WESTERN FINAL BY GANGMAEWNHAM YIN MO NAE

1. Is psychology more like myth or more like science? (a) Begin by explaining the
difference between Mythological Explanation and Theoretical Explanation. (b) How
and what does psychology try to explain? (Use an example.) (c) Finally, do you
believe psychology is more like myth or more like science? (You can argue for one or
the other, or for both. But, whatever you argue, you should support your claims.)
(A) - Mythological Explanation uses narrative or storytelling form that explains the
origins of the world and the gods and goddesses
- It concerns with who (gods) and why (reasons/ motivations) for the content.
- The gods are governed by powerful emotions such as jealousy, lust, love, hatred and
anger
- Their emotions are subject to change, therefore, they are inconsistent and unpredictable.
- In the same way, mythological explanation suggests that the world cannot be predicted as
it is chaos; disorder, irregular, and random.
- Theoretical Explanation uses a form of argument, which comprises of premise and
conclusion.
- While premise is the evidence/ support for conclusion, conclusion is the statement about
the world
- The arguments could be mathematical, scientific, and philosophical.
- Theoretical Explanation, concerns with what (fundamental and basic stuff) and how
(laws, rules, principles, qualities) for the content.
- For example, the basic stuffs (what) of physics are particles, atoms, and molecules that
are governed by laws (how) such as gravity and forces.
- The theoretical world is cosmos, which has more order and regularity to it, therefore,
early philosophers believe that the universe is stable.
- As the universe is fundamentally unchanging, it is noble and predictable.
(B) - Psychology explains the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors, which
include soul, breathe, and mind (life principles).
- In the mind, there are mental states and experience that have different feelings such as
calmness, relaxation, memory, emotions, and consciousness.
- There are 3 mental states in psychology, which are qualitative states, cognitive states, and
motivational states.

- The qualitative state relates to feelings of pains, tingles, itches, and dreams
- The cognitive state deals with judgment, decision-making, beliefs, and plan.
- The motivational state has to do with desire, intention, and want.
- These studies cannot be explained by chemistry or biology; they need psychology as they
work differently from physical things.
- We will know mental states by introspection, but physical things by perception.
- Physical things can be measured because it takes the form of extension, which has to do
with length, shape, weight, height, and divisible.
- However, mental things cannot be measured as they do not have the form of extension.
- For example, we cannot measure fear of heights, and the belief that our favorite football
team will win because we cannot measure how much weight fear and belief have.
(C)- I think psychology is more like science than myth because it uses scientific method to
analyze human and animal behaviors.
- Similar to scientific method, which has premise or evidence to support conclusion,
psychologist uses experiment as an evidence to get answers.
- Psychology is about using mental states to predict human behaviors and this is linked to
commonsense psychology.
- Commonsense psychology focuses on how everyday people see an individuals beliefs
and desires.
- For example, we can predict or make assumptions about what our close friends do or
think because we know them for a long time.
- This suggests that commonsense psychology allows us to predict the 3 mental states of
another person, which are cognitive, qualitative, and motivational.
- Since we can predict human mental states by using psychology, psychology is more like
science, which can be predicted and measured.
2. In Greek sculpture, there is an important development from Kritian Boy by Kritios
to The Spear-Carrier by Polyclitus. (a) Explain in detail this development. (b) How
do you think Aristotle would explain this development? (c) How do you think a
Formalist would explain it? (d) Which explanation do you consider more convincing
and why? (You might believe that neither is in which case you can offer another
alternative.)

