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Psychological Benefits of an
Active Lifestyle: What We
Know and What We Need to
Know
ARTICLE in QUEST -ILLINOIS- NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION- AUGUST 1996
Impact Factor: 1.02 DOI: 10.1080/00336297.1996.10484201

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B. G. Berger
Bowling Green State Uni
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Retrieved on: 03 November 2015

QUEST. 1996, 48, 330-333


19% American Academy of Kinesiology and Ktysical Education

Psychological Benefits
of an Active Lifestyle:
What We Know and What
We Need to Know
Bonnie G. Berger
A multitude of psychological benefits are associated with an active lifestyle
(e.g.. International Society of Sport Psychology, 1992: Morgan & Goldston, 1987;
Singer, Murphey, & Tennant, 1993). Accumulating evidence suggests that for
members of the general population, planned and structured physical activity is
associated with psychological benefits in four broad areas: enhanced mood, stress
reduction, a more positive self-concept, and higher quality of life. The psychological benefits of exercise may be even more pronounced in special populations such
as individuals who are clinically depressed or anxious, coronary heart disease patients, the elderly, and those who have specific diseases. Exercise, especially if it is
habitual, is also associated with a host of physical benefits. As reported at the 1994
Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education meetings, the course of many
illnesses can be changed with regular physical activity. TTiese include coronary
heart disease; hypertension; end-stage renal disease; osteoporosis; type 11 diabetes
mellitus; and cancer of the breast, colon, lung, and reproductive tract {e.g.. Blair,
1995; Leon & Norstrom, 1995; Pate et al., 1995; Shephard. 1995: Spirduso, 1995:
Wood, 1994). From a utilitarian approach of decreasing health care costs, it is
important for most of us to be physically active. Because of the broad-based benefits of exerci.se. researchers as well as practitioners are searching for ways to
increase the number of people who pursue active lifestyles.

The Exercise Dilemma: So Many Benefits, So Few Participants


Something is drastically wrong. Exercise is associated with many health
benefits, but only a small portion of the population exercises sufficiently to accrue
these benefits. It has been estimated that only 9.1% of the American population
exercise appropriately to reap health benefits, and 31% are completely sedentary,
as evidenced by the reporting of no leisure-time physical activity in the last month
(Caspersen, Merritt, & Stephens, 1995). In view of the multiple benefits of exercise, it is surprising that such a small portion of the American population pursues
these activities.
Bonnie G. Berger is with the School of Physical and Health Education at the University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071-9196.
330

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEHTS

331

Obviously, knowledge (that a particular behavior has either good or deleterious influences on our health) does not consistently affect our behavior. Most
individuals, for example, are aware that smoking is unhealthy, but many people
smoke. A diet high in fat is unhealthy, yet we eat french fries and ice cream. It
seems that personal enjoyment, emotional reactions, habit, and convenience are
more important determinants of our behavior than is knowledge aboul benefits
and/or the health consequences. Elucidating factors that influence exercise adoption and its maintenance and adherence is of critical importance to diverse populations: physical and health educators, the medical community, therapists, weightcontrol centers, parents concerned about their children, and adult children concerned about their older parents.

Personal Values and Meanings in Exercise and Sport


An underlying theme of this paper is that it is important for researchers and
practitioners to discern and clarify personal values and meaning(s) in various types
of physical activity. Discovering and delineating personal meanings in sport and
exercise may facilitate an individual's success in initiating, adopting, and following an active lifestyle from binh to old age. Personal meanings in sport and exercise, however, are so complex they almost seem idiosyncratic. One person may be
exercising to "feel better." Another may be seeking the exhilaration and excitement of high risk sport. An exerciser may be physically active to lose weight or to
decrease body fat and improve his or her appearance. Others may be exercising to
live to be 100 years old, to be energetic, to be physically strong, or to be able to
pursue a variety of activities throughout their lives. Each person who maintains a
physically active lifestyle has his or her own reasons, and exercise assumes personal meaning(s) to each participant.
Personal values and meanings reflect to each exercise participant "why I
exercise." Some of the reasons expressed include many nonutilitarian, processoriented benefits, such as the experience of fun, an opporiunity to play and to be
childlike, the joys of movement, awareness of one's self as a physical being, peak
moments, a focus on the moment, and enhanced life quality. Of course, personal
meaning also includes a multitude of utilitarian, product-oriented benefits, such
as more energy, mood alteration, less stress, clarity of thinking, and social interaction. The tendency to focus on purpose and productivity during exercise, however,
is unnecessary and may detract from the psychological benefits of physical activity. Sheehan (1995) captured the utilitarian and nonutilitarian values of physical
activity in his description of two types of fitness programs.
One is rational, practical, physiological; the other nonrational, mystical and
psychological. One is obligatory; the other voluntary One is utilitarian; the
other creative. One is work; the other play [italics added]. The first is successftil because it is concerned with the result; the other because it is concerned
with the process, (p. 62)
Nonutilitarian values and meanings in exercise and sport are as important as
the utilitarian benefits. One of the nonutilitarian benefits of exercise is a Zen-like
focus on stopping, just "being," and concentrating on the momenta skill that
Kabat-Zinn (1994) has explored in great detail. For some participants, a major joy
of physical activity is in having no expressed purpose other than the doing, the

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being, and focusing on the moment! Personal reasons for exercising have been
difficult for researchers to examine, and relatively little information is available.
Discovering the many personal meanings and values in physical activity is an underdeveloped area in sport and exercise psychology. Although personal meaning
remains speculative, it cannot be overlooked (Berger & Mackenzie, 1980; Fahlberg,
Fahiberg. & Gates, 1992; Graham, 1981; Sacks, 1984). The search for the myriad
of meanings in physical activity is basic to understanding the unique role exercise
can play in self-expression, personal fulfillment, and enjoyment of the activity.
From a utilitarian, health-related approach, the psychological benefits of
physical activity can provide a source of personal meaning and have important
implications for encouraging a larger portion of the American population to be
physically active. If exercise is a pleasant, enjoyable, and meaningful activity, it is
likely to become a high priority in an individual s life. Too often, exercise is something one "should" do, but which one simply does not "have the time" to do, at
least today. Since exercise has many benefits, especially as an avenue of personal
meaning and expression, it is important to explore ways in which exercise might
become something one "wants" to do several days a week. Possible sources of
enjoyment and motivation for physical activity may include "feeling better" or
mood alteration; stress reduction; and enhancement of self-concept, self-awareness, and even self-knowledge.

