Devina Talitha

130110140042
Source : Guytons Physiology and Tortora and Snell
2. BASIC OPTICAL SYSTEM OF VISION
1. PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
A. Refraction of Light
When light rays traveling through a transparent substance (such as air) pass into
a second transparent substance with a different density (such as water), they
bend at the junction between the two substances. This bending is called refraction
NOTE : Indeks Bias Zat Transparan: Sinar cahaya perjalanan melalui udara
dengan kecepatan sekitar 300.000km / detik, namun mereka melakukan
perjalanan jauh lebih lambat melalui padatan transparan dan cairan. Indeks bias
suatu zat transparan adalah rasio kecepatan cahaya di udara dengan kecepatan
dalam substansi. Indeks bias udara sendiri adalah 1,00. Dengan demikian, jika
cahaya perjalanan melalui suatu jenis kaca dengan kecepatan 200.000 km / detik,
indeks bias kaca ini 300.000 dibagi dengan 200.000, atau 1,50.
Gambar fokus yg
difokuskan pada retina
bersifat terbalik (upside
down) . Mereka juga
mengalami pembalikan
kanan-ke-kiri: yaitu,
cahaya dari sisi kanan
obyek menyerang sisi kiri
retina, dan sebaliknya.
Alasan dunia tidak
terlihat inverted dan
reverse adalahkarena
otak "belajar" pada awal
kehidupan untuk
mengkoordinasikan
gambar visual dengan
orientasi objek. Otak
menyimpan gambar
inversed dan reversed
yang kami dapat ketika
kami pertama kali meraih
dan menyentuh bendabenda dan menafsirkan
gambar-gambar visual
yang
sebagai yang gambar
yang terorientasi secara
tepat dalam ruang.
Sekitar 75% dari total
pembiasan cahaya terjadi
pada kornea. Lensa
memberikan sisa 25%
dari pembiasan dan juga
perubahan fokus untuk melihat objek dekat atau jauh. Ketika jarak sebuah
benda adalah 6 m (20 kaki) atau lebih jauh dari penampil, sinar cahaya
yang dipantulkan dari objek hampir sejajar satu sama lain (lihat gambar).
Lensa harus menekukan sinar paralel dengan cukup sehingga mereka

jatuh teoat terfokus pada central fovea, di mana penghilatan paling tajam.
Karena sinar cahaya yang dipantulkan dari obyek lebih dekat dari 6 m (20
kaki) lebih cenderung divergen dibanding paralel(Lihat gambar), sinar
harus dibiaskan lebih supaya mereka dapat difokuskan pada retina.
Refraksi tambahan ini dicapai melalui proses disebut akomodasi.

B. Accommodation
Parasympathetic fibers of the oculomotor (III) nerve innervate the ciliary
muscle of the ciliary body (The ciliary muscle is controlled almost entirely by
parasympathetic nerve signals transmitted to the eye through the third cranial
nerve from the third nerve nucleus in the brain stem,) and, therefore, mediate the
process of accommodation.
Ketika permukaan lensa cembung, lensa akan membiaskan sinar cahaya yang
masuk terhadap satu sama lain, sehingga mereka akhirnya berpotongan. Jika
lensa dikatakan cekung, sinar yang datang akan dibiaskan menjauhi satu sama
lain (away from each other).
LIHAT GAMBAR

Lensa mata itu cembung pada permukaan

anterior dan posterior , serta kekuatan
fokusnya meningkat berbanding lurus dengan semakin tingkat kelengkungan
lensa tersebut. Ketika mata berfokus pada objek dekat, lensa menjadi lebih
melengkung, menyebabkan refraksi lebih besar dari sinar cahaya.
Meningkatknya kurvatur lensa ini pada saat melihat object yang dekat disebut
dengan accommodation.
Benda Jarak Dekat
These ligaments are constantly tensed by
their attachments at the anterior border of
the choroid and retina. The tension on the
ligaments causes the lens to remain
relatively flat under normal conditions of
the eye.
However, also located at the lateral
attachments of the lens ligaments to the
eyeball is the ciliary muscle, which itself
has two separate sets of smooth muscle
fibersmeridional fibers and circular
fibers. The meridional fibers extend from
the peripheral ends of the suspensory
ligaments to the schlerocorneal junction.
When these muscle fibers contract, the
peripheral insertions of the lens
ligaments are pulled medially toward the
edges of the cornea, thereby releasing the
ligaments tension on the lens. The circular fi bers are arranged circularly all the
way around the ligament attachments so that when they contract, a sphincter like

