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81
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
8.5.
8.
Introduction
The Beam Model
8.2.1.
Field Equations . . .
8.2.2.
Boundary Conditions
.
8.2.3.
The SF Tonti Diagram
The TPE (Primal) Functional
The TCPE (Dual) Functional
The Hellinger-Reissner Functional
Exercises . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
83
83
83
84
84
85
87
89
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8.2
z, w(x)
(a)
q(x)
x
Beam and
applied load
EI(x)
L
+M
(b)
Internal forces.
Note sign conventions
(c)
+V
^
+w
+MB
Prescribed transverse
^
displacement w and
+A
rotation at left end A.
Note sign conventions
A
+VB
Prescribed bending
moment M and
transverse shear V
at right end B.
Note sign conventions
Figure 8.1. The Bernoulli-Euler beam model: (a) beam and transverse load; (b) positive
convention for moment and shear; (c) boundary conditions.
8.1. Introduction
From the Poisson equation we move to elasticity and structural mechanics. Rather than tackling the
full 3D problem first this Chapter illustrates, in a tutorial style, the derivation of Variational Forms
for a one-dimensional model: the Bernoulli-Euler beam.
Despite the restriction to 1D, the mathematics offers a new and challenging ingredient: the handling
of functionals with second space derivatives of displacements. Physically these are curvatures of
deflected shapes. In structural mechanics curvatures appear in problems involving beams, plates
and shells. In fluid mechanics second derivatives appear in slow viscous flows.
8.2. The Beam Model
The beam under consideration extends from x = 0 to x = L and has a bending rigidity E I , which
may be a function of x. See Figure 8.1(a). The transverse load q(x) is given in units of force per
length. The unknown fields are the transverse displacement w(x), rotation (x), curvature (x),
bending moment M(x) and transverse shear V (x). Positive sign conventions for M and V are
illustrated in Figure 8.1(b).
Boundary conditions are applied only at A and B. For definiteness the end conditions shown in
Figure 8.1(c) will be used.
8.2.1. Field Equations
In what follows a prime denotes derivative with respect to x. The field equations over 0 x L
are as follows.
83
(KE)
Kinematic equations:
d 2w
=
= w = ,
2
dx
dw
=
= w ,
dx
(8.1)
where is the rotation of a cross section and the curvature of the deflected longitudinal axis.
Relations (8.1) express the kinematics of an Bernoulli-Euler beam: plane sections remain plane
and normal to the deflected neutral axis.
(CE)
Constitutive equation:
M = E I ,
(8.2)
where I is the second moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to y (the neutral axis).
This moment-curvature relation is a consequence of assuming a linear distribution of strains and
stresses across the cross section. It is derived in elementary courses of Mechanics of Materials.
(BE)
dM
= M ,
dx
dV
q = V q = M q = 0.
dx
(8.3)
w = w A ,
M = M B ,
= A ,
V = V B ,
(8.4)
so it disagrees with the positive deflection +w. On the other hand a positive M B acts counterclockwise, which
agrees with the positive rotation + .
In those courses, however, +q(x) is sometimes taken to act downward, leading to V + q = 0 and M + q = 0.
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8.3
^
w
A
^
PBC:
w
= w'
^
w=w
A at A
^
= A
BE: M '' q = 0
KE: = w''
CE:
M = EI
^
M
B
^
VB
FBC:
M
V =M'
^
M=M
B
^ at B
V = VB
Figure 8.2. Tonti diagram of Strong Form of Bernoulli-Euler beam model.
=
(M ) q w d x + (M M) (V V ) w = 0.
(8.5)
B
Why the different signs for the moment and shear boundary terms? If confused, read Remark 4.1.
L
Next, integrate 0 (M w ) w d x twice by parts:
L
L
B
w
(M ) w d x =
(M w ) w d x + (M w ) w
A
0
0
L
B
B
(8.6)
=
M w w d x + (M w ) w M w w
0
L
w
w
w
w
w
M d x + V w M .
B
0
2
In fact 24 = 16 boundary condition combinations are mathematically possible. Some of these correspond to physically
realizable support conditions, for example simply supports, whereas others do not.
In the Timoshenko beam model, which accounts for transverse shear energy, appears in the constitutive equations.