Mood Elevation
Mood enhancement is a major psychological benefit of habitual physical
activity. Mood states serve as a looking glass for one's life. Although mood states
fluctuate and are highly changeable, they critically influence the quality of one's
life. Mood has been defined as a pervasive, global set of affective states that influences a broad range of thought processes and behavior (Morris, 1989, p. vii). It is
equated with the host of feeling states that a person chooses to ignore and/or celebrate at various times throughout a day in a "properly lived life" (Morris, 1989, p.
1). Mood is distinct from another closely allied constructemotionwhich tends
to be both stronger and more situationally specific, as illustrated by the emotion of
anger. Mood can be defined as having specific subcomponentssuch as tension,
depression, anger, fatigue, vigor, and confusion (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman.
1992)or as having more inclusive dimensions. Two recetit models of mood include two macrodimensions. One system separates mood into positive and negative affect (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The other model separates mood
into dimensions closely associated with general bodily arousal: energy (vs. tiredness) and tension (vs. calmness; Thayer, 1989; Thayer, Newman, & McClain, 1994;
see Figure 1). In conclusion, mood can be thought of as a summary affective response to extemal and intemal forces that a person encounters at a particular point
in time (Feldman, 1995).
Moods alter our affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses (Morris, 1989).
They also inform us about our general state of being and reflect our appraisal of
our life circumstances (Mayer & Hanson, 1995; Morris, 1989, p. 2). The centrality
of mood in our lives renders it a key consideration in maintaining a high quality of
life. Because of the influence of mood on our lives, researchers have examined the
tendency of people to monitor their mood states, to self-regulate their moods to
comfortable levels, to make judgments and evaluate their moods, and to make

333

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS

HIGH AROUSAL

/
/
/
/

aroused
astonished

a&aid
angry
anxiuos
tense

excited
elated

\
\
\
r,\aA

gjaa
happy
pleased

NEGATIVE
VALENCE

1
\

satisfied
content

POSITIVE
VALENCE

\
\
\

depressed
sad
gloomy

calm
at ease
relaxed

/
/
/

tired
sJeepy

LOW AROUSAL
Figure 1 A two factor model of mood state. Based on Figure ] from Feldman (1995).
Reprinted by permission.

rudimentary change decisions (Thayer, 1989; Thayer et al., 1994; Wegner &
Pennebaker, 1993).
Exercise is one of several commonly employed strategies for mood enhancement. Asking Londoners, "What's the thing to do when you are feeling depressed?"
Rippere (1977) found the most effective techniques were associated with exercise,
social, cognitive, and direct action behaviors. More recently, a Gallup (Gallup &
Castelli, 1989) poll identified religious practices as most effective for relieving
depression, with a close second being exercise, and followed by social and distraction categories. Psychologists and psychiatrists who had an average of 17 years of
professional experience rated exercise as the most effective technique for changing a bad mood and are most likely to use exercise than other techniques to energize themselves (Thayer et ai.. 1994).
Supporting the common practice of using exercise as a mood-enhancing strategy, the International Society of Sport Psychology and other researchers have concluded that physical activity is associated with desirable short-term changes in
mood, especially decreases in anxiety, depression, anger, and fatigue as well as
increased sense of mental well-being, alertness, vigor, clear thinking, and energy
(e.g., Berger & Mclnman, 1993; Berger & Owen, 1983, 1988. 1992a, 1995;
Bouteher, 1993; International Society of Sport Psychology, 1992; King, Taylor, &
Haskell, 1993; Morgan & Goldston, 1987; Pierce. Madden, Siegel. & BlumenthaL
1993; Steptoe & Boiton. 1988; Thayer. et al., 1994). Conversely, physical inactivity has been indicated to be a risk factor for depressive symptoms in a prospective
of a large community sample (Farmer, Locke. Moscicki, Dannenberg, Larson, &
Radloff, 1988). Results of the study by Farmer and colleagues indicated that healthy
white women and men had almost a twofold elevation in depressive symptoms

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BERGER

associated with little or no recreational physical activity, regardless of their chronic


conditions, age, income, education, or employment status.
Additional evidence of the mood benefits of exercise has been presented in
a systematic analysis of self-regulation of mood that included four sequential studies (Thayer et al.. 1994). Thayer and colleagues identified, categorized, and evaluated the effectiveness of various techniques as reported by women and men ranging in age from 16 to 89 years. Regulation of mood contained three interrelated
components: changing a bad mood, raising one's energy level, and reducing tension. They concluded that
of all the separate behavioral categories described to self-regulate mood, a
case can be made that exercise is the most effective [italics added]. This behavior was self-rated as the most successful at changing a bad mood [italics
added], fourth most successful at raising energy [italics added], and third or
fourth most successful at tension reduction [italics added], (p. 921)

The mood benefits associated with exercise are desirable, but they are not
automatic. The popular press and advertising agencies encourage us to believe that
exercise causes a variety of benefits. However, the results are far from clear. The
best evidence at the present time indicates that mood changes are associated with
exercise, but there is little evidence to suggest that the exercise itself causes the
benefits. Dishman (1995) recently emphasized that the underlying mechanisms
for explaining how exercise might reduce anxiety or depression still are unknown.

Preliminary Taxonomy to Maximize the Exercise Benefits


The mood benefits of physical activity seem to be dependent upon complex
interactions between the participant, the activity or exercise mode, and the exercise environment. My colleagues and I (Berger & Mclnman, 1993; Berger & Owen,
1988, 1992a) have proposed a tentative taxonomy to maximize the mood, and
perhaps other psychological benefits of exercise. Although the taxonomy needs
additional testing, it serves as a heuristic tool to stimulate future research and as an
initial practical guide for kinesiology clinicians in the field. As illustrated in Table
1, key requirements in the taxonomy include the following: a need for the activity
to be enjoyable; to satisfy specific exercise mode characteristics; and to incorporate specific practice guidelines regarding exercise intensity, duration, and frequency.

