Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thread Proles
Head
Shank
Threads
p
Crest
d
ht
dc
Lg
Lt
dp
dr
Root
L
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.1: Terminology and parameters used in thread proles. (a) View of a bolt,
with parts and lengths identied; (b) detail of the thread.
Number of Threads
l
p
l
p
(a)
l
p
(b)
(c)
Figure 15.2: (a) Single-, (b) double; and (c) triple threaded screws.
Thread Proles
29
(a)
(b)
60$
(c)
(d)
45$
(e)
0.5 p
`
0.5 p
0.375 ht
p
2.7
0.625 ht
`29
Pitch
0.25 ht diameter
dc
dp
dr
0.5p + 0.01
p
0.052
2.7
0.25 p
Thread Classications
Inch series
Bolts Nuts
1A
1B
2A
2B
3A
3B
Metric series
Bolts Nuts
8g
7H
6g
6H
8h
5H
Acme Thread
Crest
diameter, dc ,
in.
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1 1/8
1 1/4
1 3/8
1 1/2
1 3/4
2
2 1/4
2 1/2
2 3/4
3
3 1/2
4
4 1/2
5
Number of
threads
per inch, n
16
14
12
12
10
8
6
6
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
Tensile stress
area, A t , in.2
0.02632
0.04438
0.06589
0.09720
0.1225
0.1955
0.2732
0.4003
0.5175
0.6881
0.8831
1.030
1.266
1.811
2.454
2.982
3.802
4.711
5.181
7.338
9.985
12.972
16.351
Shear stress
area, A s , in.2
0.3355
0.4344
0.5276
0.6396
0.7278
0.9180
1.084
1.313
1.493
1.722
1.952
2.110
2.341
2.803
3.262
3.610
4.075
4.538
4.757
5.700
6.640
7.577
8.511
Table 16.2: Crest diameters, threads per inch, and stress areas for Acme thread.
Power Screw
Load, W
(Screw is threaded into W)
dp/2
`/2
`/2
Pitch, p
_
Thrust
collar
Equal
rc
(dp /2)(cos n tan + )
Tr = W
+ rc c
cos n tan
To lower the load:
(dp /2)( cos n tan )
+ rc c
Tl = W
cos n + tan
Eciency:
Wl
e=
100%
2T
Self-locking:
>
l cos n
dp
Thread Forces
C
B
Axis of screw
D
B
Pn
A
Pn cosen cos_
Pn cosen cos_
en _
Pn cosen
`/2
+Pn sin_
`/2
Pn cosen sin_
H
0
dp/2
E
Pn cosen cos_tan`/2
(a)
(b)
0
W
+Pn
+Pn cos_
+cW
(c)
Figure 16.7: Forces acting in raising load of power screw. (a) Forces acting on
parallelepiped; (b) forces acting on axial section; (c) forces acting on tangential plane.
Illustration
Type
Hex-head bolt
Description
An externally threaded fastener with a
trimmed hex head, often with a washer
face on the bearing side.
Application notes
Used in a variety of general purpose applications in different grades depending
on the required loads and material being
joined.
Carriage bolt
A round head bolt with a square neck under the head and a standard thread.
Elevator bolt
or belt bolt
Lag screw
Step bolt
Bolts
and
Screws
Illustration
Nuts
Type
Description
Application notes
Coupling nut
Serrated nut
Flat washer
A circular disk with circular hole, produced in accordance with industry standards. Fender washers have larger surface area than conventional Dt washer.
A conical disk spring.
Hex nut
Nylon insert stop
Cap nut
Castle nut
Wing nut
Washers
Belleville washer
Split lock washer
Nuts and
Washers
Table 16.4: Common nuts and washers for use with threaded fasteners.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 16.8: Three types of threaded fastener. (a) Bolt and nut; (b) cap screw; (c) stud.
Pb (tension)
Pj (compression)
0b
0j
bb (extension)
(a)
kb
kj
bj (contraction)
Pi
Pb
0b
Pj
Extension
0j
(b)
Loaded condition, Pj
Pi + kbek
Unloaded state
with Preload
Pi
Load
P = increase in Pb
plus decrease in Pj
Pi kjek
Me
mb
lt
0b
ers
Bo
Deflection
0j
ek
(extension of bolt = reduction in contraction of joint)
Figure 16.11: Forces versus deection of bolt and joint when external load is applied.
Bolt Stiness
dc
Lse = Ls + 0.4dc
Ls
1
4 Ls + 0.4dc
Lt + 0.4dr
=
+
kb
E
d2c
d2r
Lt
dr
(a)
Lte = Lt + 0.4dr
(b)
Member Stiness
dw
di
dc
_f
Li
(b)
dc
(a)
Figure 16.13: (a) Bolt-and-nut assembly with conical frustum stress representation of
joint; (b) detail of frustum with important dimensions.
