Organelles

Function

Nucleus

Controls all cell activity

spherical with a double membrane

contain nucleolus, chromosomes, nucleoplasm and nuclear
membrane

Mitochondria

Site of energy synthesis

rod-shaped with a double membrane

outer membrane is smooth and regular while the inner
membrane is folded to form cristae

Vacuole

Keeps cell sap

cavities filled with cell sap surrounded by a semi-permeable

membrane called the tonoplast

Chloroplast

Site for photosynthesis

disc-shaped organelles with a double membrane

consists of an orderly arrangement of grana with the stroma.
Each granum contains chlorophyll

Golgi apparatus

vacuolar region surrounded by a complex meshwork of

vesicles budding off at its end

Ribosomes

Completes the synthesis of glycoproteins,

hormones and polysaccharides
Synthesis protein

small particles consisting of RNA (ribonucleic acid)

exists freely in the cytoplasm or on the surface of the
endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum

a system of membrane-enclosed tubules closely packed

together and continuous with the nuclear membrane

rough ER has ribosomes while the smooth ER does not have

ribosomes

Lysosomes

Transport of protein and lipids

Destroy worn out organelles within the cell

membrane-bound vesicles found in animal cells

Centrioles

Involve in cell division

consists of two cylindrical body structures arranged at right

angles to one another

found only in animal cells

Chapter 2 Cell Structure and Cell Organisation

Cell Structure and Function
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
(a)
(b)
8.

All living things are made up of basic units called cells.

All cells share certain general characteristics .
Protoplasm is the living component of a cell which consists of cytoplasm and nucleus.
Nucleoplasm is the content of the nucleus. The part of the protoplasm surrounding the nucleus is
called the cytoplasm.
Plasma membrane, a thin layer around the protoplasm.
Cell wall the outer boundary in the plant cells which surrounds completely the plasma membrane.
Cytoplasm contains a variety of tiny structures called organelles.
Organelles are cellular components that perform specific functions within the cell.
Many of these organelles are enclosed by their own membranes.
E.g. of organelles include the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, vacuoles, ribosomes and Golgi
apparatus.

Animal Cell

Non-Organelles

Function

Plasma membrane
- thin , semi- permeable
membrane
Cell wall
- thick layer outside the plasma membrane

Controls movement of substances in and out of

the cell
Gives shape and support to the cell

- made up of cellulose and fully permeable

Cytoplasm

Medium for reactions in the cell

- jelly-like substance that contains water and mineral

salts

- contains organelles

Plant Cell

Similarities in animal and plant cells

Both have a nucleus, cytoplasm, a plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum and ribosomes.
Differences between animal cells and plant cells

Animal Cell

Feature

Usually smaller

Size

Irregular
None

Shape
Cell Wall

None

Chloroplast

Usually none or very small

Vacuole

Carbohydrate is stored in the form of

glycogen
Have centrioles

Food Storage
Centrioles

Plant Cell
Usually bigger
Regular
Present
Present in green plants
Present
Carbohydrate is stored in the form
of starch
Do not have centrioles

Cell Structure
Comparison between the structure of animal and
plant cells

The density of organelles in specific cells

1. Different body cells perform different functions. For examples, nerve cells send nerve impulses and
red blood cells transport oxygen.
2. The density of certain organelles found in the cell is correlated to the specific functions of the cell.
3. Those organelles which are found in a high density in specific cells are as follows.
Types of
cells

functions

Sperm cells

Requires
Mitochondria
energy to
Energy in the
propel
form of
through the
ATP is
uterus
generated
towards the
during
Fallopian
cellular
tubes, so that
respiration
fertilisation
when food
can take
substances
place.
are
Contract and
oxidised in
relax to
the
enable
mitochondr
movement
ia.
and flight.
ATP is an
Requires large
instant
amount of
source of
energy during
energy for
active cell
these cells.
division to
produce new
cells.
Absorb
Chloroplasts
sunlight
during
photosynthesi
s.