Pleasing or Enjoyable
A pleasing or enjoyable activity is a major requirement of the taxonomy.
Enjoyment, an optimal experience that results from performing an activity for its
own sake, often results in positive affect (Kimiecik & Harris, 1995). Inclusion of
enjoyment in the taxonomy emphasizes the important role of personal preference
when participating in sport, exercise, and dance activities. Some people may enjoy
the challenge and associated thrills of rock climbing; others may hate the activity.
Some exercisers may enjoy the monotonous activity of swimming and seek the
solitude; others may dread it. Still other people may enjoy the competitive interplay of a tennis match; others may find that losing a match is discouraging, even
depressing. The number of factors influencing exercise enjoyment seems endless.
Rather than try to list them all, the taxonomy emphasizes the need for enjoyment

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS

335

Table 1 Preliminary Taxonomy for Maximizing the Psychological Benefits


of Exercise
Major Requirements

Researcher

Pleasing and enjoyable activity

Thayer etal.. 1994

Mode characteristics
Aerobic, or rhythmical abdominal
breathing
Absence of interpersonal
competition
Closed, predictable, or temporally

Berger & Owen, 1992a; Kabat-Zinn, 1990,


1994: Moses et al., 1989; Pierce et al., 1993;
Thayer, 1987
Butki, Berger, & Motl, 1995; Glasser, 1976;
Riddick. 1984
Berger & Mackenzie, 1980; Rybczynski,
1991

and spatially certain activity


Practice requirement.s
Intensity: moderate

Berger & Owen, 1988, 1992a; Steptoe &


Cox, 1988; Thayer etal., 1994

Duration: at least 20 to 30 minutes

Berger&Owen. 1983, 1988; Pierce et al.,


1993; Steptoe & Bolton, 1988

Frequency: regularly included in


weekly schedule

Morgan, 1987; Sheehan, 1990

regardless of how it is personally defmed. Participating in an activity that is not


enjoyable can produce a variety of physiological benefits such as cardiorespiratory conditioning, caloric expenditure, and increased muscle strength; but it is less
likely to result in mood enhancement. Doing something fun and enjoyablesuch
as exercising, listening to music, taking a leisurely bath, or shoppingis mood
enhancing, although the effectiveness of these techniques may differ according to
one's gender or other individual differences such as age, education, and personality (e.g., Thayer et al., 1994).

Mode Requirements: Rhythmical Abdominal Breathing, Absence


of Competition, and Closed/Predictable Activity
In addition to the need for enjoyment, three mode characteristics also seem
to influence the extent of mood enhancement. The need for "aerobic exercise" to
promote psychological benefits has been cited in the literature (e.g.. Long & Stavel,
1995; Pierce etal., 1993). However, the aerobic requirement is being questioned.
Directly investigating the need for aerobic exercise, Berger and Owen (1992a)
reported that Hatha yoga, an activity with little aerobic training benefit, was associated with as many mood benefits as was the aerobic activity of swimming. Both
aerobic exercise and yoga result in rhythmical abdominal breathing, a core element in many stress reduction and meditative techniques designed to enhance psychological well-being.

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BERGER

Emphasizing the importance of rhythmical breathing when exercising.


Sheehan (1995) commented, "I know of no better way to find my own genius than
mnning with no companion except the rhythm of my breathing" (p. 18). Recent
studies of walking and riding a bicycle ergometer at light workloads lend credence
to the possibility that exercise-associated changes in breathing pattems rather than
aerobic quality are associated with mood enhancement (Moses, Steptoe, Mathews,
& Edwards, 1989; Steptoe & Boiton, 1988; Thayer, 1987). Researchers need to
clarify the role of aerobic as well as less intense exercise in enhancing mood states.
John Kabat-Zinn, Director of the Stress Reduction Clinic at the University of
Massachusetts Medical Center, suggests that mindfully tuning into one's breathing enhances psychological well-being (Kabat-Zinn, 1990, 1994). Many exercise
modes, both aerobic and nonaerobic, may encourage participants to focus on their
breathing. Of course, rhythmical, abdominal breathing is almost an automatic outcome of aerobic exercise.
Another mode requirement, an absence of competition, was emphasized by
Glasser (1976) in his discussion of exercise characteristics that lead to positive
addiction. Positive addictions (PA), in contrast to negative addictions, were theorized to lead to happiness, health, confidence, and creativity. Glasser emphasized,
"Not only must we not compete with others, we must leam not to compete with
ourselves if we want to reach the PA state" (p. 57). Competition may be detrimental to the mood benefits associated with physical activity for several reasons. Competitors tend to exercise at a high intensity for long durations to train their bodies
for optimal competitive performance. This can be associated with either no acute
mood benefits or with mood decrements (Berger, Grove, Prapavessis, & Butki,
1995; Morgan, Brown, Raglin, O'Connor, & Eilickson, 1987).
Theoretically, 50% of all competitors lose. Even if a person's team is fortunate enough to win more often than it loses, the player may be unhappy with his/
her own performance. Losing and self-criticism are common occurrences in competitive physical activity and can be depressing and tension and anger producing
rather than mood enhancing (Butki, Berger, & Motl, 1995). This is not to indicate
that competition is undesirable or unenjoyable (Heck & Kimiecik, 1993). In fact,
many participants, especially those high in ego orientation, seek the anxiety, thrill,
and energy-producing aspects of sport and competition (Butki et al., 1995). Competitive and noncompetitive physical activities may be differentially appealing to
individuals who differ in ego orientation. It would seem, however, that mood enhancement is not a common benefit of participating in competitive situations.
A third mode requirement is a closed or predictable activity. Closed, predictable, or temporally and spatially certain environments enable participants to "tune
out" the environment, to engage in free association while they are exercising, to
enjoy the creativity of thought that can occur, and to engage in mindfulness (Berger
& MacKenzie, 1980). Rybczynski 's (1991) observations about the benefits of solitary reading also apply to closed physical activities. The importance of predictability was supported by Glasser (1976. p. 93) when he observed that activities
such as jogging and swimming that do not require great mental effort are likely to
become positive addictions. Closed sport activities provide an opportunity for solitude, contemplation, reflection, withdrawal, and going inward. Noting the importance of solitude when exercising, George Sheehan, the running gum commented,
"Where once I found all my good thoughts on the mn, I now find them in other
solitary movement [italics added]. Given the choice I might wa]k rather than mn

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS

337

or choose to cycle over either one" (1990, p. 210). Sheehan's observation reinforces that of Kabat-Zinn (1994) who has emphasized that
dwelling inwardly for extended periods, we come to know something of the
poverty of always looking outside ourselves for happiness, understanding, and
wisdom. It's not that God, the environment, and other people cannot help us to
be happy or to find satisfaction. It's just that our happiness, satisfaction, and
our understanding, even of God, will be no deeper than our capacity to know
ourselves inwardly . . . from an intimate familiarity with the ways of one s
own mind and body. (p. 96)
Individuals who select closed, predictable activities for participation may
enjoy the certainty of the activities. Other individuals clearly do not. Many individuals fmd closed sport activities boring and enjoy the unpredictability of open
sports such as tennis, rock climbing, and basketball. One advantage of open sport
modes is that during participation, one's inner self is stilled, or is at least less
ruminative than when participating in closed exercise modes. There is little or no
information conceming the mood benefits of open sports. Since many open exercise modes involve competition against at least one other person, examination of
acute mood effects associated with competing in open sports in both winning and
losing situations is greatly needed.

