Physical Chemistry Laboratory

Separation of Metallic and Semiconducting Carbon

Nanotubes and Their Application in Electronic
Devices

Letitia Sarah
06102856
Lab partner: Ryosuke Shimizu
Experiment period: 11 November 2015-16 November 2015

Day I
Objective: to separate carbon nanotubes (CNTs) by using gel filtration column
chromatography
Procedure:
Preparation of SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) and DOC (sodium deoxycholate)
solutions
1. Prepare 1 wt% SDS solution: dissolve 0.4 g SDS with 40 mL deionized water
2. Prepare 2 wt% SC solution: dissolve 0.4 g SC with 40 mL deionized water
Preparation of gel filtration column
1. Shake the gel container (Sephacryl S200) so that the gel is evenly suspended in
solvent
2. Transfer 10 mL of the gel suspension into a 50 mL conical tube
3. Add 20 mL of deionized water and wait until the gel suspended in the bottom.
After that, perform decantation to remove supernatant with Pasteur pipette (to
remove fine dust particles)
4. Fix the column to stand, and close the stopcock.
5. Lightly agitate the gel suspension, and gently pour 2 mL of the suspension
solution using a Pasteur pipette.
6. Once the gel has been fixed, open the stopcock to release the solution. Add gel
suspension as necessary to adjust the volume of the gel so that the volume is 2
mL
7. Gently pour 4 mL of 1 wt% SDS (let it elute) and then add 1 mL of SDS. Close
the column lid and stopcock.
Separation of CNT using gel filtration
1. Release solvent from the column, and close the stopcock once the liquid level is
slightly above the gel surface level
2. pour sample on top of gel using Pasteur pipette
3. Open the stopcock and pour the CNT suspension solution onto the gel and gently
pour 1% SDS solution when the sample level is 0.5-1 mm above the gel surface
4. Once colored solution begins to elute, collect the solution into microtubes
5. Collect the remaining CNT in the gel by pouring approximately 3 mL of 1 wt% SC
solution
6. After collection, pour 4 mL of 1 wt% SDS solution into the column, and close the
lid and stopcock to prevent the gel from drying
Discussion
As written on the background section in the guide, CNTs can only be obtained with
mixed chirality. This mixed chirality causes CNT produced to have both metallic and
semiconducting properties which later imposes a problem as it impedes the
understanding of physical and chemical properties of CNT as well as their device
applications. For example, in the case of semiconducting single wall carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs) used in electric field transistor channels, the presence of metallic SWCNTs
significantly decreases the on/off ratio and decreases the device performance. While,
in the case of metallic SWCNTs used for conductive films, the presence of
semiconducting SWCNTs degrades the resistivity and the stability of the films. The
resistivity of the network of semiconducting CNT is 1-10 cm at room temperature,
which is greater than that of metallic CNT (10 -2-10-3 cm). Because of these reasons, it
is very important -to separate CNT.

In this experiment, CNT is separated by performing gel filtration chromatography (gel

used is Sephacryl 200, a cross-linked polymer of allyl dextran and N,
methylenebisacrylamide) with surfactant as eluant. SDS or sodium dodecyl sulfate is
used as surfactant. Surfactant functions to help suspend CNT in water by forming
micelle. In the figure below, there three proposed models of micelle and CNT: the
cylindrical model, the hemimicellar model, and the random adsorption model.

a. Schematic pictures of solvated densities of CNT. The thickness of the surfactant layer
depends on various parameters, such as type and concentration of surfactants, the
temperature, etc.
b. Three different models of SDS arrangement on the surface of CNT: (top) a cylindrical
micelle, (middle) hemimicellar adsorption and (bottom) random adsorption.
Unfortunately, no consensus has been reached concerning the arrangement of SDS on
the CNT surfaces. The arrangements of surfactants, such as the number of adsorbed
surfactants per unit length, clearly influence the solvated densities of CNTs. Therefore,
the correct theoretical prediction of how micelle forms is difficult.
Although how SDS forms micelle on the CNT surfaces has not been well understood, it
is proven by Moshammer et. al that SDS can be used as dispersion medium for
separating CNT. In this experiment, SDS is added to CNT suspension solution. Metallic
CNTs are supposed to have greater affinity towards SDS so they are bounded stronger
than that of semiconducting CNT. This means metallic CNTs will be eluted first from the
column. On the other hand, semiconducting CNTs are more strongly adsorbed to the
gel and addition of DOC (sodium deoxycholate) as co-surfactant will later elute
semiconducting CNT.
There are two solutions with distinct color obtained after filtration. The difference in
color is caused by the chirality and diameter of CNT. The first solution obtained after
addition of SDS is blue and the second obtained after addition of DOC is red. In the
next experiment, the content of the separated sample is about to be examined using
UV-Vis Spectrophotometry.