(A) - The development of Kritian Boy was around 480 BCE. The statue is made of marble
and is considerably smaller than life-size.
- It is a very realistic and most human-liked sculpture.
- During this period, the Greeks make sculpture with most realism essence to it.
- However, around 450 BCE, the Greeks started to abandon the realistic art and moved to
exaggerated art instead.
- Professor Ramachandran, a neuroscientist (specialized in the study of brain), came up
with an argument by analogy, which is supernormal stimulus.
- He said that it is in most human and animal instincts to prefer something in an
exaggerated form than that in a realistic form, which tends to get boring overtime.
- For example, the male butterfly prefers a bigger and more colorful cardboard butterfly
than the color and stripes of a real female butterfly.
- Therefore, this can explain why the Greeks abandoned the realism in their arts.
- Moreover, around 450 BC. Polyclitus divides human body into 4 segments to show
contrapposto (counter pose) position or contrast between different postures of the body.
- By using this concept, Polyclitus created an exaggerated statue, Spear-Carrier, aiming to
treat each section independently and to show the counterbalance between the relaxed and
tensed body parts.
- It is an exaggeration because human body cannot bend this way.
(B) - Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, is interested in art the way it is.
- From his analysis, Aristotle also gave tragedy, and example of artwork, on of its
definitions that it must have Catharsis.
- It is the cleansing/ purification of emotions that leads the audience to a deeper
understanding of human life.
- With Catharsis, the art sends negative feelings away so that the audience would feel
relieved.
- These two represent the aesthetic experience in the artwork. Anything that the audience
perceives as an artwork can be an artwork even if it is not made from an artist.
- In my opinion, it shares the same concept with the development of the previous Greek
sculpture.
- Aristotle seems to appreciate the value of Art that the viewer can obtain from the artists
experience.
- And maybe, it is not that Greeks abandon realism. They may just wanted to show what
could be possible in human society.
- Similar to movies, it started from story-telling and the stories were told generations by
generations.
- Then, people created something from their own imaginations. In movies, there are sci-fi
type and fantasy types.
- Similar to sculptures, movies can make audiences feel and get emotions from them.

- Even though people know those movies cannot be realistic, they still like to follow the
imagination.
(C) - In a formalist view, they believe in more of the object of knowledge way.
- There is no material to represent knowledge, but it needs to be defined by reasoning or
intellectual.
- Platos allegory (tale that has surface and underline meaning) of the cave describes that
there are prisoners chained in a cave. Above them, the puppeteers are carrying puppets to
create shadows on the wall. The prisoners are chained to face the wall and they only see
shadows (illusions). Eventually, one freed person gets out of the cave and is enlightened by
objects of knowledge outside.
- To formalists, the art is referred to as a shadow, which is an imperfect copy of an
imperfect copy of a form.
- It misleads people instead of educating them, thus, it should be a direct copy of a form.
- If art copies knowledge, it can represent knowledge because truth only exists in
intellectual abstraction.
- From a formalists representative explanation, the development to the Spear-Carrier
occurred because it should represent the ideal sculpture, not an imperfect one.
- Plato suggests that censorship is necessary when art is used to educate the audience.
- In order for art to become more positive, heroes and gods are to be idealistic and ethical,
and death is not to be feared
(D)- I believe more in the scientific approach such as the Supernormal Stimulus Theory by
Professor Ramachandran, a neuroscientist.
- This theory suggests that humans and animals are biologically programmed to be
attracted to exaggerated forms.
- The concrete confirmation is seen through the male butterfly example given above
- This example implies that animals are attracted to unrealistic stimulus because it gives
them a greater stimulation.
- In the same way, the biological expressionism in artists brain makes them express what
they are biologically programmed (their preferences) into the artwork.
- This can be seen in another exaggerated sculpture of the ancient Greece, the Venus of
Willendorf.
- Found in 1908, it is the first clue referring to the dominance of unrealistic art in the
modern world.
- It is a 10 cm. female statue, which has large breasts and abdomen. People perceived it as
a symbol of motherhood, with exaggerated parts of body.


3. Compare and contrast Plato and Aristotle's theories of happiness. (a) Begin by
explaining Plato's theory in detail. (b) Then explain Aristotle's theory in detail. (c)
Compare and contrast them (you can use both other examples where helpful or you
can contrast them using other theories of happiness). (d) Finally, which theory do you
consider more convincing, and why?
(A)

The Theory of Forms allowed Plato to prove that a life of happiness is the best life to
live.

Plato states that 3 parts of minds; rational, spirited, and appetite, should be in harmony
with one another in order for it to lead people to happiness.

According to Plato, Happiness can also be led by the rational part of mind, which is
ruler or leader. This part of mind determines what is true/false or right/wrong. From Platos

theory, we must choose to live well, if we want to be truly happy.

Plato stated that the wise person uses the mind to understand the ethical reality and then

apply it to their daily life.