Practice and/or Training Requirements: Intensity, Duration,


and Frequency
In addition to the mode considerations, three practice/training guidelines
appear to affect mood alteration. As illustrated in this section, the training parameters for mood alteration and those commonly suggested for fitness training actually may contradict one another. Thus exercise and sport participants need to choose
whether their primary aim is to "feel better," or to attain maximal physiological
training effects in order to reach their goals.
Although controversy surrounds the "best" intensity guideline for mood alteration, moderate exercise seems most likely to be associated with enhanced mental
health (Berger & Owen, 1988, 1992a; King et al., 1993; Steptoe & Boiton. 1988;
Thayer et al.. 1994). The mood effects of high-intensity exercise, approximately
80% VOj max, are the most unclear. High-in tensity training has been associated
with benefits (Berger & Owen. 1995), no change in mood (Berger & Owen, 1992b;
Motl, Berger, & Butki, 1995), and mood decrements (Morgan et al.. 1987; Steptoe
& Boiton, 1988). Although Thayer (1987) presented evidence that low-intensity
exercise in the form of walking is conducive to mood elevation, he recently summarized his research and concluded thai moderate exercise is one of the best ways
to raise energetic arousal (Thayer et al., 1994). Until there is additional support for
either high- or low-intensity exercise in the general population, exercise intensity
probably should be in the moderate range. The intensity consideration is integrally
connected to tbe requirement that the exercise be pleasant and enjoyable. Moderate-intensity exercise would seem to appeal to both those who prefer the high- and
the low-intensity levels.
Duration parameters of physical activity also may be related to mood and
other psychological benefits associated with exercise. Thayer (1987) reported that
as little as 5 minutes of walking was linked to increased energy and decreased

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tension. Researchers typically suggest 20 to 40 minutes of exercise to generate the


psychological benefits (e.g., Berger & Owen, 1983, 1988; Pierce etal., 1993; Steptoe
& Bolton. 1988). Between 40 and 60 minutes of exercise may result in additional
psychological advantages (Glasser, 1976; Mandell, 1979). The following quotation describes possible qualitative psychological changes that may be associated
with differing exercise duration:
The first thirty minutes are tough, old man. Creaks, twinges, pain, and stiffness. A counterpoint of breathless, painful self-depreciation.
Thirty minutes out, and something lifts. Legs and arms become light and rhythmic. . . .The fatigue goes away and feelings of power begin. I think I'll run
twenty-five miles today. I'll double the size of the research grant request. I'll
have that talk with the dean.
Then, sometime into the second hour comes the spooky time. Colors are bright
and beautiful, water sparkles, clouds breathe, and my body, swimming, detaches from the earth. A loving contentment invades the basement of my mind,
and thoughts bubble up without traits. I fmd the place I need to live if I'm
going to live. The running literature says that if you run six miles a day for two
months, you are addicted forever 1 understand. A cosmic view and peace are
located between six and ten miles of running. (Mandell. 1979, pp. 50-57)
Exercise duration and/or distance has a paradoxical relationship with mood
change, similar to that of exercise intensity. Up to a certain point, exercise is mood
enhancing; beyond this point, it can be detrimental lo psychological well-being.
Morgan, Costill, Flynn, Raglin, and O'Connor (1988) illustrated this relationship
in a study of chronic exercise in which training distance was purposely increased
to examine mood changes. Distance swum was increased abruptly from 4,000 to
9,000 meters during a 10-day period. Exercise intensity remained at approximately
94% of VO^ max. As expected, the highly trained collegiate swimmers reported
significant increases in depression, anger, fatigue, and total mood disturbance scores.
It seems that beyond a certain distance/durationwhich might vary according to
fitness leveladditional exercise duration is associated with either negative mood
states, or no acute benefits (Berger et al., 1995).
Exercise frequency, the final practice requirement for mood enhancement, is
intertwined with exercise enjoyment. Exercise sessions need to be frequent enough
that the discomfort of the conditioning process recedes. Habitual exercisers leam
to interpret various physical sensations, to pace themselves, and to relax while
exercising. Frequent exercise and the accompanying physical conditioning may
enable the participant to devote less attention to the movement activities as they
become more automatic. Noting the relationship between conscious effort and psychological benefits, George Sheehan (1990, p. 210) noted, "as I age. running is
less automatic... .And because running is no longer automatic, it is more difficult
to dissociate and get oif into my right brain. I am unable to meditate quite as
readily and pick up on the ideas carried in the stream of consciousness." U seems
participants need to exercise frequently to maintain a minimal fitness level to reap
the psychological benefits, but not so frequently as to incur an overuse injury or
boredom. The mood benefits tend to last for 2 to 4 hours after exercising in normal
populations (Morgan, 1987). Thus, participants who seek a feeling of psychological well-being and who want to maintain the positive effects on their day should

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS

339

exercise daily, as long as they are not depleting their bodies and energy levels by
"overtraining."
In conclusion, the taxonomy developed by my colleagues and myself includes seven factors that may influence the relationship between exercise and mood.
Undoubtedly there are other influences. Some of these include the temperature of
the water when swimming, air temperature when running, the presence and type
of music in the exercise area, and size of an exercise class (e.g.. Berger & Owen.
1986; Thayer et ai., 1994; Widmeyer, Brawley, & Carron. 1990). As researchers
continue to examine the exercise-mood relationship, the taxonomy undoubtedly
will need modification.

