Ann

Powell

Origins
of Western

THE ORIGINS OF WESTERN ART

ANN POWELL

THE ORIGINS OF
WESTERN ART
with 213 illustrations

THAMES AND HUDSON

For my parents

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CONTENTS

13

21

INTRODUCTION
The geography of art

CHAPTER ONE
The art oflce Age Europe,

c.

30,000-10,000 bc

CHAPTER TWO
Agriculture and the Near East,

39

Neolithic and Bronze

Age

art in the

Aegean,

6200-1400 BC

CHAPTER FOUR
Mycenae, the

67

9000-2000 bc

CHAPTER THREE
c.

57

c.

Greek

first

art,

c.

1600-1120 bc

CHAPTER FIVE
Northern Europe and the Mediterranean

79

89

CHAPTER SIX
The rebirth of Greek

c.

600-500 bc

art,

500-431 bc

c.

in the 5th century

bc

CHAPTER TEN
Greek

151

art,

CHAPTER NINE
Athens

135

800-600 bc

CHAPTER EIGHT
Classical

121

c.

CHAPTER SEVEN
Archaic

109

art,

art after the

Peloponnesian War, 404-323 BC

CHAPTER ELEVEN
Hellenistic

art,

323-135 bc

[63

CHAPTER TWELVE
Etruscan

176

189

ist

century

BC

early

CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Imperial

art,

27

bc-ad

192

CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Late

211

6th

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Roman art during the Republic and
2nd century BC-ist century AD

Roman
199

art,

Roman

art, 3

rd-4th centuries

EPILOGUE
The survival of classical

215

Maps

217

Glossary

218

Chronology

219

Bibliography

221

Index

ad

art

NOTE
Measurements

are given in feet

and

inches, with

centimetres in brackets. Height precedes width.

Empire,

INTRODUCTION
The geography

Although animals can produce

patterns, only

human

beings have the intelligence to create recognizable images.

This

new and important element

is

appeared about

thirty

in art

which

first

thousand years ago when modern

Europe during the Ice Age. The climate

food was plentiful and man survived by
hunting the great game animals which grazed on the
treeless tundra. Palaeolithic hunters shaped figures and
painted cave walls, representing what was most important

man

settled in

was

hostile but

women who

bore their children, ensuring

of the

men and

in their lives;

the

survival

tribe,

of their

animals they

is

the living being with all

Although
it is

the

an almost magical quality in the accuracy

representations, as if they were trying to recreate

hunted. There

this

was

the

its

first

power within

their images.

phase of representational

art,

of outstanding quality.

The society which created this art collapsed when food

became scarce after the climate of Europe became warmer
at the end of the Ice Age, forcing the great game animals
north. But this change of climate encouraged men living
in south/western Asia to cultivate the native edible grasses
and to domesticate sheep and goats. They lived in settled
communities, close to the land they cultivated, and
gradually the art of architecture was developed by these
farmers who built homes for themselves and their gods.
The

Neolithic farmers decorated their buildings with

women and farm

Although the themes are similar to those of
Palaeolithic art, no connecting link has been found and
they are separated by thousands of years and miles.
paintings and shaped figurines of men,

animals.

Moreover
tational,

the style

but the

is

artist

very different; art

was

of his image than in the pattern

The

farmers in Iran and

express ideas

is

less interested in
it

still

represent

the accuracy

created.

Mesopotamia used

and eventually invented

patterns to

the art of writing.

of art

They experimented with fire, discovering first the art of

pottery and then metal working. These discoveries
prepared the way for the great Bronze Age civilizations in
Mesopotamia, Egypt and Asia Minor, which profoundly
influenced the culture of Europe.
pottery, metal

Europe from

The

arts

of agriculture,

working and writing were introduced

into

Mediterranean.

Our

this region in the eastern

system of counting minutes and seconds in sixties and our

show our debt to these ancient civilizations.

During the Bronze Age the small farming com/
munities in Mesopotamia and Egypt were joined together

alphabet

into vast empires ruled by semi'divine kings living in

richly

Head

of

an Akkadian king, prob'

Sargon (2371-2316 bc).

Bronze 1 3/4 " (29.8). Iraq Museum,
ably

Baghdad

decorated palaces

(///.

1).

The

kings used the

immense wealth of their empires to finance grandiose

building projects which included temples for their gods
and tombs to insure their own immortality. This opulent
display of wealth was copied in Greece in the second
millennium where first the kings of Crete and then the
kings of Mycenae ruled like oriental monarchs.
But the whole of the eastern Mediterranean was
disrupted by invasions and migrations at the end of the
second millennium and the Bronze Age ended in Greece
with the Dorian invasion. Although speaking a Greek
dialect related to the language of Mycenaean Greece, the
Dorian invaders were completely out of touch with
Mediterranean civilization, and the Mycenaean civilize
ation collapsed into a dark age without written records.

The

only art to continue was pottery.

Mesopotamia and Egypt were not so severely affected
by these invasions and their Bronze Age civilizations
survived relatively unchanged. The rulers of Mesopotamia
still

lived in vast palaces decorated with relief sculpture in

stone

and stone temples were being

built in Egypt.

These

buildings must have appeared overwhelmingly magnificent to the

first

Greek

traders

who

ventured into foreign

bc,

parts after the revival of trade in the 9th century

only buildings they

knew

at

home were

for the

constructed out

o{ mudbrick and wood. Eventually, with the growing

prosperity of Greece in the 7th

century bc, oriental

techniques of stone construction, stone sculpture and

bronze hollow casting were introduced into the rich

Greek trading

cities

culminating in

classical art.

There

is

5th century

a. new

and began an

movement

artistic

element in classical Greek

bc which

distinguishes

it

from

art

of the

that of the

2 Head of a Greek god, probably Poseidon,

6' io'/ " (208.6). National
of whole statue
4

from the Artemision wreck, c. 460 BC. Bronze. Height

Museum, Athens (see III. 114)

Bronze Age. Although Bronze Age art is naturalistic, it

formed part of the elaborate ritual of palace life and re/
ligion. Certain fixed rules had to be obeyed when
representing deities, rulers and high officials who had to
be distinguished from ordinary human beings. The
Athenian artist, living in an independent city state
governed democratically by his fellow citizens, under the
patronage of a goddess, recognized no such distinction

men and

between

Olympian gods

to

gods.

Although he

believed

the

be superhuman, he represented them

human form (///. 2), their bodies controlled by the

same bones and muscles found in ordinary human beings
who had reached the peak of physical perfection after
years of athletic training. The gods were represented as
ideal types of humanity.
Greek art became increasingly naturalistic with its
growing understanding of human anatomy so that artists
abandoned the Egyptian conventions of pose and
proportion. Its subject was not the individual human
being but what was permanent and unchanging in the
infinite variety of humanity. Perfectly formed bodies tend
to conform to certain fixed proportions and the Greeks
discovered that these simple numerical relationships were
equally beautiful whether applied to the human figure or
in

Head

oj

Celtic

deity

from

Msecke'Zehrovice, Central Bohemia,

Middle La

Ton

BCJ. Limestone
al

.period

"
cj'/
2

Museum, Prague

(2nd century

(25.4). Nation-

a temple.

Classical Greek art became a European style because it

was inherited by the Romans who transmitted it through/
out their empire. But the Romans had developed their
own style of art which was interested in the individual
and not in formal analysis. Moreover, the Roman empire

contained

many

had

own

their

different nations, not least the Celts

extremely abstracted

representations into

complex

art

which

who

distorted

curvilinear patterns

(///.

3).

As a result, the art of the later Roman empire is intrinsically

from that of Greece.
This change of style heralding medieval

different

art

became

Roman

empire
by Diocletian and the acceptance of Christianity by
Constantine. The eastwards shift of power to the new

very noticeable after the division of the

capital

Constantinople, and the triumph of the

oriental religion,

ancient world.

new

Christianity, entirely reorganized the

The Emperor was

regarded as the earthly

regent of Christ, the ruler of the Universe. Elaborate

palace and church ceremonies were evolved out of the

10

ritual

of an oriental monarch. Artists were no longer

interested in representing what the eye could see, nor in

what could be understood rationally, but in creating
symbolic images expressing the complex spiritual

classical style never

epilogue traces

its

survival

Bust of an Evangelist found

early

Constantinople,
$th

century

late

4th

at

or

AD. Marble 2j"

Museum, h'

(68.6). Archaeological

hierarchy of the universe.

But the

Fatih,

completely died, and our

(///. 4).

tanbul
1

Bison on the rooj of the cave

at

Altamira, Mag&almian period

(c.

5,000-9000 BC)

CHAPTER ONE
The

The

art of Ice

Age Europe

c.

30,000-10,000 BC

discovery in 1879 of the bison painted on the roof

of the cavern

at

Altamira

in northern

Spain (map p. 215)

man had been

revealed the astonishing fact that 'modern'

an

artist

from the

earliest

phase of his existence,

only tools he possessed were

paintings

were

no

made of stone

simple

scratchings,

which expressed
which roamed the

when the
5). The

(///.

but

superb

decorations in colour

the noble dignity

of the great beasts

valleys of south'

western Europe, sheltered from the arctic winds of the

Ice Age. This was a hostile environment, yet one in
which man thrived, expressing his awe at the bounty of
last

nature by decorating deep cave sanctuaries with images

of animals.

Man

slowly evolved during the Pleistocene period,

which began over two million

years ago.

There were four

major periods of glaciation, and modern man, homo

sapiens sapiens,

appeared in western Europe during the

of the 'Ice Ages', about thirty thousand years ago.

last

He

was the last stage of an evolutionary development which

began when one branch of the anthropoid apes left the
shelter of the forests and eventually adopted an upright
stance that freed their hands for using tools. At first these
tools were nothing more than sticks and stones which
they happened to pick up, but the tools became more
efficient and could even be used as formidable weapons
when these early pre^men learnt how to chip stones into
sharp cutting edges. The Pithecanthropus group of pre/
men, who lived 500,000 years ago, had already learnt the
use of fire and so could begin to control their environment.
The tools manufactured by these early groups of
pre/men exhibit a growing appreciation of form for its
own sake as well as for utility. This aesthetic sense is not
unique to human beings and recent work on animal
behaviour has shown that animals tend

to prefer patterns

which

as

are regular

and symmetrical. But

human

beings

developed so did
care

was taken

their

hand

This developing aesthetic sense

of the
thai

first

man

human

real

and more and more

axes,

shaping them.

in

is

seen in the

(homo sapiens neanderthalensis)

Germany where

hand axes

beings, the species called Neander^

bones were

his

first

after a valley

in

He

discovered.

occupied large areas of the earth for about 150,000 years

until ousted by homo sapiens sapiens about 30,000 bc.

man had

Neanderthal

a very large brain, in

some

cases

even larger than that of modern man, and he was the

first

have an awareness of death. He buried his dead

with ritual, covering the body with red ochre and even
placing stone tools, food and flowers within the grave, as
being

if to

to

prepare for an

form of

after-life.

There

is

evidence of some

religion; he created shrines for the bones of the

cave bear he hunted, and a skull has been discovered in

Italy,

surrounded by a ring of stones, which may have

And yet, although he had

been an object of worship.

growing spiritual awareness and sense of pattern, he

no traces of representational art.
The first representational artist was homo sapiens sapiens,
who appeared only in the Upper Palaeolithic period,
when most of northern Europe was covered with the ice
this

6 'Venus' of Willendorf, Gravettian

period (c. 2j, 000-25,000 BC). Lime"
"

stone with traces of red colouring,

(11.4).

4%

Museum,

Naturhistorisches

Vienna

left

of the
7

Woman

with a

cornucopia
(c.

ig,ooo

traces

of red

Laussel, Gravettian period

BC).

Limestone

colouring

d'Aquitainc,

ij'/2 "

with

(44-4J-

Bordeaux

from

Musee

is

last

period of glaciation.

The Upper

Palaeolithic

divided into four main cultural periods, identified by

the types of tools

where

manufactured and named

the remains

period began

c.

were

30,000

first

discovered.

after the sites

The Aurignacian

bc when modern man

first

reached

western Europe and settled in the sheltered valleys of

south-western

France

and

northern

Spain.

succeeded by the Gravettian (sometimes

It

known

was

as the

Upper Aurignacian or Perigordian) period, which

began c. 27,000 bc and lasted until about 18,000 bc. A
number of small figurines were carved and modelled in
this period. The Solutrean culture first appeared about
20,000 bc and was followed by the Magdalenian about
15,000 bc. The Magdalenian was the last stage of
Palaeolithic culture

paintings;

it

ended

and was
in

the period of the

major cave

north-western Europe about 8500

bc. These dates are very approximate and vary from

region to region.

The

works of art were small'

and models of men, women and animals.
The most popular theme (as far as one can judge from
earliest representational

scale carvings

surviving evidence) appears to have been a

woman

so fat

was discovered

6)

(111.

only

The 'Venus' of" Willendorf

Lower Austria - a tiny figure
shaped out of limestone. Her face is

seems pregnant.

that she

inches

4.3

tall,

in

and she hangs her head over her ample breasts

which are pressed down by her arms as if to emphasize
their fullness. She radiates a sense of calm contentment
and seems to be more than a mere representation of a fat
woman, since she expresses fertility and prosperity in every
featureless

curve of her body.

We do not know what the subject of this work

is.

She

is

'Venus' because of her nudity and also the pose

with hands on her breasts is similar to that of Phoenician
called

and Greek

statues

of this goddess. But without a written

inscription

we do

not

the

woman who was

know

whether she

most important

is

a goddess or

to the artist, the

who would ensure the survival of

many complex reasons for represent

mother of his children

There

his tribe.

are

tation, not least the

simple pleasure of creating a likeness.

Unlike the earlier Gravettian sculpture, that of the

Magdalenian period tended to be used to decorate tools,
particularly by representing animals. There is a new
interest in relating one form to another so that the
functional form of the tool is enhanced by the animal
carving on it.
superb example is a ceremonial spearthrower from Bruniquel (///. 8) carved out of a reindeer

antler.

The

natural shape of the antler has been exploited

8 Spear 'thrower with

leaping horse

from Bruniquel, Magdalenian

IV

III or
"

(c.

(32.4).

12,000 bc).
Betirac

Bone

Collection,

i23/
4

Mont'

attban

not only to create the tool, but also to suggest the profile

of a horse
forelegs

as

it

leaps into action, hindlegs straightened,

tucked into the body and head outstretched.

Though

the

form

fits

the shape of the tool so well, the

carving also shows brilliant powers of observation: a

momentary

attitude has been caught

and even

the shaggy

texture of the animal's coat depicted.

To a certain extent,
habitation
small-scale

was used to decorate

mouths of caves. Although
sculpture has been found all over Europe,

sites

and

stone sculpture
the

decorated

caves are mostly situated in south-western

France and northern Spain. There, the climate would
have been little worse than present-day Scotland, for the

mountains of central France gave protection against the

winds. Hunters lived in rock shelters which
they sometimes decorated with relief sculpture. At
icy arctic

Laussel a vast ledge over 370 feet long, facing south,

formed an open-air esplanade, fenced by blocks which
had fallen from a caved-in vault. Five of these blocks

15

The
c.

art of Ice

Age Europe

30,000-10,000 bc

were decorated with

of human

reliefs

!8 inches high.

The

holding a horn

in her raised right

best preserved

figures,

each about

woman

an obese

is

arm, the prehistoric

prototype of the cornucopia, the horn of plenty

The

(///.

7).

shows that even before the invention of agri/

culture, horned animals were associated with prosperity.
In contrast to these habitation sites on the surface, there
were deep caverns which penetrated far beneath the earth
into complete darkness. Although habitation debris is
only found within the reach of daylight, many of these
dark caverns were decorated with painted and engraved
relief

We

figures.

why men

can only speculate

explored the

darkness beneath the earth and chose to paint there by the

smoky

motives were

light of a guttering torch, but their

probably religious, tinged with belief in powerful magic.

The

cave paintings are

much more

difficult to date

found

the sculpture because they are

in caves

than

without

occupation debris and so cannot be dated stratigraphically.

Style

inconclusive for caves were painted over too long

is

thousand years until the end of the

Magdalenian period, and possibly for twenty thousand
a period, at least seven

years

throughout Upper Palaeolithic times. In ten or

twenty millennia there

to

is

time for

many

artistic

movements

be born and to die, and paintings which appear crude

and primitive need not necessarily be earlier than more

accomplished work. But the tendency now is to place
most of the major cave paintings

in the last five millennia

of the Palaeolithic period and carbon from Lascaux has

been dated by radiocarbon methods to

Lascaux

(///.

9)

was discovered

in

c.

13,000 bc.

1940

an almost

in

perfect state of preservation, the original entrance

been blocked since the Palaeolithic period.

are particularly

cavern

is

The

having

paintings

spectacular, for the upper part of the

covered with a dazzling white coat of calcite

crystals

which

Almost

the entire cave

the colour of the paintings.

intensifies
is

decorated with paintings and

engravings, but the most important

chamber

is

the large

central cavern, called the Great Hall of the Bulls (3)

where four

great black bulls, the largest 18 feet long,

part of a frieze of animals

(///.

pot-bellied, spotted beast,

).

On the far

known

for

left

form

a strange,

some reason

as the

'Unicorn' (though two distinct horns project from

his

head), surveys the group of small red and black horses

which gallop
16

is

in front

confronted by the

of him before the

stately

first

great bull.

He

procession of the three other

The

art of Ice
c.

Age Europe

30,000-10,000 bc

g Plan of Lascaux. From Annette

Laming, Lascaux Paintings and

Engravings, ly^g

bulls

which have been painted in firm black outline over

of stags and red cows.

earlier figures

The Painted
the

Gallery (4)

is

narrower continuation of

Great Hall, elaborately decorated with

friezes

of

animals on both walls. Another passage (5) from the

Great Hall leads to the Main Gallery (7), where a cornice

formed by the junction of two different types of rock in the

cavern

above arm/height. Most of the animals

is

are

painted or engraved above the cornice and a frieze of deer

heads has been placed so that the animals seem to be

swimming

in water indicated by the rocky ledge. In order

artist may have had to

some form of scaffolding, or he may have
perched on the shoulders of a companion. The only
paintings below the cornice are towards the end of the
gallery, before it becomes almost impassable, where two
bison are charging in opposite directions, the embodiment

to

reach above this cornice the

construct

of natural energy.

The Main Gallery ends

to

crawl along

it

in a tunnel so low that one has

on hands and knees, though it broadens

out eventually into a succession of small irregular alcoves,

decorated with a medley of painted and engraved animals,

including six or seven roughly scratched felines which

give their

name

to this

chamber. The

Chamber

of Felines

17

to

man

menaced by

wearing
a

wounded

caux. Early Magdalenian

BC)

must have always been

bird

mask

(8)

bison,

Las'

wealth of engravings within

(c.

13,000

been frequently

show

Perhaps

visited.

enter,

to

difficult
it

that

yet

was regarded

it

the

must have

it

as

one

of the most sacred places in the cavern because the tunnel

continues beyond, and to the right
the floor ends suddenly in a steep

is

drop

down

where
lower

of the cavern.

level

There

is

similar

chamber which

Man

(9),

cave.

At

seems

to

another deep

pit

sight the

first

end

profusion of engravings in the

gives access to the Shaft of the

down

to the

in a cuUde^sac

to the vault

lower

level

Dead
of the

'Chamber of Engravings'
and

is

one of the

pressive parts of the cave, for the walls

up

cleft

to the

narrow

least

have been covered

with a miscellany of engraved figures

superimposed on

earlier

paintings.

At

the far

end a

highly polished stone forms a kind of lip into a deep

and

domed

the

vault over

animals and signs, no mean

At

the

rope,
a

is

bottom of the

it

feat

is

over a 16'foot'deep shaft.

shaft, accessibly

ground

him, with a bird-headed

(///.

10).

turns his

which

represents

man who

staff lying

is

on the

rhinoceros, painted in a completely

and hence perhaps not

back on the group.

different style,

The

only by means of a

bison menacing a bird-headed

prostrate before

pit,

thickly engraved with

a painted panel over 6 feet long

wounded

(6)

inv

part of this scene,

paintings of the great bulls from the Hall at

Lascaux

(///.

11),

in

which

the essential

nature and

appearance of the animals are expressed in simple outline

and

areas of colour, illustrate the

Palaeolithic

art.

It

is

immediate appeal of
and the artist

intensely naturalistic

captures, seemingly without effort, the form,

and feeling of the animals in

and washes of colour. There

movement

a few keenly observed lines

is

even a rudimentary sense

The

of composition in the arrangement of the bulls as a

procession,

and

the images are not

flat

art of Ice

but suggest volume

c.

Age Europe

30,000-10,000 BC

and depth. But there was no interest in illusionistic space

so landscape was ignored and most of the animals were
painted as isolated images.

There

is

no obvious explanation why the caves were

painted. This procession of bulls seems to have been

painted with the aim of pleasing the eye of the

artist,

but

decorations in other parts of the cave are almost invisible.

They are in inaccessible places or have been superimposed

one on top of another so as to be almost indecipherable.
Certain parts of the cave, especially those leading to the
lower

levels,

seemed

to

need frequent redecoration without

regard for ultimate appearance, pointing to the possibility

that

it

was the act of creation of the image, not its ap^

which was all'important. Not all the images

pearance,

are representational; there are a

number of

signs in the galleries, rectangular grids

which defy

interpretation

and

are

mysterious

and feathered
perhaps

lines

magical

symbols.

Although

the

main

subject of cave art

was

the animals

hunted by Palaeolithic man, no importance was given

Lascaux

to the reindeer, his staple diet

food, clothing, tools

at

which provided

and weapons. There is only one

compared with over one

reindeer represented in the cave

hundred

horses, thirty aurochs, twenty deer, ten ibex,

seven bison, six or seven felines, one bear, one

musk

ox,

from

Detail of the frieze of animals

the

Lascaux.

