A vacuole (/vkjuol/) is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in

all plant and fungal cells and some protist,animal[1] and bacterial cells.[2] Vacuoles are
essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and
organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain cases they may contain
solids which have been engulfed. Vacuoles are formed by the fusion of multiple
membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these.[3] The organelle has no
basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the needs of the cell.
The function and significance of vacuoles varies greatly according to the type of cell in
which they are present, having much greater prominence in the cells of plants, fungi and
certain protists than those of animals and bacteria. In general, the functions of the vacuole
include:

Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell

Containing waste products

Containing water in plant cells

A lysosome (derived from the Greek words lysis, meaning "to loosen", and soma, "body")
is a membrane-bound cell organellefound in most animal cells (they are absent in red blood
cells). Structurally and chemically, they are spherical vesicles
containinghydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down virtually all kinds of biomolecules,
including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates,lipids, and cellular debris. They are known
to contain more than 50 different enzymes, which are all optimally active at an acidic
environment of about pH 4.5 (about the pH of black coffee). Thus lysosomes act as the
waste disposal system of the cell by digesting unwanted materials in the cytoplasm, both
from outside of the cell and obsolete components inside the cell. For this function they are
popularly referred to as "suicide bags" or "suicide sacs" of the cell. [1][2] Furthermore,
lysosomes are responsible for cellular homeostasis for their involvements in
secretion, plasma membrane repair, cell signalling and energy metabolism, which are
related to health and diseases.[3] Depending on their functional activity, their sizes can be
very differentthe biggest ones can be more than 10 times bigger than the smallest ones.
[4]

They were discovered and named by Belgian biologist Christian de Duve, who eventually

received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974.

Enzymes of the lysosomes are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The
enzymes are released from Golgi apparatus in small vesicles which ultimately fuse with

The Golgi apparatus (/oldi/), also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or
simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.[1] It was identified in 1897 by
the Italian physician Camillo Golgi and named after him in 1898.[2]
Part of the cellular endomembrane system, the Golgi apparatus packages proteins into
membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination.
The Golgi apparatus resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic
pathways. It is of particular importance in processing proteins for secretion, containing a set
of glycosylationenzymes that attach various sugar monomers to proteins as the proteins
move through the apparatus.

Discovery[edit]
Owing to its large size and distinctive structure, the Golgi apparatus was one of the
first organelles to be discovered and observed in detail. It was discovered in 1898 by Italian
physician Camillo Golgi during an investigation of thenervous system.[2] After first observing
it under his microscope, he termed the structure the internal reticular apparatus. Some
doubted the discovery at first, arguing that the appearance of the structure was merely an
optical illusion created by the observation technique used by Golgi. With the development of
The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double membrane-bound organelle found in
most eukaryotic cells.[1] The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek , mitos, i.e.
"thread", and , chondrion, i.e. "granule"[2] or "grain-like".
Mitochondria range from 0.5 to 1.0 m in diameter. A considerable variation can be seen in
the structure and size of this organelle. Unless specifically stained, they are not visible.
These structures are described as "the powerhouse of the cell" because they generate most
of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy.
[3]

In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in other tasks, such

as signaling, cellular differentiation, andcell death, as well as maintaining control of the cell
cycle and cell growth.[4] Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases,

including mitochondrial disorders,[5] cardiac dysfunction,[6] and heart failure. A recent

University of California study including ten children diagnosed with severe autism suggests
that autism may be correlated with mitochondrial defects as well. [7]

The ribosome (/rabzom/) is a large and complex molecular machine, found within all
living cells, that serves as the site ofbiological protein synthesis (translation). Ribosomes
link amino acids together in the order specified by messenger RNA(mRNA) molecules.
Ribosomes consist of two major components: the small ribosomal subunit, which reads the
RNA, and the large subunit, which joins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each
subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA(rRNA) molecules and a variety
of proteins. The ribosomes and associated molecules are also known as the translational
apparatus.
The sequence of DNA encoding for a protein may be copied many times into RNA chains of
a similar sequence. Ribosomes can bind to an RNA chain and use it as a template for
determining the correct sequence of amino acids in a particular protein. Amino acids are
selected, collected and carried to the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA molecules), which
enter one part of the ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA chain. The attached amino
acids are then linked together by another part of the ribosome. Once the protein is
produced, it can then fold to produce a specific functional three-dimensional structure.

