Athukorala Thesis

Mathematical Modeling of a Contact Lens and Tear Layer at Equilibrium
by
Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, B.Sc.
A Thesis
in
Mathematics
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
Approved
Dr. Ram Iyer
Chair of Committee
Dr. Magdalena Toda
Dr. Eugenio Aulisa
Peggy Gordon Miller
Dean of the Graduate School
August, 2012
c
2012,
Bhagya U. A. Athukorallage
Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is with great pleasure that I express my gratitude and appreciation to my
advisor Dr. Ram Iyer for his encouragement, guidance and patience throughout
this endeavor. Furthermore, his guidance helped enormously for me to succeed as a
graduate student. My sincere gratitude goes to Dr. Magdalena Toda and Dr. Eugenio
Aulisa for their support, suggestions and encouragement. They were always willing
to help me in every way.
I am grateful to Dr. Pantaleon Perera who guided and helped me in every
possible way throughout my academic career. Moreover, I take this opportunity to
express my gratitude to all my teachers during my student life.
I would like to thank all my Texas Tech University friends and Lubbock Sri
Lankan community for their support provided from the day I arrived here. My special
thanks go to Janitha Gunatilake and Josh Engwer for their suggestions and help in
writing the thesis.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my loving parents, sisters and wife for
being with me in every moment in my life.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. CAPILLARY SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Youngs equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Contact angle hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4 Young-Laplace Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5 Curvature of a curve and a surface . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Profile of a capillary surface at a vertical flat wall . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Modeling the capillary surface at a vertical wall . . . . . .
2.2.2 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Forces acting on a contact lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Static equilibrium of a contact lens . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. TEAR MENISCUS AROUND A CONTACT LENS . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Modeling the tear meniscus around a contact lens . . . . . . .
3.2 Two-dimensional analysis of tear meniscus . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Necessary conditions for the equilibrium of the contact lens
3.2.2 Numerical results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Two-dimensional analysis of a tear meniscus when the disk is
supported by the lower eyelid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Two-dimensional analysis of a tear meniscus with cylindrical
shell type contact lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Lower tear meniscus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.4.2.1 Numerical results . . . . .

3.5 Three-dimensional analysis of a tear
cap type contact lens . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Numerical Results . . . . . . . .
3.6 Comparison with observations . . .
4. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iv
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meniscus with a spherical
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ABSTRACT
In this thesis, we study the capillary surface at a vertical wall, and a tear meniscus
around a symmetric, spherical cap lens. We propose a mathematical model of a
tear meniscus around a contact lens that is at static equilibrium using a calculus of
variations approach. As the lens is in static equilibrium all the forces and moments
sum to zero. The forces acting on the lens are its weight, force due to hydrostatic
and atmospheric pressures and surface tension on the periphery of the lens due to
the tear meniscus. We consider the two cases of presence or absence of a force due to
the lower eyelid. The fixed parameters in the model are weight of the lens, coefficient
of surface tension, magnitude of gravitational acceleration, density of the tear liquid
and physical parameters of the lens such as the diameter and base curve radius. The
adjustable parameters in the model are contact angles of the tear meniscus with
the cornea and contact lens respectively and the position of the lens on the cornea.
Numerical experiments suggest that there exist range of values for the adjustable
parameters that lead to physically reasonable solutions, for lens position; extent of
overlap of the lower lid on the lens; pressure due to the lid on the lens; and contact
angles between the tear meniscus and the cornea and contact lens respectively.
LIST OF TABLES
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Surface tension of some liquids at different temperatures . . . . . . .

Fixed parameter values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contact lens materials and their specific gravities . . . . . . . . . . .
Fixed parameter values for the idealized case when the cornea and the
contact lens are flat, and the contact lens has a rectangular shape . .
Fixed parameter values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fixed parameter values for the case when the cornea is flat, and the
contact lens has a cylindrical shell shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fixed parameter values for the case when the cornea is flat and the
contact lens has a spherical cap shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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LIST OF FIGURES
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Capillary surface at a vertical wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attractive interaction of a molecule at the surface and in the middle
of a liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equilibrium contact angle of a liquid drop on a solid surface . . . . .
Interfacial tensions at a contact point of a liquid drop . . . . . . . . .
Advancing and receding contact angles of a liquid drop . . . . . . . .
Sectional view of a liquid column in a capillary tube . . . . . . . . . .
Liquid-gas interface S with principal radii of R1 and R2 . . . . . . . .
Normal curvaturee of a surface in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sectional view of a capillary surface at a vertical wall . . . . . . . . .
The directions of the forces on a section of a capillary surface and
meniscus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation of the meniscus height z(x) from the vertical wall . . . . . .
Image of contact lens resting on the inside of the lower eyelid . . . . .
Case 1: Tear film over a disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Case 2: Contact angle between the tear meniscus and the contact
lens is less than 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lens is equal to 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lens is greater than 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lens is greater than 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contact lens on a flat cornea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Upper and lower tear menisci on a rectangular contact lens . . . . . .
Upper tear meniscus on a rectangular contact lens . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces on a section of a rectangular contact lens . . . . . . . . . . . .
Force components in the z direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Images of contact lens resting on the inside of the lower eyelid . . . .
Forces on the lens due to the upper tear meniscus and the lower eyelid
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3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
Variation of L1 , a, b and the reaction forces FL and FR with respect

to the distance x1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A cylindrical shell type lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces on the cylindrical shell type lens due to the upper tear meniscus
and the lower eyelid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation of FL , FR and the moment difference with respect to the
distance x1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation of lower contact angle values with x1 and Variation of the
force components in the x direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spherical cap type contact lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces acting on the spherical cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation of the force due to fluid pressure FR , surface tension FT and
the lid force FL in the x, y and z directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation of L for different corneal contact angles . . . . . . . . . . .
Contact angles between the tear meniscus with the flat vertical wall
and corneal surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meniscus profiles z(x) and their slopes z 0 (x) for the contact angles
E = 33 and EC = 14.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Consider a capillary surface that is in an equilibrium at a vertical flat wall, as
depicted in Figure 1.1. Assume that the capillary surface is uniform in the y direction.
z(x) is the equation of the surface, which asymptotically touches the Xaxis for all
values of y, that is, xlim
z(x) = 0.
Figure 1.1: Capillary surface at a vertical wall. Zaxis represents the vertical wall
and po is the atmospheric pressure. M and M2 are planes parallel and perpendicular
to the XZ plane. The dashed region denotes the liquid film at the vertical wall.
Contact angle at the vertical wall is E .
The Young-Laplace equation relates the mean curvature of a capillary surface to
pressure difference across the surface [3]

1
1
+
.
p =
R1 R2

(1.1)
Here R1 and R2 are the principal radii of curvature at a point on the surface. In
specific situations, we obtain a second-order nonlinear differential equation for the
meniscus profile by applying equation (1.1).
The same capillary surface given in Figure 1.1 possesses potential energy due
to surface tension and the pressures due to the presence of a liquid on one side of
the surface and atmosphere on the other side. The differential form of the potential
energy is [3]
J = dA pdV.
(1.2)
In equation (1.2), is the surface energy per unit area and p is the pressure difference
between the liquid-gas interface. dA and dV are the surface area and volume elements
of the liquid respectively. The potential energy functional is
Z
J =
Z
dA
J =
pdV,
(1.3)
where is the region occupied by the liquid and is the boundary of . Both
methods result in the same equation for the capillary surface at a vertical wall as
shown in section 2.2.
The potential energy functional approach is used to model the tear meniscus
around a symmetric, spherical cap lens in Section 3.1. We analyze the static equilibrium of the lens by considering all the forces and moments that act on the lens.
Mainly, there are four types of forces. They are lens weight, forces due to hydrostatic
and atmospheric pressure, surface tension forces on the periphery of the lens due to
the tear meniscus and the force due to the lower eyelid. Lens weight acts through its
center of mass, parallel to the direction of gravitational acceleration g. Forces result
from hydrostatic pressure and atmospheric pressure acting perpendicular to the posterior and anterior sides of the lens respectively. Thus, due to the spherical shape of
the contact lens, all these pressure forces and their resultant force have the direction
of the outward normal vector to the sphere. Furthermore, surface tension forces act
on the lens at the contact line and directed tangentially to the tear meniscus. Since
tear film is at equilibrium, its velocity is u and, hence, viscous stress 1 are zero.
Therefore, in our model, we neglect the force on the posterior side of the lens due to
the viscous stress.
We use the lens weight, coefficient of surface tension, density of the tear liquid,
1