Great Hall of the Bulls,

Magdalenian (c.
Early

13,000 BC)

IsB

-$*

,* *

*"

"'

The
c.

art of Ice

30,000

Age Europe

10,000

bc

ancJ an imaginary animal called the 'Unicorn'. Indeed,

tne reindeer

is

rarely represented in

theme of decoration

is

cave

art

and

the major

a central panel of aurochs or bison

much

linked together with horses. These animals were

less

important than the reindeer in the

man

yet they are the

extent the paintings

magic, but

it

major theme of cave

may have been

was not

of Palaeolithic

diet

art.

To a

certain

inspired by hunting

the sole reason for decorating the

caves.

Human

figures

were

represented

within

the

deep

caverns, although in comparison to representations of

animals

their

numbers

animals and the

shaman,

who

there

is

between the naturalism of the

stiff figure

legs painted in the Shaft

interpretation of this

At Lascaux

are small.

startling difference in style

with matchstick arms and

Dead Man

of the

painting

is

10). One
man was a

(///.

that the

obtained some of his magical powers from

animals but was defeated by superior animal magic,

represented by the bison.

No

simple explanation can

paintings of Lascaux.

be given for the cave

They seem

to

have been related

the religious beliefs of the Palaeolithic hunters; but

to

we

know

almost nothing about their religion except that it

must have been complex, and we cannot be certain that

it

involved rituals which required representational images.

Yet the paintings of Lascaux express a belief in the power

o( animals, and
embodiment of

the aurochs

these animals, the hunters

for this

power, and they

ing access to

it,

seem

to express their

may have felt that

perhaps even controlling

Palaeolithic art

modern man

and bison seem to be the

By creating images of

natural energy.

is

deeply mysterious.

admiration

they were gain/

it.

It

appeared with

Europe and died out with the

end of the Ice Age apparently leaving no heritage.
Although we do not even understand its meaning, the
vivid naturalism of the carving and paintings appeal
immediately to the modern eye.
in western

CHAPTER TWO
Agriculture and the Near East

named

Periods of civilization are often

from which

Stone Age, the Bronze

many

civilization:

Age and

after the materials

the Iron

too simple for the

is

9000-2000 BC

were manufactured: hence the

their tools

classification

c.

first

Age. But

period of

types of society existed,

all

this

human

using stone

development of metal working in the

fifth millennium and the beginning of the Bronze Age.
The Stone Age has therefore been divided into two
periods, Old and New, Palaeolithic and Neolithic,
separated by the change of climate, about ten thousand
years ago, which marked the end of the Pleistocene and
the beginning of the Holocene, or recent period of
geological time. Palaeolithic societies depended entirely
on hunting for their food. But as the climate became
warmer at the end of the last Ice Age, societies developed
which domesticated animals and cultivated crops.
During the Neolithic period men became farmers.
There was an intermediate stage in European civiliZ'
before the

tools,

ation after the

end of the Ice

duction of agriculture. In

continued

Age

but before the intro^

Mesolithic period,

this

men

but the great oxen, reindeer

to live in caves;

and wild horses had moved further north so the hunting

was for smaller game caught with the help of dogs.
Fishing became important, and the fish-hook and net

The rock

were invented.
eastern Spain,
their subject

were

and

style

still

and

especially in south/

were completely

of the Palaeolithic caves.

representations of

shelters,

decorated with paintings, but

The

man and

different

from those

paintings were schematic

his society,

dancing, hunting

fighting.

Agriculture was not a European discovery but was

introduced from south/western Asia where sheep and
goats are
at

the

still

found

basin,

in a

wild

state.

Age affected

The change of climate

whole Mediterranean
which had been thickly forested. As the temperature

end of the Ice

the

Agriculture and the Near East

c.

9000 2000 BC

rose, the forests receded and gave way to grasslands.

These were ideal hunting conditions and whole herds
were captured, corralled and allowed to breed. Excava^

Zawi Chemi Shanidar,

tions at

that the earliest inhabitants

in northern Iraq,

show

hunted mainly the wild goat.

But a settlement developed c. 9000 bc which depended

on large quantities of sheep, more than half of them
yearlings - presumably kept in captivity and then killed
for food and skins. The sheep was probably the first
domestic animal.

The

Age

cultivation of cereals perhaps goes

in

Egypt.

It

back

to the Ice

reached Palestine in the ninth millen/

nium where the Natufians, who lived in cave shelters on

Mount Carmel and hunted gazelle, used flint/bladed
reaping knives (c. 8850 bc). The wild ancestors of our
wheat and barley occur naturally in this region
and the edible seeds were gathered and eaten, though
some were reserved for sowing the next year.
With the development of agriculture, people began to
live in communities which grew into fortified towns.
The development of farming had made land a precious
possession which needed guarding. Among the oldest
known towns is Jericho, which began as a sanctuary
cultivated

built

by Mesolithic hunters beside a never^failing spring

about 7800 BC.

A thousand years

a settlement into a

later

town covering ten

it

acres

had grown from

and surrounded

by massive defence walls with towers 30 feet high. In

spite of its size and the obvious complexity of its civiliza^

town was without writing

tion, this

or pottery.

After the astonishing naturalism of Palaeolithic

Neolithic

art

seems

disappointingly

crude.

art,

But the

was being extended and the inhabit

town came close to achieving the art of

subject matter of art

tants

of

this

portraiture.

This seems to have been developed from the

group of heads, discovered beneath

cult of the dead.

Human

modelled
with

in

skull

plaster

with

the features

and eyes inlaid

cowrie shell from Jericho,

millennium BC.

Amman Museum

jth

the floor of one of the houses,

had been buried

from the

Their features

bodies

(///.

12).

naturalistically modelled in plaster on the

one of the restored faces there are indications in paint of

a moustache.

The word

'portrait'

is

used deliberately for

these plastered skulls because in each

made

to restore the

who was
22

separately

had been
skull, and one

an attempt was

individual features of the dead man,

probably a revered ancestor.

Agriculture spread rapidly into Anatolia, and the

town of (^atal Hiiyiik was growing barley by 6500 bc,

known

13 Reconstruction

Neolithic town, four times the size of pre^pottery Jericho.

31, Qatal Hiiyiik,

the earliest excavated level.

The houses were

built

This

is

the largest

was

Shrine

VI,

6200

of mud/brick and entered by means

of a ladder through an opening in the

furniture

of
c.

flat

The

roof.

an oval oven and a storage

built in;

recess

and along the other three

which could be used as
couches, though buried beneath them were the bones of
were

set

into the south wall,

walls were raised

platforms

the previous owners.

Shrines were built on the same plan as the houses, with

sleeping platforms

and ancestors buried underneath, but

They

they are distinguished by their elaborate decorations.

seem

to

have been dedicated

was always represented

to a

Mother Goddess

in plaster relief,

who

sometimes with

her legs raised in the birth'giving attitude and sometimes

accompanied by her daughter (///. ij). She was mistress
of both life and death, for not only the bull and the other
great horned animals were sacred to her, but also the
vulture who stripped the flesh from the dead bodies. (In
one shrine two breasts, modelled in plaster, concealed
vultures' beaks as nipples). She was also mistress of the
animals; a statuette represents her seated on a throne

supported by leopards
the harvests

as she gives birth to her son.

were under her control, her

Since

statuette

was

23

1,

Reconstruction of Shrine
(^atal

Hiiyiik,

decorated

III,

with

wall painting of a red bull and stag

hunt,

c.

5750 BC.

James Mellaart

Restoration

by

placed

the

in

bin

grain

bring greater prosperity.

to

Perhaps she was associated with the new technology,

the oldest

Hiiyiik,

known

and

textiles

have been discovered

fabric designs

still

for

at C^atal

used today in Turkish

carpets decorated her shrines.

Hunting was an important

C^atal Hiiyiik, for the

Konya

once a parkland rich in red deer

wild bull

is

one o{ the most important themes

decoration of the shrines

The horn

benches and

wild bull

is

14).

(111.

paint as part of a hunting scene

in plaster.

economy of
which it lies was
and wild cattle, and the

part o( the

plain on

and

It

the

in the

was represented in
head was modelled

cores were incorporated into plaster

pillars as primitive bucrania.

This cult of the

so similar to that of the painted Palaeolithic

caves of south-western France that one wonders whether

any connection. But they are separated by

more than a thousand miles and several thousand years
and so far nothing has been found to link them.
The invention of pottery was one of the most important

there can be

achievements of the Neolithic period.

seventh

millennium

agriculture)

and

(long

these early pots

rings out of spiral coils

often

decorations

Its

the

use began in the

introduction

of

were built up in successive

which were scraped smooth and

burnished with a pebble.

painted

-4

after

The

have been found

earliest

in

known

Cilicia,

in

southwestern Turkey, where the pottery was covered in

cream slip and motifs painted in red clay. An ovoid

two-handled jar from Hacilar (c. 5500 bc), has red

circles around the handles which frame a schematically
painted woman with huge breasts (///. 1 5).
The whole art of vase painting in the ancient world
developed from these humble beginnings, culminating in

and red figure pottery of classical Greece. Unlike

no coloured glazes were used and the
decorations were painted in thin washes of red and white
clay. The high gloss of Greek pottery was achieved solely
by using very pure materials and the different shades of
red and black were produced by controlling the amount of
oxygen in the atmosphere of the kiln.
The decorations of the jar from Hacilar are very
the black
later

pottery,

abstract.

The

recognizable;
design
is

which

figure
it

of the

woman

(or goddess)

is

barely

has been reduced to an arrow-shaped

satisfyingly

characteristic of

much

fills

the shape of the pot.

Neolithic

art

where

figures

Vase with painted female figure

from Hacilar, c. 5500 BC. Pottery

$y2 " (14). Ankara Museum

This

and

animals were simplified into decorative patterns. This

was partly because the new crafts of house building,

weaving and pottery demanded decoration. But the
essence of pattern^making is a rhythmic repetition of a
simple motif. This interest in rhythm and repetition
perhaps reflects one of the great discoveries of the
Neolithic period, one on which the whole of agriculture
is

based - that there

life

is

behind

pattern

life

which

changes and governs the cycles of

regulates the seasonal

and death.

The Bronze Age

The development of pottery
metallurgy, since both

is

closely related to the art

depend on

of

the complete alteration

of the properties of a substance by the application of heat.

Firing a pot brings about an irreversible change from
fragile clay to

durable ceramic. Metals were

known

as a

cold/worked
copper and lead beads of the seventh millennium have
been found at Catal Hiiyiik. But the an of working hot
metal was probably first discovered in northern
Mesopotamia in the fifth millennium, close to a region

valuable rarity in the Neolithic

where there

are

copper

metals to extract from

ores.

its

period;

Copper

ore because

it

is

one of the

easiest

requires a relatively

low temperature. It was soon discovered that its quality

was greatly improved by the addition of up to ten per cent
tin to form the alloy bronze, which has an even lower

25

melting
absorbs

and

point
less

gas

when

produces

better

casts

because

it

molten. In addition, bronze, unlike

copper becomes harder and capable of forming a sharp

cutting edge for an axe or a sword when hammered cold.

Once

the

valuable

>v~-^
/*

7
1

6 Ritual jug

decorated with a relief

of a bull attacked by lions from the

precinct of the

(Warka),

E'Anna

late

fourth

temple,

Uruk

millennium.

Limestone 8" (20.3). Iraq Museum,

Baghdad

of copper had been

working was developed in

properties

discovered, the art of metal

countries far from the sources of the ore, first in

Mesopotamia and then soon afterwards in Egypt. This
was possible because long-distance trade was well
established in articles such as obsidian, and the rapid
development of society after the fourth millennium was
partially due to the enterprise of merchants seeking new
sources of copper and tin ore.
With the development of trade some form of permanent
record became essential. Stamp seals had been used as
early as the fifth millennium in Mesopotamia to record
property. Although large Neolithic towns, such as
Jericho and Qatal Hiiyuk, had existed without written
records the new bureaucratic kingdoms of the Bronze Age
were far more complex in structure. Armies equipped
with bronze weapons gave them the power to control
vast empires which were forced to pay taxes, and it was
partly the invention of writing which made possible
organization on such a scale.
Writing developed simultaneously in Persia and
Mesopotamia in the middle of the fourth millennium. On
a vase (///. ij) from Uruk, an important town in the
southern reaches of the Euphrates, the goddess Inanna is

by her pictograph, a curiously knotted bundle

identified

of reeds.

The

representation of the reeds

was reduced

an abstract symbol which eventually was used

to

to express

not an idea but a sound. This discovery was soon copied

by the Egyptians: the palette of King Narmer

(Ills 20,

21)

documents in the written history of

Egypt, commemorating the union of the northern and
southern kingdoms by the victory of the southern king.
is

one of the

Sumerian

Art

Mesopotamia (map 2, p. 216), the fertile valley between

and Euphrates, bounded to the north/west by
the Taurus mountains and the highlands of Armenia, to
the east by the Zagros mountains and to the west by the
Synan^Arabian desert, had long been important in
human culture. It had been inhabited since the Palaec
the Tigris

26

first

lithic

two mountainous

age and the

areas

had been among

the sites of the initial stages of the Neolithic revolution.

The
hot

of extracting copper from

art

its

ore

and working the

metal was developed in the north as early as the

fifth

millennium bc.

Although
Sumerian

had been more important,

the north

developed in the

civilization

the

land of

fertile

southern Mesopotamia where the great alluvial plain

between the Tigris and the Euphrates was covered with

rich, stone'free soil which, combined with the hot

encouraged agriculture. These first centuries of

Sumerian civilization are known as the 'Ubaid
period' (c. 4000-c. 3200 bc) when villages in southern
'Mesopotamia grew into towns and writing was invented.
Although the land was fertile, the rivers were un^
'predictable and there was always the double danger of
drought and flood. Memories of catastrophic floods
survive not only in the Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh but
?also in the Hebrew Bible. The Sumerian farmer could
'climate,

the

upon

never rely entirely

the benevolence of nature for

although he might have had prodigious harvests

1

could be wiped out

all

his efforts

common theme

in

for years,

one single catastrophe.

in Sumerian art is a conflict between

and benevolent forces of nature. It is found
on a stone ewer from Uruk of the late fourth millennium
which represents a bull, symbol of prosperity to a farmer,

the destructive

attacked by a lion

16).

(///.

In order to avoid catastrophe, the

that their deities

theme

is

carved

at

stands

c.

had

illustrated

on another

high and the

feet

four bands. In the lower part

barley,

palm

Sumerians believed

be placated with offerings. This

early vase

end of the fourth millennium

the
1

to

trees

ing baskets of

and

fruit.

reliefs

we

from Uruk,
(///.

17).

are divided

It

into

see the harvest, ears

of

a procession of naked priests carry'

The high

priest offers his basket to

Inanna in the topmost section, hoping that

reward him with abundant harvests in the New

the goddess

she will

Vase from

Uruk

decorated with reliefs of the

Year.
festival,

The goddess
a

(or perhaps her priestess) stands before

by her pictograph of two knotted

shrine identified

bundles of reeds.

It

is

represented by

two

height

c.

c.

36"

3100

Warka)

New

BC.

(91.4). Iraq

Year

Alabaster,

Museum,

Baghdad

lesser deities

standing on towers raised up on the back of a bull. This

illustrates the

basic layout of

Sumerian temples which

were a place of offering on a raised platform. Within the

early

town remains of Eridu (south of Uruk on

the

2-7

Agriculture and the Near East

c. 9000-2000 bc

Sumenan

Euphrates), the town of Enki, the

j

nn y s h r ine, only

12

feet

square.

It is

water god,

divided into an

entrance hall, containing an offering table, an inner room

and

a niche

architectural

with a pedestal or

arrangement allowed the worshipper

bring his offering to the god, and

is

god. This

altar for the

to

intrinsically different

from the Neolithic shrines of Catal Hliyuk which were

no more than elaborately decorated houses occupied by
the sacerdotal family. The Sumerians were not on such
familiar terms with their gods but nevertheless believed
that

they could

offerings.

communicate with them by making!

at Eridu was later rebuilt eighteen

The temple

times and eventually stood on a high platform, great'

flights

of steps led up to

it

and

the public could enter

through many doors. The temple towers, called

zig/

sky so that

men

could approach heaven. This belief survived long

after

gurats,

were intended

as staircases to the

Sumerian period, and when the Greek historian

Herodotos visited Babylon in the 5th century bc he saw.
the Temple of Bel standing on a 'solid central tower, onei
furlong square, with a second erected on top of it and then
a third and so on up to eight. All the eight towers can be
climbed by a spiral way running round the outside, and'
about halfway up there are seats for those who make the
ascent to rest on.' (The Histories I, 181)
the

By

the beginning of the early dynastic period

(c.

2800

bc), Sumerian culture was fully formed. Writing had

been invented about 3300 bc and the potter's wheel was

introduced at the same time. Great advances were made
in architecture at

stone foundations
strength.

its

The

Uruk where temples were

and the mud/brick was fired

built with
to

improve

unpleasant surface/texture of the brick

buildings was improved by painting them and even

covering them with mosaic. Brick columns were built

imitating the forms of palm tree trunks. Because
stone were rare, the architects

had

to

wood and

develop the use of

brick and small stones which, despite their limited

could be made

to

size,

span wide spaces by building them into

arches.

Arches have been discovered

Although most of the graves

are

(c.

are unexceptional, seventeen

remarkable because of the lavishness of their offerings

and because
28

Ur,
2600 bc).

in a cemetery at

dating from the early dynastic period

the bodies have been placed in stone or brick

burial chambers.

These

all

have vaulted roofs; some

are

Dnly corbelled

where the horizontally

jne over the other until they meet

joints.

discovery since
pieces of stone,

'ignored
;it

The
it

is

and

arch

but

it,

is

made
the

stronger

the

|ibove,

thus forming

but others are covered with true arches with

1 false arch,

radial

laid stones project

at the top,

remarkable engineering

out of wedge-shaped bricks or

more pressure
becomes.

it

Roman

that

is

put on

The Greeks

architects used

it

it

from

largely

in

instrument,

decorated

with mosaic

in shell,

lapis lazuli, etc.

This

side represents a

set in

bitumen.

on

both

sides

2600 BC. i8'/2 "x8"

(47x20.3). British Museum, Low
royal victory,

c.

don

and

extensively

became a basis for medieval architecture

and western Europe.

18 The 'Royal Standard' of Ur,

probably the sounding box of a musical

both

pastern

The

graves in

Ur

were

filled

with fabulous treasures

kings and queens the

Royal cemetery, even though
there is no record of these rulers in the Sumerian king
lists. Some of the royal graves were filled with the bodies
of attendants, all wearing their richest clothing and

and because inscriptions

cemetery

is

known

refer to

as the

jewellery, lying peacefully at rest as if they considered

an honour

to

accompany

the king.

known example of human

This

sacrifice

in

is

it

the only

Sumerian

civilization.

The

grave treasures

ation in

The

Ur

at

show

the high standard o^ civilize

the beginning o{ the third millennium.

graves were

filled

with golden helmets, goblets and

musical instruments inlaid with precious material.

so-called 'Royal Standard'

(///.

18)

was probably

The
the

sounding box of a harp, or possibly a lyre similar to that

being played in the banquet scene which decorates one of
its

sides.

It

is

an oblong box, about 18 inches long,

29

with tapering ends, decorated with cut/out limestone and

shell

figures

against

set

background of dark blue

The banquet was

lapis'lazuli.

to

celebrate the king's

war represented on the opposite panel. In the

lowest register the king's wagons, drawn by onagers
(wild asses; the horse was not domesticated until a
victory in a

thousand years

later), ride

bodies of the enemy.

triumphantly over the

Above,

file

of prisoners

is

fallen

led past

two executed victims and brought before the king, who

has dismounted from his wagon. In the banquet scene
the king and his courtiers sit drinking from goblets to the
music of a lyre, while workmen bring in animals and
food captured from the enemy.
Southern Mesopotamia continued to be a collection of
independent and warring city-states until its conquest by
Sargon (2371-23 16 bc), an Akkadian ruler who
united the Semitic/speaking northern half of his

kingdom

with the Sumerian south. Although the Akkadians

were a Semitic nation, they largely accepted Sumerian

But they introduced a new concept of supreme

culture.

iq Gudea of Lagash, Neo'Sumerian

(c. 2125-2025 BC). Diorite

period
29

'

(73-6)- British

kingship, which

Akkadian

Museum, London

reflected

is

in

bronze head of an

king, probably Sargon himself

(///.

1).

He

represented as an idealized ruler, with firm, regular,

is

untroubled features framed by the symmetrical curls of

and moustache and by the elaborately braided

which supports a diadem. This magnificent life-size
bronze head shows complete mastery of the difficult art of

the beard
hair

bronze casting.

The Akkadian
barbarian Guti,
for

some

dynasty

who

was

overthrown

by

the

sacked the plain and controlled

it

Only one city survived this upheaval,

governor, Gudea (///. 19), explained its

sixty years.

Lagash, and

its

prosperity in terms of his fulfilment of the wishes of the

gods.

The

statues

of himself, which he placed as votive

offerings in the temples, express the serene confidence of

man. In each the face is dominated by the

framed by the curving eyebrows and although

a truly pious

huge

eyes,

and nostrils have been sensitively

shaped out of the hard stone, the forms have been
simplified almost to the point o{ abstraction. Human

the details of the lips

beings and

Sumerian

animals were represented naturalistically

human form was

treated as an abstract symbol as

wished to express an inner spiritual quality by
ignoring outward appearances.

but the

if

30

animals were treated quite differently in

art:

the artist

Order was finally restored by the Sumerians under the

Third Dynasty of Ur, the neo'Sumerian period. The
Akkadian concept of a united kingdom was accepted
and ambitious architectural projects were undertaken,
such as the ziggurat at Ur, known to have had at least
three tiers. But the end of the third millennium witnessed
a

profound

disturbance

in

The Nile valley (map

environment

new

much morepnv
human civilization
and Euphrates. The

2 16) offered a

2, p.

to

developing

than the plain between the Tigris

river

both

in

led to the rise of

Old Kingdom Art

Egyptian

tected

power

political

Mesopotamia and Egypt which

civilizations in the Aegean.

made

overflowed regularly and

the land

fertile,

happily without the attendant dangers of flood and

drought which made

The Egyptians
trolled nature

vision for

and promised

life after

scible deity,

Mesopotamia.

so uncertain in

life

who con/
As a result pn>

believed in benevolent deities

life after

death.

death, rather than the placation ofan ira^

was among

the major aspects of Egyptian

art.