Muscle cells
(flight muscle
cells in
insects and
birds)
Meristematic
cells (cells in
the
meristems of
plants)

Palisade
mesophyll
cells

Organelles
found
abundantly
or which
occur in
high
density

Pancreatic
cells

Cells in the
salivary
glands
Intestinal and
stomach
epithelium
Interstitial
cells in the
tests and
adrenal
glands
Liver cells

Goblet cells in
the intestinal
epithelium
and
respiratory
tract
Cells in the
root cap

Synthesise
and secrete
enzymes and
hormones.
Synthesise
and secrete
enzymes.
Secrete
digestive
enzymes.
Synthesise
and secrete
steroids and
hormones.
Carbohydrate
metabolism
and
hormones.
Secrete
mucus

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum and
Golgi
apparatus

Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Golgi
apparatus

Secrete a
slimy
lubricant that
helps the
movement of
roots between
soil particles.

Take Note!

Mitochondria are found in large

numbers in the midpiece of a

Cell organisation
Living processes in unicellular organisms
1. Unicellular organisms are organisms consist of a single cell.
2. Even though they are structurally simple, they are able to perform all important functions and living
processes within a cell.
3. Unicellular organisms can feed, respire, excrete, and move. They are sensitive to external and internal
environments (respond to stimuli), and able to reproduce and grow.
4. A unicellular organism survives by depending largely on its structure and cellular components as it
does not have any systems.
5. Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. are the examples of protozoa (singular, protozoan) of unicellular
organisms.
6. Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. are capable of performing all the functions and living processes that
the specialised cells in a multicellular organism perform.

Amoeba sp.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Many species live in freshwater lakes and ponds and are also abundant in damp soil.
Most species of Amoeba are free-living while others are parasitic.
The cytoplasm is enclosed by a plasma membrane.

It changes its shape constantly as it meets obstacles and responds to stimuli.

Ectoplasm is the gel-like part of the outer cytoplasm while the inner part is called
endoplasm.

6. Pseudopodia (singular, pseudopodium) are Amoeba sp. moving and feeding locomotion (ameboid
movement).

7. It moves by cytoplasmic projection, extending its pseudopodia or called false feet towards the
direction it wants to move.
8. This is followed by the flow of cytoplasm into the pseudopodia.

Amoeba sp.
9. Amoeba sp. practices simple diffusion process where it exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide
occurs through the plasma membrane. [SPM 05/P1]
10. Amoeba sp. responses to stimuli by moving towards them. It is called favourable stimuli (e.g.
food).
11. While responds to adverse stimuli (e.g. bright light, acidic condition) by moving away from them.
12. Amoeba sp. grows by synthesising new cytoplasm.

Feeding
1. Amoeba sp. feeds on microscopic organisms such as bacteria and diatoms.
2. Phagocytosis is the method of engulfing food. Diagram below shows how Ameoba sp. feeds.
(a) Amoeba sp. moves towards the food particles.
(b) The two pseudopodia extend out and enclose the food particles.
(c) Then, the food particles are packaged in a food vacuole which fuses with a lysozyme, a
lysosome containing a hydrolytic enzyme.
(d) Lysozyme digests the food particles and the resulting nutrients diffuse into the cytoplasm and
are assimilated.
(e) The undigested material is left behind as the Ameoba sp. moves away.

Feeding in Amoeba sp.

Excretion
1. Waste products such as carbon dioxide and ammonia are excreted by diffusion.
2. The contractile vacuole is involved in osmoregulation.
3. Water diffuses into the cell and fills the contractile vacuole as the Ameoba sp. lives in freshwater
environment.
4. The vacuole contracts to remove its contents from time to time when the vacuole is filled to its
maximum size.

Reproduction
1. Amoeba sp. reproduces by asexually where binary fission takes by forming spores.
2. It reproduces in a conducive environment where there is a lot of food.
3. When there is not enough food and the condition is dry, the environment become non-conducive
for reproduction. Amoeba sp. forms spores and the spores are germinated when the environment
become conducive again.

Binary Fission in Amoeba sp.

Paramecium sp.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Paramecium sp. found abundantly in freshwater ponds rich in decaying organic matter.
It has a fixed slipper-like shape and the surface is covered by numerous rows of cilia.
Cilia are the short hair-like outgrowths.
The cilia are involved in locomotion and feeding.
Paramecium sp. has two nuclei. The macronucleus and the micronucleus. The macronucleus
controls cellular metabolism of the cell and is also necessary for asexual reproduction while the
micronucleus is required for sexual reproduction.