85
^
w
A
^A
PBC:
Master
= w'
w
q
^
w=w
A at A
^
= A
(M'' q) w dx = 0
BE:
0
KE : w = w''
Slave
Slave
CE:
M w = EI w
M
V = (M w)'
FBC:
w
^
(M MB ) = 0
^
(V VB ) w = 0
^
M
B
^
VB
at B
Figure 8.3. Weak Form used as departure point to derive the TPE functional for the
Bernoulli-Euler beam
=
B
B
0
(8.7)
L
=
(E I w w q w) d x M w + V w .
B
TPE [w] =
1
2
2
E I (w ) d x
qw d x M B wB + V B w B .
(8.8)
This is called the Total Potential Energy (TPE) functional of the Bernoulli-Euler beam. It was used
in the Introduction to Finite Element Methods course to derive the well known Hermitian beam
element in Chapter 12. For many developments it is customarily split into two terms
(8.9)
in which
U [w] =
1
2
2
E I (w ) d x,
W [w] =
qw d x + M B wB V B w B .
(8.10)
Here U is the internal energy (strain energy) of the beam due to bending deformations (bending
moments working on curvatures), whereas W gathers the other terms that collectively represent the
external work of the applied loads.4
4
Recall that work and energy have opposite signs, since energy is the capacity to produce work. It is customary to write
86
8.4
^
w
A
^
A
PBC:
Ignorable
= w'
w
^
w=w
A at A
= ^A
BE: M'' q = 0
( w M ) M dx = 0
KE:
Master
Slave
CE:
M = M/(EI)
M
M
V =M
FBC:
^
M=M
B
^
V = VB at B
^
M
B
V^B
Figure 8.4. Weak Form used as departure point to derive the TCPE functional for
the Bernoulli-Euler beam
(8.11)
U = 12 W.
In other words: at equilibrium the internal energy is half the external work. This property is valid for any
linear elastic continuum. (It is called Clapeyrons theorem in the literature of Structural Mechanics.) It has a
simple geometric interpretation for structures with finite number of degrees of freedom.
=
Integrate
w M d x by parts twice:
L
0
B
L
w M dx =
w M d x + w M
A
0
L
B
B
=
w M d x + w M w M
A
A
0
L
=
w M d x M + w V M .
(8.13)
The disappearance of the boundary terms at B results from enforcing strongly the free-end boundary
conditions M = M B and V = V B , whence the variations M B = 0, V M = M B = 0. Because of
87
^
w
A
^A
(w M ) M dx = 0
KE:
0
Master
Slave
M
CE:
M
V = M'
M
= M/(EI)
M
Figure 8.5. The collapsed WF diagram for the TCPE functional, showing only
leftovers boxes.
M
M d x + M w V = 0.
M
[M] = 2
(8.15)
(8.16)
TCPE [M] =
1
2
M2
d x + M A V M w A .
EI
(8.17)
This is the TCPE functional for the Bernoulli-Euler beam model. As in the case of the TPE, it is
customarily split as
M2
U =
(8.19)
d x,
W = M A + V M w A .
0 EI
Here U is the internal complementary energy stored in the beam by virtue of its deformation, and
W is the external complementary energy that collects the work of the prescribed end displacements
and rotations.
Note that only M (and its slaves), A and w A remain in this functional. The transverse displacement
w(x) is gone and consequently is labeled as ignorable in Figure 8.5. Through the integration
by parts process the WF diagram of Figure 8.4 collapses to the one sketched in Figure 8.5. The
reduction may be obtained by invoking the following two rules:
1
2
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(1) The ignorable box w, of Figure 8.4 may be replaced by the data box w A , A because only
the boundary values of those quantities survive.
V of Figure 8.4 may be removed because they are strongly connected
(2) The data boxes q and M,
to the varied field M.
The collapsed WF diagram of Figure 8.5 displays the five quantities (M, V M , M , w A , A ) that
survive in the TCPE functional.
Remark 8.3. One can easily show that for the actual solution of the beam problem, U = U , a property valid
[w, M] =
( ) M d x +
(M q) w d x + (M M) (V V ) w .
0
(8.20)
L
Integrating 0 M w twice by parts as in the TPE derivation, inserting in (8.20), and enforcing the
strong PBCs at A, yields
L
L
M
w
[w, M] =
q w d x + V w M , (8.21)
(w ) M + M w d x
0
HR [w, M] =
0
M2
qw
Mw
2E I
d x + V B w B M B Bw .