Egypt gained unity rapidly under the first ruler of the

First Dynasty, Narmer (c. 3 100 bc), the king of the south

who conquered
political

kingdom. This important

event was recorded on his palette (Ills 20, 21), a
the northern

ritual object originally

name

part, the king's

is

used for cosmetics. In the upper

represented in hieroglyphs

set

in

frame between the two cow^horned heads of the Mother

Goddess, Hathor.

On one

White crown of the

pictograph

his feet.

beside

the

falcon, grasps in his

tall

mace above a
enemies sprawl on the

kneeling captive, while his slain

ground beneath

wearing the

side the king,

south, brandishes his

This message

king's head.

human hand

is

repeated in a

Horus, the royal

a rope

which holds
clump of

captive the northern land, symbolized by a

papyri (the northern plant)

land which terminates in a

On the opposite side,

growing from

human

the sign for

head.

Red crown
enemy dead and in the lower
as a bull menacing a fortified

the king, wearing the

of the north, inspects the

pan he

is

settlement.

represented

The central depression of the

intended to hold the cosmetics),

animals

with

long

is

palette (originally

framed by two mythical

snake^necks

which resemble the

seals. They

fabulous beasts found on Sumerian cylinder

20,

21

Narmer,

Votive

the northern

his

of

King

conquest

of

kingdom of Egypt, from

Hierakonopolis.

poo

palette

celebrating

First

Dynasty

(c.

BC). Slate 25" (63s). Cairo

Museum

22

at

Step pyramid and tomb enclosure

King Zoser; designed by Imhotep,

oj

Sakkara. Third Dynasty

(c.

2686-

illustrate the
art in the

connection between

independently

2613 BC).

One

Sumenan and Egyptian

fourth millennium, even though they developed

later.

of the basic differences between Egyptian and

Sumenan

art resulted

from the

plentiful supply of fine

which encouraged the

development of both sculpture and monumental stone
architecture. The use o( stone was associated with the
cult of the dead and the first monumental stone building
in the world was the tomb complex at Sakkara o( King
white

limestone

in

Egypt,

(III. 22), the second king of the Third Dynasty

2686-2613 bc). It was designed by his vizier Imhotep
and is covered by a step pyramid and surrounded by a
complex of courtyards and buildings in an enclosure.
The apparently simple geometric shape of the pyramid
was the result of considerable experiment. It began as a

Zoser
(c.

square flat'topped tomb, called a mastaba, with sloping

sides covering a ioo'foot'deep shaft leading to the royal

burial

chamber. This was extended

galleries

and

to the east to cover

containing the tombs and offerings of the queens

royal children.

pyramid, rising 195

It

feet

was finally converted into

above the desert to make it

a step
visible

outside the enclosure wall.

Unlike
32

the later pyramids, the

tomb

enclosure of King

Zoser was modelled on that of a palace, all the buildings

being translated from wood and mud'brick into stone.

V'

23

The Sphinx, Gizeh. Fourth Dynasty

(c.

2613-2494 BC). Limestone

33

Agriculture and the Near East

c. 9000-2000 bc

The

courtyard to the south was used for the ceremonial

race at
east

me

tj

me

king's jubilee

t | ie

and another

lined with the shrines of the gods of

was

Lower Egypt. To
buildings, each in

to the

Upper and

the north of this courtyard stood

its

own

two

court, symbolizing northern

and southern Egypt. The northern court was decorated

with half-columns in the form of papyrus reeds, the plant
of northern Egypt, the stalk forming the shaft o[ the

column and

the flowers the capital.

We thus see the appearance of the column

in

Egyptian

architecture, a translation into stone of the bundles of

papyrus

stalks

buildings.

used as supports for the roof of mud'brick

Whereas

of roofing

system

the
their

Mesopotamians developed
buildings

with

arches,

Egyptians preferred the post^and/lintel principle

beation).

Trabeated

architecture

depends

upon

the
(tra/

the

perfection of the proportion of the upright to the horizontal

members
support.

heavy

so that there

The

for the

is

columns

a balance between load

beams must not appear

horizontal

or pillars beneath them.

The Fourth Dynasty

in the burial

2613-2494 bc) saw

(c.

culmination of the pyramid

form

and

to be too

as a

the

geometric, architectural

complex at Gizeh. The Great Pyramid

first and the largest of the group, being

of Cheops was the

more than twice as high as that of Zoser. Instead of a

complex of palace buildings, Cheops' pyramid is
approached through a gate, or valley^temple, a covered
passage and a funeral temple in front of the pyramid itself.
The pyramid is a stark, undecorated tetrahedron, once
completely covered in carefully dressed limestone so that
the sides rose at the precise angle of 51 degrees 52 minutes.

Nothing detracts from the elegant simplicity of its form

which dominates the surrounding desert.
second pyramid was built by Cheops' son Chephren,
and the group was completed by Mycerinus with the
smallest pyramid. They are guarded by the Sphinx (///.
23), a man^headed lion, carved out of the heart of a lime'
stone quarry used by King Cheops for the facing of his

tomb.

The aim of Egyptian

spirit

was to provide for the

home, to protect its body

funeral art

of the deceased, to give

it

from corruption and to provide it with other bodies in

form of stone figures. Figure sculpture reached one of

the
its

34

greatest heights in the funeral

Dynasty.

The king was

monuments of the Fourth

represented in a

static,

rigidly

defined pose

but

eternal

which expressed not

his transient

Individual

qualities.

subordinated to an idealized image in which

related

with geometrical

anatomical

details,

clarity.

such

the

as

humanity

have

features

all

been

Agriculture and the Near East

c 9000-2000 bc
-

parts are

But at the same time

complex form of the

insertion of the spherical eyeball in

its

socket overlaid by

the eyelids, are accurately recorded.

King Mycerinus and his queen

when he died, only the upper
unfinished
still
was
24)
part was polished. The king is represented purposefully
striding forward, hands clenched beside his thighs and
his body is presented as a series of angular planes echoing
Since the statue of

(///.

those of his headdress. In contrast, his wife

is

a series of

rounded wig repeats the softer forms of her

body as she clasps her husband affectionately around his
waist. The position of these upright figures must have
given the sculptor great difficulty because he was as yet
unaware of the strength of stone and so did not dare to
carve too much away from their slender legs, but left a
thick, supporting slab. Yet he was helping to create an
image of the ideal human figure which was to survive
unchanged for centuries and was copied by Greek
curves; her

sculptors in the 6th century

In

contrast

portraits, those

to

the

bc

austere

(///.

97).

abstraction

of the nobles show

of the royal

far greater individuality.

Rahotep was the son of King Snefru, high

Heliopolis and

priest

of

commander of the army. He is represented

on higlvbacked, cubic
names and titles (///. 25).
carved out of limestone and painted. He has

with his wife,

Nofret,

seated

thrones inscribed with their

They are
grown a slight moustache, but

is

otherwise clean-shaven.

small frown of concentration creases his brow. Their

eyes

have been inlaid with

crystal

which adds

to the

illusion of their lifelike presence.

Dynasty (c. 2494-2345 bc) private

tombs were decorated with sculpture and
these reflect aspects of everyday life. It was as if the artist
had attempted to recreate on the walls of the tomb the life
the dead man had left behind him. The entrance of the
Tomb of Ti at Sakkara is a spacious pillared hall which
leads to the burial chamber by way of a subterranean

During

the Fifth

as well as royal

passage; a long corridor gives access to the sacrificial

room which conchamber is decorated

showing Ti hunting hippopotami

chamber, beside which

tained three portraits.

with limestone

reliefs

is

The

the statue

sacrificial

35

24 (left) King Mycerinus and his queen, Chamenernebti, from Gizeh. Fourth Dynasty
BC). Slate, previously painted, 4 8" ( 142.2). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
2$ (above)

Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret. Fourth Dynasty

limestone 4j'/ " (120). Cairo

4

Museum

(c.

(c.

2613-2494

2613-2494 BC).

Painted

26
from

herd of oxen crossing a ford,

the

(detail).

Tomb
Fifth

of

Ti,

Dynasty

2345 BC). Painted

(c.

limestone

Sakkara

2494-

where foxes and lizards raid birds' nests. On

and his wife supervise the activities of
his estate. Donkeys thresh grain, rams trample the seed
into the ground and a herd of oxen cross a ford, but a

in a thicket

the other walls he

young frightened
too deep for

calf has to be carried since the water

it (///.

is

26).

Old Kingdom Egypt

achieved great wealth and power

millennium but it all ended with the collapse
of the Sixth Dynasty (c. 2258 bc). There was virtually a
'dark age' until the princes of Thebes gained control and
established the Middle Kingdom (c. 21 34-1786 bc, the
Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties). This was succeeded
by the New Kingdom (c. 1 570-1085 bc) and during
this period Egyptian an continued to develop with the
in the third

building of magnificent temples and the decoration of

tombs of unparalleled beauty. At the beginning of the
second millennium at the moment when Egyptian art
was entering this second phase, a new and brilliant
civilization appeared in Crete, whose art was influenced
by that of contemporary Middle and New Kingdom
Egypt, and which developed independently into the
first major European civilization in the Bronze Age.

CHAPTER THREE
Neolithic and Bronze

Age

art in the

Aegean

c.

6200-1400 bc

The mainland of Greece had been inhabited since the

Palaeolithic period but there is no direct connection
between these first inhabitants and later Greeks. Their
emains are buried beneath

new

Mesolithic period

feet

people

of

sterile earth.

settled

on

In the

the mainland,

was

the Neolithic settlers introducing the an of

and pottery in the seventh millennium bc who
irst left a permanent impression upon the country. During
he Neolithic period and the Bronze Age Greece was
nvaded countless times by peoples speaking different
anguages, some of them Anatolian dialects. They all
rontributed to a culture inherited by the first Greek'
.peaking people who invaded the mainland c. 2000 bc
ind developed the Mycenaean civilization (see Chapter
3ut

it

ignculture

Four).

an of pottery were introduced at the

end of the seventh millennium in
northern Greece. But the most important

Farming and
;ame time

at

Vlacedonia in
:arly

the

the

Neolithic

civilization

developed

in

the

fertile

rhessalian plains further south, discovered in excavations

it

Sesklo.

The

inhabitants of this village developed a

and modelled female figurines

Anatolia. During the fourth
nillennium Thessaly was invaded by a new people
irmed with bows and arrows who built themselves a
ortified town at Dimini. It is surrounded by rings of
lefence walls and in the central courtyard is a rectangular
lall entered through a porch, a megaron (map 2, p. 217).
The an of metal working was introduced into Greece
)nly after it had been developed in Anatolia. At the
xautiful painted pottery
iimilar to those

found

in

beginning of the third

lortlvwestern tip of

working people of
lave learnt the

millennium, the Troad, the

Asia Minor, was

unknown

origin

settled

by a metal/

who do

not seem to

an of writing. They rapidly grew

rich

because their city, Troy, guarded the important passage

39

2j

Plan of Troy

BC). After
Ilion,

W.

1902

II (c.

Dorpfeld,

2500-2200

f roja und

between the Aegean and the Propontis, the modern

Dardanelles, which divides Europe from Asia. This was
the great trade crossroads not only between east and west,
but also north and south.

was a simple village, though

was destroyed by fire about
2500 bc and the second, much grander 'city' was built
in the form of a fortified palace (///. 27). The main
entrance through the massive defence walls on the
south-east side opened into a cobblcpaved court.
Opposite the outer gate was an inner gateway in the form
of a rectangular building with a doorway in its centre.
This was to become the form of the classical propylon. It
This

it

first 'city'

(Troy

contained a megaron.

led to

1)

It

an inner pebble^paved court lined with a verandah

against the enclosing wall. Opposite the propylon stood

40

the most

imposing building of the

citadel,

the great

t8 Cycladic vase shaped as a bear or

l

hedgehog holding a bowl, from Syros,

t.
'

2500-2200 BC. Terracotta 4%"

Museum, Athens

11.4). National

iy (below

left)

Kamares

style beaked

Old Palace of Phaistos,

"
i8$o-iyoo BC. Terracotta ioy2
c.
V26.J). Heraklion Museum
jug

from

no

the

(below

three'handled
fish,

,(c.

right)

pithos

Kamares

style

decorated

with

Old Palace
i&$o-ijoo BC).

from

the

of Phaistos,
Terracotta

\1Q%" (49-S)- Heraklion Museum

j-iN*

~*^"-^

megaron, flanked on each side by smaller structures of

which were perhaps the living quarters of

similar plan

ruling

the

family,

the

Great

Hall

being

for

court

ceremonies.

The
in

inhabitants of Troy

n made enormous advances

technology. Metal was used lavishly, not only

jewellery but also household utensils; bowls

and

for

vases

were made out of bronze, silver and gold. The art of

making pottery on a wheel was introduced towards the

end of this period. Although the city was destroyed and

rebuilt three more times (Troy III, iv and v, c. 22001800 bc), there was no break in cultural continuity;
same type of wheel^made pottery was produced and
houses followed the plans of the
It

was

inevitable

that

spread rapidly into the

earlier settlements.

Age

Bronze

Aegean

the

the

culture

islands. Crete

is

should

separated

by only two hundred miles of sea from the North African

coast

and

is

linked by chains of islands to Asia Minor.

At the beginning of the third millennium immigrants

from Asia Minor introduced the art of working bronze
together with new, painted pottery forms.
Until the Cretans built their palaces

at

the beginning

of the second millennium, the Cycladic islanders were

Aegean. Although the local clay

wide variety of forms
including the mysterious 'frying pans'. These are ritual
objects of unknown use but shaped like a frying pan and
elaborately decorated with stamped and incised designs
including spirals and ships, and almost all have a pubic
the artistic leaders of the

was of poor

quality, they achieved a

triangle carved

near the handle.

Numerous examples

have been found on the island of Syros.

unique vase

has also been found in a cemetery in Syros in the form of

a

hedgehog

(or perhaps a bear)

who

holds out his bowl

pathetically, as if pleading for a second helping

The

great

(///.

28).

achievement of the Cycladic islanders was

to

take advantage of the plentiful supply of translucent,

marble on Paros and the neighbouring island.

They developed marble sculpture in a series of elegant,
abstract figures which were placed in tombs, not only in
the islands, but also in Crete and mainland Greece.
crystalline

all the figures are female (though a very few

male and figures of indeterminate sex are known) and
they correspond to the same general type. The woman is

Practically

represented as a slim, elegant figure standing upright with

her arms folded beneath the breast.

The features have

been

duced

minimum and

to a

the artist has concentrated

on

proportioning of the figure to display the

perfect

:e

Neolithic and Bronze Age art

in the Aegean c. 6200-1400 BC

of the marble (///. 31).

had no opportunity to develop after the
lands came under the political control of Crete at the
^ginning of the second millennium. Crete had become
royal power and palaces were built for the kings
.nulating those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The new
Cretan art not only dominated the islands but even
ifluenced mainland Greece.
eautiful quality

Cycladic

art

'

Art

Cretan

)ne of the problems of studying Cretan art

stems of chronology are used.

upon

ased

pottery styles

The most

worked out by

is

that

Arthur

Sir

who divided

vans, the excavator of Knossos,

two

that

is

accurate

the

Cretan

Middle and Late Minoan,

amed after the legendary King Minos and related to the
)ld, Middle and New Kingdoms in Egypt. But Greek
ra

into three periods, Early,

prefer

rchaeologists

date objects according to the

to

two
2800-

onstruction of the palaces. In the early period these

Minoan

hronologies coincide, for Early

000 bc)

is

/hen the
lallia.

1700
t

the art of Bronze

Age

The Middle Minoan

/ere built.

first

art

(c.

Crete before the palaces

period began

c.

2000 bc
and

palaces were built at Knossos, Phaistos

But

an

earthquake

bc and new

destroyed

these

palaces

palaces were built on the same

sites

beginning of the Middle Minoan in period

the

/ithout

any evidence of major changes in pottery

style.

Minoan pottery has abstract decorations

dark ground, a new type of naturalistic decoration

Whereas Middle

n a

n a light ground was introduced

larks the

c. 1550 BC, and this

beginning of the Late Minoan Period. The

Minoan

.ate

period

ended

1450

c.

bc with

the

Thera
Only Knossos was

atastrophic eruption of the volcanic island of

/hich

destroyed

:occupied,

all

the

lycenaean Greece (Late

nd even Knossos was

iter.

palaces.

but by people speaking the language of

Minoan

11, c.

finally destroyed

The Late Minoan in

period

is

1450-1400 bc),
some fifty years

the time after the

of the palaces, when Crete was under

domination and Minoan civilization survived in

j 1 (left) Cycladic female figure from

Amorgos, c. 2200-2000 BC. Marble

estruction

4'

)reign

Athens

somewhat attenuated form.

Although relative chronologies have been accurately
etermined by means of pottery styles, absolute chronology

ioY4 "(148.$). National Museum,

43

Kiiiimiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiii

^3!

H
u

lb=t-

B
52

Restoration of the 'miniature fresco' representing the shrine

BC. (From Arthur Evans,

53 The

The

Palace of Minos

at

investiture of a king, wall painting from the Palace of

BC. Louvre, Paris

in the

palace at Knossos,

c.

ij 00-1600

Knossos, 1930)

King ZimruLim, Mari,

? 1

ygo-

? 1

j6o

'

somewhat

still

speculative,

depending

as

it

does

upon

discovery of Egyptian or other foreign imports of

lown date

Minoan

sites.

Different authorities vary

>m

thirty to fifty years in the

dating of the Middle and

ate

Minoan
Minoan

irly

Although

in

periods,

and by

jj

Painting of a banquet beside an

ornamental pool from

the

tomb

of

Neb'Amon. Eighteenth Dynasty (c.

1567-1320 BC). British Museum

several centuries in the

period.

Minoan

Early

pottery

was hand^made

wheel (which was introduced at the beginning

Middle Minoan period), the shapes used by the

ithout a
the

natolian immigrants were extremely elegant, such as

aked jugs which

>me Early
s

a very attractive

ith

later

Minoan

Minoan in

known as

'teapots'.

Vasiliki ware,

appearance since the pot was covered

a slip mottled red

irly

developed into spouted

pottery, that

and black

in the firing. In the

period the whole pot was fired in a

loky reducing atmosphere to give a plain black ground,

hich
hite.

was painted with simple decorations

in

creamy
45

Neolithic and Bronze Age art

the Aegean c. 6200 1400 bc

in

The

richest finds

tombs of Mochlos

show Egyptian

Minoan art are from

The tombs' conten

of Early

tl

in eastern Crete.

influence:

elegant

vases

carved

froi

beautifully veined stones, the lid of one decorated with

sprawling hound (an almost identical

lid

has also bee

Zakro). The women were buried with the

jewellery - golden hair ornaments in the shape of flowe

found

and

at

leaves.

The

wealth of the tombs' contents shows that the

earl

Age towns

of eastern Crete had become pro

p'erous during the third millennium. Suddenly, at tr

Bronze

beginning of the second millennium, with the buildin

at Knossos, Phaistos and Mallia, central Crei
became the administrative centre.
Each of these palaces is built around a courtyard twic
as long from north to south as from east to west. The
are completely different from the fortified citadels
Dimini and Troy where the central megaron, or gre;
hall, is surrounded by defence walls. There are no gre;
ceremonial halls in Minoan palaces and the place
assembly must have been the courtyards which are the

of palaces

characteristic feature.

Courtyards were an innovation

Cretan architecture, though

common

in

but the closest parallel to the layout of these palaces

remarkably large palace of the 19th century

covered

at

Beycesultan on the

Mesopotamia

Upper Meander

bc

is

dis

river

western Anatolia.

There

is

no evidence of painted figural decoration

first Middle Minoan palaces. But painte

within these

pottery achieved an extraordinarily high level of

achievement.

The major

technical innovation

introduction of the potter's wheel,

been in use

made

in

Mesopotamia

for a

artisti

was

th'

which had ahead

thousand

years.

Thi

possible the manufacture of fine ceramics wit!

known

as Kamares ware after th

summit of Mount Ida where
was first discovered (Ills 2g, 36). The pot was covere<
in black and the pattern painted in a pure new whit
together with brilliant shades of red, orange and yellow

eggshell'thin walls,

cave sanctuary near the

The decorations were almost entirely abstract,

based upoi

though abstracted flower and fish forms wer

used, and they were used to emphasize the swell of th
belly of the pot while the narrow neck and foot wen
tightly encircled by bands. The painters were extremel;
the spiral,

4<5

sensitive to the organic

shape of the pot.

New

"he

llNOAN
rhere

Palaces: Middle Minoan

was

hi -

Late

17OO-1450/14OO BC)

II (c.

a terrible earthquake about

lestroyed all the palaces in Crete.

Yet

it

1700

BC which

did not

affect the

eneral prosperity of the country, for the old palaces

and

ebuilt,

lose to the

new

Hagia Triada, was

royal villa,

Neolithic and Bronze Age art

in the Aegean c. 6200-1400 BC

were
built

reconstructed old palace of Phaistos.