Paramecium sp.
6. Paramecium sp. moves by means of the regular beating of the cilia (singular, cilium).
7. This type of locomotion enables the Paramecium sp. to move forward while rotating and spiralling
along its axis.

Locomotion in Paramecium sp.

8. Cilia functions as sensory structures. It responses to stimuli.
9. It is sensitive to chemicals, oxygen and carbon dioxide, and physical stimuli such as light, contact
and temperature.
10. Cilia moves in the opposite direction when it comes into contact with a negative stimulus.
11. Paramecium sp. respire through diffusion of gaseous exchange entire the plasma membrane of
the organism.
12. Paramecium sp. grows to a certain size by synthesising new cytoplasm.

Feeding
1. Alike Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp. also feeds on microscopic organisms.
2. Nutrition in Pramecium sp.:
a) The regular beating of cilia along a mouth- like opening (oral groove) sweeps water and
suspended food particles into cytostome.
b) In cytostome, food vacuoles containing the food particles are formed.
c) The food particles is then digested by hydrolytic enzymes from the cytoplasm.
d) Nutrients from the digested food are dissolved and diffused into the cytoplasm and are used
to generate energy.
e) The undigested food is released through the anal pore.

Feeding in Paramecium sp.

Excretion [SPM 07/P1] [SPM 08/P2]
1. Waste products such as carbon dioxide are excreted from the cell by simple diffusion.
2. Osmoregulation (control of water balance in the cell) is aided by two contractile vacuoles, one
at the anterior end and the other at the posterior end.
3. Water constantly enters the cell from the hypotonic environment by osmosis. Therefore,
excretion is necessary.
a) Excess water in the cell enters the contractile vacuole by osmosis.
b) The contractile vacuole enlarges.
c) The contractile vacuole contracts and eliminates excess water to the surroundings.
4. The contractile vacuoles periodically expand as it is filled with water, and then contract to
eliminate their contents to the exterior of the cell.

Reproduction
1. Paramecium sp. reproduces asexually as well as sexually.
2. Paramecium sp. reproduces rapidly by binary fission in a favourable environment. Sexual
reproduction is known as conjugation, takes place when the environment is not favourable.

Binary fission in Paramecium sp.

Cell specialisation in multicellular organisms

1. Organisms that consist of more than other one cell are called multicellular organisms.
2. Zygote, a single cell that humans and other multicellular organisms begin life which result of
fertilisation between an ovum and a sperm.
3. The zygote is divided into two identical cells, then divide into four cells, and so on until
eventually it forms a ball of cells known as an embryo.
4. These cells grow, change shape and adapt themselves to carry out specific functions. It is
called differentiation.
5. Cells differentiate and become more specialised in order to perform specific tasks more
efficiently.
6. (a) tissues are the cells which have become specialised to carry out particular tasks.
(b) a tissue is a group of cells which are similar in structure and perform a specific function. An
example is the muscle tissue.
7. (a) organs are formed from group of different types of tissues.
(b) an organ is a group of different tissues that work together to carry out a function.
(c) a system is a group of several organs combined together. For examples, digestive system
or the respiratory system. An organism is made up of various systems.
8. The different levels of cell organisation is as follows:

[SPM 07/P1] [SPM 08/P2]