action occurs, decreasing the diameter of the circle of ligament attachments; this
also allows the ligaments to pull less on the lens capsule.
Thus, contraction of either set of smooth muscle fibers in the ciliary muscle
relaxes the ligaments to the
lens capsule, and the lens assumes a more spherical shape, like that of a balloon,
because of the natural elasticity of the lens capsule
Note : Saat melihat benda yang dekat, otot siliaris di tubuh ciliary relaksasi dan
lensa lebih datar karena tertarik ke segala arah oleh zonula fibers. Ketika Anda
melihat objek dekat, otot siliaris kontraksi, menarik cilliary process dan koroid
maju menuju lensa. Aksi ini merilis ketegangan pada lensa dan zonular fibers.
Karena elastis, lensa menjadi lebih konveks (lebih cembung), meningkatkan
kekuatannya fokus dan konvergensi yang lebih besar dari sinar cahaya.
C. Photoreceptor and Photopigments

Rods and cones were named for the different

appearance of the outer segmentthe distal
end next to the pigmented layerof each of
these types of photoreceptors. The outer
segments of rods are cylindrical or rod-shaped;
those of cones are tapered or cone-shaped.
Transduction of light energy into a receptor
potential occurs in the outer segment of both
rods and cones. The photopigments are integral
proteins in the plasma membrane of the outer
segment. In cones the plasma membrane is
folded back and forth in a pleated fashion; in
rods the pleats pinch off from the plasma
membrane to form discs. The outer segment of
each rod contains a stack of about 1000 discs,
piled up like coins inside a wrapper.
The first step in visual transduction is absorption of
light by a photopigment, a colored protein that undergoes structural changes when it absorbs light,
in the outer segment of a photoreceptor. Light absorption initiates the events that lead to the
production of a receptor potential. The single type of photopigment in rods is rhodopsin Three
different cone photopigments are present in the retina, one in each of the three types of cones.
Color vision results from different colors of light selectively activating the different cone
photopigments. All photopigments associated with vision contain two parts: a glycoprotein known
as opsin and a derivative of vitamin A called retinal.
Photopigments respond to light in the following
cyclical process :

1 In darkness, retinal has a bent shape, called cisretinal, which fits snugly into the opsin portion of
the photopigment. When cis-retinal absorbs a
photon of light, it straightens out to a shape called
trans-retinal. This cis-to-trans conversion is called
isomerization and is the first step in visual
transduction. After retinal isomerizes, several
unstable chemical intermediates form and
disappear. These chemical changes lead to
production of a receptor potential

2 In about a minute, trans-retinal completely separates from opsin. The final products look
colorless, so this part of the cycle is termed bleaching of photopigment.

