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Michael McClanathan

5/11/2014
Colonial Latin America
Victors and Vanquished
An incredible clash of two civilizations in the early 16 th century leads to the
death of one empire and the birth of another. The Spanish conquest of Mexico
decimated the Mexica way of life and paved the way for a new Spanish dominance
over the region. The advantages of the Spanish as well as the politics of central
Mexico allowed the Spanish to divide and conquer one of the greatest empires in
the western hemisphere. The record of these events varies to some degree
depending on the side that wrote them. Victors and Vanquished by Stuart Schwartz
attempts to explore different accounts of the conquest of Mexico through the eyes
of both the Nahua people and the Spanish conquistadores. This account retells the
facts from an objective point of view at most times but also gives primary accounts
of the events from actual witnesses as well as codex documents collected after the
conquest. Schwartz focuses on the advantages the Spaniards had culturally,
technologically and those gained by the local circumstances.
The Spanish possessed a culture that allowed them to become great
conquerors. Throughout their history they struggled against Moorish oppression and
eventually defeated them in the Reconquista. These campaigns to reclaim Spanish
rule had mobilized thousands of young men and convinced them to make their
fortune through military prowess, courage, and skill (Schwartz 13). This created a
militaristic culture far different from other European countries. In most European
societies, only the nobility were properly trained in with swords, horses and other
military means; however in Spain many young men knew these skills and used

them to their advantage (Schwartz 13). The Spaniards, recently reconquering their
homeland and discovering the New World, had the basis for expansion and conquest
that most other societies did not possess. Bolstered by faith each conquest further
raised the individual Spanish hopes of fame and fortune through military prowess
in the New World. Each young man had a chance to make a name for himself in the
military expeditions that extended the sovereignty of the Spanish Crown and the
truth of the Roman Catholic Church (Schwartz 13). Spanish culture created young
and ambitious military men that intended to conquer the new world and make a
name for them in the process. This gave the Spaniards an advantage when it came
time to launch a military expedition into the heart of Mexico and at one of the most
powerful Empires on the continent.
When Cortes and his men arrived on the shores of Mexico, they came into
contact with what remained essentially a stone age civilization (Schwartz 14). This
difference in technological advancement would leave a massive military gap
between the Spanish and Mexica people. For the native people, metallurgy was
limited, the wheel had no practical applications, there was no large beasts of
burden, and other technologies known in the Old Worldwhere unknown in the
Americas (Schwartz 14). Hernan Cortess ability to use demonstrations of
European technology, horses, and weaponry for their psychological impact
(Schwartz 42) greatly magnified the technological gap that existed between
invaders and natives. These demonstrations rallied support for the Spanish within
native groups by mesmerizing them and also terrifying them into submission. Also,
the interacton between native people and new Spanish technology increased the
belief that the Spanish and Cortes where the returning god Quetzalcoatl. This
religious myth when combined with the circumstances of Cortess landing at the

time he did amplified the fear surrounding the Spanish invaders and further led to
their support from the natives.
Schwartz argues that Spanish culture and technology were major factors in
the conquest of Mexico; however his strongest argument is based in the support the
Spanish gained from local city-states. Massive amounts of native people swelled
Cortess ranks in defiance of the Mexica tributary system. Up to 100,000 Tlaxcalans
joined with Cortes when he marched on Tenochtitlan. Schwartz states that such
figures emphasizes the fact that in many ways the conquest of Tenochtitlan and the
fall of the Mexica Empire was as much a struggle among indigenous peoples as it
was a clash of the Old and New Worlds (Schwartz 15). When the Spanish arrived,
the peoples of the Mexica did not form a single political entity, and these political
and ethnic divisions contributed to the success (Schwartz 23) of the military
expedition. In order for the Spanish to take advantage of these divisions, they had
to rely on past experience when dealing with native peoples. From this experience,
the Spanish understood the importance of translators and language itself in the
process of encounter and conquest (Schwartz 40). With a solid base for translation
established through Aguillar and Malinche, the Spanish began to differentiate
between the various ethnicities and political loyalties of the indigenous people
(Schwartz 42). The ethnography they learned from the exchange of gifts between
Cortes and other indigenous leaders also established a great knowledge of potential
wealth as well as a divide and conquer strategy. Cortes was especially gifted in
swaying support in his favor for the conquest. He used a combination of diplomacy,
bravado, guile, and terror to impress and awe representatives from different
townships through which he passed (Schwartz 100). When Cortes chose to lead his
men through the Tlaxcala, he made the wisest decision of the conquest. The