Cells
Tissues
Organs
Systems
Multicellular organism

The necessity for cell specialisation and cell organisation

1. Cell specification is a process of change and adaptation that a cell undergoes to give its special
structures and specific functions.
2. The different types of cells work together to perform the various living processes in the
multicellular organism.
3. Organisation is essential to multicellular organism because:
(a) A group of cells or tissues are able to carry out a specific function more efficiently compared
to a single cell.
(b) The division of work among cells enables the organisms to carry out different tasks and
functions orderly and systematically.
(c) Enables them tp achieve a higher growth rate.
(d) Organisms are able to adapt and survive in diverse habitats and environments.
Nerve cells
Have long, thin fibres called axons which carry nerve impulses throughout the body.
Muscle cells
Usually long with multiple nuclei and contain protein fibres. These fibres can contract to
produce movement.
Red blood cells
Biconcave discs like in shape and do not have nuclei. This increases the surface area of the cell
and allows oxygen to diffuse into the whole cell at a faster rate.
White blood cells
Can change their shape easily to move through the walls of blood vessels and migrate to the
sites of injuries to fight infections.
Sperm cells
Sperm cells have a long tail and a high density of mitochondria which allow them to swim
towards the ovum. The nucleus contains one set of chromosomes from the male parent.
Epithelial cells
Simple glands are found in the intestines which are to secrete mucus. The epithelial layer is
highly folded with the secretory cells arranged compactly to increase the surface area for
mucus secretion.

Cell organisation in humans and animals

Tissues
1. Types of tissues in animals:
i.
Epithelial tissues
ii.
Muscle tissues
iii.
Connective tissues
iv.
Nerve tissues

Epithelial tissues
- Consists of one or more layers of cells.

Tightly interconnected, with little space between them.

They form a continuous layer over body surfaces (e.g. the skin and mouth area), and inner
lining of cavities (digestive tract and lungs).
Some epithelial tissues also form glands (exocrine and endocrine glands)
Carry out functions associated with protection, secretion and absorption.

Epithelial tissues
(a) The epithelial tissues at the surface of
the skin and linings of the mouth and
oesophagus
(b) The epithelial tissues at the lining of
body cavities, heart, blood vessels and
lungs

Adaptations and functions

- Forms a protective barrier against infections,
mechanical injuries, chemicals and dehydration.
- They also regulate body temperature.
- Lines the alveoli of the lungs and form the walls of
blood capillaries. These cells are thin, flattened and
arranged in a single layer.
- This adaptation allows the exchange of gases between
the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries to take
place efficiently.
(c) The epithelial tissue at the lining of the - Absorb nutrients after digestion is completed.
small intestine
- May undergo modification to form mucus-secreting
goblet cells which secrete mucus into the digestive
tract.
(d) The epithelial tissue at the lining of
- Certain epithelial tissues are modified to form glands in
glands, ducts and kidney tubules
the skin, e.g. sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
(e) The epithelial tissue at the lining of the - Lines the trachea consists of elongated cells with hairtrachea
like projections called cilia. They also secrete mucus.
- The mucus traps dust particles while the cilia sweep
the impurities away from the lungs

Muscle tissues
-

The most abundant tissue in most animals.

Made up of long cells called muscle fibres.
Three types of muscle tissues: smooth muscles, skeleton muscles and cardiac muscles .

Muscle tissues
(a) Smooth muscles
- Found along the walls of the digestive
tract, blood vessels, bladder and
reproductive tract

(b) Skeleton muscles

-Attached to the bones of the skeleton
(c) Cardiac muscles
-Form the contractile wall of the heart

Functions
- Responsible for the involuntary actions of the body.
E.g. smooth muscles contract as food is moved
along the digestive tract.
- For the churning action of the stomach and the
constriction of the arteries.
- Smooth muscles contract more slowly than skeleton
muscles but remain contacted for a longer period
of time.
-Voluntary movement of the body.
-Contractions of skeleton muscles produce movements
of various body parts.
- Contract to pump blood to all parts of the body.
- Contractions of cardiac muscles are involuntary

Nerve tissues
-

Composed of neurones or nerve cells.

Each neuron consists of a cell body and nerve fibres called dendrites and axons.
Types of neurons: afferent neurones, efferent neurones and neurones interneurons.
Neurones are specialised to transmit signal called nerve impulses over long distances.
Nerve tissues control and coordinate activities of the body.

Connective tissues [SPM 05/P1]

-

Consists of various types of cells and fibres separated by an extracellular matrix.

The connective tissue which underlies epithelial tissues consists of a network of collagen,
capillaries and spaces filled with fluid.
E.g. tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bones, blood, lymph and adipose tissue.
Connective tissues, with the exception of blood and lymph, are interwoven with fibrous strands
called collagen.