3 An enzyme called retinal isomerase converts trans-retinal back to cis-retinal.

4 The cis-retinal then can bind to opsin, reforming a functional photopigment. This part of the
cycleresynthesis of a photopigmentis called regeneration
D. Light and Dark Adaptation
Light Adaptation
Jika seseorang telah terang cahaya
selama berjam-jam, sebagian besar
dari Photochemicals di batang dan
kerucut akan telah direduksi menjadi
retinal dan opsins. Selanjutnya, banyak
dari retinal dari batang dan kerucut
akan telah dikonversimenjadi vitamin
A. Karena kedua efek tersebut,
konsentrasi bahan kimia fotosensitif yg
tersisa di batang dan kerucut yang
sangat berkurang, dan sensitivitas
mata terhadap cahaya considerably
tereduksi. Ini disebut adaptasi cahaya.
Dark Adaptation
Sebaliknya, jika seseorang tetap dalam
kegelapan untuk waktu yang lama,
retina dan opsins di batang dan
kerucut dikonversi kembali ke light-sensitive pigment. Selanjutnya, vitamin
A diubah kembali ke retinal untuk memberikan masih lebih light-sensitive
pigment, final limit yang ditentukan oleh jumlah opsins di batang dan
kerucut untuk digabungkan dengan retinal tersebut.Ini disebut dengan
adaptasi gelap.
Kurva Gelap
Gambar diatas menunjukkan jalannya adaptasi gelap ketika seseorang terkena
kegelapan total setelah memiliki terkena cahaya terang selama beberapa jam.
Perhatikan bahwa sensitivitas retina sangat rendah pada pertama memasuki
kegelapan, tapi dalam waktu 1 menit, sensitivitas telah meningkat 10 kali lipatyaitu, retina dapat merespon cahaya dari sepersepuluh intensitas yang diperlukan
sebelumnya. Pada akhir 20 menit, sensitivitas telah meningkat sekitar 6000 kali
lipat, dan pada akhir 40 menit, sekitar 25.000 kali lipat.
Kurva yang dihasilkan dari Gambar 50-8 disebut kurva dark adaptation. Namun,
perlu diketahui infleksi dalam kurva.Bagian awal kurva disebabkan oleh adaptasi
dari kerucut, karena semua peristiwa kimia penglihatan, termasuk adaptasi,
terjadi sekitar empat kali lebih pesat di kerucut seperti pada batang. Namun,
kerucut tidak mencapai atau mendekati tingkat perubahan sensitivitas yg sama
dalam kegelapan sebagaimana batang. Oleh karena itu, meskipun adaptasi cepat,
kerucut berhenti beradaptasi setelah hanya beberapa menit, sedangkan batang
yang beradaptasi secara perlahan terus beradaptasi selama beberapa menit dan
bahkan jam, sensitivitas mereka meningkat pesat. Selain itu, masih banyak
sensitivitas dari batang disebabkan oleh konvergensi sinyal neuronal dari 100
atau lebih batang ke sebuah ganglion tunggal sel di retina; batang ini summate
untuk meningkatkan mereka sensitivitas, seperti yang dibahas kemudian dalam
bab ini.
Other mechanism for adaptation

Change in Pupillary Size The major function of the iris is to increase the
amount of light that enters the eye during darkness and to decrease the amount
of light that enters the eye in daylight.
The amount of light that enters the eye through the pupil is proportional to the
area of the pupil or to the square of the diameter of the pupil. The pupil of the
human eye can become as small as about 1.5 millimeters and as large as 8
millimeters in diameter. The quantity of light entering the eye can change about
30-fold as a result of changes in pupillary aperture.
Neural Adaptation Mekanisme lainnya adalah adaptasi saraf, yang melibatkan
neuron pada tahap berturut-turut rantai visual dalam retina itu sendiri dan di otak.
Artinya, ketika intensitas cahaya pertama meningkat, sinyal yang ditransmisikan
oleh sel bipolar, sel horisontal, sel amacrine, dan sel ganglion semua intens.
Namun, sebagian besar dari sinyal-sinyal ini menurun dengan cepat pada
berbagai tahap transmisi di
sirkuit saraf. Meskipun tingkat adaptasi hanya fewfold daripada thousandfold yang
terjadi selama adaptasi dari sistem fotokimia, adaptasi saraf terjadi dalam
sepersekian detik, dibandingkan dengan banyak menit hingga jam yang
dibutuhkan bagi photochemicals untuk melakukan adaptasi yang full
Note :
1. The photoreceptors themselvesthe rods and cones which transmit signals
to the outer plexiform layer, where they synapse with bipolar cells and horizontal
cells
2. The horizontal cells, which transmit signals horizontally in the outer plexiform
layer from the rods and cones to bipolar cells
3. The bipolar cells, which transmit signals vertically from the rods, cones, and
horizontal cells to the inner plexiform layer, where they synapse with ganglion
cells and amacrine cells
4. The amacrine cells, which transmit signals in two directions, either directly
from bipolar cells to ganglion cells or horizontally within the inner plexiform layer
from axons of the bipolar cells to dendrites of the ganglion cells or to other
amacrine cells
5. The ganglion cells, which transmit output signals from the retina through the
optic nerve into the brain