Knossos, on the north coast, was

now

the centre of

Arthur Evans, its excavator, identified it as

le Palace of King Minos where Theseus killed the
ull'headed Minotaur and escaped from the Labyrinth.
>ome elements of truth may lie behind the Theseus
rgend: there is a Carian word, labrys, which means
iouble axe' and it has been suggested that 'labyrinth'
ould be translated as 'Palace of the Double Axe' uthority. Sir

ouble axes have been found on vases and gems and

arved into the stones of the walls

most

the

>ut

^presents

common

King Minos

and

pillars at

Knossos.

version of the Theseus story

as

an

evil tyrant

who

sacrificed

Athenian captives to a bull/headed monster. Excavations

t

Knossos have revealed no sadistic or sinister religious

though many works of art illustrate the popularity
dangerous bull games, where athletes turned somer^

ractices
f

mlts over the horns of a bull,

se

to

the

legends of

human

which may have given

sacrifice.

The Greeks

lemselves, as Plutarch has pointed out, realized that their

;gends about Crete were contradictory. 'This suggests

ow
le

dangerous
mistress

it is

to

incur the hatred of a city which

is

of eloquence and poetry, for Minos has

and attacked on the Attic stage

Minos was a king and a
iW'giver, and that Rhadamanthus was a judge under
im and a guardian of the principles of justice which
linos had laid down.' {Parallel Lives
Theseus XVI)
In contrast to the blood-thirsty image of Minos of the
Athenian legends, our impression of life at Knossos is
ne of elegant luxury where a high standard oTliving was
uintained by commerce and trade rather than warfare,
he palace was built on a hillock considerably raised by
ebris of generations who had lived there since the
leolithic period. At the beginning of the Middle Minoan
eriod, the top of this hill was levelled off to form the
jurtyard and the debris used to raise the north-west
orner of the site. The steep slope down to the stream bed
onstantly been reviled

Uid

yet

we

are also told that

47

ji,

Cat

Museum

bird, fresco from

1500 BC. Heraklion

stalking a

Hagia Tnada,

c.

on the

east side

had

a great cutting

made

into

it

for

tr

residence of the royal family, while the state apartmen

were on the west.

An

elaborate drainage system

was

als

constructed.

After the earthquake, the palace was rebuilt on a simil;

though more ambitious plan (///. 36). The state entranc
was through the western porch along the Corridor oft!
Procession, so called from the fresco decorations of lifi
size youths and maidens walking in solemn processio
bearing offerings. There was also a private entrance froi
the north courtyard past the Old Keep; it led directly
the throne room on the west side of the inner courtyar
and visitors using it were expected to purify themselves
the lustral area before entering. This north courtyard w;
probably designed as a theatral area, surrounded t
1

48

on which spectators could stand

ps

to

watch palace

ilremonies.

The domestic

Neolithic and Bronze Age art

in the Aegean c. 6200-1400 BC

quarters on the east side of the inner

urtyard were completely remodelled,

and

the different

were reached by a grand staircase which rose two

!>reys above the central courtyard and descended two

zels

down

to the Hall of the Colonnades (///. jj).

was reached by two flights of stairs supported
columns (all Minoan columns have a reverse taper).
magnificently around a central,
le staircase rises
uroofed courtyard which acts as a light/well to numerous
terior rooms without windows. Each floor contained
audience and a reception room but the rambling

:>reys

ich floor

ii

ture

of the lay/out gives an impression of informal

t;gance.
ite

The rooms were

decorated in fresco and the

even contained a bathroom with running water and

Pushing w.c.

The public
e

reception

rooms were on the upper

floor o{

west side of the courtyard and reached by a staircase,

contrast to the spacious piano nobile, the throne

neath

was small and dimly

lit,

half

thtatral area

filled

room

by a sunken

36

Plan

of the

New

Palace

at

1400 BC. Drawn by

Martin Weaver after Pcndlebary

Knossos,

c.

Neolithic and Bronze Age art

the Aegean c. 6200-1400 bc

in

and

lustral area,

the only indication of regal majesty was

gypsum throne guarded by

a carv ed

the wall behind.

painted on

griffins

formed part of

It

suite

of rooms

designed for lengthy private religious ceremonies.

One

must have been interrupted by the final disaster c. 1400

BC, for overturned alabastra (ritual oil containers) and an
oil jar for filling them were found near the entrance.
Religious ceremonies obviously played an important
life of Knossos. Unlike the Egyptians
Mesopotamians the Cretans had little religious
architecture, though shrines were occasionally built, as at'
Keos. Sanctuaries were also constructed on mountain
peaks and one of these is represented on a rhyton (a
libation vase) from Zakro (///. 43). But each Cretan
palace contained a shrine and at Knossos it was placed
on the west side of the courtyard, close to the throne room
on the opposite side of the staircase leading to the piano

part in the palace

and

the

nobile.

The

shrine at

columns on
supported a

Knossos originally had a fagade with

of a central block which in turn

either side
fifth.

A very similar shrine

is

represented in

a:

miniature fresco which had fallen from one of the upper

rooms of
(///.

the palace

The

32).

spectators,

and

and depicts

courtyard

frieze

filled

a religious ceremony;

with male and female

seated outside the shrine are court ladies

and gold,
continues on

dressed in blue

The

is

to

another fragment where the

an olive grove watching a

courtiers are seated in

monial dance, treating

gaily gossiping with each other.

it

as a

cere/

holiday rather than a solemn

religious festival.

The crowds of spectators are suggested by flecks of red

and white paint and this 'impressionistic' style is unique
to Minoan art. It has a quality of naturalism and freshness
not seen in other contemporary painting. There had been
a general revival of interest in painting throughout the
eastern

Mediterranean.

The

palace of Zimri'Lim,

at

Mari on the upper reaches of the Euphrates in Syria, had

painted decorations of the 18th century BC. The invests
ture of a

king

is

represented in a courtyard.

divided by stylized

trees into

The

symmetrically opposed mythological animals.

are all in strict profile

reduced

more

to flat decorative motifs (///.

naturalistic,

is

The figures

and animals and plants have been

33).

In comparison contemporary Egyptian

50

wall

compartments containing

both in subject and

style.

art

was much

In the Middle

kingdom period tombs of

painted with

ere

rich nobles at

mporary set-back caused by

shepherd

Kings'

eights in the
1

Tombs

case,

Grand Stair'
ijoo-i$$o BC)

Restoration oj the

Knossos

(c.

Hyksos

its

greatest

under Queen Hatshepsut

of court

scenes

showing

the

owners

arrying out their official duties.

ill

reached

art

37

officials

cut into the

limestone hills to the west of Thebes were painted

/ith

After the

the invasion of the

Egyptian

New Kingdom

51 1 1480 bc).

3ft

Beni Hasan

scenes from their lives.

represented in

strict profile,

feasting,

Although

hunting and
officials were

servants could be

a variety of postures, even full face.

The

shown

pleasures of the

ountryside were vividly depicted in vignettes representing

le

wild animals of the marshes and formally laid out

ardens.

Yet in

spite

of their wide range of subjects

Egyptian artists could never

nd geometrical approach
aintings

abandon

their intellectual

to representation, so that their

sometimes resemble a diagram.

A garden scene

51

Neolithic and Bronze Age art

the Aegean c. 6200-1400 BC

in

from the

Tomb

of

NelvAmon who

of the Eighteenth Dynasty

from

(c.

lived in the middle

567-1 320 Be)

is

painted

several different points of view: the rectangular

pond
above in bird's/eye perspective, but the sur/
rounding palm and fruit trees are represented upright and
growing horizontally, while the ducks on the pond and
is

seen from

the girl preparing the repast are

(///.

34).

Be)

that

The

was only

It

Egyptian

art

subjects of

Egyptian

all seen from the side

Akhenaten's reign (1379-1362

achieved true naturalism.

Minoan

paintings

The

in

but

frescoes are often similar to

they

lack

their

intellectual

were not concerned with the

problems of representing form in space, but introduced a

approach.

new

artists

hedonistic element expressing the pleasures of court

the excitement of the bull

life,

games and

the beauty of

springtime.

Unlike Mesopotamian and Egyptian

painters,

used the true fresco technique.

artists

The

Minoan

wall was

covered in two layers of lime plaster, the design was then

sketched in with orange^red paint and in turn covered

with another layer of plaster

applied. Thus, in spite of fire

38

'Floral Style' jug decorated with

grasses

from

Phaistos
1 i

/2

"

(c.

the

New

Palace

1550-1500 BC).

(29.2). Heraklkm

oj

Pottery

Museum

to which the colours were

and earthquake, the colours

have survived even though the plaster has broken

into

thousands of pieces creating a nightmare jigsaw puzzle.

Minoan
this interest

artists

were greatly interested in nature, and'

may have been

stimulated by their belief that

and birds were sacred objects. On the first of three

panels from Hagia Triada all sadly darkened by

flowers
large
fire,

we

pansies

see a priestess
at

resents the

kneeling

mountain

goddess seatedv

wild/cat arches

its

among lilies, crocuses and

The second panel rep/

shrine.
at

back and

her shrine. In the third,

hiding behind the delicate fronds of a clump of

growing from

a rock

(III.

35).

in representing the flowers

stalks, stiff-legged, a pheasant

The

artist

and animals

was

ivy

as interested

as in the goddess,

perhaps because these were associated with her worship.

Many of these landscape motifs can also be found

Egyptian painting but they formed only a tiny detail
the

complex decorative scheme of a tomb. In

landscape could be used

Cretan palace.
the

to decorate

an

entire

in
in

contrast, a

room

in a

A recent restoration of the paintings from

House of the

Frescoes

was composed of one

at

frieze in

Knossos has shown that it

which a troop of monkeys

were raiding birds' nests in a landscape full of blue birds,

wild roses and crocuses growing among waterfalls.

Unlike the Egyptians, the Cretans had a deep love of

which they expressed in marine motifs. Flying
ish flashing over suivdappled water were painted on the
vails of a Minoaivtype palace at Phylakopi on the island

!he sea

(the fresco fragments are

Melos

>f

now

in the

National

vluseum, Athens). This same pattern of water

n the Queen's

Megaron

swimming

epresented

is found
Knossos where dolphins are

at

in a

shallow

sea gently rippled

by

vaves.

new

This

in

interest

naturalism also influenced the

which,

at the beginning of the Late

1500 bc), abandoned the dark ground
decorations of the Kamares ware for naturalistic
on a light ground. The earliest was the 'Floral

iecorations of vases

Vlinoan period
ibstract

latterns

(c.

with flowers and grasses gracefully covering the

style'

urface of the vase.

A jug from Phaistos

jij
is

covered with a

lense growth of grasses whose blades seem to wave in the

freeze (///. 38). This was soon followed by the 'Marine
style' in

which dolphins,

shells

'Marine

Style' flask

decorated

with octopi from Palaikastro, eastern

Crete,

c.

1500-1450. Pottery 11"

(28). Heraklion

Museum

and octopi were com/

)ined into an undulating pattern reflecting the rippling of

39). After 1450 bc a rather more severe style

was introduced, called the 'Palace Style' ()//.
\6), in which the decorations were treated symmetrically
md became conventionalized representations of sacred
.xes, papyrus flowers, rosettes and even contemporary hel/
nets. The pot was divided into zones, with the decorations
n the upper part. There was a liking for the grandiose and
tendency to manufacture vases of an unmanageable
vater

(III.

pottery

>f

probably intended

ize

similar

[450 bc.
>n

for display rather

omb and women

ute player at

an

altar

)pposke side a bull

acrifice

>efore a
ihrine.

men

bringing offerings

pouring libations

is

to the

marked by double

to a

music of a

On

axes.

the

tethered to a table in preparation for

while a priestess makes an offering at an altar

double axe on which a bird perches in front of a

The

shrine

a sacred tree surrounded by a wall

is

with bull's horns.

lecorated

uturalism of the

mtlined and represented in

Minoan

art at its best

pace, but conveys a

novement,

Instead of the

sensitive

earlier paintings, the figures are

harshly

strict profile (///. 41).

never attempts to analyse form in

convincing impression of figures in

catching

educing the figure to a

momentary
series

attitudes

and

Knossos,

Pottery

than use.

change of style can be seen in painting after

sarcophagus from Hagia Triada represents

one side a procession of

40 Three handled 'Palace Style' vase

from

not

of stereotyped postures. But

Museum

3o3/4

c.

"

1450-1400 BC.
(78).

Heraklion

ji

The

sacrifice oj a bull

sarcophagus,

c.

1400 BC.

sarcophagus

painted on

from Hagia
Limestone,

Triada,

length

of

54" (137.1). Heraklion

Museum

there was no interest in the plastic arts and this is perhap

one reason why no large scale stone sculpture has beer
discovered at Knossos, though four bronze locks of hai:
are evidence that the palace

wooden
But

may once have

there

is

sculpture anywhere in Crete during the

Minoan
in

42 Snake goddess from

Knossos,

c.

the Palace

of

1600 BC. Faience ii'/2

(29.2). Heraklion

Museum

contained

have been 9 feet high

absolutely no trace of monumental stom

statue of a deity estimated to

faience,

artists

appear

to

Minoan

period-

have concentrated on figurine

bronze, ivory and terracotta.

charmingly informal; even

deities,

such

The

style

as the faieno

"

snake goddesses discovered in a

Knossos, are represented

figure

may

represent the

cist in

as ladies

the palace shrine

of fashion.

large

Mother Goddess (///. 42) and

They both wear th<,
;

smaller, her daughter or a priestess.

same costume as the court ladies in the frescoes, a ful>

skin and apron with nipped'in waist and an open bodici
which bares their full, rounded breasts. Only thei;
elaborate headdresses and the snakes in their outstretchec
arms betray their divinity.

Although they
Minoan

sculpture,

produced
artists

no

monumental

stom

excelled in carving rhytons ou

of steatite in the shape of the head of a sacred animal,

lion or the bull,

and they

The Zakro Vase

(///.

th<

them in relief
mountain shrine

also decorated

43) represents a

an abstract image surrounded by a walled enclosure, anc

doorway are four wild goats. A

on the flight of steps which leads up tc
doorway, and in front are three altars decorated with

seated

on

the lintel of the

pedestal stands
the

bulls' horns.

The

'Harvester Vase'

(///.

procession of farm workers carrying

led

by a

man

in a cloak, with a

44) represents

winnowing

group of four

forks,

singers

in

he centre, their mouths wide open as they bellow their

ong. Their leader holds an Egyptian type of

and

acred sistrum,

at first sight the figures

rattle,

look as

if

the

they

uve been carved according to the Egyptian convention

and shoulders facing the spectator.

vith legs in profile

3ut here this represents the twist given to the torso

when

winnowing fork is
hough the figures are

Even
wide

carried over the shoulder.

all

represented in profile a

ariety of poses has been achieved; the sistrum player

above his head, but one

nember of the procession who has perhaps drunk too
nuch has fallen down and the man in front turns his
lead to look at him.
Perhaps the most accomplished reliefs are seen in the
wo gold cups discovered in a tholos tomb at Vapheio,
:nthusiastically shakes his rattle

lear

Sparta in the Peloponnese

(Ills

45,

46).

Though

bund in Mycenaean territory they are obviously Cretan

vorkmanship (c 1500 bc) and their shape is reflected in
:ertain types of Minoan pottery. The two cups represent
he capture of bulls, and they are strongly contrasted in
nood.

On

>etween

one

two

a bull struggles violently in a net tied

trees,

thrashing

3 Rhyton decorated with a relief of a

/t" (24.1). Heraklion Museum

upside

down,

hilltop sanctuary

while

and wild goats, from Zakro,

c.

ijoo-i^o BC.

Steatite

The Harvester Vase

(detail),

V2 "(ii .$). Heraklion Museum

y-.

from

the Palace of

Hagia Triada,

c.

14^0 BC. Black

steatite,

diameter

Neolithic and Bronze Age art

in the Aegean c. 6200-1400 BC

another bull impales a hunter on his horns and a

leaps to safety across the rocky landscape.

cup

is

a lyrical

among
ropes

its

landscape

the trees,

hind

in

which

The

thii

secor

bulls graze peaceful

one decoyed by a cow while a hunt

leg.

Although Minoan art

with poetry and interest

theme it is infuse
humanity and nature so tr
it is completely different in character from the formal ar
hieratic an of Mesopotamia and Egypt. It was discovere
in the period of Art Nouveau, and its lack of formal
and sense of organic decoration were immediate
is

religious in

in

appreciated.

<**

45,

46

reliefs

bulls,
c.

Golden cups decorated with

representing the capture of wild

from

a tholos

1500-1450

(10.2). National

tomb

BC.

at

Vapheio,

Diameter

4"

Museum, Athens

^m^^m

CHAPTER FOUR
Mycenae, the

form of writing

The

earliest

Dut

by 1600

<nown

as

the

A. All

have met with

language

is

Greek

art

c.

1600-1 120 bc

was hieroglyphic,
had been developed,

in Crete

a cursive script

Linear

inscriptions

hat

bc

first

attempts
failure

basically

at

and

deciphering these
it

has been agreed

different

from

classical

dreek. After the reoccupation of Knossos, following

its

1450 bc, a new script was introduced

Linear B). Many of the signs are similar to those of
Linear A, but they seem to transcribe a different language
iestruction in

c.

on tablets written
hundred years later in the palaces at Pylos and
Vlycenae on the Greek mainland. This suggests that the
lew occupants of Knossos were invaders from mainland
Greece. Since the early inhabitants of Mycenae had been
nuch influenced by Cretan culture, it is not surprising
hat they should have adopted a Cretan form of writing.
3ut their language was completely different from that of
3rete and it has long been suspected that it was an early
orm of Greek. Evidence in support of this theory was
irst discovered by Michael Ventris, an architect and
imateur philologist who had gained experience de^
:iphenng codes during the Second World War: he
)uilt up a grid of syllables which enabled him to interpret
ind the identical script has been found

wo

ome of

the symbols.

large

number o{

emained undeciphered and the

flexibility

dlows a number of interpretations, but

:ertain

arly

now

that the

language of the Linear

it

tablets

have

of readings
is

virtually

tablets

is

an

form of Greek.

Studies of place names in Greece have shown that

j reek was not the original language of the mainland,
rhis prompts the obvious question: when did Greek'
peaking people first settle in the country? The Bronze
\ge began in Greece at the beginning of the third

nillennium and in this period the Argolid, a fertile plain

n the eastern Peloponnese, grew in importance and later

57

Mycenae, the
c.

1600

47 Stone
spirals

A,

Greek

art

stele

with chariot scene and

marking shaft grave V, Circle

Mycenae,

c.

1550-1500 BC.

"
$3/
( 133.3
4
National
Museum,
Athens
131.4).

Limestone 4'

first

1120 BC

4%" x 4

g 1 m^
became
the

m
the centre of the

HHHI

Mycenaean

civilization.

**&

But

ai

end of the third millennium and the beginning of th<

second there was widespread destruction throughoui

Greece and the pottery, architecture and burial customs

which followed were completely different in style. This
marks the end of the Early Helladic period and the
opening of the Middle Helladic period. All the evidence
points to the arrival of new people in mainland Greece,
and they were probably the first Greek'speaking
inhabitants.

The Middle Helladic

period

(c.

2000-c. 1600 bc) was

contemporary with the brillant palace age in Crete.

Perhaps as a consequence of the invasions at the beginning
of the period, mainland Greece remained out of touch
with Mediterranean civilization, but about 1600 bc we
find the

first

evidence of cultural contact with Crete. This

when

vas probably the time

the

first

palace was built

Mycenae, the

at

Mycenae, guarding a pass into the rich and fertile plain

pf Argos. Nothing now remains of this palace, but the
oyal family also built

two

istomshing treasures

(map

of shaft graves

circles

filled

Greek art
1600-1120 Be

first

with

216).

2, p.

Schliemann discovered one of

the grave circles at the

1876, six years after he had

oot of the citadel hill in

jncovered Troy, proving to the sceptical world that

rlomer's epics were based

upon

did not realize the antiquity

of his finds, for the bodies he

historical fact.

But he

who had died over three

Agamemnon, king of Mycenae,

lad excavated were of kings

Tundred years before

murdered by

*vas

his wife.

Nobody knows how

3c) the wealth to

fill

the

Mycenaeans acquired

(c.

1600

these graves with treasures that

Homer's epithet 'Mycenae, rich in gold'. The

show the unmistakable influence of the art of
Crete although the tombs themselves were elaborations
)f the normal type of Middle Helladic grave.
rec'
angular trench was lined with rubble walls; earth was
leaped on top of a stone roof, and the grave was marked
ustify

reasures

Several bodies were buried

on the pebblccovered floor, fully
gold'ornamented clothes, their faces covered

carved

)y

stone

stele.

ogether, laid directly

dressed in

vith

golden masks.

The- design of the graves shows that the Mycenaeans

ud

an individual culture of their own. Grave V, one of

he

richest

Circle

in

(the

circle

discovered

48
king,

Funeral mask of a Mycenaean

identified by Schliemann as the

mask of Agamemnon, from grave V,

Circle A, Mycenae, c. 1550-1500

Gold io'/4 " (26).

Museum, Athens

BC.

National

by

schliemann; a second grave circle B, was discovered in

951) was marked by three
;nd

war

)est

preserved

lpper

scenes, subjects not

filled

(///.

with

47)

carved with hunting

stelae

found

in

Minoan

divided into two

is

spirals, a

art.

The

registers, the

ubiquitous decorative motif of

Age. The lower register represents a man

drawn by a galloping horse, perhaps the

he early Bronze

n a chariot
arliest

known

representation of the horse as a domestic

inimal.

Grave

contained three bodies, but as one had been

obbed, only two wear masks

epresent

two completely

(Ills 48,

different types

49).