1.
2.

3.

Day 2
Objective:
to measure the optical absorption spectra of the filtrated CNTs
to evaluate the type of CNT (metallic or semiconducting) based on the spectra
to fabricate semiconducting CNT thin-film onto a silicon substrate
Procedure:
Optical absorption measurement of the separated sample
Fill plastic cuvette with deionized water and measure the baseline
Measure the absorption spectra of the CNT suspension solution before and after the
separation (range of measurement: 1100-400 nm, scanning rate 1000 nm/minute,
and measurement width 2 nm)
After the measurement is done, wash the cuvette with deionized water and air dry.
Column washing and gel collection
1. Pour 20 mL of deionized water into the column. Gently shake the column and collect
the gel into a conical tube.
2. Wash the column with deionized water and shake vigorously
3. Rinse the column with deionized water until all the gel has been washed away, air
dry
Fabrication of CNT-deposited substrate for device
1. Clean the surface of Si/SiO2 substrate in acetone by sonication
2. Blow dry acetone by N2 gas, then irradiate O3 to the substrate for 30 minutes.
3. Drop 50 L of APTES solution around it and heat at 120 oC for 30 minutes.
4. Add 75 L of 5 wt% SC to 75 L of separated CNT solution and mix by vortex
prepared solution
5. Drop 50 L of prepared solution on the substrate and leave it for 2 hours.
6. Blow dry CNT solution by N2 gas, then wash the substrate in water and i-PrOH
7. Heat the substrate at 120oC to remove water on the substrate surface.
Data
Optical absorption measurement of the separated sample
Numb Wavelength (nm)
Abs.
er
1
1011.00
0.523
2
940.00
0.484
3
695.00
0.627
Blue sample (sample obtained after addition of SDS)
Numb Wavelength (nm)
Abs.
er
1
1005.00
0.324
2
736.00
0.174
3
697.00
0.175
Red sample (sample obtained after addition of DOC)

Discussion
Optical absorption measurement of the separated sample
After sample is separated in experiment day I, two solutions (red and blue) would be
obtained. One solution would contain metallic CNTs and the other would contain
semiconductor CNTs. UV-Vis measurement can be used to determine which sample
contains a certain type of CNTs.
After obtaining the spectrophotometry result, we can choose the absorption peaks and
their corresponding wavelengths (). Next, we can determine the separation energy of
CNT using the formula below.

E=

hc 1240 eV . nm
=

Consequently we can match the separation energy with nanotube diameter of CNT
(1.4-1.6 nm) and see in Kitaura plot whether we obtain the curves with black points or
red points. Black points represent semiconductor nanotubes and red points represent
metallic nanotubes. The calculation required for determining the type of nanotubes are
included in Assignment problem 4.

Kitaura Plot

photon.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Fabrication of CNT-deposited substrate for device

Semiconducting CNT is able to be deposited on top of flexible substrate for fabrication
of field effect transistor. In this experiment, silicon is used as substrate and is treated
with O2 plasma. O2 plasma coats silicon substrate with OH functional group in order to
functionalize the substrate molecules. However, CNT films still have weak adhesion to
the substrate. Thus, CNT films can detach easily from the substrate after post
treatment and removal of the surfactant. To avoid this from happening, the adhesion
between CNT and substrate needs to be enhanced using intermediate surface
treatment, APTES ((3-Aminopropyl)triethoxysilane). The amine functional group on
APTES develops strong interaction with CNT.
The CNT deposited silicon is later being washed using H2O, isopropanol, and blown
using N2 to remove excess liquid.