u + uT
=
2
magnitude of gravitational acceleration, lens diameter and its base curve radius as
the fixed parameters. The adjustable parameters in our model are the position of the
lens on the cornea, contact angle of the tear meniscus with the cornea and contact
lens respectively. The contact angle hysteresis phenomenon (refer to Section 2.1.3)
explains that these contact angles may have a range of values. Our mathematical
model for the tear meniscus is valid for rigid gas permeable RGP lenses as well as
for the soft contact lenses. However, numerical simulations are done only for the
RGP type lenses. Our numerical calculations show that the pressure change due
to gravity significantly affect the equilibrium equations. In particular, force resultant
due to hydrostatic pressure is greater than the surface tension force in the z direction.
In addition to ignoring the change in hydrostatic pressure due to gravity, capillary effect is also ignored in [1] and in [18]. These forces are significant and cannot
be ignored as shown in this thesis. The net force due to hydrostatic pressure has the
largest magnitude amongst all the forces acting on a lens and the capillary effect reduces the magnitude of the lid (or other) forces needed to maintain static equilibrium.
In the literature [1], the contact lens and tear meniscus are considered to be in
a quasi-static equilibrium state. The author assumes the shape of the contact lens
to be a cylindrical shell type with a unit width. Reaction force due to the posterior
tear film, upper and lower contact angles are calculated by considering the quasistatic equilibrium of the lens in two-dimensions. However, calculation of the reaction
force due to the posterior tear film completely neglects hydrostatic pressure variation
due to gravity. But, our numerical simulations show that the force due to hydrostatic
pressure significantly affects the static equilibrium of the lens. The literature [2] models the contact lens and the cornea as flat surfaces with infinite width. Lubrication
approximation theory is used to model quasi-steady motion of the tear film under
the contact lens and away from the lens. In the analysis of the the latter tear film,
its attachment to the cornea is incorrectly modeled. As a result, gravitational force
acting on the fluid is neglected in the analysis. In [18], the contact lens considered is
a porous, planar, circular disk, and the authors model the dynamics of the contact
lens during blinking. They use a version of Darcys law to model constitutive relation
of tear, in which gravity is neglected. For the no blink or quasi-static blink case, this
constitutive relation yields a constant pressure distribution in the tear layer, which is
unphysical.
In our analysis, we consider the static equilibrium of a spherical lens in threedimensions by introducing an additional force that results from the lower eyelid.
Effect of hydrostatic pressure includes in the equilibrium equations of the lens. We
assume the pressure variation of the tear film is linear with the distance x and also
assume linear variations of the contact angles of the tear meniscus with the lens.
Ranges of values for the adjustable parameters are obtained through the numerical
simulations for the static equilibrium of the lens.
Chapter 2 consists of the basic theories involving a study of capillary surfaces and
model the capillary surface at a vertical wall by applying the Young-Laplace equation
and a calculus of variations approach. This chapter also contains an analysis for the
stability of a unit width plate that the axis of symmetry is parallel to the direction
of gravitational acceleration g. In chapter 3, we mathematically model the tear
meniscus around a contact lens. We initially consider the static equilibrium of a flat
plate and cylindrical shell that yield to gain a better understanding of the stability of
a spherical cap type lens. Finally, for the equilibrium of the spherical cap type lens,
numerical simulations are carried out to obtain the feasible values for the adjustable
parameters. Simulation results suggest that there exist a range of values for the
adjustable parameters that lead to the physically reasonable solutions.
CHAPTER 2
CAPILLARY SURFACES
In this chapter, the basic definitions and theorems that we used to analyze meniscus profiles at a flat vertical wall and around a disk are described. In particular, we
derive an equation for a meniscus profile at a vertical wall using the Laplace theorem.
2.1 Preliminaries
2.1.1 Surface tension
Surface tension of a liquid is defined as the energy that must be required to
increase the surface by one unit[3].
Figure 2.1: Attractive interaction of a molecule at the surface and in the middle of a
liquid.
The unit of surface tension is either J/m2 or N/m. Surface tension of liquids
vary from 0.02 to 0.08N/m and, therefore, they are usually expressed in mN/m. The
following table contains surface tension of a few liquids at different temperatures [9].
Table 2.1: Surface tension of some liquids at different temperatures [9].

Temperature ( C) (mN m1 )
20
73
100
58
Tear
45
Mercury
20
485
Acetone
20
24
Water/oil
20
50
Liquid
Water
2.1.2 Youngs equation

Consider a static equilibrium of a liquid drop that is deposited on an ideal1 solid
surface. Let O be a point on the contact line that forms in the solid, liquid and air
interface. Let M be a plane perpendicular to the solid surface and parallel to the
Y Z plane through the point O. Then, the liquid drop forms a profile curve OC on
the plane M as shown in Figure 2.2. Line OB represents a tangent line to the curve
OC at the point O. The AOB that forms at the point O through the liquid is
denoted by E . This angle is referred to as an equilibrium contact angle and its value
is determined by the Youngs equation.
Figure 2.2: Equilibrium contact angle of a liquid drop on a solid surface. M is a plane
parallel to the Y Z plane. AOB is the equilibrium contact angle E .
Figure 2.3 depicts the directions of interfacial tensions between the solid-vapor,
solid-liquid and liquid-vapor interfaces on the plane M . Those interfacial tensions are
assumed to have the values of SG , SL and LG (per unit length) respectively.
The equilibrium of forces in the Y direction results in the following equation
(2.1) and the value of E is found from the equation(2.2).
LG cos E + SL = SG ,
LG cos E = SG SL ,

SG SL
1
E = cos
.
LG
(2.1)
(2.2)
1
An ideal solid surface is one that is flat, rigid, perfectly smooth, inert, non-porous and chemically
homogeneous with zero contact angle hysteresis [10].
Figure 2.3: Interfacial tensions at a contact point of a liquid drop.

2.1.3 Contact angle hysteresis
The equilibrium contact angle E that is defined by the Youngs formula is not
unique for a non-ideal surface.
Figure 2.4: Advancing and receding contact angles of a liquid drop.

Consider a small liquid drop on a solid surface with a contact angle of (Configuration of the contact angle is similar to that used in the previous analysis).
Experiments show that if liquid is carefully removed from a droplet with a syringe,
volume and contact angle of droplet decrease without changing its initial contact area.
Continuing this process results in a receding of the contact area at a contact angle
of R . Similarly, if liquid is added to the droplet, the volume and contact angle of
the droplet will increase, but retain the same contact area. Further increasing of its
volume results in a motion of the contact area at contact angle of A . These two
limiting values, R and A , are referred to as receding and advancing angles. The
difference between A and R is termed as contact angle hysteresis.
The following example indicates the contact angle hysteresis phenomenon that
occurs in a capillary tube.
7
Consider a liquid column trapped in a capillary tube [3] that is parallel to the Z
direction as shown in the figure 2.5. Magnitude of the gravitational acceleration is
denoted by g and it is directed to the Z direction. The liquid column has height
h and radius R with liquid density of . Its upper and lower lines of contact2 are
denoted by C1 and C2 respectively. On the lines C1 and C2 , the contact angles are 1
and 2 and it is assumed that each contact angle is constant along the corresponding
contact line.
Figure 2.5: Sectional view of a liquid column in a capillary tube. 1 and 2 denote
the upper and lower contact angles respectively. Gravity g acts in the Z direction.
Under this configuration, surface tension acts tangentially to the upper and
lower capillary surfaces of the liquid column. Let A and B be arbitrary points on
the contact lines C1 and C2 respectively. Thus at the point A, surface tension force
acts tangentially to the upper liquid meniscus. Hence, its vertical component is
cos 1 in Z direction. Similarly, at the point B, there is a force component cos 2 ,
that acts in the Z direction. Therefore, the total forces in Z and Z directions
due to the upper and lower contact lines are 2R cos 1 and 2R cos 2 respectively.
Moreover, the weight of the liquid column, R2 hg acts in Z direction.
Thus, the following equations can be derived for static equilibrium of the liquid
2
In three dimensions, these lines are circles with radius R.
column in the Z direction:

2R(cos 1 cos 2 ) R2 hg = 0,
2(cos 1 cos 2 ) = Rgh.
(2.3)
Thus, at the equilibrium of the liquid column, the upper and the lower contact
angles satisfy the condition,
R 1 < 2 A .
(2.4)
2.1.4 Young-Laplace Equation

Consider a liquid-gas interface (capillary surface3 ) that is in equilibrium. Suppose
there is a pressure difference across the liquid-gas interface. Then, the interface is
curved due to that pressure difference. The aforementioned pressure difference is
related to curvature and surface tension of the interface, and this relationship is given
by the Young-Laplace equation.
Figure 2.6: Liquid-gas interface S with principal radii of R1 and R2 .
The term capillary surface is used to describe a free interface that occurs when one of the
materials is a liquid and the other is a liquid or a gas [11].
Young-Laplace equation:
Let S be a fluid interface as described above with surface tension and pressure
difference across a point A on the surface, p. Then,

p =
1
1
+
R1 R2

= (1 + 2 )
(2.5)
where R1 and R2 represent the two principal radii of curvature at the point A. Note
that we define the pressure difference p to be pliquid pgas .
One of the important implications of the Young-Laplace equation is that one can
use it with appropriate boundary conditions to calculate the geometry of a capillary
surface. In the next section, the principal radii of curvature of a surface are discussed
in detail.
2.1.5 Curvature of a curve and a surface
Curvature of a curve in R3
Let C be a curve, parametrized by r(t) in R3 such that r0 (t) 6= 0 for t (a, b) R.
We define its arc length parameter (s) by the equation,
Z
s(t) =
kr0 ( )kd.
(2.6)
Thus, unit tangent vector (T) of the curve C is defined in terms of the arc length
parameter s:
T: =
dr
,
ds
(2.7)
which leads to
T=
dr dt
r0 (t)
= 0
.
dt ds
kr (t)k
Note that kTk = 1.

Therefore, we can show that T
dT
dT
= 0. Hence,
is orthogonal to T.
ds
ds
10
(2.8)
The curvature (s), of a curve C is defined by [12],

dT
= (s)n(s).
ds
(2.9)
In the above equation, n(s) is the principal unit normal to the curve C. The radius
of curvature R is the reciprocal of (s). The plane spanned by T and n is called the
osculating plane.
Furthermore, may be expressed in terms of the original parameter t as given in the
equation:
=
kr0 (t) r00 (t)k

.
kr0 (t)k3
(2.10)
Curvature of a surface in R3
Let S be a curved surface in three dimensions and N be the unit surface normal
through a point A on S. Consider a tangent plane, TA S through the point A. We consider all the planes perpendicular to TA S through the surface normal N. Intersections
of these planes with the surface S result in a family of curves, {Ci }.
Figure 2.7: Normal curvaturee of a surface in R3 . 1 and 2 denote the principal

curvatures at the point A. N represents the surface normal at A.
Note that the each tangent direction corresponds to one of the {Ci } at the point
A. The curvature of each such curve corresponding to the direction u in the tangent
plane is called the normal curvature, n (u) in the direction u. The value of the
11
normal curvature is
n = n N,
(2.11)
and n is defined by the equation (2.9).