Cartilage tissue
-

Form tendons and ligaments when the collagen fibres are densely packed.
Tendons attach muscles to bones.

Ligaments attach bones to bones.

Cartilage is a strong yet flexible connective tissue which provides support to the nose, ears,
and covers the ends of bones at joints.
Forms discs between vertebrae and enables them to act as cushions to absorb pressure.

Bones
-

Consists of cells located deep in a matrix of collagen hardened by mineral deposits such as
calcium.
This combination makes the bones harder than cartilage.
Provide protection to organs in the body and support the body.

Blood
-

Consists of red and white blood cells and cell fragments called platelets, suspended in a fluid called blood
plasma.
Manufactured in the bone marrow, located at the ends of long bones. [SPM 06/P1]

Blood regulates, transports and protects.

Transports nutrients and oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide and waste products from
the cells.
Helps distribute heat throughout the body and contains regulatory substances such as
hormones and enzymes.
Red blood cells transport oxygen, white blood cells flight infections while platelets aid in blood
clotting.
Lymph consists mostly of fluid which diffuses out of blood capillaries.

Adipose tissue
- Called as fat cells which are tightly packed. They can be found in the dermis of the
skin.
- Adipose tissue stores energy and insulates the body.

Organs
1. Formed by two or more types of tissues working together to perform particular functions.
2. E.g. heart, connective tissue, nerve tissue and epithelial tissue.
3. If we take heart for example, it consists of cardiac muscle, connective tissue, nerve tissue and
epithelial tissue. There tissues work together to pump blood to all parts of the body.

The skin as an organ

1. The skin covers the entire body, and protects it against infections, physical trauma and
water loss.
2. The largest organ of the body.
3. Skin is an organ because it consists of various types of tissues combined together to
perform specific functions.
4. Can be divided into two main layers:
(a) Epidermis: is the outermost, thinner layer of the skin .it is mostly made up of dead
epithelial cells which continuously slough off.
(b) The dermis is composed of connective tissue, nerve tissue, epithelial tissue and muscle
tissue.

The cross section of the skin

1. The epithelial cells at the basal layer of the epidermis undergo continuous cell division.
2. The smooth muscle (hair erector muscle) is attached to the hair follicle. When the smooth
muscle contracts, it causes the hair to stand on end.
3. Various nerve endings are scattered all over the dermis and epidermis. These nerve endings
are receptors for pressure, temperature, touch and pain. They detect various stimuli and
transmit nerve impulses to the nervous system.
4. Connective tissues contain elastic fibres and collagen fibres.
The elastic fibres give elasticity to the skin, allowing the skin to return to its original shape
after being stretched.
Arterioles supply blood to the skin through a network of blood capillaries.
Lymphatic vessels collect interstitial fluid within the dermis.
5. Specialised epithelial cells in the skin form glands such as hair follicles which produce hair,
sweat glands which secrete sweat and oil glands which secrete sebum. Sebum is an oily
substance that lubricates the hair and the skin.

Systems
1. Consists of several organs that work together to carry out a living process such as the digestion
of food.
2. A multicellular organism is made up of many systems.
3. An organ may belong to more than one system. E.g. pancreas secretes hormones and
pancreatic juice.
4. The pancreas is a part of both the endocrine system and the digestive system.
5. All systems combine to form a multicellular organism. The functions must be coordinated for
the survival of the organism. For instance, the nutrients which are absorbed by the digestive
system and the oxygen which is obtained by the respiratory system are transported by the
circulatory system to all parts of the body.

Nervous system
The major organs or tissues are brain, spinal cord and nerve,

Detects stimuli, formulates responses, transmits nerve impulses and integrates the activities of
other systems.
Controls physiological processes together with the endocrine system.

Skeleton system
The major organs or tissues are bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments.
Supports the body, provides sites for attachment of muscles, and protection for internal organs.

Circulatory system
The major organs or tissues are heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Delivers nutrients, respiratory gases and hormones to body cells
Transports waste products to excretory organs.

Digestive system
Major organs: mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small and large
intestines, rectum, and anus.
Ingests and digests food, absorbs nutrients for use by the body and eliminates undigested
material.