)ony face with pinched nose, narrow

noustache, whereas the other

:leaivshaven.
different

Vlinoan

They

are

quite

from the slim young

art.

is

The masks

of men: one has a

lips,

beard and

middle/aged,
individual

men without

fat

and

and
very

beards in

49

Funeral

mask from grave

V,

A, Mycenae, c. 7550-2500
BC. Gold i2>/2 " (31.5)- National
Museum, Athens
Circle

Grave IV, Circle A, also contained three masked bod/

and the offerings are equally lavish. Although worked
in gold and silver, the designs show Minoan influence in
ies,

the rhytons of heads of the sacred animals: the bull and'

Golden

the lion.

inlays incorporated

Minoan

landscape;

and plant motifs such as a wild cat hunting duck among

papyrus reeds on the blade of a dagger (cf. the fresco from
Hagia Triada ///. 55). At the same time new themes not
found in Minoan art were introduced, for the Mycenaeans
were obsessed with warfare, and battle scenes were
popular subjects. Another rhyton from this grave is
decorated with a relief of the siege of a town.

The

jo Reconstruction of

the facade

of a

royal tholos tomb called the 'Treasury

of Atreus',
century

BC

Mycenae.

Early

ljth

of the

treasures

shaft

graves

show

that

the

Mycenaeans had been strongly influenced by Minoan

culture. They even imported Minoan works of art, like
the Vapheio Cups (Ills 45, 46) and copied the forms
o{ their rhytons in silver and gold. They shared many
religious motifs such as double axes, columned shrines
and 'sacral knots'. But the Mycenaeans were not com/
pletely dominated by this Minoan influence and the gold
funeral masks, perhaps inspired by those on Egyptian
mummies, are aggressive portrayals of character. The
stone stele marking the graves are carved with scenes of
hunting and warfare and are completely Mycenaean both
in subject, style and medium.
The late Helladic period (c. 1 600-1 120 bc) was the
Mycenaean age, when the city of Mycenae came to
control the Aegean and much of the eastern Mediter/
ranean. Linear B tablets at Knossos indicate that people
from the mainland had gained political control in Crete
by 1450 bc. Trading colonies were established as far
west as Italy and their influence extended beyond the
Mediterranean.
Mycenaean type of gold cup has been
excavated at Rillaton in Cornwall where it would have
been received in exchange for valuable tin ore.
There appears to have been a change o{ dynasty at
Mycenae about 1500 bc indicated by a change in burial
customs. The royal family was no longer buried in shaft

graves,

but

round,

in

beehive^shaped,

stone

tholos

tombs. Mycenaean architects developed them into some

monuments of

of the most impressive

'Treasury of Atreus'
the 13th century bc,
until

60

Hadrian

later (///.

190).

(///.

was

built the
It

antiquity:

^1), built at the

the

beginning of

the largest single^span building

Pantheon

was roofed by

fifteen

hundred

a great corbelled

years

dome

wide and 43

feet

docks 4 to 7
;radually

feet

feet

long,

set

high, built of dressed stone

in concentric courses

which

diminished in height and overlapped the one

The

corbelled

dome of the 'Treas'

ury of Atreus', Mycenae. Early 13th

century

BC

inderneath so that the apex could be closed with a single

lock.

The

nterior,

overlaps were cut

away

to present a

probably decorated with bronze

smooth

rosettes as in the

of Minyas' at Orchomenos. The whole

was covered by a mound of earth supported by
retaining wall and was entered by a long passageway
iced with dressed stone. At the end of this passageway
tands a massive doorway flanked by half columns in
Treasury
luilding

;reen

marble, translations into stone of Minoan columns,

whose capitals seem

)onc column (///. 50).
iut

to anticipate those

of the classical
61

Mycenae, the first Greek art

1600-1120 bc

c.

Unlike Minoan palaces, which were built without

and tended to ramble without much plan
around a central courtyard, Mycenaean palaces like those
at Troy (///. 2j) had as their nucleus the Great Hall, the
megaron. The megaron was surrounded by the lesser
rooms o( the palace and massive defence walls, creating
a fortified citadel. This is the plan of Mycenae and Tiryns
and only the palace at Pylos was built without
fortifications

fortifications.

Nestor's Palace (111. 52), discovered in 1939 on a hill

overlooking the Bay of Navarino, some seventeen miles

north o^

modern

Pylos,

is

than the palace pictured by

IV) where Telemachus

much more complex in plan

Homer in the Odyssey (Book

slept

on

echoing portico while the king

wooden

bedstead in the

room
back of the high building. The site had been
occupied since the Middle Helladic period, but at the
beginning of the 13 th century BC the summit of the hill
was levelled off and a royal residence built on it. The
entrance was through a simple propylon near which was
probably the tax collector's office, for over one thousand
tablets with Linear B inscriptions were found in two
small rooms nearby. This led into an open courtyard, and
opposite the gateway was the columned portico of the
at

retired to rest in his

the

state

apartments.

On

the

left

of the courtyard was

waiting room beside a pantry well stocked with winecups,

and on
a

was the bathroom.

would have passed through
within the megaron to the throne room.
throne room at Knossos, which was small

the opposite side of the courtyard

Once

admitted, the visitor

vestibule

Unlike the
and dark and
for religious

half/filled

by a sunken

lustral area

intended

room at Pylos was a

accommodate the king's

ceremonies, the throne

spacious hall large enough to

nobles and warriors

at their feasts.

In the centre was

ceremonial circular hearth with decorated border,

rounded by four

columns supporting a balcony and

smoke from the fire escaped through

great

a high clerestory; the

a terracotta pipe.

hand

sur^

The

throne, in the centre o{ the right/

was flanked by paintings of magnificent

with supporting lions which framed the enthroned

wall,

griffins

king.

These

griffins

resemble the ones in the throne room

at

Knossos, which may date from the time of the Mycenaean

occupation. Minoan and Mycenaean palaces were

62

decorated with similar themes, for example the procession

p/l
o5d

}f

women wearing Cretan costume

ind flounced skirts in the palace

)f the similarity

Vlycenaean.

at

with open bodices

Tiryns. But in spite

of the subject matter, the

The

style is distinctly

and formal, lacking the

Knossos. Landscape and

figures are stiff

of those in

playful elegance

inimals were not enjoyed for their

opportunity for hunting.

adies in chariots

own

Professor

C.

W.

Blegen

and

the

Department of Classics, University

of Cincinnati

sake but as an

A fresco from Tiryns represents

watching hounds pursue a wild boar.

Vlycenaean interest in warfare, never found in

s

52 Plan of Nestor's Palace, Pylos,

13th century BC. By courtesy of

Minoan

art,

from the vestibule of the

Mycenae, with warriors and grooms pre/

reflected in the battle scene

negaron

at

oaring the horses.

Mycenaean

pottery

Vlinoan pottery

and

is

iecorated with figures.

/ase

(III.

t,

?)

completely different in shape from

in the later period

The

from Mycenae represents a

arewell to a troop of armed

The
vhole

3th century

Aegean

area,

bc was

was sometimes
bc Warrior

12th century

woman

bidding

men.
a period of great unrest in the

which explains why

military subjects

63

Mycenae, the

first

Greek art

1600-1120 BC

c.

Varrior Vase from Mycenae, c.

5
1200-1 i$o BC. Pottery i6"( jo.b).
,'

National Museum, Athens

Mycenaean art. Troy, Mycenae';

was destroyed in this period.
new anc
greatly enlarged city had been built on a completely
different plan from the earlier ones c. 1800 BC (Troy vi)
It was destroyed by an earthquake c. 1 300 bc and the new
city (Troy vna) was designed as if to withstand a siege
It was overcrowded and the small houses huddled withirs
the massive defence walls of Troy vi were all equippec
with storage jars. It was violently destroyed by fire in thfj
middle of the 13 th century bc and human bodies were
were

popular

in

traditional rival,

left

unbuned

the city

in the debris.

(Troy vnb), but

without conflict, by some

The
it

survivors tried to reston

was taken

unknown

over, apparentl)

barbarian nation.

According to Homer, the city was besieged and sackec

by a Greek army led by Agamemnon, king of Mycenae
There is no archaeological evidence that it was a Greek
army which destroyed Troy, and it may even have beer
the barbarians, for poetic tradition confused people anc
places. Nevertheless, the city

was destroyed and within

major centres of civilization

short time all the

eastern Mediterranean

in

were under attack. Egypt

th<]

barely

survived invasion by the unidentified 'Sea Peoples'. Ai

the beginning of the 12th century

bc

even the might;

5^ (right) Lion Gate, Mycenae, c.

i2$o BC. Limestone relief t) n"

power of the Hittites, who had dominated centra

Asia Minor, succumbed to one of these barbariar

(302)

invaders.

military

It is

therefore not surprising that during the 14th anc

13th centuries

64

bc

Mycenaeans should have

manner o{ the Hittites, the

the

their palaces in the

fortifiec

greates

Mycenae, the first Greek art

1600-1120 BC

c.

of antiquity.

architects

military

Mycenae was

built

part of the citadel.

13 th

The

first

enceinte

was considerably enlarged

It

century so that

1350 BC, surrounding the uppt

c.

it

cemetery, Grave Circle

in

even included the early

A. The

th

roy;

walls were constructed

huge, unmortared blocks of stone which were so massiv

that later

mortal
It

was

Greeks believed that they had not been laid b

but by giants, and so called them Cyclopear

men

at this

time that the monumental Lion Gate wa

54). The triangular slab filling th

corbelled relieving arch over the lintel was carved wit

constructed

(///.

two mighty lions reared up on an altar supporting

Minoan column. These lions at Mycenae are the
example of monumental stone sculpture in Greek an
Although guardian lions were a common theme in bor
Mesopotamian and Egyptian art, their combination wit]
massive defence walls was a Hittite invention and
found in the Hittite capital city, Hattusas (Boghazko)
fir;

55) built in the 14th century bc.

In spite of their defences, Mycenae and Tiryns wei

(///.

was widespread

destructio

1200 bc, when the

unfortifie

eventually conquered. There

55

Lion Gate, Hattusds (BoglwZ'

kby),

14th

century BC.

Limestone

in the

Peloponnese

palace

at

c.

Pylos was destroyed.

survived until

Mycenaean

c.

1120

BC and

Mycenae and
then they too

Tiryr
fell

an

civilization rapidly declined into a 'dark age:

A*

CHAPTER

FIVE

Northern Europe and the Mediterranean

hunting and fishing communities inhabited

Age until agriculture was introduced

imitive

jrope after the Ice

than 5000

later

it

bc by

settlers

from Anatolia

Greece, the Balkans and the great

irthern

in

Danubian

d Hungarian plains. They brought with them the art

made clay figurines of women and farm

painted pottery,
imals,

um

and used stamp

During

seals.

agriculture spread across central

where the

irope
rests.

Although

settlers first

the

fifth

milleiv

and north-western

had to clear the land of

some contact with the

they retained

editerranean, importing seashells for ornaments, they

veloped

distinctive

damp

pottery

with

decorated

lines

Another group of settlers

cupied the Ukraine and northern Rumania; they
veloped a remarkable painted pottery, at first white on
cised into the

and

i,

later

The main

pottery,

editerranean there
urines

(map 2, p. 217).
of these early peasant farmers

painted with black outline

artistic activity

decorated

is

clay.

was

from a grave

in

but

in

regions

close

also figural art.

Cernavoda

in

lent a

seated

tilted

slightly

date

57).
they rep/

slip,

is

forward

calm

as

she

common in
contrast, the man is

pports herself against her knees, a pose

Near East. In
and muscular and is seated on a stool, his head
iting on his hands in a deeply thoughtful attitude,
lere is no known ancient parallel to this representation
ited figures in the

man

as a thinker.

Agriculture also spread westwards along the sea routes

the

Mediterranean and the movement of the

settlers

can

traced by remains of their pottery, decorated with

lpressed patterns

and found

in southern Italy, Sicily

d eastern Spain. Colonists from Sicily reached Malta

57 Seated man and woman from

Cernavoda, Rumania,

late 4th milletf

nium BC. Pottery covered

in blackish--

brown

Man

burnished

slip.

4%"

woman j'/4 "(10.8). National

Museum, Bucharest
(

(Ills $6,

man and woman. The woman

d placid pear shape,

pottery

Rumania

>m the 2nd half of the fourth millennium

overed in blackish/brown burnished

Two

the

to

56,

1.5),

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

towards the end of the fourth millennium, and betweei

2750 and 2000 bc there was a period of intense buildin;
activity.

Temples were constructed with

plans, probably

The

earliest

trefoil ground
copying the forms of rock^cut tombs

temples were built of undressed stone, but

ii

the later phases, such as at Hal'Tarxien, the facing slab

j

were carefully smoothed.

Hal'Tarxien which shovi

and also the importance
sculpture. The third temple had a slightly curved facad'
Three temples were

built at

the advances in construction

facing an enclosed courtyard containing a colossal ston

statue, originally at least 8 feet high,

The temple was

abstract spirals typical of

Mediterranean,

of a seated

decorated with elegant

but

also

Bronze

Age

reliefs,

woman
not

onl'

art in the easten

representations

of

sacrificia

animals, the bull and the sow.

The Hypogeum
j5

Apse

Saflieni,

of the

Hypogeum

at

Malta, jrd millennium

underground sanctuary at Hal

below ground the mail
of the temples above ground. The so'callec
or

Hal-

Saflieni reproduces in three levels

BC

features

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

5^ Sleeping woman, votive figure

from Hal'Saflieni, 3rd millennium
BC. Terracotta j3/
4

"

(u). National

Museum, Malta

)racular
ittern

Chamber'

has a ceiling painted in a spiral

resembling the entwining branches of a

ids to a

vered with a spiral pattern.

>se

tree.

This

second painted room whose walls are also

The 'Holy of Holies'

with a doorway leading to a

finely cut

im which a staircase descends to a lower level

is an
chamber,

(///.

5$).

was later used as a tomb, this complex of

iderground rooms seems to have been constructed
lginally as a place where worshippers could spend the
ght underground and have their dreams interpreted by
statuette of a sleeping woman found in one of
iests.
e pits was probably a votive offering for guidance from
lthough

it

goddess

ps

(III.

and arms

alta

The rounded, bulging forms of her

clearly

illustrate

preoccupation in

the

with curves used to express fecundity.

There seems
e

5^).

to

be some indirect connection between

an of Malta and

that of the megalithic

tombs

built in

utlvwestern Spain, Portugal, a large section of France,

itain,

parts

hese

were

mbs,

the

of Holland,

Germany and Scandinavia,

monumental
first

stoned-chambered

collective

architectural

monuments of western

They were constructed out of large, usually

and were built and used for
over two thousand years, from the beginning of the

irope.

ldressed stones (megaliths)

;11

to the end of the second millennium.

There are four distinct types of megalithic monument:

Lirth

chamber tomb, sometimes

called

dolmen; the

single

inding stone, or menhir; grouped standing stones in

aight lines;

and

in the British Isles,

banked

circles

of

inding stones called henges. Unlike Cyclopean coiv

uction in Greece, in

which huge

stones are piled

on

69

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

60

Carved

from

kerbstone

Grange, third millennium

New

')

monuments

top of each other, megalithic

usually consis

mon

of a basic unit of one large slab balanced on two or

upright walling stones, combined in various forms.

The chamber tombs were

long passage or
(///.

61

Plan

of

New

Grange.

S. P. O'Riordain and

New

From

after

Glyn Daniel,

Coffey

is

built either at the

a passage grave in
feet

long walled with megalith;

on edge, and roofed by huge megalithic

height of the passage gradually

rises to

Th<

slabs.

feet as

proaches the large cruciform chamber. This

feet

end of 1

New

Grange in Irelanc
which the chamber is ap.

galleries.

proached by a passage 62
set

Grange,

61)

long

as

is

it

over

ap.
is

high and covered with a splendid, steeply corbelled

The whole construction was covered by a circulai

mound 45 feet high, and this barrow is an impressive
monument in its own right.
vault.

The whole
The

question of Mediterranean influence

debate.

revised

methods indicate

that

dates

is

undei

by radiocarbon

obtained

chamber tombs used for collective

Europe before tht

funerals were introduced into northern

Aegean. But

at the

entrance to the passage

at

New Grange

stood a kerbstone carved in spirals and lozenges which

suggest some form of Mediterranean influence (///. 60).
Also an oculus design, another Mediterranean motif,
decorates the roofing stone of the north side chamber.

There

is

only scanty evidence as to the nature o{

religion of the builders of the megalithic tombs.

spectacular megalithic religious

Modern
revetment

burials, the

monument

Although the
monument was oriented

on Salisbury

plain.

is

The

the

most

Stonehenge

was used for

the midsummet

site

to

and seems intended as a temple of the sun (///. 62).

There were three periods of construction at Stonehenge,
beginning about 1900 BC, when the Neolithic Windmill

sunrise

lill

north-east to

She

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

people constructed a great circular ditch and piled

bank, which was

jp the chalk rubble into a

placed the

form an entrance

Heel Stone,

left

open

to the enclosure.

a 20'foot slab

at

They

of un worked natural

andstone called sarsen from the nearby Marlborough

slightly south-east of the line of entrance. It marks

Downs,
lot

lso,

only the point where the

midsummer sun

every eighteen or nineteen years,

vinter full

moon

rises. It

where

rises

the

but

mid/

has been suggested by Professor

-lawkins in Stonehenge Decoded that in order to keep track

)f

the

movement of

he danger of eclipse

the

moon, which brought with

when

it

aligned with the sun, the circle

Aubrey Holes (named after their discoverer,

was dug just inside the inner
mbankment. It was probably during this period of
instruction, though after the Aubrey Holes had been
iug, that the four Station Stones were erected which
>f fifty'Six

he 17th century antiquary)

x>int to the rising

and

setting points

of the winter and

ummer sun.
The next stage of construction was by the Bronze Age
Jeaker people who converted the monument into a
ather conventional megalithic sanctuary
t

vast

labour,

at

least

by importing,

eighty^two Blue Stones from

Pembrokeshire, each weighing about

five tons,

which

hey erected in a double circle but with an entrance

jointing to the

Heel Stone.

62

Stonehenge,

igoo BC

Wiltshire, begun

c.

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

The Blue Stone sanctuary was begun about 1750 Be

b ut nev er completed since the Wessex people took over
about 1700 bc, They were excellent craftsmen, as well
as

and prosperous,

being rich

contacts with the Mediterranean.

partly

through

They seem

to

trade

have

realized immediately the astronomical significance of the

original plan

which

therefore dismantled

them with
pattern.
a

and

laid the stones aside, replacing

boulders in a completely

sarsen

Close

the Blue Stone circle negated. They

it

to the centre

horseshoe of

five

of the

trilithons,

monument

unique

to

different

they built

Stonehenge,

two uprights only a foot apart, supporting

a lintel. These were beautifully dressed, the uprights
being slightly tapered and the lintels held in place by the
'mortise and tenon' system. On the top of each upright'
was a knob which corresponded to a hollow in the lintel
and the meeting edges were dished and chamfered. These
consisting of

narrow

trilithons

moon

The first trilithon on the east side frame the

sunrise, when the sun is at its maximum decli'
south. The next frames the summer moonrise.

winter
nation

The

frame important events in the

solar and

year.

Heel Stone frames the winter

and on the west side the trilithons frame the winter:
moonset and the summer sunset.
circle of thirty sarsen stones was then erected
enclosing the horseshoe, but its centre was displaced 3 feet
from that of the Aubrey circle to allow a view of the
summer sunrise over the Heel Stone. The stones support
a continuous lintel which was also fixed by the 'mortise
and tenon' system. Later, the discarded Blue Stones were
erected in an oval within the sarsen horseshoe and almost
immediately pulled down again and removed.
series
of pits was dug around the sarsen circle. Finally, the
Blue Stones were again set up, this time as a horseshoe at
the centre of the monument and as a circle inside the outer
trilithon opposite the

sunset,

circle.

The

beautiful

shaping o{ the stone

Stonehenge

at

suggests contact with the Mediterranean. There

doubt

that Britain

was

is

no

Mycenaean
a barrow in

in trade contact with

Cup, found in
Cornwall, has ribbed walls and a riveted handle identical
at
with a cup discovered in Shaft Grave IV of Circle
Greece, for the Rillaton

7-2

Mycenae. Moreover, some thirty carvings of axeheads

and one Mycenaean^type dagger have been discovered on
the sarsen stones at Stonehenge. But this contact with

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

63 The
drawn by

chariot of the simgod ( ?)

waterbirds,

from Duplaja,

Yugoslavia. Late 2nd millennium BC.

Terracotta

c.

4"

(10 J.

Belgrade

Museum
ycenaean Greece took place
nstruction of

Mycenae became one of

1450 bc.

iding nations after

enough copper and

id

major period of

after the

Stonehenge was completed.

main Mediterranean
problem was to
for bronze tools and

the
Its

tin

greatest

ore

;apons. This led to ever>-widening trade contacts with

rbarian nations,

who

in turn developed their

own

During the 14th century BC a

w metal'working culture had evolved in central
irope; the dead were cremated rather than buried and
etaWorking

industries.

incinerated bones were placed in urns in

was confined

/ourite

to

metal

work and

pottery

fields.

Its

and

the

was a water bird seen, for

from Duplaja where a god
chariot by two ducks (///. 63). The Urnfield

decorative motif

stance, in a votive chariot

drawn
lture

in a

spread rapidly, not only into eastern

south

>o

into

Italy,

illanovan culture (see

he Iron
)n
i

is

not an easy metal to

metal and

if a

work

for

high temperature

cutting edge

is

is

but
the

although the ores

required to extract

required, the metal has

be further processed after casting by

;re

into

Age

plentiful, a very

lenching.

Germany

where it developed
Chapter Twelve).

So

it is

hammering and

not surprising that the

manufactured out of bronze,

for

first

metal tools

although the copper

73

and

metal

tin ores are rare, the

is

easily extracted.