The maximum and minimum values of the normal curvature are called the principal
curvatures and are denoted by 1 and 2 respectively. The corresponding directions
of 1 and 2 are the principal directions e1 and e2 . Furthermore, reciprocals of the
1 and 2 are the principal radii of curvatures and denoted by R1 and R2 .
Subsequently, the product and the average of 1 and 2 are defined as the Gauss
curvature (K) and the Mean curvature (H) of a surface. Thus,
1 + 2
,
2
K = 1 2 .
H =
12
(2.12)
2.2 Profile of a capillary surface at a vertical flat wall

2.2.1 Modeling the capillary surface at a vertical wall
The following analysis of the capillary surface at a vertical wall may be found in
[3]. We consider a liquid in static equilibrium that is uniform in the y direction. The
X axis of the coordinate system is configured so that the meniscus has zero curvature
at z = 0 as x . For simplicity, we have placed the Z axis on the vertical wall.
Let M be a plane parallel to the XZ plane and A be a point on the capillary surface
as depicted in the figure 2.8. Outer pressure and internal pressure at the point A
are denoted by po and piA . We assume that the point A has coordinates (x, z(x))
with respect to the given coordinate system. T and n represent the tangent plane
and the normal at the point A respectively. Let M2 be a plane through the normal
n perpendicular to both M and T . Radii of curvature for the meniscus are defined
using the lines of intersection that result from intersection of the planes M and M2
through the meniscus. These lines of intersections are denoted by C1 and C2 . In
particular, C2 is a straight line and, therefore, its curvature is zero. Note that the
curve C1 coincides with the capillary surface that is given by the equation z = z(x).
We represent the the curve C1 as a parametrization,
r(x) = (x, y0 , z(x)),
(2.13)
where y0 is a constant.
By using equations (2.10) and (2.13), we determine the curvature of the curve
C1 . Thus,
r0 (x) = (1, 0, z 0 (x)),
r00 (x) = (0, 0, z 00 (x)),
z 00 (x)
C1 =
3 .
[1 + z 0 (x)2 ] 2
(2.14)
We apply the Young-Laplace equation to the point A to determine the geometry
13
Figure 2.8: Sectional view of a capillary surface at a vertical wall. Gravity g acts in
the Z direction.
of the capillary surface (meniscus profile), which results in the following equation,

piA po

1
1
=
+
,
R1 R2
z 00 (x)
=
3 .
(1 + z 0 (x)2 ) 2
(2.15)
(2.16)
Curvature of the meniscus at infinity is zero as mentioned above. Then, the YoungLaplace equation implies that the internal pressure is equal to the outer pressure (po )
at a point at infinity. Thus, the liquid on the X axis has a pressure po . We derive
an equation for hydrostatic pressure at point B (piB ) that has the coordinates (x, 0).
Then,
piA + gz(x) = piB = po .
(2.17)
Use equations (2.16) and (2.17) to determine the equation for the meniscus profile,
gz(x) =
z 00 (x)
3
[1 + z 0 (x)2 ] 2
14
(2.18)
2.2.2 Boundary conditions

Consider the forces acting on a portion of the meniscus, in order to derive boundary conditions of the meniscus. We analyze static equilibrium in X direction of that
portion which is at distance x from the vertical wall.
Figure 2.9: The directions of the forces due to surface tension, hydrostatic pressure,
atmospheric pressure, and gravity on a section of a capillary surface and meniscus
are illustrated.
Surface tension and pressure forces act on the meniscus in the x direction. Fluid
particles at a height of z units have a pressure of po g
z . Hence, the resultant
pressure force PF acts in X direction:
Z
PF =
g
z d
z=
0
gz 2
.
2
(2.19)
Force balance of meniscus in X direction is given by the following equation:

sin + PF = ,
gz 2
sin +
= .
2
(2.20)
Height of the meniscus at x = 0 is calculated using the equation (2.20) and contact
15
angle E .
s
2(1 sin )
,
g
2(1 sin E )
.
g
z =
z|x=0 =
(2.21)
Furthermore, the boundary condition for z 0 |x=0 is obtained from the slope of the
tangent line that is drawn to the meniscus at x = 0,
z 0 |x=0 = cot E .
(2.22)
2.2.3 Results
In this section, we numerically solve the meniscus profile equation (2.18) with
the boundary conditions that are derived in equations (2.21) and (2.22).
Consequently, we have the following initial value problem:
gz(x) =
z 00 (x)
3
[1 + z 0 (x)2 ] 2
with the initial conditions

s
2(1 sin E )
z(0) =
,
g
z 0 (0) = cot E .
(2.23)
(2.24)
We obtain a corresponding system of first order differential equations by introducing

new variables,
y2 = z 0 .
y1 = z,
Which leads to
y10 = y2
3
g
y20 =
y1 (1 + y22 ) 2 ,
16
(2.25)
with
s
y1 (0) =
2(1 sin E )
,
g
y2 (0) = cot E .
(2.26)
The system of equations (2.25) are solved using the fourth-order Runge-Kutta
method. Parameter values that use for the numerical calculations are given in the
following table.
Table 2.2: Fixed parameter values [17].
Parameter
Value
1
981
45
25
CGS units
g/cm3
cm/s2
dyn cm
deg
0.25
Meniscus height (cm)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
Distance from the vertical wall (cm)
Figure 2.10: Variation of the meniscus height z(x) from the vertical wall.
Next, we model the same capillary surface that was depicted in Figure 2.8, by
using a calculus of variations approach. Consider the differential form of the potential
energy [3] that is given by the equation,
J = dA pdV .
17
(2.27)
where is the surface energy of liquid, p is the pressure difference between inside
and outside of medium, dA and dV are surface area and volume elements of the liquid
respectively. Hence, the associated energy functional for this capillary surface is
Z
J =
Z Z
dl +
p dz dx
(2.28)
and dl represents the arc length of the capillary surface.

Pressure gradient of the liquid in the z direction is
p
= g,
z
(2.29)
where and g represent the density of the liquid and the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration. Solution of equation (2.29) is
p(z) = gz + pi (0),
(2.30)
where pi (0) denotes the liquid pressure at z = 0. Thus,

p = p(z) pi (0)
= gz
(2.31)
We calculate the total energy of the system using equations (2.28) and (2.31).
Z Z
p
0
2
gz dzdx
=
1 + z (x) dx
Z p
Z
gz 2
0
2
=
1 + z (x) dx
dx
2

Z p
Z
gz 2
0
2
=
1 + z (x)
dx = L dx.
2
Z
(2.32)
We consider associated Euler-Lagrange equation for equation (2.32):

L L
= 0.
x z 0
z
(2.33)
Use equations (2.32) and (2.33) to determine the equation for the capillary surface at
18
the vertical wall,
z 00 (x)
3
[1 + z 0 (x)2 ] 2
= gz(x).
(2.34)
Thus, we obtain the same equation for the capillary surface using the Young-Laplace
equation and using a calculus of variations approach.
We use the latter method to derive an equation for the tear meniscus around a
contact lens.
2.3 Forces acting on a contact lens
There are three types of forces that mainly act on a contact lens to hold it on
the cornea. They are: weight of the lens, fluid forces, and force due to the eye lids.
Lens weight: Lens weight has become a critical factor since the magnitude of the
gravitational force is proportional to its weight. The following table contains the
different types of materials and their specific gravities that are used to design
contact lenses.
Table 2.3: Contact lens materials and their specific gravities [8].
Material
PMMA
Boston RxD
Airlens
Density (g/cm3 )
1.18
1.27
0.99
Material
Polycon
Boston II
Equalens
Density (g/cm3 )
1.15
1.13
1.19
Fluid forces: When a contact lens is placed on the cornea, the tear meniscus
formed on the peripheral of the lens and the thin layer of tear is present in
between the cornea and posterior side of the lens. Due to the previously mentioned peripheral tear meniscus, surface tension forces act on the lens at the
contact line and directed tangentially to the meniscus surface. Moreover, pressure reaction forces act perpendicular to the posterior and anterior sides of the
lens due to the build-up pressure in the tear and atmospheric pressure, patm .
Force due to the eyelid: In this research, we analyze the static equilibrium of a
contact lens. Hence, we consider only the force due to the lower eyelid (refer to
19
Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.11: Image of contact lens resting on the inside of the lower eyelid.
2.3.1 Static equilibrium of a contact lens

In the literature [1], the contact lens and tear meniscus are considered to be in
a quasi-static equilibrium state. The author assumes the shape of the contact lens
to be a cylindrical shell type with a unit width. Reaction force due to the posterior
tear film, upper and lower contact angles are calculated by considering the quasistatic equilibrium of the lens in two-dimensions. However, calculation of the reaction
force due to the posterior tear film completely neglects hydrostatic pressure variation
due to gravity. But, our numerical simulations show that the force due to hydrostatic
pressure significantly affects the static equilibrium of the lens. The literature [2] models the contact lens and the cornea as flat surfaces with infinite width. Lubrication
approximation theory is used to model quasi-steady motion of the tear film under
the contact lens and away from the lens. In the analysis of the the latter tear film,
its attachment to the cornea is incorrectly modeled. As a result, gravitational force
acting on the fluid is neglected in the analysis. In [18], the contact lens considered is
a porous, planar, circular disk, and the authors model the dynamics of the contact
lens during blinking. They use a version of Darcys law to model constitutive relation
of tear, in which gravity is neglected. For the no blink or quasi-static blink case, this
constitutive relation yields a constant pressure distribution in the tear layer, which is
unphysical.
20
We consider the axis of symmetry of an object as the axis that has the property
that if one rotates the object about that axis the shape of the body remains the same
in three-dimensional space. Thus, axis of symmetry of a disk is the axis perpendicular
to the circular base that goes through the center. We analyze the two cases, that
gravity acts along the axis of symmetry and gravity acts perpendicular to the axis of
symmetry of a lens. However, in the literature only the latter case is considered.
We consider a flat plate of length d and height hl with an infinite width. Assume
its material density to be l . Surface tension and density of the liquid are and t
respectively. The X axis is configured so that the liquid meniscus has zero curvature
on X axis. The axis of the symmetry of the disk is considered to be the Z axis of
coordinate system. Let M be a plane parallel to XZ plane. For simplicity, we assume
contact surfaces of the disk to be ideal surfaces and, hence, contact angles have the
same value along the contact line. In the following analysis, we consider a unit width
of the plate. Hence, the resultant force in an axis perpendicular to the XZ plane is
zero.
Case 1: Can there be a tear film over the lens?
In the following paragraph, we explain why there cannot be a liquid film over
the disk. Let us assume that there is a liquid film over the disk as depicted in Figure
2.12. Furthermore, points A and B are on the capillary surface. Liquid pressure at
the points A and B are denoted by piA and piB respectively.
Figure 2.12: Case 1: Tear film over a disk. Gravity g acts in the Z direction.
Positive curvature at the point A implies piA > patm and negative pressure at the
21
point B implies piB < patm . Thus, piA > piB .