Respiratory system
Major organs: nose, trachea, lungs
Provides a surface area for gaseous exchange between the blood and the external
environment.
Allows oxygen intake and carbon dioxide elimination.

Excretory system
Major organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, skin, lungs
Removes metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide.
Regulates the osmotic balance of the blood.

Muscular system
Major organs or tissues are skeleton muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles.
Contraction of muscles enables body movements.

Reproductive systems
Major organs or tissues: male: testes, seminal vesicles, penis
Male: produces sperms and male hormones
Female: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina
Female: produces ova, nurtures developing foetuses and produces female hormones.

Lymphatic system
Major organs: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, bone marrow, thymus
Lymphatic system defends the body against infections.
It returns excess tissue fluid to the blood.

Endocrine system
Major organs: glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal and pancreas, which secrete
hormones.
Main function: Coordinates body activities together with the nervous system.

Integumentary system
Major organs: skin
Physically separates the body from the external environment.
Protects the body against mechanical injuries, microbial infection and dehydration.

Cell organisation in plants

1. Plants such as leaves, stems and roots are formed from two main types of tissues:
(a) The meristematic tissues
(b) The permanent tissues
Plant tissues

Meristematic tissues

Permanent tissues

Epidermal tissue
Apical meristems
Lateral meristems
Epidermal tissue

Epidermal tissue
Parenchyma tissue Sclerenchyma tissue

Xylem tissue

Phloem tissue

Collenchyma tissue

Meristematic tissues
1. Consist of small cells which have thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm and no vacuoles.
2. They consist of young and actively dividing cells which have not undergone differentiation.
3. Apical meristems are located at the tips of roots and the buds of shoots. The tissues undergo
mitosis to increase the number of cells for plant growth.
4. Lateral meristems or cambia (singular, cambium) are found in the peripheral areas of stems and
roots. They are responsible for secondary growth which makes it wider for support and strength in
plants.

Permanent tissues
1. Permanent tissues consist of more mature cells that are either undergoing differentiation or have
already undergone differentiation.

2. There are three types of permanent tissues:

(a) Epidermal tissue
(b) Ground tissue
(c) Vascular tissue
3. Palisade mesophyll cells consist of elongated, cylindrical cells, arranged vertically and close to one
another. It is situated below the upper epidermis.
4. This allows as much as light possible to reach the chloroplast for photosynthesis. These cells
contain a large number of chloroplasts for maximum absorption of sunlight.
5. Xylem vessels have no cytoplasm, hence, water pass freely. The end walls of the cells have tiny
holes, and the cells form a continuous vessels or tube which allows water and mineral salts to be
transported in the plant.
6. Guard cells specialised epidermal cells at the lower epidermis which are kidney-shaped when
turgid. They control the size of the stoma by changing their shape.
7. Root hairs have a long extension which increases the surface area for absorption of minerals and
water from the soil.
Tissue

Characteri
stics

Functions

Epidermal
tissue [SPM

Forms the
epidermis,
the
outermost
layer that
covers the
stems,
leaves and
roots of
young
plants. This
tissue also
covers the
flowers,
fruits and
seeds.

The cuticle
on the
epidermal
tissue
(a) Prevent
s the
loss of
excessi
ve
water
through
evapora
tion
(b) Protects
the
plant
from
mechan
ical
injury
(c) Prevent
s
invasion
by
diseasecausing
microor
ganism
In roots,
some of the
epidermal
cells have
long
projections
called root
hairs.
These
specialised
surface
area for
absorption
of water
and
minerals

07/P1]

The walls of
epidermal
cells which
are exposed
to air are
normally
covered by a
waxy,
waterproof
coating
called the
cuticle.
Most
epidermal
cells are flat
and have
large
vacuoles.