Platos mentor, Socrates, choose to die rather than sacrifice his beliefs. This deeply
influenced Platos view of the temperance and self-control. Human beings have many
desires, yet we must not let our desires to control our lives in a way that changes our
character.

(B)

Aristotles theory of happiness or, in Greek, Eudaimonia is a final course or knowing the

purpose of our life.

For Aristotle, happiness is the virtue which cannot be gained or lost in short period of
time. It is the value of our life and how we have lived up to our full potential as a human
being. We cannot really make any statements about whether we have lived a happy life
until it is over. (Ex. Just as a football game. The game may be great at halftime but it might

turn out to be a great lost in the end.)

To realize the purpose of life, it needs to acquire 2 virtues.
The first virtue is theoretical/intellectual virtue such as knowledge, understanding,
wisdom, and good judgment. The theoretical virtue is acquired by learning and study.
(Ex. It can be learned in a classroom from lecture or book.)

The second virtue is practical/moral virtue. It is link to practical part of mind such as
courage, temperance, generosity, patience, and friendliness. It is acquired by training

and practice.
According to Aristotles theory of happiness, we need to live life by applying virtues
and help to unleash our potential.
(C)

Plato and Aristotle have different view on theory of happiness.

Plato Eudaimonism can be defines in this respect; living in harmony with ones self,
living in truth to ones self, and a feeling of happiness. Happiness has to do with rational

part and thinking of form and idealistic.

Aristotles theory of happiness is to live in material world to acquire virtue including

small components of wealth, pleasure, and the opportunity for leisure.

According to Aristotle, we need to come up with the purpose of life and the realization
of ones potential to gain happiness.
(D)

The theory that I consider more convincing is Aristotle because it is more concrete and

practical. It is the theory which I believe can be applied to everyday life.

I also agree with Aristotle's statement that knowledge itself is not sufficient for living a
good life.
For example, a student who has greater knowledge than everyone else is completely
incapable of applying his knowledge in real life. He was not be able to get his
homework done on time, therefore; he receives bad grades. On the other hand, a
person who had lesser knowledge is able to complete his homework and receive

good grades.
It can be said that knowledge itself is useless without practical implementation.
Knowledge is still necessary for a good life, however; life also needs to have the purpose in
order to acquire virtues that lead to happiness.
4. Compare Plato and Aristotle accounts on Psychology.

Plato divided psychology into 'descriptive psychology' in which it explain how the mind
is. In this part, he segments mind into 3 parts;
Appetitive: basic needs e.g. hunger/thirst, shelter, self-preservation (e.g. for warm or

cool weather)
Spirited: Desires, wants, emotions for love, honor, victory, success
Rational: Determines what is truth/good and falsity/bad

Plato divided mind into 3 parts using the Principle of Opposite Argument base on the
fact that sometimes people struggle to fight in their own mind.
Ex. A person who is in the competition knows that if he cheats, he will win. This is
the 'spirited' part of human's mind that desires for victory. However, this person may
feel guilty and stop himself from cheating because he knows that it is the bad thing.

This is the 'rational' part of the mind that tells a person to do the right thing.
Plato also divide psychology into 'normative psychology' which explains how the mind
should be or how it should be organised.
Appetitive part could be viewed as the obedient follower that should have

temperance or self-discipline.
Spirited part is the enforcer who obey decision and then create courage.
Rational part is the ruler or the leader. It is used to determined what is right or wrong.

This part could be seen as the wisdom.

Plato states that if these 3 parts of minds are in harmony, it will create as "just soul" or
justice which will result in mental well-being and happiness.

However, Aristotle's point of view is very different from Plato. He rejects the idea of
mind being divided into 3 parts. Aristotle claims that there are actually 3 different
capacities.
Nutritive: Every living things have nutritive power in their souls. It is the part that
guides the growth of things. (Ex. Plants need the information from the seed that

guides their growth and the nutrients they need.)

Perceptual: is common to animals and humans. It is the power of 5 senses that allow
beings to see, hear, smell, feel, and taste. Different species have different perceptual

ability. (Ex. Only dolphins have ability to locate things using SONAR.)
Rational: is the unique capacity to only humans. It is divided into 2 types;
'theoretical' which is used to understand and gain knowledge whereas 'practical' is

used for planning.