However, hydrostatic pressure at the point B is given by,
piB = piA + ghAB ,
which implies piB > piA and this contradicts the previous conclusion. Hence, there
cannot be a film over the disk.
Static equilibrium in Z direction of the disk is analyzed with respect to the value
of contact angle . In particular, we consider < 90 , = 90 and > 90 .
Case 2: Liquid meniscus with a contact angle < 90 .
We denote the outside and inside pressure po and pi from the capillary surface
respectively. In Figure 2.13, point C(0,h) denotes the intersection point of the Z axis
with the bottom edge of the disk.
Figure 2.13: Case 2: Contact angle between the tear meniscus and the contact lens
is less than 90 .
Then, equilibrium of the forces in Z direction results the following equation,
2 cos + mg + (po piC )d = 0
2 cos + mg = (piC po )d
22
(2.35)
which simplifies to
2 cos + dhl l g = (piC po )d.
(2.36)
In equation (2.35), m and piC represent mass of the disk and pressure at the point
C. Thus, stability in Z direction can be achieved only if piC > po and, hence, this
condition is necessary for existence of a liquid film under the disk.
However, according to the configuration of the X axis, meniscus has a zero
curvature on it. From the Young-Laplace equation, fluid pressure on the X axis is
equal to the outer pressure po . We derive a formula for hydrostatic pressure at point
C:
po = piC + t gh.
(2.37)
Equation (2.37) implies piC < po and, therefore, stability in the Z direction is
not possible with < 90 ; there is no liquid film between the plate and the X axis
when < 90 .
Case 3: Liquid meniscus with a contact angle = 90 .
Here, we assume the contact angle to be 90 . In this configuration, we have
placed X axis on the capillary surface that has zero curvature. Z axis is on the axis
of symmetry of the disk, pointing downwards. Bottom edge of the disk intersects the
Z axis at point C that has the coordinate of (0, h).
is equal to 90 .
23
Static equilibrium of forces on the disk in the Z direction results in an equation similar to (2.36). Since = 90 , the surface tension force component of the
aforementioned equation becomes zero. We obtain,
l hl dg = (piC po )d
(2.38)
where piC denotes pressure at the point C and is expressed in terms of hydrostatic
pressure,
piC = po + t gh.
(2.39)
piC achieves its maximum value at max{h} = hl , which leads to

piC |max = po + t ghl .
(2.40)
Substituting equation (2.40) into equation (2.38) yields

l hl dg = t hl dg,
which turns out to be
l = t .
(2.41)
The above equation (2.41) implies that if t l then liquid film exists in between
the disk and the surface.
Case 4: Liquid meniscus with a contact angle > 90 .
Consider the case in which contact angle > 90. Configuration of the coordinate
system is similar to that of the preceding case. Furthermore, the Z axis intersects
the bottom edge of the disk at a point C, (0, h).
Thus, we can formulate a static equilibrium equation in Z direction:
2 cos( ) + (piC po )d mg = 0
2 cos( ) + (piC po )d = mg,
24
(2.42)
is greater than 90 . Gravity g acts along the Z direction.
which simplifies to
2 cos( ) + (piC po )d = dhl l g.
(2.43)
We obtain a formula for piC using hydrostatic pressure that turns out to be
piC = po + t gh.
(2.44)
Combine equations (2.43) and (2.44) to formulate the following equation

2 cos( ) + t ghd = dhl l g,
(2.45)
2 cos( ) = (l hl t h)dg.
(2.46)
which simplifies to
Equation (2.46) shows that stability in the Z direction may be possible for a lens
made out of hydrophobic material. However, the literature [22] shows that lens materials always have the hydrophilic property.
Case 5: Liquid meniscus with a contact angle > 90 and gravity g acts along the
X direction.
We consider a disk that has a contact angle > 90 in a vertical position as
25
depicted in the Figure 2.16. Since > 90 around the lens, curvature of the meniscus
is positive. Thus,
x x1 .
pi (x) > po
Hence, force due to hydrostatic pressure acts in the z direction as well as the surface
tension forces. Due to this reason, stability in the z direction cannot be achieved with
this configuration.
is greater than 90 . Gravity g acts along the X direction.
Contact angle less than 90 with gravity g acting perpendicular to the axis of
symmetry is considered in chapter 3.
26
CHAPTER 3
TEAR MENISCUS AROUND A CONTACT LENS
3.1 Modeling the tear meniscus around a contact lens
In this endeavor, tear meniscus is considered that forms between the cornea
and a contact lens. In the Cartesian coordinate system shown in Figure 3.1, the
domains bounded by the contact lens and tear meniscus are 1 and 2 respectively.
Furthermore, the contact line formed between the lens and the meniscus is denoted
by 12 . Inner and outer profiles of a contact lens have the equations Fi (x, y) and
Fo (x, y) respectively. Moreover, we introduce a rotational motion of the contact lens
around the y axis by adding a linear function, z(x) = mx + b. Let the pressure
developed inside the tear meniscus be pi (x, y, z) and the profile of the tear meniscus
be z = f (x, y). Finally, atmospheric (outer) pressure, patm is assumed to be a constant
throughout the domains.
Figure 3.1: Contact lens on a cornea. g acts along the X direction. Tear pressure
and atmospheric pressure are pi and po respectively. Domain of the lens is 1 and
the domain of the tear meniscus is 2 .
We consider the differential form of the energy functional, J that is given by
J = dA pdV,
27
(3.1)
where is the surface energy per unit area of liquid, p is the pressure difference
between inside and outside of medium, dA and dV are surface area and volume
elements of a liquid respectively. Surface energy per unit area is taken to be a constant
in a given domain. Consider the potential function which is defined by equation (3.1).
Then total energy of the system is given by
Z
J =
Z
dA
Z
p2 (x, y, z)dVt
Z
p1 (x, y, z)dVt
c gxdVl ,
(3.2)
where subscripts t and l refer to the quantities involving tear and lens. c is the
density of the lens and g is the magnitude of gravitational acceleration. The term
R
gxdVl in equation (3.2) is the potential energy of the contact lens.
1 c
Consider the Cauchy momentum equation [7]:
Du
= g p + ,
Dt
(3.3)

u + uT
where =
.
2
In equation (3.3) and denote the density and the viscosity of the fluid. Furthermore, u and are the velocity of the fluid and its viscous stress. g is the vector
(g, 0, 0)T where g represents the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration. is the
D
is the operator t
+u.
gradiant operator in three-dimensions and Dt
For a static Newtonian fluid, the above equation can be simplified to
p(x, y, z) = g.
(3.4)
Solutions of equation (3.4) for p(x, y, z) yields a function p(x) that is dependent on
x alone:
p(x) = gx + pi0 ,
(3.5)
where g is the gravitational constant and pi0 = p|x=0 .
28
Thus, pressure difference between inside and outside of the medium is

p = p(x) patm ,
= t gx + pi0 patm .
(3.6)
According to the given configuration of the coordinate system, any point on the
capillary surface can be described by the parameterization,
r(x, y) = (x, y, f (x, y)).
(3.7)
Then, surface area, A of a given domain is

ZZ
r r

A =
x y dxdy,
ZZ q
=
1 + fx2 + fy2 dxdy.
(3.8)
Substitute equations (3.6) and (3.8) into equation (3.2) leads to

ZZ
J (f, m) =
ZZ
q
2
2
1 + fx + fy dxdy
[(t gx + p0 patm )f (x, y)] dxdy
ZZ
(t gx + pi0 patm )(Fi (x, y) + mx + b) dxdy
Z 1Z
c gx[Fo (x, y) Fi (x, y)] dxdy,
(3.9)
subject to the constraint

f (x, y) = Fi (x, y) + mx + b
29
(x, y) 12 .
(3.10)
Thus, the modified functional:

J(f, m, ) =
ZZ

(t gx + pi0 patm )(Fi + mx + b) + c gx(Fo Fi ) dxdy
(f (x, y) Fi (x, y) mx b)

ZZ q
1 + fx2 + fy2 (t gx + pi0 patm )f (x, y) dxdy, (3.11)
+
2
where represents the Lagrange multiplier.