In leaves,
the lower
epidermis
contains

Ground
tissue
(a) Parenchy
ma tissue

Parenchym
a tissue
consists of
thin-walled
cells which
are loosely
arranged
with spaces
between
them
These cells
are
generally
round and
have large
vacuoles.
They are
the least
specialised
cells and
can be
found in all
the organs
of a plant

(b) Collenchy
ma tissue

(c) Sclerenchy
ma tissue

Consists of
elongated,
polygonal
cells with
unevenly
thickened
cell walls
The cell
walls are
thickened
by cellulose
and pectin.
They are
strong and
flexible
Much more
rigid than
collenchym
a cells

specialised
cells, called
guard cells,
which
surround
the
stomata
Parenchym
a cells store
products of
photosynth
esis such as
sugar and
starch. E.g.
the
parenchym
a tissue of
sweet
potatoes is
packed with
starch.
The
palisade
mesophyll
cells and
spongy
mesophyll
cells in
leaves are
specialised
parenchym
a cells
which
contain
chloroplasts
and carry
out
photosynth
esis
Parenchym
a tissue
also gives
support and
shape to
plants
An
important
source of
support in
herbaceous
plants,
young
stems, leaf
stalks and
petioles

Supports
and
strengthens
the plant

because
they have
cell walls
which are
uniformly
thickened
by lignin

Vascular
tissue
Continuous
throughout
the plant, are
involved in
the transport
of substances
between the
roots and the
shoots. There
are two types
of vascular
tissues.
(a) Xylem
tissue
[SPM
06/P1]

Most of
them are
dead at
maturity
Consists of
tracheids
and xylem
vessels.
These are
long tubes
joined
together
end to end,
from the
roots right
up to the
shoots

body and
provides
protection
to the plant

Xylem
conducts
water and
minerals
from the
roots to the
leaves
It provides
support and
mechanical
strength to
the plant

The cell
walls of the
xylem are
thickened
with lignin
which
prevents
food
substances
from
entering
the cells.
Consequen
tly, the
xylem
tissue dies
upon
reachin
maturity
When the
cytoplasm
disintegrat
es, a hollow
tube is left
behind

(b) Phloem
tissue

This feature
allows
water and
minerals to
flow easily
through the
xylem
vessels
Consists of
parenchym
a cells,
sclereids,
sieve tubes
and

Transports
organic
substances
such as
carbohydra
tes and

companion
cells
The
conducting
cells of
phloem are
the sieve
tubes
which have
pores at
both ends,
called sieve
plates

amino acids
from the
leaves to
storage
organs and
to growing
parts of
plants

Sieve tubes
obtain
nutrients
and energy
from the
adjacent
companion
cells

Organs and systems in plants

1. Leaves, stems, roots and flowers are examples of plant organs.
2. (a) Systems in plants are not as specialised as those in animals. Plants have fewer organs
compared to animals.
(b) flowering plants (angiosperms) consist of two main systems: the root system and the shoot
system.
3. (a) the root system is the absorption system of the plant.
(b) the roots are highly branched to absorb water and mineral from the soil and transport them
to the main vascular system (xylem).
(c) the roots also anchor the plant to the ground.
4. The shoot system consists of organs such as stems, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits.
5. The stems and branches act as a support system for the plant by holding the leaves in a
position that facilitate maximum absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis. They also
position the flowers for pollination.
6. (a) the leaves are made up of ground tissue, epidermal tissue, mesophyll tissue and vascular
tissue.
(b) they form the main photosynthetic system.
(c) the photosynthetic system synthesises organic compounds required for plant growth.
(d) the products of photosynthesis are transported via the vascular system (phloem) to other
parts of plants.
7. The reproductive system of plants consists of flowers which produce fruits and seeds after
fertilisation have taken place.

Regulating the internal environment

The internal environment of multicellular organisms [SPM 05/P1]
1. The cells of its body actually live within an internal environment although a multicellular
organism lives in an eternal environment.
2. Internal environment refers to the conditions that exist within the body of an organism,
particularly the composition of the interstitial fluid and blood plasma.
3. The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the cells.
4. Nutrients and waste substances are exchanged between the interstitial fluid and the blood
plasma contained in the blood capillaries.