Aristotle developed '4 causes' which are the conditions to explain something. 4 causes
include;
Material- material cause of human is the body
Formal- is the nutritive function
Efficient- is the person who create that particular thing. It is described as perceptual.
Final- is the purpose of human's life which is happiness or 'Eudaimonia'. According

to Aristotle, happiness is gained through virtue.

Virtue is the meaning of things and it is divided into 2 types;
practical/moral virtue- is acquired through habbits and training such as courage,
generosity, patience

theoretical/intellectual virtue- is acquired through academy study such as knowledge,

wisdom, and common sense.

5. What are the 2 criticisms on the theory of Forms?

What Plato believed about reality was very different from Aristotles ideology.
Plato imagined that there is an ideal or perfect world beyond our world. Our world is
full of unevenness, imperfections, and impurities, which have been copied from the ideal

world beyond us.

Plato also believed that our physical world and its Forms imitate the real Forms in a
disorderly way. He claimed that there was a relationship between the realm of Forms and
our world. This relationship revealed the forms and brought order to life.

Aristotle argues that no one knows the type of interaction that occur between the two
Forms. Since the real or ideal forms are eternal, pure and unchanging, they are not
related to the material objections or Forms on earth with all their physical imperfections.

This imitation link between the real and the imaginary forms that Plato claimed existed
is invalid because no one else can established such a link. Even if a link is established it
fails to explain all the Forms in the material world. At some point Plato fails to explain
how this greater Form was controlled, how it controls things, and whether if there was
energy in Forms.

Plato believed that the highest form is 'the Form of the Good'. He believed this Form
is like the sun in the Allegory of the Cave. It illuminates all the other forms. All the other

forms are originated from the Form of the Good.

We recognize things in our world which are good, but they are still part of the
contingent world which is subject to change. We only know they are good because we have

knowledge of the Form of the Good.

The criticism of this statement is that since there is no complete agreement about
goodness, we cannot really define what goodness is. There is only an argument over
relative and absolute ethics. If Platos idea of the Form of the Good were valid, there would
not be these disagreements.

6. Compare two art theories

Representationalism
When something is called an artwork, it represents something about the real world or
fictional world. One example of representational art is the drawing of Mona Lisa. We do

not know if Mona Lisa really existed or not. But still, it could be representing a real woman
or an ideal renaissance woman.
Plato, a philosopher, has a representationalist view on art. Platos view on artists is negative
because he thinks that arts are misleading. Yet, they could also be educational and
entertaining as long as some of their contents are censored. He believes that there are 4
things which should be censored:
(a) gods: gods should not be represented in a negative way (e.g. as criminals) because
they should be a source of goodness and perfection
(b) death: it should be something natural and good, not to be dread or feared
(c) heroes: they should represent goodness
(d) humans: they should be ideal and represented in a perfect way
Plato believes that without censorship, arts would be imperfect copies of Forms. But it is
actually half-truthfulness because censorship censored out some truth. Telling truth is like
telling people about imperfect copy of Forms. Plato wants to represent art as a perfect copy
of a Form. Therefore, that is why he wants artists to use censorship because art would be an
ideal or perfect representation. Another point that supports Platos representationalist view is
about his thought on exaggeration of arts. He might say that artists want to represent
something ideal. They do not want to represent things the way they are but they want to
make it greater or bigger than they actually are because artists realized that making copy of
realistic human being (which is an imperfect copy of a Form) is pointless so why not making
arts/sculptures of ideal Form instead.
Expressionism
Expressionism is how an artist expresses ones emotion or attitude through the work or using
their work as a medium to express their emotional life.

One example of expressionist artist is Jackson Pollock. His works are often seen as

the splattering of paint on a canvas.

Another example is classical music because they do not have any lyrics, only just

instrumental.
We could see that both of the examples do not really represent anything in the world
but just expressing artists internal or emotional life.

If we look at the reason why Greek artists abandoned realism and began to exaggerate arts,
we could look at professor Ramachandran on expressionist point of view. He believes that
humans are genetically programmed to be attracted to exaggeration. The reason why artists

created exaggerated artworks because their stimulus instinct stimulates them to create
unrealistic arts.