Wileman Equation
kj = Ei dc Ai eBi dc /L
Poissons ,
ratio,
Material
Steel
Aluminum
Copper
Gray cast iron
0.291
0.334
0.326
0.211
Elastic
modulus,
E , GPa
206.8
71.0
118.6
100.0
Numerical
constants,
Ai
Bi
0.78715
0.62873
0.79670
0.63816
0.79568
0.63553
0.77871
0.61616
Table16.5: Constants used to obtain joint stiness from Eq.~(16.30). Source: From
Wileman, et al. [1991]
kj =
Ej dc tan f
(L tan f + di dc )(di + dc )
2 ln
(L tan f + di + dc )(di dc )
kj =
0.9069Ej dc
(2.887L + 2.5dc )
ln
(0.5774L + 2.5dc )
Note that this approach neglects the contribution of the washers to joint stiness;
because washers are usually steel and very thin, they do not normally contribute
signicantly to joint stiness.
kji =
1.813Ej dc
(1.15Li + di dc )(di + dc )
ln
(1.15Li + di + dc )(di dc )
Example 16.6
3/2 dc
15
10
30
dc
1
3
10
25
2
12.5
d2
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.14: Hexagonal bolt-and-nut assembly used in Example 16.6. (a) Assembly and
dimensions; (b) dimension of frusta. All dimensions are in millimeters.
Bolt Strength
Range
of crest
diameters,
in.
Ultimate
tensile
strength
Su, ksi
0.25 1.5
60
36
0.25 0.75
> 0.75 1.5
74
60
57
36
55
33
0.25 1.5
115
100
65
0.25 1
> 1 1.5
120
105
92
81
5.2
0.25-1
120
0.25 1.5
8
8.2
SAE
grade
Head
marking
Proof
Yield
strength strength
Sp, ksi
Sy, ksi
Metric
Head
grade marking
33
Range
of crest
diameters,
mm
Ultimate
tensile
strength
Su, MPa
Proof
Yield
strength strength
Sy, MPa Sp, MPa
4.6
4.6
M5 M36
400
240
225
4.8
4.8
M1.6 M16
420
340a
310
5.8
5.8
M5 M24
520
415a
380
85
74
8.8
8.8
M17 M36
830
660
600
92
85
9.8
9.8
M1.6 M16
900
720a
650
133
115
105
10.9
10.9
M6 M36
1040
940
830
0.25 1.5
150
130
120
12.9
12.9
M1.6 M36
1220
1100
970
0.25 1
150
130
120
Separation of Joint
Pj
Pj
64
0.05609
0.00263
56
0.06667
0.00370
48
0.07645
0.00487
40
0.08494
0.00604
40
0.09794
0.00796
32
0.1042
0.00909
32
0.1302
0.0140
24
0.1449
0.0175
24
0.1709
0.0242
20
0.1959
0.0318
18
0.2523
0.0524
16
0.3073
0.0775
14
0.3962
0.1063
13
0.4167
0.1419
12
0.4723
0.182
11
0.5266
0.226
10
0.6417
0.334
9
0.7547
0.462
8
0.8647
0.606
7
0.9703
0.763
7
1.095
0.969
6
1.195
1.155
6
1.320
1.405
5
1.533
1.90
4.5
1.759
2.5
Table 16.8: Dimensions and tensile stress areas for UN coarse and ne threads. Root
diameter is calculated from Eq. (16.2) and Fig. 16.4.
0.20
1.383
1.57
0.25
1.729
2.45
0.35
2.121
3.70
0.35
2.621
5.61
0.5
3.459
9.79
0.5
4.459
16.1
0.75
5.188
22
1.0
6.917
39.2
1.25
8.647
61.2
1.25
10.65
92.1
1.5
12.38
124
1.5
14.38
167
1.5
18.38
272
2.0
21.83
384
2.0
27.83
621
3.0
32.75
865
Table 16.9: Dimensions and tensile stress areas for UN coarse and ne threads. Root
diameter is calculated from Eq.~(\ref{E16_02}) and Fig.~\ref{F16_04}.
Twist-O Fastener
Fracture
surface
(a)
(b)
Pj
Pb, max
Pi
Pi
Load on bolt
Pb
Pj, min
0b
Deflection
Load on joint
0j
6b
Figure 16.17: Forces versus deection of bolt and joint as function of time.