But pui

and even
the third millennium, at the beginning of the Bronze Ag<
a dagger was manufactured from smelted iron and place.
in a tomb at Alaca Hiiyiik. The Hittites, in centra
Anatolia, were producing iron on a commercial scale b
the 15th century BC and it is mentioned in the diplomati
iron occurs naturally as meteoric fragments

correspondence of the 13th century. After the

of the Hittite empire the

6-i

Detail of cow and calf on rim

vessel

from

Cemetery,
length of

Grave 6ji,

of

Hallstatt

Upper Austria. Bronze,

cow $3/4

"

j.j)

art

destructioi

of working iron was

intro

duced into Europe and from the nth century b<i

onwards, graves in Athens contained iron swords.
Iron working was introduced into continental Europ
by a new culture which invaded Bohemia, Uppel
Austria and Bavaria in the 8th century BC. It is name<
cemetery excavated

after a

the dead warriors

were

at Hallstatt in

laid

usually enclosed within a

Austria, wher

uncremated on

wooden chamber

a wagoi

beneath

The warrior was equipped with his iron swore

equipment for his horses as well as pottery, joint
of beef and pork, and this form of burial is completel
different from that of the earlier Urnfield people. We ar
barrow.
spears,

not certain of either the correct

Hallstatt people, but

it

name

or language of thes

has been suggested that they wer

the warrior ancestors of the Celts, the

civilization of

Although obviously a military

art, and among

were not without

the Hallstatt cemetery

with a

cow and

is

culture, these peopl

a superb bronze

her calf walking over

crowded with animated figures,

and deer, while in the centre

warriors

figure supporting

work

Age

is

historica

the grave offerings a

A bronze ritual vehicle from a grave

is

first

Europe.

closely

an offering stand

at

rim

art

decoratec
(///.

6f)

Strettweg, Graz

soldiers,
is

{III.

connected with the

bowl

its

mountec

a towering femal<
65).

This bronze

of the early

Iror

inhabitants of Italy, for a similar carriage has beer

discovered in Etruscan territory in the necropolis of Olmc

Bello at Bisenzio near

While

Lake Bolsena.

warriors were moving west

conquering Europe (by the 6th century BC this type
burial is found in France), a new people, the Scythians
the

Hallstatt

emerged out of central Asia and became their easterr

neighbours. Herodotos describes them as 'a peopk
without fortified towns, living ... in wagons which the)
take with them wherever they go, accustomed one and al
74

to

fight

on horseback with bows and arrows, anc

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

6$

Ritual vehicle with human and

animal figures from Strettweg, Graz,

Austria. Hallstatt Culture, jth century

BC

Bronze, height of
"
83/
(22.2). Landes*
4

(?).

central figure

museum fohanneum, Graz

upon

lependent for their food not

ieir cattle'

(The

Histories,

agriculture, but

upon

IV, 46). In Herodotos' day the

Danube, the
two major barbarian

cythian territory stretched as far west as the

Icythians

and

ations of

Europe.

the Celts being the

Because they were a nomadic nation, the most inv

was the gold ornaments

and warriors and buried with them at
The royal burial ceremony is described by

ortant aspect of Scythian art

/orn by the kings
eath.

lerodotos:
pit and when it is
which has been previously

vVhen the king dies they dig a great square

;ady they take

repared.

up

The

the corpse

funeral cortege after passing through every

of the Scythian domains, finds

itself at the place of burial

mongst the Gerrhi, the most northerly and remote of Scythian
art

lbes.

Here the corpse

pears fixed
arts

is

laid in the

tomb on

each side to support a roof

of the great square

pit

various

a mattress, with

while in various

members of

the king's

ousehold are buried beside him: one of his concubines, his

utler, his
11

cook, his groom, his steward and his chamberlain

strangled.

:lection

Horses are buried too, and gold cups

of his other treasures.

The ceremony

'ith great enthusiasm sets about raising a

ompeting with his neighbour to make
The Histories, IV, 71)

V golden buckle
treat's collection

from

now

and

over, everybody

mound of earth, each

it

as

big as possible.'

once part of Peter the

Hermitage, must have been

Siberia,

in the

75

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

66

Belt

buckle

attacking a horse,

representing

from

lion

Siberia,

$th

Gold 4%" (1 1.4). Her'

Museum, Leningrad

century BC.

mitage

discovered in such a grave

in that

it

is

(///.

fantastic abstract pattern.

which

is

66)

It is

typically Scythian

decorated with animals converted into

so twisted that

its

lion has attacked a horse

head

is

bowed

while the hind-legs point up into the

air,

to the

ground

creating a linear

pattern.

This barbarian animal

6j

The Dying Gaul,

copy oj a bronze monument

Attalos

Marble

in

c.

up by

241 bc.

" x 75"
(93 x 185).
Museum, Rome

j6'/2

Capitoline

Pergamon

Roman
set

style

of the Scythians had

who controlled
much of western Europe until the Roman conquest.
Celtic armies even invaded Italy, sacking Rome in 390
powerful impact upon the

art

of the Celts

bc, and threatened Asia Minor. Attalos

celebrated

his

victory

over them

in

241

of Pergamon

BC

with

lonument which included the Dying Gaul

{111.

6j), an

rcurate representation of a Celtic warrior.

Didorus Siculus

tells

ostume was trousers,

normal
by a

us that although the

shirt

and

striped coat fastened

some of the more daring warriors went into battle

for the gold torque around their necks.
i"heir hair was bleached with lime water which left it
iff and spiky, and the nobles wore moustaches. For
rmour they carried 'long shields, as high as man, which
ere wrought in a manner peculiar to them even having
gures of animals embossed upon them.' (The Library of
listory V, 28)
The Dying Gaul accurately represents a Celtic warrior,
uckle,

aked except

the style

ut

xtremely

is

unmistakably Greek. Celtic

abstract;

the

was not

artist

figural art

interested

is

in

xpressing emotions, analysis of form nor in displaying

human anatomy. Human

nowledge of

eated in the same

way

ito abstract patterns

figures

reduced

were

of animals and converted

which have

their

own

of the head from Msecke'^Zehrovice

;atures
>een

as those

to spirals, yet the result

is

vitality.
(///.

The

j) have

an impressive

gure with wild, staring eyes and dynamically curving

loustache.
68,

The major

artistic

achievement of the Celts was

to

ombine animals and human figures into an abstract

attern.
pair of beaked bronze flagons from Basse'
utz, Lorraine, have concave sides which form an

69

Beaked fiagon from Basse*

Yutz, Lorraine, France, and

a detail of the handle. Early
period, 4th century

ntirely original
/ater bird,

shape.

The

spouts are decorated with a

reminiscent of the

art

of the

earlier

Urnfield

But two fabulous monsters recline on each side

neck and the handle is in the form of a leaping wolf

ulture.

f the

.-hose

hind'legs mysteriously join together into a spiral

attern

resembling a bearded

human

Although Celtic culture was

om

that

face (Ills 68, 69).

so completely different

of the Mediterranean, there were trade contacts

nth both Greeks and Etruscans. This was encouraged

y the Celts'
11

passion for drinking wine, and they imported

the necessary

equipment,

Tonze krater, nearly 6

feet

a notable

example being

high, found buried in the

rave of a Celtic princess at Vix. They also imported

3und Etruscan mirrors, which they later copied and
ecorated with their own abstract ornament.

The Desborough Mirror

Celtic

:truscan

(///.

ji),

a 1st century

BC

from Northamptonshire, combines an

shape with a rhythmic decorative pattern of

mirror

and enamel

i^/4

Museum, London

below)

La Tene

BC. Bronze, coral

"

(38.J).

British

Northern Europe and the

Mediterranean

jo

Initial

Kells,

XPI

from

the

Book of

AD.
"
ij"xio'/4

jjr, Irish, 8th century

Illumination on

vellum

(33 x 26). Trinity College Library,

Dublin

yi (below)

The Desborough Mirror,

1st century

BC. Bronze 131/4" (35)-

British

Museum, London

swirling

which

curves

fills

the

entire

surface.

Thi

combination o{ Mediterranean forms with Celtic orna

ment became one of the characteristics of European ar
long after the conquest of Julius Caesar had reduced thi
Celts from a powerful nation to a subject people. Thi'

Book of Kells
century
three
(///.

initial

jo).

is

Gospel written

AD; one of
letters

its

pages

is

of Christ's

in Ireland in the

8tl

with

the

entirely filled

name

But the ornament has nothing

contemporary Byzantine

art in

Greece;

Greek: XP.

in
in

it is

common
a

witl

developmen

of the spiral decoration found on the Desborough Mirror

In other manuscripts of this school fantastic animal;

and twist over the parchment, ferociousl)

devouring each other. These are the direct descendent;
of the Scythian animal style which the Celts copied anc
writhe

introduced into the tradition of European

art.

CHAPTER SIX
The rebirth

of

Greek art

c.

800-600 bc

after the breakdown of

Mycenaean empire in the 12th century bc. The
iifasions and migrations which had disturbed the whole
ekern Mediterranean led to the rise of piracy and the
djruption of trade. Trade was the major source of wealth
vjhin the Mycenaean empire and after it was curtailed,
(eece began to lapse into poverty. It was in this period

Tere was a 'dark age' in Greece

tl

tk the Dorians invaded the Peloponnese. Little is

except that they were Greeks-speaking

kown about them

pple from the north, but they were completely out of

with Mediterranean civilization and were illiterate.
invasion completed the breakdown of the
Tjieir

ttlch

Mycenaean civilization.

The immediate result of the Dorian invasion was a

depopulation of the mainland. People fled to
sety, both to Attica, which according to tradition was

gieral

r/er invaded,

to the islands

and then eventually to

was

by the breakdown of the powerful Hittite

ride possible
eipire,
I]

and

west coast of Asia Minor. This Ionian migration

t;

which

hile the

left

Asia Minor open

Asia Minor,
and eventually

i^gean coast of

lloponnese
i^nds

to

immigration.

Ionians settled in the Cycladic islands and the

and

the Dorians settled in the

occupied

the

southern

Asia Minor. The

migrations was resettlement in an

the south/west coast of

meral pattern of these

Mycenaean colony or trading post after a short period

(abandonment.
jit was only at the beginning of the 9th century bc that
qi

began to recover and trade renewed.

Mycenaean empire had broken down into many

(reek civilization
Vie

sparate

independent

Ijiguage.

^certain extent

joups

city states,

corresponding

which made up

tided to

but united by a

This language contained

the

to

common

different dialects, to

the different ethnic

Greek nation, and

cities

form alliances with those speaking the same

79

The rebirth
c.

of

800-400 bc

Greek

art

Athens recognized

dialect.

tne Ionian cities of the islands

bond between herself an.

and Asia Minor, wherea

Sparta regarded herself as the leader of the Dorian

citie

Peloponnese. But in spite of these differences

in the

ii

Greek was one language and people who did nc

speak it were barbarians. Only Greek speaking peopl
were admitted to the national festival in honour of Zeu
dialect,

held every four years

at

Olympia (map

217).

3, p.

was immensely important to the Greeks

and to win at the Olympic games was to achieve immorta
list o( the winners was recorded, beginning n
fame.
776 bc, which became the basis of Greek chronology
These records were possible because the Greeks hai
adopted the Phoenician alphabet at the end of the 9tl
century BC, improving it by the addition of signs fo
This

festival

With

vowels.

the reintroduction

development took place

this

period that

Homer

of writing, a majo

in literature

and

was

it

wrote his epics, the

Iliad

durinj

and

th

Odyssey.

These epic poems

are not

concerned with contemporar

events but with the Trojan war, one of the

last

majo,

events in Mycenae's history at the end of the Bronze

Ag

Although almost four centuries had passer

between the breakdown of the Mycenaean empire anti

(see p. 64).

the revival of
still

Greece

in the

Geometric period,

there wer>

tenuous links connecting the two civilizations. The

spoke the same language and worshipped many of th

same gods in sanctuaries often built on Mycenaeai
foundations.

The ritual of worship of the Olympian gods centrei

around the burning o{ an offering of food on an aha
before the image of the god. On Samos, an island off th
coast of Asia Minor, a miraculous image of the goddes
Hera was discovered in a river bed entwined in thbranches of a lygus bush. At first the image must hav
been protected by some form of simple shelter which ha
left no trace, but as early as the first millennium a plait
stone altar was built, measuring 8 by 4 feet, on which
sacrifices were offered to the image. The altar wai
enlarged and then it was decided to build a great hous'
for the statue, the earliest known Greek temple. Its dat<
is

still

a subject

claimed that

it

of debate,

was

for

although

built at the

its

excavator

beginning of the

century on the evidence of pottery found on the

80

dating of eastern Greek pottery

is

8tl

site, th

not completely

estate

bed. Unfortunately, even this evidence has been

upheaval caused by the Second World War.

lost

The

rebirth of
c.

i:the

Greek

art

800-600 bc

temple was an extraordinary building. Its

had never attempted anything before on such a
sde and they lived in fear of the roof collapsing,
although it was impressively long, ioo Samian feet, it
Vis only 20 feet wide and even so the roof was supported
This

first

fcilders

row of posts down

the centre of the cella.

The

cult

age had to be placed slightly to one side of the temple

bcause the posts

t;r

would have obscured

her view towards

altar.

About

years

fifty

the fragility of the building

later

must have caused great concern. Although the

(la walls had stone foundations, the upper parts were
mud/brick which needed protection from the winter
tns. As a result the roof was extended and supported by
a:ow of wooden posts which completely surrounded
whole building, seven at the front and back and
s'enteen down each side. This was the humble origin
othe peripteral temple, a temple surrounded on all sides
nterials

tfe

I.

columns.

We cannot yet talk about any order of architecture, for

t:

Doric order was only established in the

bc

mtury

(Apollo
Inic

(560
v

at

earliest

Thermon,

bc

(///.

back

87).
to

;ipporting

see p. 89;
at

Samos

But simple

perhaps

nen the peristyle

lb

surviving example

temple was begun

traced

li

(our

was

and

much

still

an overhanging

structural,

roof.

So

far

7th

Temple
the

first

later date,

can

peripteral temples

as early as the 8th

century

wooden

bc

posts

our evidence

is

scanty to allow any one region of Greece to claim the

ivention of this significant

mderneath the

form of

Temple of Apollo

western Greece, built

82)

///.

at a

later

the

is

c.

at

architecture.

Thermon

640 bc, there

is

But

in Aetolia

an

earlier

legaron surrounded by an oval peristyle of thirty^six

which cannot be much later in date than

first Temple of Hera on the island of
*mos, on the opposite side of the Greek world. The
vripteral temple was a Greek invention, for no other
ooden

it

posts,

peristyle

ition

of the

surrounded

iilumns,

their

completely

temples

with

and the Greek orders developed from the

tention architects gave to the details of the peristyle, in

hich the proportion of each part

'The only other an

;

riod

was

pottery.

to

is

carefully calculated.

be continued from the Mycenaean

Vases were

left

as

grave offerings in

81

wrm***w*m
Kerameikos cemetery in Athens all through the 'dark
following the Dorian invasion. Because Athens
ad escaped this invasion there was no abrupt change of
yle, but the flaccid sub/Mycenaean forms of the nth
entury bc were gradually replaced by precisely drawn
esigns in the ioth century bc Protcgeometric period.
ie

jr.es'

)unng

the 9th

century

BC

Geometric

the full

eveloped in Attica, lasting for two centuries,

vase

/hole

was

covered

with

rnament. In the 8th century

bc

bands

72, 7j (left and above)

metric

amphora from

cemetery,

Athens,

the

8th

Gee

Attic

Kerameikos
century

Pottery 5' 1" (i$S)- National

BC

MuS'

eum, Athens

style

when

the

of geometric

Attic vases achieved

lonumental proportion and the great funeral vases from

Kerameikos cemetery are over five feet tall (///. 72).

was at this date that figural compositions were
ltroduced into the vase decorations. Because they were
'rave offerings, the main scene represented the funeral
ith the dead man on his bier surrounded by mourners,
"he art was schematic, reducing figures to patterns with
langular torsos and knob'like heads, repeated meclv
,ie

It

nically to
bstract

how

fill

all

the available space exactly like the

geometric ornament.

It

was not

f things, so that the cloth covering the

<e

the intention to

natural appearances but to express the true nature

cut

away

ErREECE

to reveal the

body beneath

dead
(///.

man had

to

73).

AND THE ORIENT

Athens had never been occupied by the Dorians

first city to recover from the succeeding 'dark
and in the Geometric period (9th to 8th centuries

ecause
'

was
ges'

the

83

The rebirth

of

Greek

art

bc) Athenian pottery was the most important in Greec

But in the 7th century BC the situation changed con
pletely. Sparta, in the Peloponnese, had already gaine

800-600 BC

c.

control of the

so

fertile territory

War

Messenian

became

is

of the Messenians (the

traditionally dated

and most powerful

the largest

fir

734-724 bc)
city state.

an

Tr

other cities in the Peloponnese, in particular Corintl

were increasing in wealth because of their trade with

Near

Rhodes and many

East.

markets were also involved in

rich eastern
74

amphora

ProtO' Attic

(right)

from Eleusis decorated with

paintings

of Perseus and the Gordons and the

blinding

Polyphemus.

of

century BC. Pottery 4

Eleusis

tl

was

longer confined to the shores of the Aegean. During

tl

8th century

and

(142).

this

y3fi"

tl

this trad

Moreover, the Greek world was expanding;

Mid'jth

Museum

other islands close to

Sicily

it

bc colonies were founded in southern Ita

(Magna Graecia) and in the 7th century b

expansion continued northwards into the Black

Athens played no

part in this colonizing

Se.

movement an

as a result lapsed into a small provincial city withoi

international contacts.
75'

7^ (Jar

r 'ght,

ProtO'Corijithian
Vase,

from

decorated

with

above and below)

vase,

Formello
a frieze

the

near

Chigi
Veii,

of hoplites

going into battle and a hunting scene,

c.

640 BC. Pottery

Giulia,

Rome

1 1

This

state

of affairs

is

clearly illustrated in the develoj

Towards the end o[ the 8t

became increasing
important in Attic vases and mythological subjects we
introduced. The vases are monumental and daring,
ment of painted

century

bc

pottery.

figural

decorations

"(27.8). Villa

imaginative but the painting has

and becomes slap'dash. This

is

lost its earlier precisic

seen in a 7th century b

ProtO'Attic vase in Eleusis (a neighbouring town

Athens where
mother

goddess

Odysseus

was an important sanctuary

On the
Demeter) (///. 74).

there

thrusts

his

to

tl

nee

spear into the eye of the giai

Polyphemus while the Gorgons pursue Perseus aroun

body of the vase. Although the bold, slashing paii

the

strokes express the ferocity of the subject, the effect

coarse and clumsy. In contrast, the Chigi Vase, a coi

temporary work from Corinth, represents in minu
detail

an army marching into

flautist.

The

figures

are

battle

painted

touched with colour, and the

in

detail

accompanied by
black silhouett

engraved

in wit

delicate precision (Ills 75, 76).

Unlike Athens, Corinth was playing an

increasing,

important part in the trade with the Near East. Larg

quantities

Al Mina,

84

o^ Corinthian pottery have been found

a very early

Greek trading post

at the

mouth

<

the Orontes in nothern Syria. When Al Mina w;

founded this territory was part of the Urartian empir
but it was conquered in 720 bc by Sargon II of Assyri;

8fiMfc'*E&.

.x

The

Assyrians, in northern Mesopotamia, dominated the

eastern

Mediterranean and

as

result

their

art

was

enormously influential. Their kings lived in vast palaces

decorated

with

paintings

and

relief

the

Mesopotamian

The
bc continued

sculpture.

Assyrian palaces of the 9th to 7th centuries

tradition that the residence of a city's

king, the representative of the city's god,

should be of

and the
which were incorporated into its architectural
complex. The palace of Sargon II (742-705 bc) at
Khorsabad stood in a city in the form of a vast square
enclosed within walls a mile long, and oriented to the
points of the compass. The facade of the palace was
decorated with coloured tiles, and in the gateway winged
maivheaded bulls, guardian spirits, surveyed the ap'
proaching visitor with an awesome display of power.
Inside the palace were more than life-size reliefs rep'
resenting the king, courtiers and tribute scenes (///. jj).
equal importance to the temple of the gods

ziggurats,

an

\i

jj

Relief from the palace

abad representing

at

Sargon

II

KlwrS'
and

J42-705 BC.
26 y). Louvre, Paris

courtier offering a goat.

Alabaster 5' 5

" (

y8 The Helmet Maker, c. joo BC.

Bronze 2" ($.1). The Metropolitan

Museum

of Art,

New

York

Assyrian domination extended

as far as

Egypt and

Assurbanipal invaded the country in 663 BC. Egypt had

become very weak during the Twenty/first and Twenty/
second Dynasties (1085-730 bc) and in 730 bc the
country was occupied by the Kushites from the Sudan

(Nubia)

who founded

the Twenty/fifth

Dynasty

(c.

750-

656 bc). They built important temples in the Sudan,

deliberately copying Old, Middle and New Kingdom
forms. This Kushite dynasty was ended by the Assyrian

was governed independently

Psamtik I (664-610 bc)
founded the Twenty^sixth Dynasty and regained his
country's independence from the Assyrians with the help
of Ionian mercenary soldiers. It was in this period that the
Greek trading city Naukratis was founded near the mouth
invasion, but the Nile Delta

by princes living

of the Nile a

little

at

Sais.

to the

north of the capital

city, Sais. In

was an Ionian venture, the earliest

datable pottery (c. 620 bc) is Corinthian.
Oriental influences began to appear in Greek art as

spite

of the fact that

this

early as the 8th century

BC.

-r*--

the

Kerameikos cemetery

An ivory figure of a girl from

in

Athens was

modelled upon a Phoenician Astarte figure

obviously

(///.

jg). But

figure is carved with restraint and lacks the blatant

Uuptuous beauty of the oriental fertility goddess.
number of works on a small scale were cast in
bnze in Greece during the Geometric period. To a large
etent the figures were simplified into geometric shapes,
ilembling the forms on painted pottery. But the Helmet
icker (c. 700 bc) is exceptional in the way in which the
aist has expressed the movement of the figure squatting
the ground, hard at work (///. j8).