Tlaxcalans were linguistically and culturally akin to the Mexica but were also their
traditional political enemies (Schwartz 100). This strategic move swelled cortess
ranks to an incredibly high number and, according to Schwartz, without Tlaxcalan
help, the trajectory of the conquest might have been very different (Schwartz 102).
Upon entering Tenochtitlan for the first time with his men and new native
allies at his back, Cortes had in some ways already conquered the city. Schwartz
argues that within two weeks Moctezuma was Cortess prisoner within his own
palace and was a puppet leader. During this time, the Spanish built catholic
monuments and began ruling the city under the shadow of the puppet king
Moctezuma. In Bernal Diazs account of these events, he dictates that they felt as
victors and conquerors of the city and that any resistance to them was rebellion.
The choice of the word rebellion indicates that the Spanish already see themselves
as rulers not as invaders or guests. The Mexica people where not happy with the
Spaniards changing their city; however, for dynastic, ethnic and personal reasons,
the Mexica city-states and the various factions inside Tenochtitlan were still unable
to mount a resistance (Schwartz 156). This is yet another example of indigenous
divisions creating favorable circumstances for the Spanish to succeed. When the
Spanish were expelled from the city on Noche Triste, Cortes now had the
opportunity he needed to use his military expertise to take the city by force. With
the siege of Tenochtitlan underway, the Mexica had to contend not only with
reinforced Spanish troops and the thousands of native allies that accompanied
them, but also with another enemy: epidemic disease in the form of smallpox
(Schwartz 182). The three month siege of Tenochtitlan decimated the population
and reflected the political climate of central Mexico at the time. Cortess ability to
use this negative climate allowed him to isolate Tenochtitlan and leave them

completely cut off from any type of aid. The advantages of the Spanish invaders
produced a spectacular and devastating clash of conquest culture. The ability of the
Spanish to call on past experience with native kingdoms, their technology and the
political intuition of Cortes all came to a head during the siege of Tenochtitlan and
thus the fall of the Mexica Empire.
Victors and Vanquished by Stuart Schwartz attempts to tell the story of the
Spanish conquest of Mexico through an objective point of view. Despite this
attempt, it reads almost as homage to the Spanish and their great conquest.
Although a voice is given to the Mexica and other Nahua people, it displays them as
lesser to the Spanish by underplaying their accomplishments. This is especially
evident in the sections regarding the interactions between Moctezuma and Cortes.
Moctezuma is portrayed as a weak minded puppet under the spell of Cortes.
Perhaps a deeper look at this relationship would show successful cohabitation and
not necessarily a foolish leader in Moctezuma. Schwartz does however do an
excellent job of highlighting the Spanish maneuvers and ability to take advantage of
situations in the area. The choice to focus on the political climate of central Mexico
as a leading factor to the success of the Spanish is demonstrated with massive
amounts of convincing evidence. The shortcomings of the book are also mentioned
by the Author in the introduction but states that the lack of evidence in existence is
a major problem when studying the time period. The author states that sources
from the time period demonstrate both class and gender bias due to the nature of
the authors and societal expectations. While there are flaws in the book, the central
argument is clear and supported effectively. The Spanish conquered Mexico because
of the culture they were born into, technological advantages as well as their ability
to divide and then isolate the Mexica Empire by gaining native support.

Works Cited
Schwartz, Stuart B. Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the
Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2000. Print.

Reasons for conquest


the cempoalans only recently had been brought under Mexica domination and
were restive under their overlords 100
they easily changed their support to the Spaniards 100
Noche Triste? How do I fit this in?
Cuahtemoc tried to win support by lowering the tribute demands on the Mexica
dependents, but his attempts only made Tenochtitlan seem weak 182
Cortes demonstrated considerable ability in cajoling, convincing, and bullying
various cities into joining him for the final effort against Tenochtitlan 183
In the final battles, Tenochtitlan and its subdivision Tlatelolco were effectively left
to fight on their own 183
both were heirs of a long process of cultural development and fusion, both had
warrior ethos, both held ferevntyl to a religious faith, and both justified their
imperial expansion in terms of theological ideals 13
there is evidence suggesting the Nahua peoples were not alarmed by the arrival of
the Spaniards, and rather than viewing them as an almost supernatural force, they
saw them as simply another group of powerful and dangerous outsiders who needed
to be controlled or accommodated 29

the story of the return of Quezalcoatl begins to play and important role in
explaining Moctezumas behavior from the outset of events 30
they also had incredible luck 40
this was an ethnography in the service of conquest 42
the Europeans were already creating a kind of ethnography about the peoples of
the new conquest 79
Bernal Diazs account takes note of the exchange of gifts and of cortess strategies
to learn about the politics and wealth of the region 79

Spanish advantages
Luck or circumstances
Mexica and regional disadvantages

Differences in Nahua and Spanish accounts

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