Day 3
Objective: to fabricate field effect transistor and evaluate its electrical conductivity
Procedure:
Deposition of electrodes
1. Put the metal mask on the substrate and fix it on the stage of deposition machine
2. After setting the holder to deposition machine, put 2 grains of gold to the boat
(resistance heating site), then evacuate the deposition chamber to 10-6 mbar or
less
3. Turn on the heating device and start heating
4. When gold is fully evaporated, turn off the power of the heating device and cool
deposition machine with fan (15-20 minutes)
5. Turn the pressure to atmospheric pressure and take out the substrate
Evaluation of electrical conductivity of Field Effect Transistor
1. Set the gold coated substrate on the stage
2. Put the tips of the probe down to electrodes while observing in optical camera
3. Start the software and evaluate the electrical conductivity of the device
Data
ON current: 1.59 x 10-5 A
OFF current: 4.10 x 10-6 A
Trans-conductance: gm = 4.57 x 10-7
Discussion
In this experiment, the CNT-deposited substrate is about to undergo gold deposition.
Gold is used for the transistor because it is the most malleable metal, can be made
into nanoparticles, and highly resistant to tarnish. The process of covering CNT with
gold is performed within deposition machine. First, gold is heated at vacuum pressure
(1.1 x 10-6 Torr) and it sublimes into gold vapor. After that, gold vapor then sticks to
the CNT-deposited substrate. Finally, field effect transistor is fabricated.
Field effect transistor (FET) is a device which enables us to use one electrical signal to
control another. In FET, current flows along a semiconductor path called channel.
Besides channel, there are three electrodes present in 1 field transistor. They are
source electrode, drain electrode, and gate electrode. A small change in gate voltage
applied at gate electrode can cause a large variation in the current from the source to
the drain. In this experiment, we fabricated metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET).
in this MOSFET, Silicon oxide acts as a dielectric where there is never any current
between the gate and the channel (CNT) during any part of the signal cycle.
Furthermore, the source electrode and drain electrode are fabricated from gold.
After the electrical conductivity of fabricated FET is evaluated, we obtained the
transfer curve. Transfer curve shows the value drain current, I D for various values of
gate-source voltage, VG when source-drain voltage, V D is kept constant. Furthermore, it
is observed that
(i) Drain current decreases with the increase in negative gate-source bias
(ii) Drain current, ID = IDON (1.59 x 10-5 A) when VGS = 0
(iii) Drain current, IDOFF = 4.10 x 10-6 A when VGS = VDOFF

Beside on state and off state, trans-conductance can also be obtained. Transconductance is an expression of the FET performance. In general, the larger the trans-

ON state

OFF
state
conductance value for an FET, the greater the gain (amplification) it is capable of
delivering, when all other factors are held constant. In this experiment, the transconductance for the device is 4.57 x 10-7.
Day 4
Objective: to observe CNT on the substrate by using Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
Procedure:
1. Start the computer and set the substrate coated by CNT on the AFM
2. Start the software, and set before observation (assisted by TA)
3. Move the surface to a clean place, and take an AFM image.
Data

AFM is used in this experiment to observe the surface profile of FET made on previous
day.
(Note: the principle of AFM is to be discussed in Assignment problem 7)
From the result of the AFM, it can be seen that there is network of lines with different
color (colors ranging from black to white, with mostly orange and yellow colors
observed). These color differences tell us that CNTs are deposited on top of each other
on the substrate surface. Then, the black region is formed by CNT located on the very
bottom and the white region is formed by CNT on the very top. This phenomenon

happens because CNT on the very top of the stack is more exposed to light compared
to the CNT on the very bottom. In addition, the color spectra bar above approximately
gives us information about the height of the CNT based on its color.
Assignment
1. Calculate the diameters of CNT with chirality of (6,5), (5,5), and (11,0), provided
that the C-C bond distance is 0.142 nm.

a1=

a2

Using cosine rule:

a12=0.1422 +0.14222(0.142)2 cos 120

a1=

a2=0.246 nm
(6,5) CNT

ch=6
a1 +5
a2

|
ch|=(6 a1)2 +( 5 a2)2 +2(6 a1)(5 a2 )cos
a1

between
a1
a2=60

|
ch|=2.3467 nm

a2

d=

|
ch|

=0.747 nm

(5,5) CNT

ch=5
a1 +5
a2

|
ch|=(5 a 1)2 +(5 a 2)2 +2(5 a1 )(5 a2) cos
o

=60

|
ch|=2.1289 nm
d=

|
ch|

(11,0) CNT

ch=11
a1 +0
a2

|
ch|=(11 a1)2 +( 0)2 +2(11 a1)(0)cos
=60o

|
ch|=2.70354 nm
d=

|
ch|

=0.861 nm

Diameter formula for any CNT chirality:

=0.678 nm

d (n , m)=

a 1 n2 +m2+ nm

0.246 n2 +m 2 +nm
d (n , m)=

2. Determine the
a sample of
diameter
0.7-1.0
nm.
these
are
how many are
(when n-m is
the remainder
metallic;
the
are
There are 28
combinations
that
has
a
distribution of
of 28 possible
of them are
and 11 are

numb
er

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

9
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
0

diame
ter
0.746
975
0.813
761
0.755
139
0.817
52
0.882
444
0.949
388
0.717
67
0.771
207
0.828
694
0.889
365
0.952
612
0.704
738
0.746
975
0.794
701
0.846
99
0.903
048
0.962
219
0.783
042
0.824
986
0.871
959
0.923
193
0.978
02
0.861
347
0.903
048
0.949
388
0.999
722
0.939
651
0.981

(nm)/3
0.333
333

type
semicondu
cting

metallic

1
0.666
667
0.333
333

metallic
semicondu
cting
semicondu
cting

metallic

2
1.666
667
1.333
333

metallic
semicondu
cting
semicondu
cting

1
0.666
667

metallic
semicondu
cting

3
2.666
667
2.333
333

metallic
semicondu
cting
semicondu
cting

2
1.666
667
1.333
333
3.333
333

metallic
semicondu
cting
semicondu
cting
semicondu
cting

3
2.666
667
2.333
333

metallic
semicondu
cting
semicondu
cting

2
3.666
667
3.333
333

metallic
semicondu
cting
semicondu
cting

3
2.666
667

metallic
semicondu
cting

4
3.666

metallic
semicondu

possible (n,m) for

CNTs that has a
distribution
of
How many of
metallic,
and
semiconducting?
divided by 3 and
is 0, the CNT is
remaining CNTs
semiconducting)
possible
of n,m for CNT
diameter
0.7-1.0 nm. Out
combinations, 17
semiconducting
metallic.

3. Calculate the molecular weight of (7,5) CNT with a length of 500 nm. Also calculate
the length of this CNT when the weight is 1 g.

m=5, n=7

Greatest common denominator ( dR ) of ( 2 n+m )(2 m+ n)=1

t1 =

(2 m+n)
=17
dR

t2 =

( 2n+ m)
=19
dR

|T|=a 1 172 +(19)2+ ( 17 ) (19)=4.448 nm

Number of unit cells in 500 nm nanotube:
2

N=

500
= 112
4.448

2(n +m +nm) 2( 49+ 25+35)

=
=218
dR
1

Molecular weight of 500 nm CNT (7,5)

500
2 N atomic mass of C
|T |

112 218 12.0107 amu 1.66 10

24

g mol amu

5.88 10 g / mol
When (7,5) CNT is 1 g, the corresponding length is

(5.88 105 1.66 1024 g) 500 nm

=
1g
length
length=5.12 1020 nm
4. Determine the main component (metallic or semiconducting) of CNTs in samples that
either adhered or did not adhere to the gel from the UV-Vis spectra. The CNT sample
used for separation is a mixture of
CNTs with diameters ranging from 1.4 to 1.6
nm. The equation that shows the relations
Numb
er
1
2
3

Wavelength (nm)
1011.00
940.00
695.00

E=1240 /

Blue CNT sample

Abs.
0.523
0.484
0.627

1.

peak 1=

1240
=1.227 eV /nm
1011

Type
Semiconducting
Metallic
Metallic

2.
3.

peak 2=

1240
=1.319 eV /nm
940.00

peak 3=

1240
=1.784 eV /nm
695.00

Blue CNT sample is the sample which does not adhere to the gel. After calculating
the energy separation for the three peaks, it can be concluded that blue CNT
sample consists of mostly metallic CNT.
Red CNT sample
Numb Wavelength (nm)
Abs.
Type
er
1
1005.00
0.324
Semiconducting
2
736.00
0.174
Metallic
3
697.00
0.175
Semiconducting
1.
2.
3.