Equation (3.11) has the form
J(f, m, ) =
ZZ
ZZ
L1 (x, y, m) dxdy +
L2 (x, y, f, fx , fy ) dxdy.
(3.12)
For simplicity of analysis, we consider m and b to be fixed. These are the cases we
consider in the rest of the thesis.
Thus, associated Euler - Lagrange equation of equation (3.12) results,
L2
L2
L2
= 0,
f
x fx
y fy
(3.13)
Simplifying the equations (3.13) yields,

(1 + fy 2 )fxx + (1 + fx 2 )fyy 2fx fy fxy
patm p0 t gx
=
.
3
(1 + fx 2 + fy 2 ) 2
30
(3.14)
3.2 Two-dimensional analysis of tear meniscus

We begin our study by considering the idealized case of a flat and rectangular
contact lens of unit width, and a flat corneal wall. Consider equation (3.14) that is
derived in the previous section for the meniscus profile. The meniscus profile depends
on the x variable only.
Let z = f (x). Then, equation (3.14) is reduced to
fxx
patm pi (0) t gx
=
3
(1 + fx 2 ) 2
(3.15)
Figure 3.2: The upper and lower tear menisci on a section of a contact lens for the
idealized case when the cornea and the contact lens are flat, and the contact lens
is rectangular. The angle of tilt of the lens is . C1 and C2 denote the contact
angle on the upper and lower cornea respectively. L1 and L2 represent the upper
and the lower contact angle between the tear meniscus and the contact lens. FR is
the resultant force due to the fluid pressure on the posterior and anterior sides of the
lens.
31
Upper meniscus profile

Equation for the upper meniscus profile is,
patm pi (0) t gx
fxx
=
3 ,
(1 + fx 2 ) 2
(3.16)
with the boundary conditions, f (0) = 0 and fx (0) = tan C1 .

Convert the equation (3.16) in to a first order system of ODE results,
0
y1 = y2 ,
(3.17)
y2 = (1 + y22 )3/2

patm pi (0) gx
.
(3.18)
Moreover, equation (3.18) has the form

0
y2 = (1 + y22 )3/2 (k cx)

g
patm pi (0)
and c = ,
which leads to
Z
Z
dy2
= (k cx)dx.
(1 + y22 )3/2
(3.19)
where k =
(3.20)
Use the substitution y2 = tan . Then equation (3.20) simplifies to

Z
Z
cos d =
(k cx)dx
(3.21)
and has the solution

sin(tan1 y2 ) = kx
cx2
+ C0 .
2
(3.22)
The value of C0 in equation (3.22) is determined using the boundary condition,

y2 (0) = fx (0) = tan C1 .
32
Thus,

cx2
kx
+ sin C1
,
y2 (x) = tan sin
2

Z
cx2
1
kx
y1 (x) =
tan sin
+ sin C1
dx
2

(3.23)
(3.24)
patm pi0
g
, c=
and y2 (x) = fx = tan where is the
angle depicted in figure 3.3 and its value is given by

Recall that k =
= tan
y2 = sin

cx2
kx
+ sin C1 .
2
(3.25)
Figure 3.3: Upper tear meniscus profile, z = f (x), on the rectangular contact lens
when the cornea and the contact lens are flat. Gravity g acts in the x direction.
h1 is the angle between the tear meniscus and an axis parallel to the z axis, and
h1 = 2 .
Since [0, 2 ], equation (3.25) implies
cx2
+ sin C1 1
2
0 cx2 2kx + 2(1 sin C1 ) 2.
0 kx
Consider the compound inequality in equation (3.26).

1.
cx2 2kx + 2(1 sin C1 ) 0 x 0 0
33
(3.26)
x 0,
k 2 2c(1 sin C1 ) 0
s
2g(1 sin C1 )
k
p
pi (0) patm 2g(1 sin C1 ).
(3.27)
2.
2 cx2 2kx + 2(1 sin C1 )
0 cx2 2kx 2 sin C1 = g(x)
(3.28)
Since c > 0, graph of g(x) is convex. Thus, in order to satisfy equation

(3.28), x [x1 , x2 ].
x1 =
k + k 2 + 2 sin C1
k 2 + 2 sin C1
and x2 =
.
c
c
(3.29)
Since x1 < 0 and x2 > 0 from [0, x2 ] we have the required inequality.
3.2.1 Necessary conditions for the equilibrium of the contact lens
We consider a contact lens that has a weight of W and diameter of d units. Let
the resulted force due to hydrostatic pressure be denoted by FR , and it acts on the
posterior side of the lens with an distance of b units from the upper edge of the lens.
Angle is the tilting angle of the lens with respect to the x axis. Upper and lower
contact angles are denoted by L1 and L2 respectively. Moreover, we assume that
distance from the posterior surface of the disk to the contact points of the upper and
lower tear menisci have same value.
For the equilibrium of the lens, we study the force balance in the x and z directions and the moment balance about the point A.
Force balance equation in the x direction:
(sin h1 sin h2 ) + FR sin = W.
34
(3.30)
Figure 3.4: This figure illustrates the forces on a section of a contact lens for the
idealized case when the cornea and the contact lens are flat, and the contact lens is
rectangular. Surface tension is the force per unit length. The upper and the lower
contact angles are L1 and L2 respectively. Resultant force due to the fluid pressure
is FR and it acts on the posterior side of the lens at distance a from the bottom
surface of the lens. Height of the lens is d.
Thus,
1
h2 = sin

sin h1 + FR sin W
.
(3.31)
Hence, L2 (refer to Figure 3.4) may be found using equation (3.31).

Force balance equation in the z direction:
(cos h1 + cos h2 ) = FR cos
(3.32)
where
FR
Z x2
1
(pi (x) patm )dx
=
cos x1
d
=
[2(pi (0) patm ) + t g(2x1 + d cos )].
2
35
(3.33)
Moment balance equation with respect to point B:

Z
x2
FR a =
x1
(x2 x)[pi (x) patm ]

dx
cos2
d(pi (0) patm ) + t3gd (3x1 + d cos )

a =
2(pi (0) patm ) + t g(2x1 + d cos )
(3.34)
Moment balance equation with respect to point A:

W d sin
+ cos L2 d = FR b
2
(3.35)
3.2.2 Numerical results

Values of h1 are numerically calculated using equation (3.25) and the condition
h1 = 2 . Corresponding h2 values are obtained using the equation (3.31) with
the conditions that are derived in equations (3.27) and (3.29). Parameter values that
are used in the numerical calculation are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Fixed parameter values for the idealized case when the cornea and the contact lens are flat, and the contact lens has a rectangular shape. The values of {, g, },
{C1 }, {d, W } and {min , max } may be found in [1], [16], [17], and [22] respectively.
Parameter
C1
Value
1
981
45
25
CGS units
g/cm3
cm/s2
dyn cm
deg
Parameter
d
W
patm
[min , max ]
Value
0.9
0.02g
106
[10, 50]
CGS units
cm
dyn
dyn/cm2
deg
Finally, in order to the verify the necessary condition given in equation (3.32),
we calculate the difference, e = FR cos (cos h1 + cos h2 ).
As shown in Figure 3.5, the e increases with the x values. That is, the force
component due to hydrostatic pressure dominates the surface tension forces. Hence,
it is not feasible to achieve the equilibrium in the z direction with the configuration
shown in Figure 3.2.
36
Force components in the z firection (dyn)
300
250
200
FRz
150
(cos h1 + cos h2 )
Difference
100
50
0.045
0.05
0.055
0.06
0.065
0.07
0.075
0.08
0.085
0.09
0.095
Distance, x1 (cm)
Figure 3.5: Force components in the z direction. FRz is the resultant force component
in the z direction due to the liquid pressure on the lens. (cos h1 + cos h2 ) denotes
the only force component in the z direction. This force component results from
the surface tension forces on the lens. The difference between the above mentioned
components is positive for all feasible x1 values.
37
3.3 Two-dimensional analysis of a tear meniscus when the disk is supported by the
lower eyelid
In this section, we continue our analysis of the idealized case of a flat, rectangular
lens on a flat cornea with the additional caveat that the lens is resting on the inside
of the lower eyelid. Our hypothesis is verified by Figure 3.6 which shows images of
rigid gas permeable (RGP) lens on a cornea.
As a consequence, a force acts on the lens due to the lower eyelid. The magnitude of
Figure 3.6: Images of contact lens resting on the inside of the lower eyelid. The heads
of the wearers are in the upright position in the images.
this force is FL and it makes and angle with respect to the axis as shown in Figure
(3.7). We assume the location of FL acting on the lens has distance l from the upper
edge of the lens. Let FR be the resultant force due to the liquid pressure on the lens.
h1 is the angle between the upper tear meniscus and an axis parallel to the z axis.
Weight of the unit width plate is W .
In order to find the location, magnitude and the angle that FL acts, we analyze the
force balance in the x and y directions and the moment balance with respect to the
point A.
Those equations are given by,
sin h1 + FR sin + FL cos = W ,
(3.36)
cos h1 + FL sin = FR cos ,
(3.37)
W d sin
+ FL sin l cos = FR (d a) + FL cos l sin ,
2
(3.38)
38
Figure 3.7: Forces on the lens due to the upper tear meniscus and the lower eyelid.
Magnitude of the lower eyelid force is FL and gravity g acts along the x direction. a
is the distance to the FR from the lower edge of the lens. Angle between FL and an
axis parallel to the x axis is .
and the expression for FR is given by equation (3.33).
We calculate the distance a using the moment of the disk due to hydrostatic pressure
force with its resultant force FR about point B that yields,
Z
x2
FR a =
x1
(x2 x)[pi (x) patm ]

dx
cos2
d(pi (0) patm ) + t3gd (3x1 + d cos )

a =
2(pi (0) patm ) + t g(2x1 + d cos )
(3.39)
Moreover, the following expressions are found using the equations (3.36), (3.37) and
(3.38) for FL , and l respectively.
p
(FR cos cos h1 )2 + (W sin h1 FR sin )2 .