(j

These small votive figurines were

cast

out of solid

Bonze because the art of hollow'Casting, a technique

ivented in the third millennium,
ireece.

was

irge scale sculpture

century

ore

2 feet

er

bc when

still

artists

made of wood up

began

to

is

tall,

One

such

image of the god Apollo, standing

a cult

from

to the

experiment with

durable materials for their cult images.

ipenment
1

in

because of the weight and the expense of the metal.

lith

'i

had been forgotten

Solid bronze casting limits the size of the figure

his

temple

at

Dreros in Crete, which

wooden core,
The difficulty of working in
onze was overcome when the art of hollow'casting
d been

ad

is

as

hammered

out of bronze over a

stiff and static figure.

reintroduced from the Near East.

:id'7th

century votive cauldrons

decorated

;ere

.iental

with

hollow'cast

at

We

first

see

it

in

Olympia which

griffin

heads,

monster combining an eagle with a lion

(///.

an
86).

The second major technical innovation in the 7th

BC was the introduction of stone, both in archie

,ntury

and sculpture, through the influence of Egypt.

known Greek stone temples was built
Pnnias in Crete, towards the end of the 7th century bc.
plan is reminiscent of a Mycenaean megaron, being
ictangular and entered through a porch supported by a
illar. Inside there was a sacrificial pit containing burnt
ones flanked by two columns supporting the roof,
ecause there are no outside columns, this temple belongs
no recognizable order, even though the Doric order
ad been established in mainland Greece. But on the
uinland temples were still constructed of mud'brick
id wood whereas the Cretan temple was built of stone,
loreover, it was decorated with stone sculpture: the
ntels over the porch and doorway are carved with
,iezes of horsemen and animals. Seated over the doorway
fre two goddesses who face each other in rigid symmetry
cture

ne of the earliest

is

ike

Egyptian queens

(111.

81,

cj.

III.

25).

jg Statuette of a goddess from the

Kerameikos cemetery, Athens, 8th
century BC. Ivory g'/2 '(24). National

Museum, Athens

87

This

of 7th

style

Daedalic,

named

who worked

for

important

this

appearing

in
at

Peloponnese.

the

bc

century

sculpture

King Minos. Although

early

same time

The

is

called

legendary Athenian sculptor

after the

period,

stone

Crete was

sculpture was

in the other islands

earliest figures represent

and

in the

standing

girls

wearing long dresses with shawls over their

shoulders, while the young men (kouroi) were always
(korai)

naked, striding vigorously forward, arms clenched by

They were carved for a variety of reasons: as

their sides.

cult images, attendants to the

the dead.

They

gods and

represent ideal

as

memorials

men and women,

to

not

individuals.

The

poses of these early statues are obviously Egyptian,

and can be traced back to Old Kingdom models, such

as the figures of King Mycerinus and his wife (///. 24).
But at this date in the 7th century bc Greek sculpture did
not display the elegance and understanding of human
anatomy of the Egyptian models. Nevertheless the theme
was developed throughout the 6th century bc until with
growing interest in human anatomy, the artist was able
to break out of the rigid form of the archaic kouros into
the balanced composition of classical art.

650 BC. Hollowcast bronze 10" (25.4). Olympia Museum

80

Griffin head from a votive cauldron,

81

Doorway with two seated goddesses from

c. 30" (j6.$). Heraklion Museum

figures

c.

the temple at Prinias,

Crete,

c.

630-580 BC.

Stone, height of

CHAPTER SEVEN
Archaic art

the slow

^.fter

development of Greek

art in the

c.

600-500 bc

Geometric

nd Orientalizing periods (c. 800-600 bc) there was a

jdden outburst of creative activity in the 6th century
..hen new temples were built in stone, decorated with
:ulpture, and Greek painted pottery was exported all
the Mediterranean.

'ver
i

The Doric
c

in

order had evolved during the 7th century

wood with

temples built out of mud'brick and

trracotta decorations.

One

of the

earliest

examples of a

is the Temple o{
Thermon, built about 640 bc, which has a
iella with no porch at the front but one at the back
opisthodomos) and a roof supported by a central row of
olumns. It was surrounded by a peristyle of five columns
>ack and front and fifteen along the sides which supported

;mple with definitely Doric features

iVpollo at

n entablature divided into architrave, frieze and cornice

///.

82).

letopes

The

frieze

(///.

83),

rooved blocks.

had painted

terracotta panels, called

separated by triglyphs,

Thermon

in western

which were

Greece had never

is no question of seeking
Doric order there. The metopes had been
tainted by a Corinthian artist and it is very probable
hat the architect came from the same city.
The great achievement of the 6th century was the

an

een

artistic

centre so there

he origin of the

ranslation into stone of the forms of these

nd wooden temples. These materials were

he building of the very important

mud/brick
still

used in

Temple of Hera

at

600 bc in which a new symmetry was given

the Doric plan and established the use of six columns
t the front of the temple. But the contemporary Temple
)f Artemis, on the island of Corfu, a Corinthian colony,
Dlympia

c.

ivas

one of the earliest

and it was decorated
stone sculpture. The pediment was filled with a
representing an enormous flying Gorgon (///. 84),

constructed out of stone. This

tone peripteral temples

vith
elief

known to

is

us,

89

82 (above)
the

Plan of Megaron

and

Temple of Apollo, Thermon, 2nd

half of jth century BC. After

Kawerau

in the half'kneeling position used to express

motion

in the archaic period.

snakes and her tongue

lolls

Her head

is

any

rapi<

wreathed

out of her hideously grinnin

mouth; she was so horrific that anyone who looked upo

was immediately turned into stone. She is flanked b
her sons and the winged horse Pegasos born from th
her

83 (above right) Metope from the

Temple of Apollo, Thermon, repress
mting Perseus and
c.

the

Gorgon's head,

640 BC. Painted terracotta. National

Museum, Athens

84

(right)

Gorgon from

the

west

pediment of the Temple of Artemis,

c. $80 BC. Limestone, height
Gorgon 9' 3" (280). Corfu

Corfu,
of

Museum

90

blood of her decapitated head.

On either side crouch tw

~~WQ O O
BBB

O"

Archaic art

c.

600-500 bc

tms

marked horizontal line. The vertic

growing narrower towards the nee

strongly

columns

are tapered,

but the echinus of the capital spreads out in a

flattem

curve, anticipating the horizontal line of the architra<

above.
in

The

vertical

movement of the columns

miniature in the row of triglyphs in the

architrave

and

tl

between horizontal and vertic

the triangular form of the pedimei

meaning of these terms

The columns

see

///.

86).

are not equally spaced: not only are

columns placed more

side

repeatf

above

the conflict

in finally resolved in

(for the

is

frieze

tl

closely together but also tho

This gives visual strength to the angles

where the columns would be silhouette
against the sky, and at the same time solved the 'triglyp
problem'. This problem was caused by the custom
placing triglyphs in a Doric frieze not only over an
between every column, but also at each end to serve as
frame. But unless the angle triglyph was exactly the sarr
width as the architrave, it could never be placed exact!
over the centre of the angle columns and as a result tb
neighbouring metope had to be stretched. If the angl
at the corners.

the building,

metope was noticeably

harmony of

the frieze,

have been added

to

it.

larger than the rest

disturbed

it

Corinth only two

and

at

The

discrepancy was avoided

tri

incht
b

placing the angle columns ic4 inches closer together.

Although

architecture

was

still

experimental

6th century bc, especially in Sicily and southern

possible

still

is

to

talk

in

tb

Italy,

about a Doric order whic

controlled every detail of a temple. But

it is

difficult to

any such controlling design in the temples built

which have a freedom and

Greek mainland.

variety of plan

se

in Ioni

unknown

the

The
built

first

temple

about 560

architect

Rhoikos

Hera on

this

we know of with Ionic columns wa

bc on the island of Samos by th
(///.

#7).

This was the third Temple

sanctuary (an earlier temple

is

discussed

c
01

At almost the same time King Kroisos c

Lydia paid for the marble columns surrounding th
temple of Artemis at Ephesos, on the mainland of Asi
Minor opposite Samos. An architect called Theodoro
worked on both buildings and they have certain feature
in common. Unlike Doric temples on the mainland
they were both enormous and surrounded by two row
pp. 80-1).

of columns.

92

feet

The temple

wide and 377

feet

at

Ephesos measures about i8<

more than twice the size

long,

Archaic art

c.

600-500 BC

Slanting
Cornice
i

Mutulc

Corona

DORIC ORDER
86 The Doric

Temple of Aphaia Aegina)

.

B C

470-450

Aphaia,

order

Aegina).

(Temple of
A. W.

After

Lawrence, 1957.

contemporary temple of Apollo

enches by 176 foot 6 inches).

The

at

Corinth (70 foot

front of the temple

columns further
columns at the front and ten at
a back) but also by placing rows of columns within the
tjreh. But at Ephesos the entrance was from the west,
iitead of the customary east, and this western entrance
vs further accentuated by the unique sculptural decor'
ajon of the bottom drums of the columns. Whereas at
Smos the roof of the cella was supported internally by
tjo rows of ten columns, there is no evidence of any
i;ernal columns at Ephesos. We are forced to the
vs emphasized not only by placing the
a art

(there are only eight

-prising

conclusion that

kn roofed
tj>

wide

to

because

this

this

Sj Plan
c.

oj the

$60 BC.

Temple of Hera

E. Buschor and

III,

H. Schleif

93 o

temple could never have

span of more than 60

feet is

much
The

be covered without internal support.

93

',

Archaic art

c.

600-500 BC

temple

at

Ephesos was an open courtyard,

surrounded by

sekos,

a magnificent dipteral peristyle (111.88).

Unlike Doric columns, the marble Ionic columns of

Ephesos stood on bases and their
proportions were much more slender. It is now estimated

the temple of Artemis at

that they

were approximately 12 times the height of their

lower diameter whereas the contemporary Doric columns

at Corinth were only 4.15 times their lower diameter.

The shafts are fluted in a different manner; in Doric

columns the flutes meet in sharp arrises but in Ionic
columns they are separated by flat fillets. The echinus of
a Doric capital is left plain, while that of an Ionic capital
is decorated with an egg and dart moulding and spiral
volutes are wrapped around it.
Although there was only one form of the Doric
entablature, Ionic temples could be designed with either
a frieze or a row of dentils (a row of small square blocks
which imitated the beanvends of the roof). At Ephesos
the architrave was carved into three horizontal bands
called fasciae and was crowned with an ovolo moulding
(a decorative band with a curved cross section). Above
there was probably a row of dentils, and the figural
decoration was carved on a heavy marble gutter which
ran around the edge of the roof.

The earliest known

Ionic frieze

is

in a treasury dedicated

by the Ionian island of Siphnos in the oracular sanctuary

of Apollo

at

Delphi

94

of the

Temple

$60 BC.

of

Artemis,

100).

It is

a tiny

buildings entirely of marble in the Greek

instead

c.

(Ills go,

one of the

first

feet

feet

long, but

it

was

based upon that of a temple,

and porch, but no peristyle, and
of Ionic columns between the antae o( the

mainland.

88 Plan

bc

wide and 28

20

Its

form

consisting o{ a cella

Ephesos,

525

c.

structure, only

is

Archaic art

89

The porch

c.

600-500 bc

of the

Artemis, Ephesos, begun

Temple of
$6e BC.

c.

Reconstruction by F. Krischen,

90

Reconstruction of the

Siphnian

W.

B. Dins-

Treasury, Delphi, after

moor, 1913,

rojecting walls, there are statues of

women

(caryatids),

"hey support an entablature divided into architrave

and

carved with scenes from the Trojan

Above it is a small pediment
entrance.
/ar over the
arved in high relief with the contest between Herakles

continuous

jnd

Apollo

frieze

for the tripod at

Delphi, a mythological

Dorian invasion.
It was about this time that marble construction was
Produced into the Doric order. The Temple of Apollo
Delphi was burnt down in a fire in 548 bc and the

,ccount of the
'.

v'hole

of Greece

udging from the

contributed
style

to

of the temple,

its

reconstruction,

it

must have been

between 530 and 520 bc, although its excavators

to 513 bc on the evidence of Herodotos. An
xiled Athenian family, the Alkmaionids, who were

ebuilt
late

it

1938

c.

525 BC.

Archaic art

c.

600-500 bc

hoping

to

prestige by

return to Athens,

enhanced

paying

of the temple to be

for the front

their

personal
built

of marble instead of poros. This innovation was developed

by Athenian architects who preferred to use marble
instead of limestone for

though more expensive,

it

the

could

One

be cut with an accuracy of a fraction of an inch.

of

all'marble Doric temples, the old Parthenon

first

on the Acropolis, was begun

in

Athens about 490 bc

(see p. 122).

Athens
Athens had played no part in the great colonizing
ventures of the 8th and 7th centuries bc. As a result
had become a small provincial town of no importance in

it

the

either

political

however, brought
Solon,

after

it

or
to

artistic

world.

prominence

Several factors,

in the 6th century bc.

he became magistrate in 594 bc, reformed

constitution so that wealth instead of birth

qualification

encouraged
time,

first

for

trade,

the

offices.

He

probably introducing coinage

and developed the

Peisistratos, a

way

chief administrative

the

noble

who

the

became

for the

olive oil industry. Moreover,

siezed

power

in 561

bc, paved

democracy by redistributing the estates of the

old landed families and thus ending their control of the
government. Although a tyrant, he and his sons,
Hipparchos and Hippias, changed Athens into a city
with power and prestige. The prestige of Athens was
further increased after his family were ousted from power

the

for

510 bc and Kleisthenes laid the true foundations of

Greek democracy.
As a concomitant of growing power and prosperity,
Athens became once more an important cultural centre.

in

The

religious festivals

those

rival

of the

were reformed so that they could

great

international

sanctuaries

at

Olympia and Delphi. These reforms led to the develop/

ment of classical drama out of the hymns and dances in
honour of Dionysos.

Peisistratos

organized

the

first

competition for writing a tragedy in Athens in 532 bc,

and it was won by Thespis.

Even

before Peisistratos' rule, the great Panathenaic

festival,

held every four years, was reorganized in 566 bc,

resulting in

an ambitious building programme on

the

Acropolis. This limestone outcrop in the centre of the

city

96

had been the site of a royal palace in Mycenaean

Homer's 'strong house of Erechtheus', and in the

times,

Geometric period a temple dedicated

been built over

it.

From

number of temples were

the time of

built

on

to

Athena had

Solon onwards a

the Acropolis, but

Temple of Apollo,
c 540 BC. Limestone
gi

Corinth,

we

can only speculate about their positions because they

were completely destroyed by the Persians

The

when

they

was carefully
preserved and what could not be recused was buried
within the sacred enclosure.
number of pedimental
sacked the city in 480 bc.

debris

groups, carved out of limestone, have been excavated,

among them

three colossal works obviously designed for

some major temple. This was probably the Hekatonv

pedon, the 'hundred'foot temple', which

have stood on the

site

is

believed to

of the Parthenon, built for the

new Panathenaic festival.

The pedimental groups from the Acropolis show the
importance of Athens in the development of sculpture
in the 6th century. The early pediments, such as the one
from the Temple of Artemis on Corfu (III. 84) were in
inauguration of the

low

relief.

But the three colossal groups from the Athenian

temple were carved in high relief displaying a thorough

97

understanding
the

three-dimensional form.

of

pediment was

by

filled

The

angle

three/bodied deity, Nereus

who could change his shape at wil

and was one of the adversaries of Herakles (///. 95). Th
upper part of his triple body is human but winged; belov
the waist he becomes three twining serpents. Instead

the spirit of the sea,

representing

him

emphasized
corner with

his

They

monster, the sculptor ha

as a horrific

human

and he

aspect

reclines

on

a broad, benevolent smile

all

in

hi

his faces

are carefully placed at different angles so that tb

nearest faces the spectator, the second

view while the

Peisistratos

furthest

away

continued

this

in three^quarte

is

in profile.

is

building programme on

Acropolis by reconstructing the

thi

Old Temple of Athen.

530 bc), a temple on ancient foundations on the sit

of the Mycenaean palace. Although destroyed in 480 B(
and now partially covered by the south porch of th<
(c.

the foundations and fragments of th>

pediment have survived. It was a Doric temple whicl
derived its plan from the Temple of Apollo at Corinth
but it is possible that the end of the cela was decoratec
with an Ionic frieze. For the first time the pediments wer
filled with sculpture in the round, carved out of marbl
from the island of Paros, representing at the east end th

Erechtheion,

The Moschophoros, c. ^60 BC.

Marble from Mount Hymettos, $6"
(16$). Acropolis Museum, Athens
1)2

between gods and giants

battle

The

of Athena

temples

surrounded by votive

(111.

on

91).
the

The

offerings.

Acropolis

Moschophoros,

wer
carve<.

about 560 BC, represents an Attic farmer bearing

offering of a calf to the temple (III. 92). Although

hi
th

forms of the figures have been simplified into geometrii

shapes, the figure

is

ward, wearing only

the calf

is

alert

and

expressive.

He

strides for

a thin cloak over his shoulders, and

slung across his back.

The man

grasps

animal's legs and the cross'shaped pattern formed

their

arms and

legs

draws attention

th'

b;

to their contrasted'

heads.

The

Moschophoros was carved by an Attic sculptor ou

of local marble from

cities

the

were developing

first

half of the 6th

Mount Hymettos. Many Creel

own schools of sculpture
century BC and there is a markec
their

11

style between the work of Dorian anc

But Athens was proud of her independeno
during the Dorian invasion and regarded herself as th<

difference

Ionian

in

artists.

starting point

major temples

of the Ionian migrations. Although tb

in

Athens were

in the

Doric

order,

th<

Archaic art

l)3

the

Athena and

marble

6'

7"

600-500 BC

a fallen giant,

pediment of the

Athena, Athens,

c.

c.

from

Old Temple of
520 BC. Parian

(200).

Acropolis

Museum, Athens
of the

everity

Athenian

he Dorian

was tempered by Ionic elements and

managed to combine the best features of

style

artists

and Ionian worlds.

The Dorian world, dominated by

ind

serious,

and

its

was noble

Sparta,

temple architecture has gravity

achieved through carefully calculated proportions.

contrast, the Ionians

had

In

and

a reputation for brilliant wit

temples were lavishly decorated,

admired feminine charm. As H. D. F.
has pointed out, nobody could imagine a Dorian

rivolity,

and

their

vloreover, they

Kitto

boem including the line, 'I hate a woman thick about the
inkles.' Under Peisistratos a number of statues of
handmaidens
in

(korai)

the temples of

by Ionian sculptors were dedicated

Athena on

They

the Acropolis.

are

-xtremely sophisticated girls with elaborately^dressed hair

:railmg over their shoulders in ringlets,
their

bnghtly^embroidered

figures

(111.

skirts

to

and they clutch

reveal

their

slim

94). Alas, their ankles rarely survive, but they

Were obviously

as elegant as their figures.

In contrast, the Peplos Kore

(111.

96), an Attic figure of

530 bc, wears Dorian costume and stands with

grave dignity in her heavy woollen tunic, her hand
(about

outstretched in offering.
artificial

She lacks

elegance of her

radiant expression

on her

the elan

and

Ionian counterpart,
face

is

rather

but the

exquisitely modelled

99

g4 Kore from
olis,

c.

4j%"

S3 BC
(121).

the
-

Athenian Acrop-

Marble from Chios

Acropolis

Museum,

Athens

g<,

Triple-bodied deity, Nereus, from

the corner of a temple

Acropolis, Athens,
limestone

c.

pediment on the

$60 BC. Painted

28" (71). Acropolis Mus-

eum, Athens

md
md

there

is

gravity

a delicate balance

which

outh,

bc Greek sculpture became

The kouros, the naked standing

the 6th century

During

ncreasingly naturalistic.

offering

between youthful freshness

anticipates early classical sculpture.

was the most popular subject, both as a votive

and as a cult image of Apollo. It retained its stiff

Egyptian stance, but the modelling of the figure

>f being treated as

an abstract pattern.

oreoccupation with the

came

human body

esemble more and more that of the

the

It reflects

human body

to

instead

Greek

derived from their

which included athletic contests. This

Olympia where the funeral games in honour of
were transferred to the cult of Zeus. By 720 bc
athletics had become the established ceremony

Religious festivals

began

at

Pelops

laked

winner of the foot/race had accidentally dropped

Herodotos realized that the Greeks were
rxceptional in their admiration of the naked male figure,
for with the Lydians, as it is with most barbarian races,

iifter

lis

the

loin-cloth.

thought highly indecent even

is

man

for a

naked

oaked'. But to the Greeks the

to

be seen

athlete represented a

of supreme personal achievement combined with

"usion

?iety, for

were religious

the athletic competitions

The

performed in honour of the gods.

nale figure

became

perfectly

the standard for the

festivals

developed

whole of Greek

irt.

The

early figures,

bc

about 600
the

most eastern

sheer size

such

as the

Kouros of Sounion carved

to stand before the

tip

of Attica,

is

Temple of Poseidon

and abstraction of form

and the

indicated by incised lines

resembling volutes.

at

impressive because of its

(7//.

face

gf). Muscles are

is

framed by

The Kouros of Anavysos,

ears

carved

is standing in the same pose, but

no longer colossal. Each detail of the
human figure is a separate problem to be solved: the spiral
of the ear, the insertion of the eye and lips into the planes

some

sixty years later,

the proportions are

of the face.
pattern, the

Although the hair is still treated as a formal

body is beginning to suggest the soft texture of

flesh.

g6

The

marble

But the kouros

lost its rigidity

only

at

the end of the

Peplos

Acropolis, Athens,

Kore from
c.

the

530 BC. Parian

48" (121). Acropolis MuS'

eum, Athens

century with the development of large-scale hollow'cast

bronze sculpture.
statue

right

The Kouros of

of Apollo, holding a

is

outstretched,

and

bow

(111.

left

g8)
arm.

is

The

so the rigid kouros position with

hands clenched beside the

gazing

Piraeus

in his bent

legs

is

relaxed.