Stress Management: Maintaining an Optimal Level


Another major psychological benefit of physical activity is stress managementboth the lowering and raising of one's su-ess to maintain an optimal level.
Stress, an exceedingly complex process, occurs within the individual. It highlights
the verbalized, but seldom experienced, mind/body unity by resulting in both psychological and somatic symptoms. The disparity model of stress suggests that it is
a process that occurs when one's personal capabilities or resources are appraised
by that individual as insufficient to accomplish the needed behavior (see Berger,
1994). Technically, this undesirable type of stress is more accurately termed distress. Both too little and too much stress result in distress. In common usage, the
term distress is shortened to stress and leads to the inaccurate conclusion that all
stress is undesirable. Actually, it is disu-ess that has undesirable health consequences
and that detracts from the overall enjoyment of life.
Eustress emphasizes the desirable aspects of stress. Stress may be sought by
participants in sports such as rock climbing, skiing, and most competitive levels of
sport. Eustress is exhilarating and thrilling. Eustress adds zest to our sometimes
mundane lives. Physical activity is an ideal way to both raise and lower stress
levels to maintain an optimal level of stress at various stages of one's life. Because
stress is so pervasive in modem society, the remainder of this section focuses on
the use of exercise as a stress reduction technique.
The stress-reducing benefits of exercise include mood alterationespecially
the reduction of tension, depression, anger, and physiological changes. Although
the underlying mechanisms that influence the stress-reducing benefits of exercise
are unclear, the psychological and physiological benefits enable participants to
cope with daily stressors more effectively. Anxiety, depression, and hostility (or
negative affect) are typical stress symptoms (Repetti, 1993). Because exercise is
associated with short-term mood benefits, it is an effective approach for reducing
the psychological stress symptoms for members of both normal and highly stressed
populations (Berger & Owen, 1983. 1987. 1988: Dunn & Dishman. 1991; King et
al., 1993; Long & Stavel. 1995; Steptoe & Bolton. 1988). Long-term changes are
difficult to attribute to exercise because of many possible intervening events. Acute
mood changes are more clearly associated with the exercise session itself (Berger,
Friedman, & Eaton. 1988).
Exercise is associated with the modification of one's physiological as well
as psychological responses to stressful situations. The contradictory results of psychophysiological studies of exercise and stress reduction are difficult to interpret
because of differing methodologies employed. (See Berger. 1994, and Dishman,

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1995, for an extended discussion of methodological concerns.) Although the diverse studies often raise more questions than they answer, it seems that exercise
may affect physiological stress indices in many ways. Exercise may either increase or inhibit the extent of the initial stress response (Dienstbier, 1989; Rejeski,
Gregg, Thompson, & Berry, 1991). It also may reduce the length of the stress
response and facilitate a retum to normal resting levels (Crews & Landers, 1987;
Rudolph & McAuley, 1995). Further substantiating the effectiveness of exercise
as a stress reduction technique, individuals who experience many negative events
and who exercise do not report as many illnesses as those who do not exercise
(Brown & Siegel, 1988).

Increased Development of the Self: Concept, Esteem, Worth,


Efficacy, Awareness, and Knowledge
Physical activity can be related to a participant's self-concept, self-esteem,
self-efficacy, self-awareness, and self-knowledge. These various aspects of self
are interrelated but distinct. Self-concept incorporates all aspects of who one thinks
one is and as such is a central concept in one's conscious life (Campbell, 1990;
Watkins & Dhawan, 1989). Self-concept can be operationally defined by specific
measures that often include multifaceted, hierarchical components consisting of
both global and domain-specific dimensions. For example. Marsh (1992) has designed an inventory that includes 13 independent dimensions: general, academic,
emotional stability, language competency, honesty, math, opposite sex relations,
parental relations, physical ability, physical appearance, problem solving, religion,
and same-sex relations. In contrast to self-concept, self-esteem is more valuative
and reflects the cognitive comparisons between an individual's ideal and true selves
(Rhodewalt & Agustsdottir, 1986). High self-esteem is a strong predictor of subjective well-being and life satisfactionat least in Westem countries (Diener &
Diener, 1995). Self-knowledge reflects a person's cognitive awareness of their
personal wants, needs, goals, and values. Self-awareness is similar to self-monitoring and reflects how an individual appraises his or her interaction with other
people and their reactions.
Self-efficacy, another aspect of one's "self," refers to a person's beliefs about
his or her capabilities in situation-specific tasks such as exercise (Bandura, 1991;
Rudolph & McAuley, 1995). High levels of situational self-efficacy are desirable
for many reasons, such as activity initiation and adherence and continuing in the
face of adversity. Exercise consistently has been associated with increases in selfefficacy (e.g., McAuley, Coumeya. & Lettunich, 1991), and it may play a role in
dampening biological stress reactions such as cortisol concentrations (Bandura,
1991; Rudolph & McAuley. 1995).
Individuals with positive self-feelings seem to have a more stable base for
interacting with their worlds. If they are pleased with their capabilities in a variety
of areas, are self-aware, and are self-knowledgeable, they can interact with people
on a daily basis in a way that allows them to utilize their strengths, see situations
clearly, and have a variety of choices in how they respond to various situations. As
a result, they tend to view themselves as "in control" of situations and as having
the capabilities to respond appropriately. These self-views may positively influence one's moods and ongoing stress levels. In contrast, negative or extremely

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS

341

positive self-concepts detract from an individual's accomplishments and


psychological well-being. For example, an individual with unusually positive selfevaluations may be handicapped by not seeing him or herself cleariy and by not
having a repertoire of possible behavior responses. Such individuals are viewed
by others as cocky and arrogant. Thus, enhancing one's self-concept and self-esteem is not beneficial to all individuals. A realistic and accurate view and evaluation of one's self is a goal that often requires a lifetime to perfect.
Evidence of a positive relationship between physical activity and self-concept or self-esteem is equivocal. Cross-sectional studies comparing exercisers and
athletes with nonexercisers are more supportive of a relationship than are exercise
intervention studies. In comparison to those who are less fit, exercisers and those
who are more fit have more positive global self-esteem, higher self-concepts on a
variety of subscales. and higher body concepts (e.g.. Marsh, Perry, Horsely. &
Roche, 1995; Tucker, 1987). Such cross-sectional studies, however, provide little
information about whether exercise causes these benefits, or whether people who
initially have more positive self-concepts simply are attracted to exercise and sport.
In partial support of a causal relationship, children (between the ages of 8 and 12
years) classified as having low. moderate, or high motor coordination according to
objective scores on a battery of motor activities differed significantly in their perceptions of global self-worth; athletic competence (Rose. Larkin, & Berger, 1994);
and on perceptions of social suppori from their classmates, best friends, parents,
and teachers. Emphasizing the importance of motor/sport skills, a high competency level was a significant moderator of global self-worth for girls; low motor
competency was linked to negative athletic self-perceptions for both giris and boys.
Sonstroem and colleagues (Sonstroem, Harlow, Gemma, & Osbome, 1991;
Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989), however, are testing a model that might explain the
relationship between exercise and enhanced self-esteem. This promising model
includes dimensions of self-efficacy, perceived physical competence, and self-acceptance.
Intervention studies investigating pre- and postexercise change in programs
lasting between a single session and 13 weeks have provided less consistent support for the role of exercise on self-concept. Some investigators, however, have
observed significant improvement in self-concept (Hayden. Allen, & Camaione,
1986; Mclnman & Berger, 1993). Aerobic dance participants reported short-term
changes in both self-concept and mood when measured immediately before and
after an exercise session (Mclnman & Berger, 1993). There was no evidence that
the extent of the mood change mediated the changes in self-concept. Other researchers have not found changes in self-concept associated with exercise. Puretz
(1982) found partial support for a relationship between exercise and body-image
improvement. Panicipants in a body conditioning class, but not those in three types
of dance classes, reported significant improvements. In conclusion, the relationship between self-concept and physical activity, similar to that between exercise
and mood alteration, may vary according to exercise mode and a host of environmental conditions. In 1981, Sonstroem suggested exercise programs designed to
enhance self-esteem need to emphasize success experiences, feelings of increased
physical competence, and goal attainment. This observation is still intuitively appealing and needs further investigation.