FR cos cos h1
1
= tan
.
W sin h1 FR sin
W d sin
FR b
2
l =
.
W sin + cos L1 FR
FL =
39
(3.40)
(3.41)
(3.42)

Possible contact angles for the upper tear meniscus are numerically calculated
using equation (3.25) with the conditions, h1 = 2 and L1 = h1 + where L1
denotes the contact angle between the upper tear meniscus and the lens. Maximum
possible overlap distance for the lower eyelid is obtained by measuring from Figure
1(E)[14]. It has an approximate value of 0.27mm. According to this criteria, we have
selected feasible l values and corresponding L1 , FL , FR and a values.
Parameter values that are used in this numerical calculation are given in Table 3.2.
Figure 3.8 that follows depicts the variation of L1 , a, dl = b, FL and FR with respect
Table 3.2: Fixed parameter values.
Parameter
Value
1
981
62
0
CGS units
g/cm3
cm/s2
dyn cm
deg
Parameter
d
W
patm
[min , max ]
Value
0.9
0.02g
106
[10, 50]
CGS units
cm
dyn
dyn/cm2
deg
to the distance x1 for the corneal contact angle of 25 . Figure 3.8(a) indicates the
possible contact angles for the upper tear meniscus. Since the values of FR depend
on hydrostatic pressure, as x1 increases the corresponding FR value also increases.
Thus, in order to balance the effect of FR , force FL increases with x1 .
40
(b)
(a)
49
0.2
48
0.195
47
0.19
a (cm)
L (deg)
46
0.185
45
0.18
44
0.175
43
0.06
0.065
0.07
0.075
0.08
0.085
0.17
0.06
0.09
0.065
Distance, x1 (cm)
0.07
0.075
0.08
0.085
0.09
Distance, x1 (cm)
(c)
(d)
0.03
240
0.025
230
220
0.02
b (cm)
FL
210
FR
F (dyn)
0.015
200
0.01
190
0.005
0
0.06
180
0.065
0.07
0.075
0.08
0.085
170
0.06
0.09
0.065
0.07
0.075
0.08
0.085
0.09
Distance, x1 (cm)
Distance, x1 (cm)
Figure 3.8: Variation of L1 , a, b and the reaction forces FL and FR with respect to the
distance x1 . (a) Possible contact angles for the upper tear meniscus with different
x1 values. (b) Increasing the length of the upper tear meniscus x1 yields the disk
toward the lower eyelid and, hence, the distance b also increases with x1 . (d) For
all x1 values, the lower eyelid force FL is less than the resultant force FR due to the
liquid pressure.
41
3.4 Two-dimensional analysis of a tear meniscus with cylindrical shell type contact
lens
In this section, lens geometry is assumed to be a cylindrical shell that has a unit
width. First, we model the lens and upper tear meniscus system with a lower eyelid
force, FL . Then, analysis is extended to the system that has a lower tear meniscus.
The radius and thickness of the cylindrical shell are assumed to be R and t respec The center of the
tively. Moreover, the open angle of the shell has a value of 2.
circular cylindrical shell is denoted by O (refer to Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.9: A cylindrical shell type lens. The radius and thickness of the circular
shell are R and t respectively. Shell has weight W and coordinates of the centroid
are (Rc , c ). Apex angle of the cylindrical shell is 2.

Next, the centroid of the shell is located based on its moment about the x axis
and the axis of symmetry of the shell. Let us assume that the centroid has the
coordinates (Rc , c , ) with respect to the axis of symmetry of the shell. We consider
a circular sector on the shell that has an angle from the axis of symmetry of the
42
shell. The circular sector has an angle d. Thus,

Z R+t Z
1
xrddr =
r2 cos ddr
W R
R
Z R+t Z
Z R+t Z
1
1
c =
yrddr =
r2 sin ddr
W R
W R
1
Rc =
W
R+t
(3.43)
(3.44)
where, denotes the material density of the shell and W (weight of the shell) is given
by,
Z
R+t
W =
rddr.
(3.45)
Use the fact that R >> t, equations (3.43) and (3.44) yield to be,
sin
= 0
Rc
c
Now, we consider the shell has tilting angle of with respect to the x axis. By
using geometric analysis, a point, x (x > x1 ) on the x axis is represented by
R sin( + ),
x = x1 + R sin( + )
(3.46)
where represents the angle that makes the corresponding point of x on the shell
with its axis of symmetry.
Furthermore, force due to hydrostatic pressure acts normal to a surface and our lens
has a circular profile, hence, the aforementioned force acts radially in the outward
direction. The total resultant force due to hydrostatic pressure (FR ) is found by
considering a sector element on the shell (refer to Figure 3.10).
Z
FR (R, ) =
(pi (r, ) patm )R d

r
(3.47)
where
r is the unit vector in the radial direction and it relates to the Cartesian
43
Figure 3.10: Forces on the lens due to the upper tear meniscus and the lower eyelid.
Gravity g acts in the x direction. Diameter and the tilting angle of the lens are d and
. r denotes the unit vector in the radial direction. Angle between the tear meniscus
and an axis parallel to the y axis is h1 .
coordinate vectors as follows:
r = sin( + )x + cos( + )y.
(3.48)
Thus, using equations (3.46), (3.47), and (3.48)

Z
FR =
t gR sin( + ) patm )
(pi (0) + t gx1 + t gR sin( + )
rR d
FRx = R(2c0 sin sin + t gR( sin cos cos 2))
FRy = 2R(c0 sin cos t gR sin 2 sin 2),
where c0 = pi (0) patm + t gx1 + t gR sin( + ).

44
(3.49)
Let (FLx , FLy ) be the lower eyelid force components in the x and y direction respectively and T denote the surface tension that results from the upper tear meniscus
such that T = ( sin h1 , cos h1 ).
Then, the force equilibrium of the lens yields,
FL + FR + W + T = 0
(FLx , FLy ) = (FRx , FRy ) (W, 0) + (sin h1 , cos h1 )
(3.50)
Next, we consider the moment of FR , T, W and FL about the point O. Use the
convention that counter-clockwise moment of a force is positive. Since the resultant
force due to hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the surface, the moment of FR is zero
about the point O. Thus, the moment of T and W result,
MT = [( cos h1 , sin h1 ) ( sin( + ), cos( + ))]R
= R sin( + + h1 ),
sin
MW = W R cos .
(3.51)
Lower eyelid force, FL , acts on the outer surface of the lens. We assume it has the
coordinates (
x, y) with respect to the Cartesian coordinate system and using equation
(3.46),

(
x, y) =
where L = + sin
x1 + R sin( + ) R sin(L + ), R cos(L + )
sin( ) Rb
(3.52)

and b denotes the maximum possible overlap
distance for the lower eyelid.
45
The moment due to FL is

MFL = ||(
x, y) FL ||
= ||(
x, y) (FLx , FLy )||
= (FRy + cos h1 )(R sin(L + ))
(FRx W + sin h1 )R cos(L + )
(3.53)
Thus, for the equilibrium of the lens

MT + MW + MFL = 0.
(3.54)

We numerically calculate the possible contact angles for the upper tear meniscus.
Thus, FR and FL values are calculated for the possible contact angles that were
mentioned earlier. Finally, the total moment is computed using equation (3.54).
Parameter values that are used in this computation are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Fixed parameter values for the case when the cornea is flat, and the contact
lens has a cylindrical shell shape. The values of {, g}, {d, W } and {min , max } may
be found [1], [17], and [22] respectively.
Parameter
Value
1
981
62
0
0.65
CGS units
g/cm3
cm/s2
dyn cm
deg
cm
Parameter
d
W
patm
[min , max ]
b
46
Value
0.9
0.02g
106
[10, 50]
0.1
CGS units
cm
dyn
dyn/cm2
deg
cm
(a)
450
400
350
FL , FR
(dyn) 300
FL
FR
250
200
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.25
0.3
Distance, x1 (cm)
(b)
10
X: 0.0773
Y: 0.005001
0
10
Moment diff.
20
(dyn.cm)
30
40
50
60
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Distance, x1 (cm)
Figure 3.11: Variation of FL , FR and the moment difference with respect to the
distance x1 . For all the possible distances x1 , FR is greater than the FL . Moreover,
Figure 3.11(b) indicates that the equilibrium is possible for the particular distance,
x1 0.077 cm.
47
3.4.2 Lower tear meniscus

Finally, we extend the above analysis to a lens with upper and lower tear menisci.
Hence, all the equations derived previously are valid except the equations that contain
the lower lid force. The moment due to surface tension of lower tear meniscus yields,
MTL = R[(cos h2 , sin h2 ) (sin( ), cos( ))]
= R sin( + h2 )
(3.55)
where h2 = L2 + .
By using equations (3.51) and (3.55), we derive a formula for the total momentum,
sin
R sin( + + h1 ) R sin( + h2 ) W R cos = 0.
(3.56)
Moreover, the following two equations are derived for the force equilibrium in the x
and y directions, and an equation is derived for the lower contact angle L2 .
sin h1 + W + FRx + sin h2 = 0,
(3.57)
FRy cos h1 cos h2 = 0,

h2 = tan1
(3.58)