SAE
grade
0-2
4-8
Metric
grade
3.6-5.8
6.6-10.9
Rolled
threads
2.2
3.0
Cut
threads
2.8
3.8
Fillet
2.1
2.3
Gaskets
Confined gasket
Gasket
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.18: (a) Unconned gasket. The gasket is often produced in an elastomer to
match a housing prole, or can be produced from a curing polymer. The joint stiness is
dominated by the gasket in such designs. (b) Conned gasket. Such gaskets can be
bonded to one member or be a separate element, and do not aect joint stiness.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 16.19: Failure modes due to shear loading of riveted fasteners. (a) Bending of
member; (b) shear of rivet; (c) tensile failure of member; (d) bearing of member on rivet.
P = 1000 lb
7
2
3
rA
rB
rC
rD
3
2
Example 16.9
D
D
(a)
(b)
otA
rC
B
otB
_
od
4.635
od
3
3
rD
`
2.365
(c)
otC
C
otD
od
(d)
od
(e)
Figure 16.20: Group of riveted fasteners used in Example 16.9. (a) Assembly of rivet
group; (b) radii from centroid to center of rivets; (c) resulting triangles; (d) direct and
torsional shear acting on each rivet; (e) side view of member. (All dimensions are in
inches.)
Weld Symbols
Bead
Spot
Finish symbol
Flash
or
upset
Seam
Contour symbol
Root opening, depth
of filling for plug
and slot welds
Effective throat
F
A
Depth of preparation
or size in inches
Reference line
S(E)
T
(Both sides)
(Other
(Arrow
side)
side)
Specification, process
or other reference
Projection
Weld-all-around symbol
L@P
A
Figure 16.21: Basic weld symbols. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010].
Weld Analysis
Parallel and transverse loading:
Ssy
P
=
ns
te Lw
Torsional loading:
Tr
t =
J
Where the polar moment of inertia can be calculated from
J = te Ju = 0.707he Ju
Bending:
Mc
=
I
where
I = te Iu = 0.707he Iu
Weld Detail
Bending
Torsion
Weld
d
Weld
Geometry
Weld
M
Lw = d
T
Ju = d 3/12
c = d/2
Iu = d 3/12
Weld
Weld
M
Lw = 2d
3
Iu = d /6
d(3b 2 + d 2)
Ju =
6
b
Weld
Weld
M
T
Lw = 2b
b3 + 3bd2
Ju =
6
y
d
Iu = bd 2/2
Weld
Weld
x
M
b2
x =
2(b + d)
Lw = b + d
d2
y =
2(b + d)
T
Positive M: Iu =
Negative M: Iu =
2b 2d 2 + bd 3
3(b + d)
(b + d)4 6b2d2
Ju =
12(b + d)
d 4(4b+d)
12(b + d)(2b + d)
x
x
Lw = d + 2b
Weld
Weld
x
M
b2
x =
2b + d
T
Iu =
d 2(6b+d)
12
(2b + d)3
b2(b + d)2
Ju =
12
(2 b + d)
Weld Detail
Bending
Weld all
around
d x
Torsion
Weld all
around
T
Lw = 2b + 2d
(b + d )3
Ju =
6
2
3
Iu = 3bd + d
6
Weld
Weld
d x
Weld
Geometry
T
Lw = 2b + 2d
Weld
Weld
2
3
Iu = 3bd + d
6
Ju =
Weld all
around
b 3 + 3bd 2 + d 3
6
Weld all
around
M
d
Lw = /d
Ju = /(d 3/4)
Iu = /(d 3/8)
y
d x
Lw = b + 2d
b
Weld
Weld
M
x
d2
y =
(b + 2d)
Weld
Weld
Positive M: Iu =
Negative M: Iu =
d 3(2b + d)
3(b + 2d)
(b + 2d )3 d 2(b + d )2
Ju =
12
(b + 2d)
d 4(2b+d)
3(b + d)(b + 2d)
Arc Welding
Solidified slag
Welding machine AC or DC
power source and controls
Work
cable
Arc
Electrode
holder
Coating
Electrode
Shielding
gas
Electrode
Workpiece
(a)
Electrode
cable
Base metal
Weld metal
Arc
(b)
Figure 16.22: Schematic illustration of the shielded-metal arc welding (SMAW) process.
About 50% of all large scale industrial welding operations use this process. Source: From
Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010].
Spot Welding
Electrode
Electrode tip
Weld nugget
Indentation
Sheet
separation
Heat-affected zone
Electrode
Figure 16.23: Schematic illustration of the resistance spot welding process, showing the
weld nugget and indentation of the surface. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid
[2010].
Fillet Weld
1
16
in.
Actual weld configuration
Assumed weld configuration
he
te
Load
Shear stress
Shear stress
te te
Shear planes
(b)
Figure 16.24: Fillet weld. (a) Cross section of weld showing throat and legs; (b) shear
planes.