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Benefits of an Active Lifestyle: Unresolved Issues


Cause and Effect
Does exercise cause the psychological benefits, or are the benefits associated with the myriad of events that occur when one exercises? This important, but
still unanswered, question continues to elude researchers. In fact, because of a lack
of understanding regarding the underlying mechanisms, conservatives tend to conclude that the psychological benefits are unproven and thus are an inappropriate
area of research application. The psychological benefits associated with exercise
are such important contributors to quality of life that the information we do have
cannot be put on hold until we have additional clarifyitig data.
Closely allied with the cause and effect issue is the search for underlying
causal mechanisms. In general, such mechanisms fall into two broad categories:
physiological and psychological. Possible physiological mechanisms include
changes in brain neurotransmitters and peptides as well as a cardiac visceral afferent feedback model, hyperthemnic effects, increased maximal oxygen consumption and oxygen delivery to cerebral tissues, and a right-hemispheric effect (e.g..
Clayton, 1991; Dunn & Dishman, 1991; Pierce etal., 1993).Dienstbier(1989) has
proposed a novel intertwining of neuroendocrine (catecholamine and cortisol responses) and psychological mechanisms (mental appraisal). "Appraisals of challenge, based upon the anticipation of success and feelings of control, lead to an
arousal balance favoring the catecholamines rather than cortisol, and prevent CNS
catecholamine depletion" (p. 850). Physical activity may also be a means of reducing muscle tension, which appears to directly affect mood (Thayer et al., 1994).
Psychological or behavioral mechanisms responsible for the mental health
benefits of exercise might include a "time ouf" or distraction from daily hassles, a
sense of control, feelings of competency, capacity for change, enhanced physical
self-efficacy and/or general self-efficacy, improved self-concept and self-esteem,
social interactions, participating in a pleasurable activity, and even expectancy
(Berger, Owen, & Man, 1993; Dunn & Dishman, 1991; Thayer et al., 1994). Although the physiological mechanisms are more tangible and thus more "real," the
possible psychological mechanisms are equally as important as the physiologica!
ones.
Specific mechanisms may occur more readily in some types of sport and
exercise modes than in others. They also may transpire at different competency,
performance, or exertion (intensity) levels than others. There also may be individual differences depending on the specific mechanism(s) measured. Thus a person/exercise mode/training considerations/exercise environment interaction may
explain part of the difficulty in elucidating underlying mechanisms. The possible
interactions argue strongly for systematic studies that control and/or examine many
of these variables. Identifying, demonstrating, and quantifying the possible mechanisms remains a daunting but challenging research task.

Quality Research
There is no question about the need for carefully planned, conducted, and
controlled studies in exercise and sport psychology as called for by Schutz and
Gessaroli (1993), Dishman (1995). and others. Issues of scientific .standards, consistency, dose-dependent gradients, and biological plausibility are important

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS

343

concems in exercise psychology. However, if definitions of "good science" and


acceptable research methods are too narrow and iticlude only empirical studies,
then this exclusionary approach has the potential of retarding progress in examining the psychological benefits of an active lifestyle. If scientists and practitioners
ignore existing research because of methodological problems (lack of adequate
control groups, clarity in specifying underlying mechanisms, failure to randomly
assign subjects to treatment, and others) and a lack of theory, then applied research
and its application are destined to move at a snail's pace. In a climate of conservativeness and caution, program development may be carried out by less qualified
individuals who recognize social, personal, and entrepreneurial needs for such
exercise programs.
It is time to tum from safe and familiar topics and empirical methodology
and to incorporate the multiple epistemologies such as phenomenological and
hermeneutic inquiry into the study of human movements and its multiple meanings (Fahlberg & Fahlberg, 1994). We need to begin to wander where our interests
and persona] experiences tell us we need to goeven with the fear of criticism.
Thus, the following section shares with you my thoughts and my hunches.

New Research Directions: A General Emphasis


on the Quality of Life or Subjective Well-Being
The time is ripe to devote additional resources to examining the psychologica] benefits of an active lifestyle. We Americans are living longer and are becoming concemed about our quality of life. The nebulous term quality of life has been
defined as one's behavioral functioning ability, "or being able to "do stuff"'" and
living long enough to do it (Kaplan. 1994. p. 151). Quality of life includes actual
functional status and one's perceptions (Rejeski & Shumaker. 1994). Quality of
life is quite similar to the concept of "subjective well-being." which is a person's
evaluative reactions to his or her lifeeither in terms of life satisfaction (cognitive evaluations), positive affect, or negative affect (Diener & Diener, 1995; Feist,
Bodner, Jacobs, Miles, & Tan. 1995). As might be expected, subjective well-being
is affected by actua] physical health, constructive thinking, daily hassles, job satisfaction, world assumptions, and personal resources and strivings (Diener & Fujita,
1995; Feist el al., 1995). Regardless of the terminology employed, the desirability
of living longer is closely tied to the quality of one's life/subjective well-being. If
quality of life is poor, there is little benefit in living longer. Both longevity and
quality of life tend to be affected by psychosocial events and health behaviors,
especially habitual physical activity (Friedman et al., 1995). As the population
ages, physical activity becomes an increasingly important contributor to the quality of life.
Another impetus for research on physical activity and psychological wellbeing is that funding agencies, academic and therapeutic institutions, and professional organizations are increasing their awareness and support of body-mind (and
even-spirit) unity and related programs and research. This change is exemplified
by the work of Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center
(1994; Moyers, 1993) and Deepak Chopra. MD. a former faculty member at Tufts
University and Boston University Schools of Medicine (Chopra. 1993). In response
to public interest and needs, there is increasing receptivity of mind-body and bodyttiind research (e.g.. Melamed, 1995). Establishment of the Division of Altemative