E. Release of Neurotransmitter by
Photoreceptor
As mentioned previously, the absorption of light
and isomerization of retinal initiates chemical
changes in the photoreceptor outer segment
that lead to production of a receptor potential.
In darkness, sodium ions (Na_) flow into
photoreceptor
outer segments through ligand-gated Na_
channels. The ligand that holds these channels
open is cyclic GMP (guanosine monophosphate)
or cGMP. The
inflow of Na_, called the dark current, partially
depolarizes the
In Dark
1.The photon activates an electron in
the 11-cis retinal portion of the
rhodopsin; this leads to the formation
of metarhodopsin II, which is the
active form of rhodopsin (lihat gambar

di bagian light and dark adaptation)

2. The activated rhodopsin functions as an enzyme to activate many molecules of
transducin, a protein present in an inactive form in the membranes of the discs
and cell membrane of the rod.
3. The activated transducin activates many more molecules of
phosphodiesterase.
4. Activated phosphodiesterase is another enzyme; it immediately hydrolyzes
many molecules of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), thus
destroying it. Before being destroyed, the cGMP had been bound with the sodium
channel protein of the rods outer membrane in a way that splints it in the open
state.
5. The inflow of Na_, called the dark current, partially depolarizes the
photoreceptor. As a result, in darkness the membrane potential of a photoreceptor
is about 30 mV. This is much closer to zero than a typical neurons resting
membrane potential of 70 mV. The partial depolarization during darkness
triggers continual release of neurotransmitter at the synaptic terminals. The
neurotransmitter in rods, and perhaps in cones, is the amino acid glutamate
(glutamic acid). At synapses between rods and some bipolar cells, glutamate is an
inhibitory neurotransmitter: It triggers inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
that hyperpolarize the bipolar cells and prevent them from sending signals on to
the ganglion cells.
6. Within about a second, another enzyme, rhodopsin kinase, which is always
present in the rod, inactivates the activated rhodopsin (the metarhodopsin II), and
the entire cascade reverses back to the normal state with open sodium channels.
But in light, when phosphodiesterase hydrolyzes the cGMP, this removes the
splinting and allows the sodium channels to close. Several hundred channels close
for each originally activated molecule of rhodopsin. when the rhodopsin in the
outer segment of the rod is exposed to light, the rhodopsin begins to decompose,
and this decreases the outer segment membrane conductance of sodium to the
interior of the rod, even though sodium ions continue to be pumped outward
through the membrane of the inner
segment.
Thus, more sodium ions now leave the rod than leak back in. Because they are
positive ions, their loss from inside the rod creates increased negativity inside the
membrane, and the greater the amount of light energy striking the rod, the
greater the electronegativity becomesthat is, the greater is the degree of
hyperpolarization. At maximum light intensity, the membrane potential
approaches 70 to 80 millivolts, which is near the equilibrium potential for
potassium ions across the membrane.
This sequence of events produces a hyperpolarizing receptor potential that
decreases the release of glutamate.
2. VISUAL PATHWAY

A. Processing of
Visual Output in
Retina
Visual signals in the retina
undergo considerable
processing at synapses
among the various types of
neurons in the retina
(horizontal cells, bipolar

cells, and amacrine cells; see picture) Then, the axons of retinal ganglion cells
provide output from the retina to the brain, exiting the eyeball as the optic (II)
nerve.