(8.22)
(8.23)
Master fields
(w and M)
^
w
A
^
A
PBC:
= w'
w
^
w=w
A at A
^
= A
KE: = w''
w
( w M) M dx = 0
(M'' q) w dx = 0
BE:
0
Slave fields
CE:
M = M/(EI)
M
V = M'
FBC:
w
^
(M MB ) B = 0
^
(V VB ) wB = 0
^
M
B
V^B
at B
Figure 8.6. The WF Tonti diagram used as departure point for deriving the HellingerReissner (HR) functional.
Remark 8.4. If the primal boundary conditions (PBC) at A are weakened, the functional (8.22) gains two
L
Mw d x = Mw
M w d x = M B Bw M A Aw
M w d x
(8.24)
to get an alternative form of the HR equation with balanced derivatives in w and M. Such transformations
are common in the finite element applications of mixed functionals. The objective is to exert control over
interelement continuity conditions.
810
Exercises
L
w
(M
[w, ] =
1
M)
2
dx
q w d x M w V w .
B
(E8.1)
^
w
A
^
A
L w
L w
(M
+
M
w
)
d
x
is
the
variation
of
M d x (work it out, it is a bit tricky)
0 L
L 0
1
M d x is the variation of 2
PBC:
w
= w'
w
^
w=w
A at A
^
= A
M d x.
Master
KE: = w''
CE:
Mw
M = E I
w
MM:
(M'' q) w dx = 0
Slave
Slave
BE:
( M M w ) dx = 0
Slave
Master
CE:
M = EI
M
V = (M )'
FBC:
^
M
B
^
VB
^ ) w = 0
(M M
B
B
(V V^B ) wB = 0
Figure E8.1. The WF Tonti diagram used as departure point for deriving the
curvature-displacement mixed functional.
811
at B
^
w
A
^A
PBC:
w
= w'
w
^
w=w
A at A
^
= A
Master
KE: w = w''
(M'' q) w dx = 0
BE:
( w) M dx = 0
CC:
0
Slave
Master
CE:
MM:
M = EI
( M M ) dx = 0
Master
M
M
V = M'
^
M
B
^
VB
FBC:
^ ) w = 0
(M M
B
B
(V V^B ) wB = 0
at B
Figure E8.2. Starting WF diagram to derive the three-master-field Veubeke-HuWashizu mixed functional, which is the topic of Exercise 8.3.
EXERCISE 8.3 [A:30] The most general mixed functional in elasticity is called the Veubeke-Hu-Washizu or
VHW functional. The three internal fields: displacements w, curvatures and moments M, are selected as
masters and independently varied to get
M + M( ) d x
2
[w, , M] =
0
w V w .
qw d x M
B
(E8.2)
Derive this functional starting from the WF diagram shown in Figure E8.2.
EXERCISE 8.4 [A:35] (Advanced, research paper level) Suppose that on the beam of Figure 8.1, loaded
by q(x), one applies an additional concentrated load P at an arbitrary cross section x = x P . The additional
transverse displacement under that load is w P . The additional deflection elsewhere is w P (x), where (x)
is called an influence function, whose value at x = x P is 1. For simplicity assume that the end forces at B
vanish: M B = V B = 0. The TPE functional can be viewed as function of two arguments:
[w, w P ] =
L
2
E I (w + w P ) d x
1
2
0
q + P(x P ) (w + w P ) d x,
(E8.3)
where w = w(x) denotes here the deflection for P = 0 and (x P ) is Diracs delta function.5 Show that if the
5
This is denoted by (.) instead of the usual (.) to avoid confusion with the variation symbol.
812
Exercises
U [w, w P ]
.
w P
(E8.4)
This is called Castiglianos theorem on forces (also Castiglianos first theorem).6 In words: the partial derivative
of the internal (strain) energy expressed in terms of the beam deflections with respect to the displacement under
a concentrated force gives the value of that force.
Note: This energy theorem can be generalized to arbitrary elastic bodies (not just beams) but requires fancy
mathematics. It also applies to concentrated couples by replacing displacement of the load by rotation of the
couple. This result is often used in Structural Mechanics to calculate reaction forces at supports. Castiglianos
energy theorem on deflections (also called Castiglianos second theorem), which is w Q = U / Q in which
U is the internal complementary energy, is the one normally taught in undergraduate courses for Structures.
Textbooks normally prove these theorems only for systems with finite number of degrees of freedom. Proofs
for arbitrary continua are usually faulty because singular integrals are not properly handled.
Some mathematical facility with integration by parts and delta functions is needed to prove this, but it is an excellent
exercise for advanced math exams.
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