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BERCER

Medicine in the National Institute of Health signals some acceptance of altemative


approaches to health, both to remediation and enhancement. Acclaimed Public TV
specials such as Healing the Mind by Bill Moyers (1993) and Body, Mind, and
Spirit by Deepak Chopra, MD (1995), emphasize new mind-body medical approaches, the public's embrace of non traditional health approaches, and the key
role exercise plays in these therapies.
Public interest in health, quality of life, and exercise bombard us. New, expensive, comprehensive fitness facilities stagger the imagination with their diverse
offerings: iap pools, tennis and racquet courts, indoor tracks, high-tecb aerobic
studios, weight rooms of an amazing array, rock-climbing walls, golf tees, and
meditation rooms. The "gym" no longer is primarily for basketball, boxing, and
physical education classes. Of course, many gyms have turned into "clubs" and
have begun to design and market programs for young and old, female and male,
trim and obese, weak and strong! There is a new era for physical activity, and
people are paying large sums of money to join the clubs.

Now Is the Time


Now is the time to ask new research questions, to pursue new approaches to
old questions, to be less judgmental in determining "acceptable" research approaches, and to avoid the pitfall of focusing on the elite athlete and on glamorous
competitive sports. Researchers need to tum from the traditional, "safe" research
topics and wander where personal interests and experiences tell us we need to go.
An exciting feeling of change is in the air! The following are only a few of the
possibilities for exercise and sport psychology research. It is important to continue
asking, however, "what are the meanings of exercise and the psychological benefits of an active lifestyle?" We need to explore whether the meanings and benefits
differ for individuals throughout their lifespans, whether they vary from one person to another, and whether they diverge from one mode of exercise to another. We
have just begun to uncover the tip of the iceberg in answering such questions.
I would like to conclude this paper with a brief examination of new research
directions and breathe new life into some more established research areas. F^omising areas of research include focusing on the role of physical activity in promoting
a high quality of life and on the inseparable physical-psychological unity. Considerable research is needed, but exercise/sport psychology and a host of other specializations are on the verge of greatly expanding the present state of mind-bodyspirit knowledge. Psychiatrists, psychologists, and exercise psychologists are investigating the benefits of exercise in psychotherapeutic settings (e.g., Hays, 1994,
1995; Martinsen, 1993; Martinsen & Stephens, 1994). Psychologists and
kinesiologists are beginning to capture the characteristics of flow, peak experiences, and fun in exercise and sport settings (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Kimiecik &
Harris, 1995; Wankel & Berger, 1991; Wankel & Sefton, 1989). Researchers are
exploring the changing personal meanings of exercise throughout one's life, from
childhood to old age (Ostrow, 1989; Spirduso, 1995).

New Vitality for Exercise and Psychotherapy Research


Exercise therapy has much to offer people who are clinically anxious, depressed, or searching for a high level of well-being. In fact, people who are clinically depressed and/or anxious and those in psychotherapy may reap even more

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS

345

psychological benefits from exercise than members of the general population. A


basic reason for this tendency is that highly depressed and anxious people, or those
with clinical symptoms in need of psychological or psychiatric treatment, have
more "room for improvement" in regard to various aspects of their mental health.
They also are likely to report more "permanent" or chronic changes from exercising rather than the acute or temporary changes typically experienced by the population at large.
Regardless of the possibilities in this area, the number of researchers and
practitioners interested in exercise and clinical populations remains small for a
variety of reasons. One of these is that the medical establishment, as represented
by psychiatrists, is slow to change standard therapeutic approaches. In addition,
few psychotherapists, psychologists, and psychiatrists have familiarity with the
exercise and sport psychology literature. Finally, psychiatrists and psychologists
tend to know little about structuring appropriate programs unless they themselves
are informed and practicing exercisers. In spite of such impediments, exciting work
in the area is filtering into professional journals and other publications. For example, a psychiatrist and director of a psychiatric hospital in Norway has reported
a series of studies focusing on the mental health benefits of exercise (Martinsen,
1987,1993; Martinsen & Stephens, 1994). Psychiatrists have explored a variety of
ways in which exercise might influence patients' mental health, and the late 1970s
and early 1980s saw a proliferation of psychiatric publications (e.g., Kostmbala,
1981; Mandell, 1979; Sacks, 1984; Solomon & Bumpus, 1978). Edited volumes
have directed attention to the broad area of exercise and psychotherapy and to
programmatic considerations in therapeutic exercise programs (Sacks & Sachs,
1981; Sachs & Buffone, 1984). Despite this encouraging beginning, neither the
burgeoning field of applied exercise and sport psychology nor investigators in
psychiatry and psychology have continued to explore the synergistic possibilities
of movement and therapy during the last 10 years.
Following the lull in interest since the 70s and early 80s, psychologists have
begun to explore possible therapeutic benefits of exercise. Illustrating several ways
in which psychoiogists in private practice might employ exercise as a therapeutic
technique, Kate Hays (1994) recently examined issues of concem when both therapist and client mn during a therapy session as popularized by Kostmbala (1981)
and continued by Johnsgard (1989). Psychological issues related to a therapist
exercising with a client included changes in therapeutic boundaries, the therapistclient relationship, interpersonal competition, and body awareness and sexuality.
Hays considers exercise to be a therapeutic tool similar to free association and
desensitization. Advantages of exercise therapy in comparison to conventional
sedentary approaches include new clarity of thinking and fluidity of mental association, enhanced use of symbolism and metaphor, and increased nonverbal communication (Hays 1994, 1995).

Needed Research: Enjoyment, Fun, and Peak Moments


Another way an active lifestyle can promote life quality and subjective wellbeing is by providing opportunities for enjoyment, fun, peak moments, and other
"special" times. Defining the term enjoyment is difficult. Adictionary definition is
"something that gives joy or satisfaction" {Webster's Dictionary of the English
Language, 1992). Researchers have defined enjoyment as an optimal experience.