peak 1=

1240
=1.234 eV /nm
1005.00

peak 2=

1240
=1.685 eV /nm
736.00

peak 3=

1240
=1.779 eV / n
697.00

Red CNT sample is the sample which adheres to the gel. After calculating the
energy separation for the three peaks, it can be concluded that red CNT sample
consists of mostly semiconducting CNT.
5. The size of the semiconducting CNT band gap has a tendency to be inversely
proportionate to the square of the diameter. Explain the reason for this quantitatively,
by solving the Schrdinger equation with the basis that the wave function of CNT
surface electrons meets the periodic boundary condition in the circumferential
direction.
CNT surface electrons fulfill the periodic boundary condition for particle-on-a-ring
wavefunction.

^
H =E
= A eik

=A eik

d=1

Normalization constant A=
2

eik eik d=1

0

A=

1
2

Particle-on-a-ring
wavefunction

1 ik
e
2

A e ik= A e ik (+2 )
ik

ike

e =e
e

ik 2

ik 2

ik 2

.e

=1

=cos 2 k +isin 2 k=1

k =0, 1, 2,

h2 d 2
^
H=
+V
2
2
8 m r d
V is 0 because electron can move freely inside the ring
2

E k = ^
H d
0

h
1
d ik
Ek =

eik
e d

2
2
8 m r 2 0
d
2

Ek =

h
1
(k 2 )d

2
2

8 m r
0

Ek =

k h
2
2
8 mr

Note: m= mass of electron

From the equation above, it is proven that the size of the semiconducting CNT band
gap (Ek) is inversely proportional to the square of the diameter (d = 2r)

6. Currently, only CNTs that are suspended in SDS-containing solutions are known to
adhere certain types of CNT to gel. Based on the the results from this experiment,
freely discuss why metallic and semiconducting CNTs had separated. In addition,
propose an experiment that verifies the hypothesis you formed from this discussion
In this experiment, metallic and semiconducting CNTs can be separated by dispersing
CNTs in SDS and perform gel filtration chromatography. This separation technique
harnesses the different arrangement of the surfactants on the surfaces os CNT and the
adsorption characteristics of the surfactant- CNT complexes on the gel. In 2009,
Moshammer et. al reported success in separating metallic and semiconducting singlewalled carbon nanotubes using sepharyl S-200 gel filtration medium with SDS. Later it
is known that the chirality of metallic CNT causes it to have greater affinity towards
SDS than semiconducting CNT. Furthermore, metallic CNT can be more easily eluted in
SDS solution and have only weak adsorption to the gel. Hence, metallic CNT will
present in the filtrate collected after SDS solution is poured into the column. Next,
semiconducting CNT which adhere strongly to the gel can be eluted with SC solution.
7. Draw a graph of the atomic force acting between the AFM probe and the sample as
a function of the distance between the probe and sample. Also, explain why the height
of the CNT reflects upon its diameter but appears horizontally wider on the substrate.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) forms pictures due to interaction of a physical nanosized probe with the sample, not by optical or electron-optical imaging. The probe of
this microscope Is attached to a piezoelectric tube which can change its length in
response to an applied voltage. If the tip happens to be directly over the surface of
atom, the amplitude of the wave function is larger at the surface atom and the
tunneling current is high. On the other hand, if the tip is between surface atoms, the
amplitude of the wave functions is smaller and the tunneling current will be lower.
When the distance between the probe and sample changes, the attractive van-derWaals forces and the Pauli repulsion due to overlapping electron orbitals can be
described by the Lennard-Jones-potential.

From the figure above, it can be seen that as the probe approaches the surface (from
right to left), initially the forces are too small to give measurable deflection or potential
(V) and the probe remains in its undisturbed position. At some sample-tip distance,
the attractive forces (usually Van der Waals) makes the tip jumps into contact with the
surface. Once the tip is in contact with the sample, it remains on the surface as the