sin h1 W FRx
. (3.59)
FRy cos h1
3.4.2.1 Numerical results

We numerically compute the values of h2 for the lower tear meniscus using the
equations (3.56) and (3.59) separately. Moreover, contact angle at the lower meniscus,
L2 are obtained using h2 that we obtained by solving the equation (3.56). We use
the same parameter values that was given in Table 3.3 except [min , max ] = [30, 70].
Variations of the lower contact angles with respect to a horizontal axis, is shown
in Figure 3.12(a). h2M and H2F denote the angles that are obtained by solving the
equations (3.56) and (3.59) respectively. Furthermore, in Figure 3.12(b), (FRx + W )
is the vertical component of the resultant force due to hydrostatic pressure and the
weight of the lens. Stup denotes the surface tension force that acts in the x direction.
Note that, as depicts in the equation (3.57), the equilibrium in the x direction is
achieved if Stup > FRx + W . However, according to Figure 3.12(b), Stup < FRx + W
48
(a)
60
40
20
h2M , H2F
(deg)
0
h2M
20
H2F
40
60
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
Distance, x1 (cm)
(b)
80
(FRx + W ),Stup
60
(dyn)
FRx+W
Stup
40
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
Distance, x1 (cm)
Figure 3.12: (a) Variation of lower contact angle values with x1 . h2M and H2F
denote the lower contact angle values that are obtained by solving the momentum
balance equation and the force balance equations respectively. (b) Variation of the
force components in the x direction (FRx + W ) and the force component in the x
direction (Stup sin h1 ).
for all the possible values of x1 . Thus, it is not feasible to achieve the equilibrium in
the x direction with a lower tear meniscus.
49
3.5 Three-dimensional analysis of a tear meniscus with a spherical cap type

contact lens
In this section, we consider a lens that has a shape of a spherical cap. For
simplicity, tilting angle, of the cap is assumed to be 0. The lens and the upper tear
meniscus are modeled with a lower eyelid force, FL .
The radius and a uniform thickness of the spherical cap are assumed to have the
values of R and t respectively. The center of the cap is denoted by O and the origin
of the spherical coordinate system is placed at that point as shown in Figure 3.13.
The apex angle of the cap is symbolized by 2.
Figure 3.13: Spherical cap type contact lens. The radius and apex angle of the
spherical cap are R and 2 respectively. n
is the unit normal in the radial direction.
g acts in the x direction. The width and apex angle of the spherical frustum are dz
and 2.
In the following analysis, the centroid of the cap is located based on its moment
about the xy, xz and yz planes. However, since the cap is symmetric about the x
50
and y axis, the centroid has the coordinates of the form (0, 0, zc ), where zc denotes
the z coordinate of the centroid. As shown in Figure 3.13, we consider a spherical
frustum on the cap that has an angle from the z axis with a width of dz. Let the
material density of the lens be . Thus, the moment about xy plane results
1
zc =
W
2R3 t sin2 cos d
(3.60)
and
Z
W =
2R2 t sin2 d.
(3.61)
By using the equations (3.60) and (3.61), the z coordinate of the centroid yields to
be
2R sin3
.
zc =
sin 2
3
2
(3.62)
Let the unit vector in the radial direction be n

and it is denoted by
n
= (sin cos , sin sin , cos ).
(3.63)
Next, we consider the forces that act on the lens. Since our lens has a spherical
profile, forces due to hydrostatic pressure act radially in the outward direction, that is,
in the direction of n
. Therefore, the liquid force dFR on an area element, R2 sin d d
on the spherical cap (refer to Figure 3.14) is given by
dFR = (pi (x) patm )R2 sin d d n
(3.64)
pi (x) = pi (0) + gx1 + gR sin + gR sin cos .
(3.65)
where
Thus, the total force resultant due to the liquid pressure FR , on the spherical cap is
51
Figure 3.14: Forces acting on the spherical cap. FL and rL denote the lower eyelid
force and its position vector with respect to the coordinate system. Gravity g acts
in the x direction. Contact angle l is the angle between the tear meniscus and the
lens at distance x1 . dFR is the force acting on an area element dA due to the liquid
pressure.
found using the equations (3.64) and (3.65).
Z
Z 2
FR =
0
(pi (x) patm )R2 sin n

d d.
(3.66)
Hence, its components in the x, y and z directions are

FRx = gR

2
cos3
cos +
,
3
3
FRy = 0,
c1 R2
FRz =
(1 cos 2)
2
(3.67)
respectively and c1 = pi (0) + gx1 + gR sin patm .

Surface tension forces act along the circumference of the spherical cap in the
52
direction of the tear meniscus. Let v be a vector pointing tangent to the tear meniscus
from a point, C, on the circumference of the spherical cap. An orthonormal basis for
and n
the plane described by the span of k
is

k
n
n
k(
k,
.
k
n
||
n k(
)||
(3.68)
The vector v in this orthonormal basis is given by

+ sin l
v = cos l k

k
n
n
k(
)
.
k
n
||
n k(
)||
(3.69)
the coordiAs n
= (sin cos , sin sin , cos )T = sin cos i + sin sin j + cos k,
nates for the vector v are:
v = (sin l cos , sin l sin , cos l )
(3.70)
where l denotes the contact angle at the point C (refer to Figure 3.14) and note that
l l (). Thus, the total force due to surface tension (S) is given by the following
equation,
Z
S=
~v d
(3.71)
Then, force equilibrium of the lens yields,

FR + W + S + FL = 0.
(3.72)
Finally, we consider the moment of the forces, FR , FL , S and W about the point
O. Since the resultant force, FR acts normal to the spherical cap, its moment about
point O is zero.
Let the position vector of the centroid be denoted by rW . Thus, the moment due to
53
the weight (MW ) is defined by the equation,

MW = rW W
0
3
2RW sin
sin 2
3
2
0
(3.73)
Next, the moment resulted due to the surface tension is considered about the point
O. We denote the vector, rc of a point C, on the base circle of the spherical cap by,
rc = (R sin cos , R sin sin , R cos ).
(3.74)
Hence, using the equations (3.70) and (3.74), the moment of the surface tension at
the point C is expressed as
and then, the total momentum of surface tension yields to be
MSc = rc v
Z 2
(r v) d
MS =
0
sin
Z 2
sin( + l ()) cos d.

(3.75)
= R
0
0
Now, assume the lid force FL has the components FLx , FLy and FLz in the directions
of x, y and z respectively. Let ~rL be a vector corresponding to the point L, where
the force FL acts on the surface of the spherical cap. Hence, moment of FL about
the point O is,
ML = rL FL
FLz sin sin FLy cos
= R FLx cos FLz sin cos

.
FLy sin cos FLx sin sin
(3.76)
Furthermore, using the facts that FRy = 0 and Sy 0, we conclude that FLy 0.
54
Thus, applying the aforementioned facts with the help of equation (3.76), we obtain
the following two results at the point L.
= 0
= tan
FLx
FLy

.
(3.77)
Finally, for the equilibrium of the lens,

MW + MS + ML = 0.
(3.78)
3.5.1 Numerical Results

We numerically calculate all the forces and the moments in the x, y and z direc Possible overlap distances
tion for all the possible contact angles at the point (R, , ).
L for the lower eyelid are numerically calculated by considering the equilibrium of
the lens.
For the numerical calculation, we consider a linear variation of l with respect
is
to the angle . Maximum value of the contact angle, which occurs at (R, , ),
computed from equation (3.25) according to as explained in Figure 3.3. This is an
approximation as it neglects the curvature in the direction. The minimum value of
is set at 10 . Equations (3.71) and (3.75)
the contact angle, which occurs at (R, 0, )
are numerically integrated using the Simpsons 1/3rd rule. Parameter values that are
used in this calculation are given in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Fixed parameter values for the case when the cornea is flat and the contact
lens has a spherical cap shape. The values of {, g}, {c } and {min , max } may be
found [1], [16], and [22] respectively.
Parameter
R
c
Value
1
981
62
0.65
[30, 35]
CGS units
g/cm3
cm/s2
dyn cm
cm
deg
Parameter
d
W
patm
[min , max ]
Value
0.98
0.0152g
106
[10, 50]
CGS units
cm
dyn
dyn/cm2
deg
Figure 3.15 shows the variation of forces that act on the lens with respect to
55
the x1 values for the corneal contact angle of 32 . As depicted in Figure 3.15(a), (b)
and (c), the eyelid force FL is necessary for the equilibrium of the lens. Note that
hydrostatic force component in the y direction is zero as derived in the equation (3.67).
Variation of the moment due to the eyelid force FL is shown in Figure 3.15(d).
3
(a)
100
80
60
(b)
2
FLx
40
FLy
FRy
Fy (dyn)
FRx
20
Fx (dyn)
x 10
Tx
20
40
FTy
60
0.145 0.1452 0.1454 0.1456 0.1458 0.146 0.1462 0.1464
4
0.145 0.1452 0.1454 0.1456 0.1458 0.146 0.1462 0.1464
Distance, x1 (cm)
Distance, x1 (cm)
3
(c)
400
2.0264
300
x 10
(d)
2.0262
200
FLz
100
FRz
Fz (dyn) 0
2.026
ML
(dyn cm)
FTz
100
2.0258
2.0256
200
2.0254
300
400
0.145 0.1452 0.1454 0.1456 0.1458 0.146 0.1462 0.1464
2.0252
0.145 0.1452 0.1454 0.1456 0.1458 0.146 0.1462 0.1464
Distance, x1 (cm)
Distance, x1 (cm)
Figure 3.15: Variation of the force due to fluid pressure FR , surface tension FT and
the lid force FL in the x, y and z directions. Bottom right corner figure indicates the
moment due the eyelid force FL .
56
6.5
x 10
0.07
0.06
5.5
0.05
5
0.04
L (cm)
4.5
L (cm)
0.03
4
0.02
3.5
0.01
3
2.5
0.145
0.1452
0.1454
0.1456
0.1458
0.146
0.1462
0.1464
0.15
Distance, x1 (cm)
0.155
0.16
0.165
Distance, x1 (cm)
0.12
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.1
0.08
0.08
L (cm)
0.06
0.06
L (cm)
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.145
0.15
0.155
0.16
0.165
0.17
0.175
0.18
Distance, x1 (cm)
0.145
0.15
0.155
0.16
0.165
0.17
0.175
0.18
0.185
Distance, x1 (cm)
Figure 3.16: Variation of L for different corneal contact angles. From left to right,
top to bottom: c = 32 , c = 33 , c = 34 , c = 35 . According to the figures, we
see that the values of L increase as c increases from 32 to 35 .
57
3.6 Comparison with observations

