, Brawley, & Carron. 1990). As researchers
continue to examine the exercise-mood relationship, the taxonomy undoubtedly
will need modification.
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BERCER
1995, for an extended discussion of methodological concerns.) Although the diverse studies often raise more questions than they answer, it seems that exercise
may affect physiological stress indices in many ways. Exercise may either increase or inhibit the extent of the initial stress response (Dienstbier, 1989; Rejeski,
Gregg, Thompson, & Berry, 1991). It also may reduce the length of the stress
response and facilitate a retum to normal resting levels (Crews & Landers, 1987;
Rudolph & McAuley, 1995). Further substantiating the effectiveness of exercise
as a stress reduction technique, individuals who experience many negative events
and who exercise do not report as many illnesses as those who do not exercise
(Brown & Siegel, 1988).
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BERGER
Quality Research
There is no question about the need for carefully planned, conducted, and
controlled studies in exercise and sport psychology as called for by Schutz and
Gessaroli (1993), Dishman (1995). and others. Issues of scientific .standards, consistency, dose-dependent gradients, and biological plausibility are important
PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
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344
BERCER
PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
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BERCER
one of high quality, that serves as an end in itself (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). The
optimal experience of enjoyment often results in positive affect such as liking and
joy (Kimiecik & Harris, 1995). Since enjoyment is a common reason for participating in exercise and sport (Scanlan & Simons, 1992; Wankel, 1993; Wankel &
Sefton, 1989), it is important to explore possible sources of enjoyment in exercise
and sport to facilitate their occurrence. Sources of enjoyment commonly cited by
exercise and sport participants include intrinsic, social, and extrinsic categories.
Specific factors include the movement experiences within the physical activity
itself, perceived competence, social and life opportunities, psychological wellbeing, social interactions, flow experiences, distractions, outlets from daily hassles,
and winning (Heck & Kimiecik. 1993; Wankel & Berger, 1991).
Examining the interactions between the personality characteristics and preferences of the participant, the exercise or sport mode, and environmental conditions is necessary to understand why some people find exercise and sport enjoyable, and others do not. Not all types of exercise are equally enjoyable to a particular individual, and individuals differ in their personal preferences. We need to know
more about the key factors within exercise that make it enjoyable. Some of these
probably include factors such as flow sensations, absorption, mood enhancement
or "feeling better." distractions, a need for excitement, an opportunity to test and/
or extend one's capabilities, social interaction, and the actual movement itself.
Peak moments provide one source of enjoyment. Included in the broad term
peak moment are a variety of states: peak experiences, flow, peak performance,
and exercise high. These events are slightly different from one another. Each are
special experiences, are savored by exercise participants, and provide powerful
reasons for continued physical activity throughout one's lifetime. Peak performance is outstanding behavior with higher than usual levels of perfonnance. Flow
is an intrinsically enjoyable matching of ability and task difficulty in which the
participant becomes totally absorbed in the activity. The runner's (or exercise)
high is a specific type of peak experience characterized by euphoria, a heightened
sense of well-being, feelings of psychological/physical strength and power, a glimpsing of perfection, and even spirituality. Peak experiences are characterized by an
awareness of a special event, bliss, and intense joy. See Berger and Mclnman (1993)
for a more detailed discussion and analysis of peak moments.
Although fun, enjoyment, and peak moments cannot be planned or anticipated, Diener (1984) noted in his review of subjective well-being that individuals
are happier when they participate in interesting, involving activities. Sport and
exercise provide opportunities for experiencing these valued events/experiences.
Ways to maximize the occurrence of peak moments in sport and exercise, however, are unclear. Part of the research difficulty lies in the fact that peak moments
cannot be anticipated or planned and thus are difficult to study. Despite the
unpredictability of peak moments, it seems that six main mental states are highly
associated with them and illustrate the desirability of the experience:
absorption or immersion in the activity as evidenced by intense concentration;
detachment or lack of awareness of immediate surroundings;
power in the form of physical energy or a feeling of being able to do no
w r o n g ;
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PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
347
348
BERGER
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A cknowledgments
The author expresses appreciation to Larry Fahlberg and Rob Mot! for their helpftil comments on an earlier draft of this paper.