The cytoplasm comprises cytosol (the gel-like substance enclosed within the cell
membrane) and the organelles the cell's internal sub-structures. All of the contents of
the cells of prokaryote organisms (such as bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus) are
contained within the cytoplasm. Within the cells of eukaryote organisms the contents of
the cell nucleus are separated from the cytoplasm, and are then called the nucleoplasm.
The cytoplasm is about 80% water and usually colorless. [1]
It is within the cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, such as many metabolic
pathways including glycolysis, and processes such as cell division. The concentrated inner
area is called the endoplasm and the outer layer is called the cell cortexor the ectoplasm.

Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is thought to be a signaling activity
for metabolic processes.[2]
In plants, movements of the cytoplasm around vacuoles are known as cytoplasmic
streaming.
Physical nature of cytoplasm[edit]

In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel) is
a membrane-enclosedorganelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a single
nucleus, but a few cell types have no nuclei, and a few others have many.
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long
linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to
form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome.
The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the
activities of the cell by regulating gene expressionthe nucleus is, therefore, the control
center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a
double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the
cellular cytoplasm, and the nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a network
within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which
supports the cell as a whole.
Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are
required that regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The pores cross
both nuclear membranes, providing a channel through which larger molecules must be
cells, thus he introduced the name "Cytoblast" (cell builder). He believed that he had
observed new cells assembling around "cytoblasts".
The cell wall is a tough, flexible and sometimes rigid layer that surrounds some types
of cells. It surrounds the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and
protection. In addition, the cell wall acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell

wall is to act as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell.
Cell walls are found in plants, fungi and prokaryotic cells but not in mycoplasmas.
The composition of the cell wall varies between species and may depend on cell type and
developmental stage. The primary cell wall of land plants is composed of the
polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. In bacteria, peptidoglycan forms the
cell wall. Archaean cell walls have various compositions, and may be formed
ofglycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls
made of the glucosamine polymer chitin, and algae typically possess walls made of
glycoproteins and polysaccharides. Unusually, diatoms have a cell wall composed

The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane) is
a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment.[1]
[2]
The cell membrane isselectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls
the movement of substances in and out of cells.[3] The basic function of the cell membrane is
to protect the cell from its surroundings. It consists of thephospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins. Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such
as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for
several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and
intracellular cytoskeleton. Cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.[4][5][6]
The cell membrane (or plasma membrane or plasmalemma) surrounds the cytoplasm of
living cells, physically separating the intracellular components from
the extracellular environment. Fungi, bacteria andplants also have a cell wall in addition,
which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of larger
molecules. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide
shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to help group
cells together to form tissues.

The plastid (Greek: ; plasts: formed, molded plural plastids) is a major doublemembrane organelle [1] found, among others, in the cells of plants and algae. Plastids are
the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds used by the cell.
They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments present can
change or determine the cell's color. They have a common origin and possess a doublestranded DNA molecule that is circular, like that of prokaryotes. Those plastids that contain

pigments can carry out photosynthesis. Plastids can also store products like starch and can
synthesise fatty acids and terpenes, which can be used for producing energy and as raw
material for the synthesis of other molecules. For example, the components of the plant
cuticle and its epicuticular wax are synthesized by the epidermal cells from palmitic acid,
which is synthesized in the chloroplasts of the mesophyll tissue.[2] All plastids are derived
from proplastids, which are present in the meristematic regions of the plant. Proplastids and
young chloroplasts commonly divide by binary fission, but more mature chloroplasts also
have this capacity.
In plants, plastids may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which function they
play in the cell. Undifferentiated plastids (proplastids) may develop into any of the following
variants:[3]