In the literature[16], the value of the corneal contact angle E is reported to be in
the interval [20 , 49 ]. In our analysis so far, we had assumed a flat and vertical cornea.
The numerical results reported in Section 3.5 were obtained with this assumption.
The analysis of Section 3.5 shows that there are no feasible solutions when the corneal
contact angle is less than 32 . Can the discrepancy between the theoretical results
and experimental observations be satisfactorily explained? In this section, we show
that there is a satisfactory explanation by considering a curved corneal wall that is
inclined at an angle with respect to the vertical at the point of attachment of the
tear meniscus. In Figure 3.17, the origin is this point of attachment of the meniscus
with the curved cornea. We show that the meniscus profiles for the two cases of
flat, vertical cornea, and curved cornea are virtually identical from the point of view
of the contact lens. The two relevant factors, (i) distance from the origin to the
point of attachment of the tear meniscus with the lens, and (ii) the contact angle of
the meniscus with the lens, have virtually identical numerical values. Thus one can
conclude static stability even with much smaller contact angles at the corneal wall
than those predicted by the analysis of Section 3.5.
We denote the contact angles of the tear meniscus with the flat vertical wall and
curved corneal surface by E and EC respectively (refer to Figure 3.17).
We numerically calculate the meniscus profiles and the corresponding slopes for
the contact angles E = 33 and EC = 14.5 using Equation 2.18. For the numerical
analysis, the same parameter values are used as in Table 2.2. As depicted in Figure
3.18, it is possible to obtain the same contact angle between the tear meniscus and
contact lens for the same tear meniscus height( 0.15 cm) for the contact angles E
and EC . Therefore, the numerical results hold for the same range of values for x1
even when the cornea is not flat.
58
Figure 3.17: Contact angles between the tear meniscus with the flat vertical wall
and corneal surface. Gravity g acts in the x direction. E and EC denote the
contact angles between the tear meniscus with the flat vertical wall and corneal surface
respectively. x1 is the upper tear meniscus height.
59
(a)
0.25
0.2
E
0.15
z(x) (cm)
0.1
EC
0.05
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Distance along the vertical wall, x (cm)
(b)
0.3
0.35
1
z(x)
E
2
EC
3
4
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Distance along the vertical wall, x (cm)
0.3
0.35
Figure 3.18: Meniscus profiles z(x) and their slopes z 0 (x) for the contact angles
E = 33 and EC = 14.5 . (a) Variations of the meniscus height with the distance
from the vertical wall. Note that the two meniscus profiles become identical at the
height, z(x) 0.05 cm and their corresponding slopes z 0 (x) (refer to Figure 3.18(b)).
60
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSIONS
In this research, we mathematically modeled a tear meniscus around a symmetric, spherical cap lens that was at static equilibrium, using a calculus of variations
approach. Static equilibrium was analyzed by taking the net force and net moment
to be zero. The results discussed below assume a flat cornea. However, as shown in
Section 3.6 the results held (that is, static equilibrium can be archived) for the same
range of values for x1 even when the cornea is not flat.
We obtained a range of values for the adjustable parameters, the corneal contact
angle E , upper contact angle L1 and lens position x1 through numerical simulations.
There were no solutions for E in the range [0 , 31 ]. For E = 32 , our numerical
analysis showed that the static equilibrium may be achieved for x1 in the interval
[0.145, 0.146]. The analysis further showed that pressure force dominated surface
tension and the weight of the lens. Hence, for the equilibrium of the lens, it was
necessary to introduce the lower lid force FL . When we increased the value of E
from 32 to 35 , ranges of x1 and lid overlap distance L became [1.45, 1.84] mm and
[0.025, 1.25] mm respectively. At this particular corneal contact angle, the magnitude
of the lower eyelid force FL was approximately 75.2 dyn. The pressure due to the lower
lid when the lid overlap is between 0.1 mm 0.27 mm is in the range 3.1 mm Hg
13.7 mm Hg, with lesser value for lid overlap corresponding to higher lid pressure.
This compares well with the intraocular pressure of 10 mm Hg 20 mm Hg [21]. Lid
overlap values up to 0.27 mm are physically reasonable [14]. Therefore, we have shown
that there exists physically reasonable solutions for a contact lens in static equilibrium
for a adjustable parameter values.
61
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Hayashi, T.T., (1977), Mechanics of Contact Lens Motion, Ph.D Dissertation,
University of California.
[2] Moriarty, J.A., Terrill, E.L, (1996), Mathematical Modeling of the Motion of
Hard Contact Lenses, Euro. J. Appl. Math, Vol 7, pp575-594.
[3] de Gennes, P-G., Quere, D., (2004), Capillary and Wetting Phenomena,
Springer, New York.
[4] de Gennes, P-G., (1985), Wetting: Statics and Dynamics, Reviews of Modern
Physics, Vol 57, pp827-863.
[5] Gao, L., McCarthy T.J., (2006), Contact Angle Hysteresis Explained, American
Chemical Society, Vol 14, pp6234-6237.
[6] Joanny, J.F., de Gennes, P-G., (1984), A model for contact angle hysteresis,
American Institute of Physics, Vol 81, pp552-562.
[7] Deen W.M., (1998), Analysis of Transport Phenomena, Oxford University Press,
New York.
[8] Bennett, E.S., Weissman, B.A., (2004). Clinical Contact Lens Practice, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.
[9] Butt, H.J., Graf, K., Kappl, M., (2006), Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces,
John Wiley & Sons, Weinheim.
[10] Choi, C., Kim, M., (2011), Wettability Effects on Heat Transfer, Two Phase
Flow, Phase Change and Numerical Modeling,Amimul Ahsan (Ed.), ISBN: 978953-307-584-6, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/twophase-flow-phase-change-and-numerical-modeling/wettability-effects-on-heattransfer.
[11] Finn R., (1999), Capillary Surface Interfaces, Notices Amer. Math. Soc., Vol 46,
pp770.
[12] Frankel, T., (2004), The Geometry of Physics: An Introduction, Cambridge
University Press, New York.
[13] Schulz, E., Simon, F., (1984), Contact lens fitting for binocular micromovement
recording, Graefes Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, Vol
221, pp282-285.
62
[14] Wang J., Cox I., Reindel W.T., (2009), Upper and Lower Tear Menisci on Contact Lenses, Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Vol 50, pp11061111.
[15] Gelfand, I.M., Fomin, S.V., Silverman, R.A., (2000), Calculus of Variations,
Dover Publications, New York.
[16] Lemp, M.A., Holly, F.J., Iwata, S., Dohlman, C.H., (1970), The precorneal tear
film: I. factors in spreading and maintaining a continuous tear film over the
corneal surface, Archives of Ophthalmology, Vol 86, pp89-94.
[17] Braun, R.J., Fitt, A.D., (2003), Modeling drainage of the precorneal tear film
after a blink, Math. Med. Bio. Vol 20, pp1-28.
[18] Raad, P.E., Sabau, A.S., Dynamics of a Gas Permeable Contact Lens During
Blinking, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol 63, 411-418.
[19] Carney, L.G., Mainstone, J.C., Carkeet, A., Quinn, T.G., Hill, R.H., (1997),
Rigid lens dynamics: Lid effects, Contact lens association of Ophthalmologists,
Vol 23, pp69-77.
[20] Shanker, R.M., Ahmed, I., Bourassa, P.A., (1995), An in vitro technique for
measuring contact angles on the corneal surface and its application to evaluate
corneal wetting properties of water soluble polymers, International Journal of
Pharmaceutics, Vol 119, pp149-163.
[21] Murgatroyd, H., Bembridge, J., (2008), Intraocular pressure, Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain, Vol 8, pp100-103.
[22] French, K., (2005), Contact lens material properties: Part 1
www.opticianonline.net, Vol 230, pp20-28.
63
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Mathematical Modeling of a Contact Lens and Tear Layer at Equilibrium

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

3.4.2.1 Numerical results . . . . .

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Surface tension of some liquids at different temperatures . . . . . . .

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Capillary surface at a vertical wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Variation of L1 , a, b and the reaction forces FL and FR with respect

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Table 2.1: Surface tension of some liquids at different temperatures [9].

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

2.1.2 Youngs equation

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Figure 2.3: Interfacial tensions at a contact point of a liquid drop.

Figure 2.4: Advancing and receding contact angles of a liquid drop.

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

In three dimensions, these lines are circles with radius R.

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

column in the Z direction:

2.1.4 Young-Laplace Equation

Figure 2.6: Liquid-gas interface S with principal radii of R1 and R2 .

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Note that kTk = 1.

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

The curvature (s), of a curve C is defined by [12],

kr0 (t) r00 (t)k

Figure 2.7: Normal curvaturee of a surface in R3 . 1 and 2 denote the principal

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

and n is defined by the equation (2.9).

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

2.2 Profile of a capillary surface at a vertical flat wall

We apply the Young-Laplace equation to the point A to determine the geometry

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

2.2.2 Boundary conditions

Force balance of meniscus in X direction is given by the following equation:

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

with the initial conditions

We obtain a corresponding system of first order differential equations by introducing

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Meniscus height (cm)

Distance from the vertical wall (cm)

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

and dl represents the arc length of the capillary surface.

where pi (0) denotes the liquid pressure at z = 0. Thus,

We consider associated Euler-Lagrange equation for equation (2.32):

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

the vertical wall,

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

2.3.1 Static equilibrium of a contact lens

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

point B implies piB < patm . Thus, piA > piB .

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

Texas Tech University, Bhagya U.A. Athukorallage, July 2012

piC achieves its maximum value at max{h} = hl , which leads to