346

BERCER

one of high quality, that serves as an end in itself (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). The
optimal experience of enjoyment often results in positive affect such as liking and
joy (Kimiecik & Harris, 1995). Since enjoyment is a common reason for participating in exercise and sport (Scanlan & Simons, 1992; Wankel, 1993; Wankel &
Sefton, 1989), it is important to explore possible sources of enjoyment in exercise
and sport to facilitate their occurrence. Sources of enjoyment commonly cited by
exercise and sport participants include intrinsic, social, and extrinsic categories.
Specific factors include the movement experiences within the physical activity
itself, perceived competence, social and life opportunities, psychological wellbeing, social interactions, flow experiences, distractions, outlets from daily hassles,
and winning (Heck & Kimiecik. 1993; Wankel & Berger, 1991).
Examining the interactions between the personality characteristics and preferences of the participant, the exercise or sport mode, and environmental conditions is necessary to understand why some people find exercise and sport enjoyable, and others do not. Not all types of exercise are equally enjoyable to a particular individual, and individuals differ in their personal preferences. We need to know
more about the key factors within exercise that make it enjoyable. Some of these
probably include factors such as flow sensations, absorption, mood enhancement
or "feeling better." distractions, a need for excitement, an opportunity to test and/
or extend one's capabilities, social interaction, and the actual movement itself.
Peak moments provide one source of enjoyment. Included in the broad term
peak moment are a variety of states: peak experiences, flow, peak performance,
and exercise high. These events are slightly different from one another. Each are
special experiences, are savored by exercise participants, and provide powerful
reasons for continued physical activity throughout one's lifetime. Peak performance is outstanding behavior with higher than usual levels of perfonnance. Flow
is an intrinsically enjoyable matching of ability and task difficulty in which the
participant becomes totally absorbed in the activity. The runner's (or exercise)
high is a specific type of peak experience characterized by euphoria, a heightened
sense of well-being, feelings of psychological/physical strength and power, a glimpsing of perfection, and even spirituality. Peak experiences are characterized by an
awareness of a special event, bliss, and intense joy. See Berger and Mclnman (1993)
for a more detailed discussion and analysis of peak moments.
Although fun, enjoyment, and peak moments cannot be planned or anticipated, Diener (1984) noted in his review of subjective well-being that individuals
are happier when they participate in interesting, involving activities. Sport and
exercise provide opportunities for experiencing these valued events/experiences.
Ways to maximize the occurrence of peak moments in sport and exercise, however, are unclear. Part of the research difficulty lies in the fact that peak moments
cannot be anticipated or planned and thus are difficult to study. Despite the
unpredictability of peak moments, it seems that six main mental states are highly
associated with them and illustrate the desirability of the experience:
absorption or immersion in the activity as evidenced by intense concentration;
detachment or lack of awareness of immediate surroundings;
power in the form of physical energy or a feeling of being able to do no
w r o n g ;

...

..

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,:

.. ^ J . *

- . . .

;..

PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS

347

altered perception, either a quickening or slowing of time, in which every


detail of the activity is crystal clear;
sense of unity or oneness with the environment; and
power in the form of physical energy or communication with other individualsa feeling that the participant can do no wrong (Berger & Mclnman,
1993).

New Directions: Personal Meanings in Exercise and Sport


There are many meanings of exercise, but there is little research evidence in
this important area. Noting the individual differences in the meaning of exercise,
Fahlberg and Fahlberg (1994) raised the question of whether we "want people to
adhere to exercise regimens regardless of the meaning that exercise might hold for
the participant... ? Do we want people to exercise even if they are participating as
a result of oppressive social influences?" (p. 101). The FahJbergs also ask. "Do we
want people to exercise for their physical health, even if to do so means that we
create negative psychological forces such as guilt?" (p. 101). The freedom to choose
the type of exercise, exercise mode, seriousness of exercise, and even whether one
chooses to exercise should be a conscious issue (e.g., Fahlberg, 1995). As
kinesiologists, we do not often ask ourselves these questions that are integrally
related to personal meaning. Questions such as these are importanL however, and
emphasize the diversity of meaning inherent in physical activity and the need for
personal freedom.
I continue to be intrigued by accounts of meaning in exercise, sport, dance,
and other types of movement that occur in diverse publications (e.g., Berger &
MacKenzie, 1980; Cantweil, 1990; Fussell, 1991; Sheehan, 1978, 1990, 1995),
Personal stories of meaning in physical activity graphically illustrate the great
need for direct investigation of this topic. Exercise means many things, important
things, to so many different people (Berger & Mackenzie. 1980; Fahlberg et al.,
1992; Falhberg & Fahlberg. 1994).
Research in the human area of meaning requires the integration of empirical, phenomenological, and hermeneutical approaches to explore the "lived experience" or meaning of physical activity (Fahlberg & Fahlberg, 1994). Phenomenology permits examination of the study of conscious meaning; hermeneutics
enables researchers to understand meanings in sport and exercise with a recognition of environment and/or social values. Phenomenological, hermeneutic, and
empirical epistemologies emphasize that human reality includes body and mind
(matter and meaning) in analyzing the complex values in exercise and sport. Brenda
Donahue's (1994) account of her success in avoiding back surgery by enrolling in
a martial arts course at the age of 43 with no history of exercise since high school
is one of many personal exercise joumeys. In a lyrical description of her progress,
she noted that leaming to make pain an ally rather than an enemy was one of the
most heroic things she had ever done. As she became aware that her back was
being healed, she developed within herself a sense of play to make a

needed and dreadful experience challenging and interesting. 1 pretended that I


was entering a sacred place each day, where 1 would have an adventure and
learn from all my experience. . . .1 was emotionally and mentally captivated
by my experience, (pp. 90-91)

348

BERGER

Brenda elaborated on the meaning of her exercise:


Repetitive practice of ocean form frees my emotional and mental energies and
allows me to become more flexible, receptive, and introspective. 1 feel deep
peace as I concentrate on moving accurately and smoothly through this form.
The need to focus attention fully on the position of the body, whether in motion, or in stillness, forces me to let go of egocentric concems and stand within
the still point of the present moment, (p. 103)
Accounts such as this illustrate the diverse and complex meanings in human
movement. Meaning in life, especially with our extended lifespans facilitated by
advancements in medical technology and healthy behaviors, and the freedom to
make multiple choices regarding how we live that life, has important implications
for the exploration of psychological benefits of an active lifestyle. Join me in exploring these new as well as the more established research areas in exercise and
sport psychology.

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A cknowledgments
The author expresses appreciation to Larry Fahlberg and Rob Mot! for their helpftil comments on an earlier draft of this paper.

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