The internal environment of multicellular organisms

The necessity for maintaining an optimum internal environment

1. In order for cells of the body to function optimally, the physical factors and the chemical factors
within the internal the internal environment must be maintained at a relatively constant level
even if the conditions outside the cell change.
2. (a) temperature, blood pressure and osmotic pressure are the physical factors affecting the
internal environment.
(b) salt and sugar contents, and pH are the chemical factors.
3. In mammals and birds, there is a mechanism which regulates the physical factors and chemical
factors in the internal environment so that cells can function efficiently. This mechanism is
known as homeostasis.
4. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment for the optimum
functions of cells.
5. Through the mechanism of homeostasis, the physical factors and chemical factors of the
internal environment are kept in a steady state with minimal changes.
6. When the value of a physical factor or chemical factor increases, the homeostatic mechanism
will be activated to reduce that value to the normal level.
7. When the value of the physical factor or chemical factor decreases, the homeostatic
mechanism will be activated to raise it back to normal.
8. The changes in the external environment and also in the bodys metabolism causes the
chemical and physical factors of the internal environment in an animal body are constantly
changing.
9. Negative feedback mechanism is the mechanism which governs homeostasis. The control of
body temperature at 37 0C is the example of a negative feedback response.
10. In the positive feedback mechanism, the stimulus activates as response that increases the
initial change instead of reversing it to the original state.
11. The need for a regulatory system is lesser in plant because
i.
Most plant cells are dead at maturity, and therefore, chemical reactions do not take place
in these cells.
ii.
Plant cells do not lyse in a hypotonic environment because they have cell walls.
iii.
Water movement in plants is aided by natural factors such as transpirational pull.

The importance of regulating an optimum internal environment

1. The ability of organisms to maintain a stable internal environment
i.
Enables organisms to live in a wider range of habitats.
ii.
Enables metabolic activities and physiological processes to continue even though the
external environment changes.
iii.
Enables living organisms to control the metabolic rate according to their needs.
iv.
Ensures a more efficient and optimum metabolism in the cell.
v.
Allows enzymes to function at an optimum rate.

The involvement of various systems in maintaining an optimum internal

environment
1. The various systems in the body function and interact with one another to maintain a stable
internal environment.
Physical
factors/chemi
cal factors of
the internal

Systems
involved

Types of
regulation

environment
Body
temperature

Integumentary
system (skin
and sweat
glands)
Nervous
system
Circulatory
system
Muscular
system
Endocrine
system
Oxygen and
Respiratory
carbon dioxide
system
levels
Circulatory
system
Nervous
system

Blood glucose
level

Blood osmotic
pressure

pH

Endocrine
system
(pancreas)
Circulatory
system
Digestive
system
(liver)
Nervous
system
Endocrine
system
Excretory
system
Circulatory
system
Respiratory
system
Circulatory
system
Excretory

Regulate heat
loss and heat
gain to
maintain a
stable body
temperature of
37 0C.

Regulate the
concentrations
of oxygen and
carbon dioxide
in the
bloodstream.

The
circulatory
system
transports
oxygen
from the
lungs to the
cells. The
carbon
dioxide
produced
during
respiration
diffuses into
the
bloodstrea
m and is
transported
back to the
lungs.

The
changes in
the
concentrati
on of
oxygen and
carbon
dioxide are
detected by
the nervous
system.
Regulate blood
glucose level
at a set point
of 90 mg per
100 ml of
blood.

Regulate the
amount of
water and
dissolved
substances
(mineral salts)
in the
interstitial fluid
and blood.
The pH of
blood and
interstitial fluid
is maintained
at a value of
7.4 by

system
(kidneys)

regulating the
concentration
of hydrogen
ions (H+),
hydroxyl ions
(OH-) and
hydrogen
carbonate ions
(HCO3-).

Appreciating the Uniqueness of the Cell

1. A cell is the basic unit of all living organisms and capable of functioning on its own.
2. The cellular components of the cell are completely dependent upon one another for the cell to
function at an optimum level.
3. The various cellular components of a cell carry out their functions in an orderly manner to
ensure life processes are not disturbed.
4. The cell as a whole will not be able to function properly if any of its cellular components loses
its ability to function normally.
5. All the systems of an organism are able to function efficiently because the cellular components
of cells work together and cooperate harmoniously with one another.
6. Conclusion, an optimum cellular function is the result of cellular order within the cell. This
ensures the survival of the organism as a whole.