The thickness vs. width of

CNT
separation. However as the distance between tip and sample decreases, the repulsive
interaction also steeply increases.
The figure above shows the graph of the thickness vs. width of CNT. The thickness of
CNT seems to resemble the used in this experiment which is around 1.5-2 nm.
However the width of the CNT does not in line with the width. Width and thickness of
CNT should be the same because both can be regarded as diameter.
One of the possible reasons for this phenomenon is that the tip used for scanning is
considerably thick. The tip is believed to tap 512x for every 10 m of sample. This
means that one tap covers around 19.5 nm of the sample area. This is way larger than
the diameter. Hence, the width of the CNT cannot be measured with great accuracy.
8. Calculate to what extent the sublimation temperature of gold is altered by the
pressure in the deposition apparatus during electrode deposition. The sublimation
temperature of gold at atmospheric pressure is 3129 K, and the molar heat of
vaporization is 324 kJ/mol. Also, compare this to the approximate sublimation
temperature measured by a radiation thermometer. Discuss whether the measured
value is within the margin of error, and also provide a reason if it is not.

dlnP vapH
=
2
dT
RT

dlnP=

vapH
dT
2
RT

ln Pln P o=

vapH
1 1
( )
R
T To

The vacuum pressure inside deposition apparatus = 1.1x10-6 torr,

6

1.1 10

(133.322368)ln ( 1.013 105 )=

ln

324 103
1
1
(
)
8.314
T 3129

1 Torr = 133.322368 Pa

T =1188.1923 K 1188 K
Note: T is the sublimation temperature of gold
The approximate sublimation temperature measured by a radiation thermometer is
between 800-1000oC. Compared to the approximate sublimation temperature, the
calculated temperature is still in within margin of error. The error in measuring the
temperature might happen because the pressure detector of the deposition machine is
not located inside the dome of the apparatus where the gold is placed. The pressure
detector is located slightly on the back of the machine and is connected to the dome
using a connector. As a result, there might be slight leakage causing the difference
between the real pressure inside the dome and the detected pressure.
9. Calculate the carrier mobility and the electric current on/off ratio of the transistor you
measured. Also, describe features of the actual elemental and electrical devices that
each of these parameters are related to.

gm=

Z
C V
L n o D

n=

gm L
Z CoV D

ox 3.9 8.85 1012 106 F /m

C o= =
=3.4515 1019 F / m2
d
100 m
4.57 107 S 60 m
n=
=1.5889 1012 cm2 V 1 s1
19
10 F
500 m 3.4515
0.1 V
2
m
The carrier mobility characterizes how quickly an electron or a hole can move through
a metal or semiconductr, when pulled by an electric field.
On/off ratio

On Current
1.59 105 A
=
=3.88
OFF Current 4.10 106 A

On/off current ratio is often used in field effect transistors (FET). It characterizes how
much the difference between the on state current and off state current. Typically the
on/off current ratio is around 10 -6-10-10. If there is a lot of leakage in the
semiconducting CNT, the off current would increase and thus contributes to the
decrease of on/off ratio. Thus, the greater the value of on/off ratio is, the better the
transistor is.
10.What are your thoughts on this experiment and report?
I think this CNT lab was very enjoyable. The TAs were very nice and helpful. I
appreciate how TA-san tried to speak in English . In addition, I found that the
structure of the experiment was very nicely put together. I especially like how report
assignments were discussed during waiting time. This helped me in understanding the
experiment better because sometimes my friends discuss about the report
assignments, but I just cannot understand what they are saying.

Some requests: is it possible to see how the CNT is fabricated from scratch? I think it
would be very interesting to see how CNT is produced in laboratory. Actually, just few
days before the experiment, my friend gave presentation about CNT and he said
producing CNT is a complicated process (he couldnt explain, but he just said that it
needs arc discharge). So, I was curious about the CNT production.
However, I think overall this lab is top notch already! Thank you for all the experience.
Applied Assignment
13. What sorts of interesting research/practical application can you envision with the
research/use of CNTs?
I think one of the most interesting properties of CNT is how it can conduct electricity
well. Recently, I read that some scientists in Scotland were trying to grow human heart
in lab to test the cure for hypertrophy heart disease. In this case, CNT might be
possible to be used as scaffold to support the growth of artificial heart, nerve cells, or
any other organs that need electrical impulse. CNT is light, but has enough mechanical
resistance to resist breaking upon contraction. Hence, heart can grow properly in the
laboratory.

Reference
Abdelhalim, Ahmed et al. (2013). Fabrication of carbon nanotube thin films on flexible
substrates by spray deposition and transfer printing. J.carbon.2013.04.069 doi:10.1016
Endo, Morinubo et al. (1996). Carbon Nanotubes. Oxford: Elsevier
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