Electrode Strengths
Electrode
number
E60XX
E70XX
E80XX
E90XX
E100XX
E120XX
Ultimate
tensile
strength,
S ut ,
MPa (ksi)
427 (62)
482 (70)
552 (80)
620 (90)
689 (100)
827 (120)
Yield ,
strength,
Sy,
MPa (ksi)
345 (50)
393 (57)
462 (67)
531 (77)
600 (87)
738 (107)
Elongation,
ek,
percent
17-25
22
19
14-17
13-16
14
Example 16.10
y
100
otx
oty
300
l2
A
45
l1
y
80
150
20 kN
x
otx
oty
B
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.25: Welded bracket used in Example 16.10. (a) Dimensions, load and
coordinates; (b) torsional shear stress components at points A and B. (All dimensions are
in millimeters.)
Original
structure
Fusion zone
(weld metal)
Heat-affected
zone
Base
metal
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 16.26: (a) Characteristics of a typical fusion-weld zone in oxyfuel-gas and arc
welding. (b)-(c) Comparison of the welds produced in (b) electron beam welding and (c)
tungsten-arc welding. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010].
Discontinuities
in Fusion
Welds
Bridging
Weld
Base
metal
Incomplete fusion
(a)
Weld
Incomplete
fusion
(b)
Incomplete
fusion
Weld
Cracks in Welds
Weld
Toe crack
Transverse
crack
Longitudinal
crack
Crater
cracks
Base metal
Underbead
crack
Weld
Weld
Transverse
crack
Longitudinal
crack
Base
metal
Base
metal
(a)
Toe crack
(b)
Figure 16.28: Types of cracks developed in welded joints. The cracks are usually caused
by thermal stresses. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010].
Type of weld
Reinforced butt weld
Tow of transverse OOHt weld
End of parallel OOHt weld
T-butt joint with sharp corners
Table 16.13: Fatigue strength reduction factors for welds Source: From Shigley and
Mitchell [1983].
Adhesives
Epoxy
Polyurethane
0RGLHd Acrylic
Impact resistance
Poor
Excellent
Good
Tension-shear strength, MPa
15-22
12-20
20-30
ksi
2.2-3.2
1.7-2.9
2.9-4.3
Peel strengtha , N/m
< 523
14,000
5250
lb/in.
3
80
30
Service temperature range, C
-55-120
-40-90
-70-120
F
-70-250
-250-175
-100-250
Solvent resistance
Excellent
Good
Good
Moisture resistance
Good-Excellent
Fair
Good
Odor
Mild
M ild
Strong
Toxicity
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Flammability
Low
Low
High
a Peel strength varies widely depending on surface preparation and quality.
Cyanoacrylate
Poor
18.9
2.7
< 525
3
-55-80
-70-175
Good
Poor
Moderate
Low
Low
Anaerobic
Fair
17.5
2.5
1750
10
-55-150
-70-300
Excellent
Good
Mild
Low
Low
(b)
L
b
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Figure 16.29: Examples of adhesively bonded joints. (a) BuO; (b) scarf; (c) lap; (d) bevel;
(e) double lap; (f) increased thickness; (g) strap.
mx
tm
mn
(a)
Scarf
Joint
A
tm
A
(b)
x
l
O
ro
ri
T
(c)
Figure 16.30: Scarf joint. (a) Axial loading; (b) bending; (c) torsion.
Integrated
Fasteners
h
2
h
Deflected
(a)
Rigid
(b)
(c)
Figure 16.31: Common examples of integrated fasteners. (a) Module with four cantilever
lugs; (b) cover with two cantilever and two rigid lugs; (c) separable snap joints for
chassis cover.
Snap Fasteners
Cross section
a
h
Rectangle
Trapezoid
0.67
a+b
2a + b
l
h
h
2
h
2
h
1.09
1.64
a +b
2a + b
0.86
1.28
a +b
2a + b
Tapered thickness
b
4
b
Tapered width
Polymer Friction
l
roethylene
(PTFE or )
Polyethylene (rigid)
Polyethylene )
Polypropylene
Polymethylmethacrylate
(PMMA)
-
styrene (ABS)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Polystyrene
e
Coeft o
O self-mated
O steel
0.12-0.22
0.20-0.25
0.55-0.60
0.25-0.30
0.50-0.60
0.40-0.50
0.66-0.72
0.38-0.45
0.60-0.72
0.50-0.65
0.60-0.78
0.55-0.60
0.40-0.50
0.45-0.55
0.55-0.60
0.48-0.60
0.54-0.66
Pad/foot
for blade
attachment
After machining