Processing of Visual Input in the Retina

Setelah potensi reseptor muncul di segmen luar batang dan kerucut,
mereka menyebar melalui inner segmen ke terminal sinaptik. Molekul
neurotransmitter dirilis oleh batang dan kerucut menginduksi local graded
potentials di kedua sel bipolar dan sel horizontal. Antara 6 dan 600 batang sinaps
dengan satu sel bipolar di lapisan sinaptik luar retina; kerucut lebih sering sinapsis
dengan sel bipolar tunggal.
Konvergensi banyak batang ke sel bipolar tunggal meningkatkan
sensitivitas cahaya dari vision batang tapi sedikit mengaburkan gambar yang
dipercieve. Visi kerucut, meskipun kurang sensitif, lebih tajam karena sinapsis
antara kerucut dan sel bipolar mereka yang satu persatu. Stimulasi batang oleh
cahaya excites sel bipolar; kerucut bipolar sel dapat terstimulasi atau dihambat
saat lampu dinyalakan.
Sel horisontal mengirimkan sinyal penghambatan sel-sel bipolar di
daerah lateral dari daerah batang dan kerucut yang terstimulasi. Penghambatan
lateral ini meningkatkan kontras dalam tampilan visual antara daerah dari
retina yang sangat dirangsang dan berdekatan dengan daerah yang
lebih lemah dirangsang.
Sel horisontal juga membantu dalam diferensiasi dari berbagai warna. Sel
amacrine, yang distimulasi oleh sel bipolar, sinaps dengan sel ganglion dan
mengirimkan informasi yang mensinyalkan perubahan di tingkat pencahayaan
retina. Ketika bipolar atau amacrine sel mengirimkan rangsang sinyal ke sel-sel
ganglion, sel-sel ganglion menjadi depolarized dan memulai impuls saraf.
B. Visual Pathway

The axons within the optic nerve pass through the

optic chiasm, a crossing point of the optic nerves.
Some axons cross to the opposite side, but others
remain uncrossed. After passing through the optic
chiasm, the axons, now part of the optic tract, enter
the brain and terminate in the lateral geniculate
nucleus of the thalamus. Here they synapse with
neurons whose axons form the optic radiations,
which project to the primary visual areas in the
occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex (area 17 in
Figure 14.15 on page 519) and visual perception
begins. Everything that can be seen by one eye is
that eyes visual field. As noted earlier, because our
eyes are located anteriorly in our heads, the visual
fields overlap considerably (Figure 17.17b).We have binocular vision due to the large region
where the visual fields of the two eyes overlapthe binocular visual field.
The visual field of each eye is divided into two regions: the nasal or central half and the temporal
or peripheral half. For each eye, light rays from an object in the nasal half of the visual field fall
on the temporal half of the retina, and light rays from an object in the temporal half of the visual
field fall on the nasal half of the retina. Visual information from the right half of each visual field
is conveyed to the left side of the brain, and visual information from the left half of each visual
field is conveyed to the right side of the brain, as follows (Figure 17.17c, d):

1 The axons of all retinal ganglion cells in one eye exit the eyeball at the optic disc and form the
optic nerve on that side.

2 At the optic chiasm, axons from the temporal half of each retina do not cross but continue
directly to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus on the same side.

3 In contrast, axons from the nasal half of each retina cross the optic chiasm and continue to the
opposite thalamus.

4 Each optic tract consists of crossed and uncrossed axons that project from the optic chiasm to
the thalamus on one side.

5 Axon collaterals (branches) of the retinal ganglion cells project to the midbrain, where they
participate in neural circuits that govern constriction of the pupils in response to light and
coordination of head and eye movements. Collaterals also extend to the suprachiasmatic nucleus
of the hypothalamus, which establishes patterns of sleep and other activities that occur on a
circadian or daily schedule in response to intervals of light and darkness.

6 The axons of thalamic neurons form the optic radiations as they project from the thalamus to
the primary visual area of the cortex on the same side.
Although we have just described the visual pathway as a single pathway, visual signals are thought
to be processed by at least three separate systems in the cerebral cortex, each with its own
function. One system processes information related to the shape of objects, another system
processes information regarding color of objects, and a third system processes information about
movement, location, and spatial organization.

C. Neural Pathway