Instead of

outwards into space, the god looks

slightly

IOI

..'.,

gy Kouros

of Solution,

98 Kouros of Piraeus,

c.

c.

-
.

600 BC. Marble, over

520 BC. Bronze,

99 Grave stele of Aristion by

Museum, Athens

lifesize,

lifesize.

Aristokles,

c.

calm,

10'

(30$). Notional Museum, Athens

National Museum, Athens

500 BC. Marble,

downwards,
a

c.

over lifesize, 8' (244). National

aware of the worshipper. He stands

position with feet close together,

as if

effortless

in
in

contrast to the vigorous striding attitude of the earlier

figures.

The

shoulders,

hair

which

now

are

muscles beneath the skin.

the details of the

102

in

falls

modelled

The

soft

ringlets

to express the

sculptor has

over the

form of the

now

mastered

stomach muscles and the trunk

longer given an unnatural three^part division.

is

no

Unlike oriental gods,

numan

who

were represented

Archaic art

as super/

c.

600-500 BC

beings in rigidly defined postures, Greek gods

were presented as idealized men and women. The frieze

of the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, carved about 525 bc,
represents
ibreak

an animated council of the gods

of the Trojan war

(///. 1

00).

passionately involved in the

round

to dispute

at the

The Olympians

argument

out/

are so

that they turn

with those behind them. In the

battle

between gods and giants along the sides of this

.building no distinction was made between human being
.and divinity, and all fight with furious abandon. The
scenes

'twisted poses

have been carefully modelled in

Suggest the solid

The

volumes of the body

ability to represent the

set at

human

relief to

different angles.

figure in relief

is

Athenian tombstones of the end of the 6th

century bc which exhibit a new restraint and simplicity:
the shaft becomes much shorter and is surmounted by a

seen in the

simple palmette.

The

sculptor Aristokles
cheerfully

guarding

This increasing

his

o{ Aristion, signed by the

stele

(///.

99) represents

own

interest

him

fully

armed

grave.

in the

100

human

figure

is

also

found in Athenian vase painting which, during the 6th

became the most important in Greece. The

Athenian painters borrowed the black/figure style, with
century bc,

The Council of

the east frieze of the

ury,

Delphi,

c.

525

marble, height of frieze

Delphi Museum

Gods, from

the

Siphnian Treas'

BC.
c.

Parian

25" (63).

Archaic art

101

The

c.

600 500 BC

'Francois

Vase' from

Chiusi by the potter Ergotimos and

c. 570BC. Pottery
2j" (66). Archaeological Museum,

the painter Kleitias,

Florence

its

refinement in handling the decorations, from the

Corinthians and developed

One

into a

monumental

style of

of the most important of these early vases

'Frangois Vase'

and

it

own.

their

(///.

is

the

101) signed by the potter Ergotimos

the painter Kleitias.

Like

discovered in an Etruscan

so

tomb

many Greek vases,

in

it

Chiusi and shows

was

that,

even as early as 570 bc, the Athenians had begun an

important export trade in their pottery. It is a volute^
krater, a

bowl

for

mixing wine and water

(the Greeks

never drank their wine undiluted) with handles curving

in volutes over the rim.
filled

It is

divided into narrow bands

with nearly two hundred minutely painted

which

clearly reveal

Athens' debt

to

Corinth.

figures

The

range

of subjects shows the vast repertoire of Athenian painting

even

at the

beginning of the 6th century bc: on the

lip

is

from Crete and the Caledonian

boar hunt; in the next band is the battle between centaurs
and Lapiths and the funeral games of Patroklos; the
main band around the shoulder is slightly broader and is
decorated with the wedding of Peleus and Thetis and the
the return o( Theseus

arrival

of their guests;

Hephaistos

04

to

underneath

Olympos and

the

is

the

return

of

ambush of Troilos. The

bottom frieze is decorated with oriental animals, sphinxes

and griffins face to face, and the base is covered with a

[ght

between pygmies and cranes. Even the handles are

two scenes: above, the Mistress of the

\nimals holds a panther and a deer, while below, Ajax
taggers beneath the weight of the dead body of Achilles,
lecorated with

of its overcrowded compositions, the individual

spite

[gures are

painted with a feeling for

vith contrasts in

mood from comedy

Black/figure painting reached

:>f

who

Exekias,

began

its

his career

movement and

life,

to tragedy.

climax with the work

about 550 bc.

Abaiv

loning the profusion of figures in the early vases, he

eturns to the large simple designs of the Proto/Attic
ases (///. j 4), yet paints

with the refinement and elegance

black amphora from

75).
by two large red panels in the
niddle of each side filled with monumental figures,
irawn in black silhouette (///. 102). On one side the
)f

the

Corinthian ware

tomb

Vulci

in

Dioskouroi,

is

(///.

relieved

Kastor and Polydeukes, are greeted by

Leda and Tyndareos.

hound leaps up
welcome Polydeukes while Kastor, wearing a travelling
:loak, holds his horse and his father caresses the animal's
nuzzle. Helen o{ Troy was the Dioskouroi's sister and
der abduction had been the cause of the Trojan war.
,,cene from the long siege during this war is illustrated on
:he opposite side where Achilles and Ajax are represented
heir parents,

Maying dice

(///.

103). Achilles has just

won

102,

10 j

Black figure amphora by

550-540 BC.
24" (61). Vatican Museum,
Exekias,

c.

Pottery

(below) Detail of Achilles and

Ajax

playing dice

the throw,

Ajax has only three. They lean

orward over the gaming board, holding their spears
A-hich form a great V'shape in the centre of the com/
or he calls

bosition.

out four while

This

is

counterbalanced by the backward

tilt

105

Archaic art

c.

600-500 bc

of the shields behind the figures, so that the whole panel

is harmoniously filled without being overcrowded. The
black silhouettes are delicately relieved by the marvellously
intricate

The

engraved

detail.

humanity of the Homeric

Although two men playing a game would appear
to be a trivial subject, it represents a peaceful moment
before the tragedy of the coming death of both Achilles
and Ajax. Achilles was killed in battle, and Ajax
subjects emphasize the

heroes.

committed

suicide.

There

is

work which

tragedy in this

an

underlying sense of

anticipates the gravity of 5th

century painting.
Black/figure painting created a very effective decoration

on

the vase, but the figures tended to be treated as patterns,

rather than

human

beings.

It is

measure of the greatness

of Exekias that within the limitations of his technique he

could create such monumental

felt

but

figures,

the need for greater naturalism.

later painters

There was a simple'

and obvious answer, and that was to abandon the black

and paint the background black instead, leaving

figures

the figures the natural red colour of the clay, close to the

colour of sunburnt

human

flesh,

which could then

be

and washes of black paint.

The red'figure technique was invented about 530 bc
by an artist named after the man who made and signed
modelled with graded

his vases, the

lines

Andokides

painter.

He worked

in both

techniques because the black/figure decorations were

much

too effective to be

styles existed side

by side

abandoned immediately. Both

for more than a decade before

the red/figure style finally

triumphed

increasing interest in naturalism,

sculpture

but also painted

as a result

which

pottery.

of the

affected not only

The

between painting and sculpture can be seen

relationship
in the

work

end of the 6th century bc, who painted a

large cup now in the National Museum in Tarquinia
(///. 104). The inside is decorated with a medallion of a

of Oltos,

at the

warrior wearing a leopard skin and a Corinthian helmet,

and holding

On

a shield with the device of a crouching lion.

one side o{ the outside rim, Dionysos mounts his

four'horse chariot accompanied by satyrs and maenads.

On

on Mount Olympos are

around the enthroned figure of Zeus. As in the
on the Siphnian Treasury (///. 100), they are all

the opposite side, the gods

seated
frieze

represented in profile, but deeply involved in an animated

106

conversation.

One

of the greatest painters

at

the

end of the 6th

104

The gods on Mount Olympos

bc was Euphronios, who was interested in

(representing the human figure in action. Like Exekias,

by Oltos,

iEuphronios used a variety of subjects, and one of the most

Museum, Tarqutnia

century

c.

$i$-Sio BC.

Pottery,

"

National

diameter oj cup 2o'/2

( $2).

Greek vase paintings is a cup in the

.Antikensammlung in Munich (///. 1 05). The outside is
,decorated with one of the Labours of Herakles, in which
he captured the cattle of Geryon, and the straining,
of

attractive

all

muscular figures are modelled in carefully graded

of

black paint.

horseman, perhaps an idealized painting of the boy

In contrast the medallion inside the

Leagros, son of Glaukon,

general.
;

lines

who

The young horseman

later
is

cup

represents a

became an Athenian

dressed in the height of

wearing a sunhat and a brightly patterned cloak.

Although young and beautiful he has the strength to

fashion,

curb his

restless

mount who prances with arched

tail.

There

balance between physical beauty, refined

taste

is

which enjoys ornament, and animal strength. It is a

painting which can be enjoyed for its own sake, yet at the
same time
fills

it

a circular

The

is

a perfectly

composed decoration which

medallion in a drinking cup.

decorations of Greek vases are unique in being

expressive

works of art which

also

enhance the shape of

107

b
1

05

Cup

interior

Euphronios,

c.

diameter of cup

with a horseman by

$io-ooBC.
ij" (43).

sammlung, Munich

Pottery,

Aiitiken*-

the pot on which they are painted. Yet the technique

was only a refinement of the methods of the Neolithic
potters (see pp. 24-5) in which the colours were obtained
by painting with washes of clay which were fired first in an

oxidizing atmosphere to create a red colour, then in a

smoky reducing atmosphere

finally

reds.
solely

to

produce the blacks, and

again in an oxidizing atmosphere to restore the

The high

gloss o(

Athenian

vases

was achieved

by the purity and fineness of the clay without

the

use of glazes.

Although Athenian vase painters were using a

which had originally been invented by
Neolithic farmers more than five thousand years earlier,
the style of their paintings was completely new. Vase

technique

painting, with
to

change

its

have been the

first

to red/figure decorations, seems

art to

make

the breakthrough into

1

greater naturalism

108

the 5th century

which

Be from

distinguishes the classical

that of the archaic period.

art

of

CHAPTER EIGHT
Classical art

\ new

oriental

power now dominated

From

the

500-431 bc

eastern

middle of the 6th century bc

Persia had expanded westwards, occupying first Lydia
nd then the Greek cities along the Ionian coast. The
onian cities revolted in 498 bc and appealed to Greece
or help; only Athens and Eretria responded but the
Persians realized that if they were to control Asia Minor
jhey would have to conquer Greece. The Persian king
)arius sent a huge army and fleet to sack Athens and
retna in 490 bc, but this was defeated by a small army
and Plataean soldiers at the battle of
f Athenian
Marathon (in Attica, close to Athens). This seemed to be
nly a temporary setback and Darius' son Xerxes
lanned an ambitious expedition ten years later to attack
Greece along the coast from the north. The Spartans
ttempted to halt their advance at Thermopylae, but
Mediterranean.

c.

the

106
begun

Temple of Aphaia,
c.

Aegina,

510-500 BC. Limestone

Classical art

c.

500-431 bc

were defeated, and so Athens was occupied. The city

and the Acropolis were sacked, though the Athenian
army and navy were safe on the island of Salamis. This
was the last obstacle the Persians had to overcome before
crossing the isthmus of Corinth into the Peloponnese
and thus controlling the whole of Greece. But the Persian
navy was trapped in the confined waters between Salamis
and the mainland, and having been tricked into fighting
a decisive battle, was defeated by the Greek fleet led by
Athens. The Greek army, led by the Spartan general
Pausanius, then defeated the Persian land forces

in the

of Plataea in 479 bc. For the first time the united

forces of Greece had been combined in a great national
battle

overwhelming danger.
crisis Greek art gained a new
self-confidence and no longer harked back to the example
of the surviving Bronze Age civilizations. We see this
change of style first in the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina,
an island off the coast of Attica, which though independ/
ent of Athens, was influenced by Attic art (Ills 86, 106,
loy). The temple was begun between 510 and 500 bc;
it is a delicate and
precise building with a completely,
clear and logical structure in which all the major features
victory against an

During

this

period of

are related to each other in simple geometric proportions.

The plan

is

already inherent in the foundations: the

columns stand in the centre of every other stylobate block.

There are six columns at the front and twelve along the
sides, spaced 8 Doric feet apart (the interaxial is from the
centre of one column to the centre of the next) and are
16 feet tall. The diameter of the bases is 3 Doric feet so the
space between the edge of one

column

to the

edge of the

producing a simple numerical relationship

of 3 5 between column diameter and intercolumniation.
The columns are unusually light. Whereas Pelopon'
nesian architects chose enormously heavy Doric columns
(e.g. Corinth 4.15:1), the Athenians preferred a more
slender form, perhaps because of Ionic influence. The

next

is 5 feet,

height of the columns

at

Aegina

is

5.32 times their lower

diameter, resembling the 5.48:1 proportion of the

The lighter proportions give

building and new refinements were added:
Parthenon.

lean

grace to

later
the'

the columns

inwards about 3 inch and the angle columns,

silhouetted against the bright sky instead of the dark

cella,

no

are

together.

3 inch thicker and placed 8^ inches

closet

Classical art

ZO

15

was

lavishly decorated.

so small that there

a magnificent

They formed

The pediments were

frame

filled

500-432 BC

Even though the

was no structural need for
internal support, it contained two rows of five columns
supporting an architrave and a second row of columns.

The building was

jcella

c.

107 Plan of

the

Temple of Aphaia,

Aegina. After E. Fiechter,

Aegina,

njo6

to the goddess's statue.

with sculpture carved out

marble from the island of Paros. The east pediment

was replaced between 490 and 480 Be, perhaps because
the original group had been damaged by lightning,

vof

figures from both pediments were discovered in 181

.acquired by
.the

and

Ludwig of Bavaria who had them restored by

neo-classical sculptor Thorvaldsen.

New

excavations

uncovered the original sculpture of the east

pediment which is now in the National Museum in
Athens. Both represent scenes from the Trojan war, with

an

90 1

of

a figure

Athena

pediment the

style

,archaic to classical.

at

the centre.

The movement

jagged and the sculptor

Lof

in the later eastern

is

of the

earlier figures

is

uneasy about the articulation

In contrast, the dying warrior from the

pediment collapses with sagging arms and head,

the body.

isecond

expressing the pathos of death

;

But

of the sculpture has changed from

Early

preached
]of the

classical
its

(///.

108).

architecture

apogee in the Temple of Zeus

and sculpture
Olympia, one

at

in the Greekyspeaking
470 bc the sanctuary had been controlled

most important sanctuaries

jworld. Until

!by the local city

and

temple

built a

of Pisa, but the

new temple

city

of Elis captured

it

dedicated to Zeus out of the

proceeds of the sack of Pisa.

The building was designed by a local architect, Libon

and was built of the local limestone though the

IdF Elis,

roof tiles

and sculpture were of marble.

It

shows an almost

in

io8

Dying warrior from the east

Temple of Aphaia,

pediment of the
Aegina,

c.

490-480 BC. Marble

Munich

6' i"(i8$). Glyptothek,

obsessive interest in proportion.

The surrounding

pteron

has six by thirteen columns, corresponding to the formula

which provides the best mathematical proportions: if you

have n columns along the front, then there should be
in+ 1 columns along the sides. Libon took the Olympic
foot (slightly larger than our own), as his unit of measure/
is 200 feet, the height of the external
normal interaxial (it was narrowed
at the corners) 16, the width of the abacus 8, the distance
between triglyph centres 8, and all other measurements

ment: the

total

columns 32

show

length

feet,

the

a similar simple numerical relationship.

The

sculpture expresses national pride even though the

references are local.

The

Labours of Herakles,
significance.

twelve metopes represent

the

a local theme, but with national

Herakles, son of Zeus and grandson of

Pelops, while carrying out his labours, had

marked

out

the boundaries of the Altis, the sacred enclosure of the

Sanctuary of Zeus

at

Olympia.

He was

not only a

local

hero; he represented the ideal athlete, with a perfectly

developed body used

for the benefit

of humanity. The!

sculpture of the metopes carefully analyses the

of the

human

body. In one panel

(///.

movement

109) Herakles sup/

ports the universe while Atlas fetches the golden apples

of the Hesperides. This Labour taxes his strength to the

utmost, even though the task is made a little more

comfortable by placing a cushion on his shoulders. But

Athena, beside him,

him with

ill

effortlessly raises

one arm

to assist

burden. This action displaces the drapery

of her peplos, so a slight fold appears at the neck and a
his

log

Herakles,

metope from

Olympia,
5'

;ries
j'he

c.

the

Athena and Atlas,

Temple of Zeus,

460 BC. Parian marble

3" (160). Olympia Museum

of catenary curves are formed between the breasts,

skirt falls in

simple, vertical folds except where the

ilaxed, bent right leg catches the material

papery to one side.

The

and

pulls the

play of the folds has been

igorously simplified to express the contrapposto position

f the figure beneath.

The
'f

east

pediment over the entrance represents the

start

which Pelops made himself master

Oinomaos, thus giving his name to

the chariot race in

f Elis by defeating

113

ll

o,

Apollo

directing the battle

between Lapiths and Centaurs, from

the

west pediment of the

Zeus,
marble.

Detail

Olympia,

Temple of

460 BC. Parian

Olympia Museum, (below)

oj a

Lapith

c.

woman

whole Peloponnese. This may

the

refer

the recer

to

victory of Elis over Pisa.

The back of

the temple

was decorated with

at the wedding

a battl

between centaurs and Lapiths

King
comes
(///.

feast

Pirithous, grandson of Zeus. Zeus' son, Apollo

to the aid

10).

He

of the Lapiths by directing the

figh

stands in the centre of the seething mass

struggling centaurs, their faces distorted by the passion

calm and curiously archaic figure. His figur

was obviously modelled on that of a kouros, but his heai
is turned
dramatically at right/angles and his arm
imperiously outstretched beyond the confines of the blocl
of marble from which the figure was carved. He is givei
this position of prominence in his father's temple becaus
he was an essentially Greek god. As patron of the arts h
represented all that made life humane and decent, and hi
battle, as a

presence ensured the continuation of civilization.

The unique

Greek sculpture at this dat

war can be seen by comparing it witl

character of

just after the Persian

contemporary work

in Persia.

The

stiff

formal

figures c

Darius giving audience, which decorate the treasury

Persepolis

(111.

1 1

2),

have nothing in

common

vigorous striding figures of the Tyrannicides

Although
very

originally both

much

only Greek

Greek and Persian

had developed

new

longer accepted the conventions of Bronze

A group by Antenor had been

Agora
the

(III.

artists

influenced by Assyrian sculpture

artists

Peisistratos' son,

up

(///.

th

113)

wer
Jj]

which m

Age art.

in the Atheniai

of the democracy afte

Hipparchos. The statue

to celebrate the restoration

murder of

set

style

with

by the Persians after the sack of the

480 bc and a second group was modelled in
oronze by Kritios and Nesiotes between 477 and 476 bc.
;rhe attacking figures have been idealized and the two
lad been carried off

nty in

men

are strongly contrasted.

Aristogeiton

is

represented

is a mature man, holding his sword in his lowered right

nand while his left arm with cloak and scabbard is out'

him. Harmodios

.tretched before

and

;ess,

tach

his

detail

sword

above

raised violently

his head,

of the figures has been compared and con^

so that in

lasted,

is

younger and beard'

is

spite

dynamic composition

Having solved

is

the

of the violent movement, the

balanced.

problems o{ representing each

o^ the body, one of the main concerns of

the beginning of the 5th century bc was with

different part

iculptors at

movement. There was no distinction

men and gods, and it was
athletes which gave sculptors their poses.

he expression of

between the representation of

:he

actions of the

Poseidon in the

^60 BC,

Museum

National

in

Athens,

cast

about

represented hurling his trident in exactly the

is

as a javelin thrower (///. 1 1 4). He stands poised,

advanced, right arm outstretched behind him,

ame pose
eft

foot

Kith the trident balanced

memy

he

is

about

to

on

his fingers as he looks at the

annihilate.

It

is

only the over/

yhelming power of the figure, achieved through superb

iow of movement and powerful modelling o{ the torso
nd head, which distinguishes him as a god.
According to Pliny, Myron was one of the pioneer
i

rtists

,th

who

century

broke away from the severe forms of the early

bc

'by having

more rhythm

in his art'.

The

1 1

Relief from the treasury, Per'

representing

sepolis,

Darius

giving

audience before two fire altars,

486 BC.

Stone,

Archaeological

113

The

length

20

$21-

(610).

Museum, Teheran

Tyrannicides,

Roman

copy of a bronze group by Kritios and

Nesiotes,
BC. Marble 6' 8"

4JJ-4J6

" (
203 and 19$). National
Museum, Naples

and 6' 43/4

Poseidon/ram

the

Roman ship'

wreck off Cape Artemision, Euboea,

c. 460 BC. Bronze 6' io'/ "(208.6).
4

National Museum, Athens (see

III.

2)

Diskoholos, originally a bronze statue of

survived only in poor

give

little

(///.

5).

Roman

c.

450 bc,

has

copies in marble which

movement of the original

movement by choosing that

idea of the powerful

Myron

expresses

fraction of a second

when

direction of an action

is

the

body

reversed.

is

stationary before the

The

athlete

is

swung around

to the

The whole

torso

at the

end

back of the
body before being projected forward. The imminent
forward motion is expressed by the arms which frame the
head and torso like waves from a ship's bow, yet he
of his wind-up, the disk

himself looks backward.

with shoulders virtually frontal, while the

profile.

This gives the figure dynamic tension,

'rhythm', yet

116

the

is

opposing

at

the

same time there

forces.

is

twisted

legs

are in
Pliny';

equilibrium between

new freedom of movement

This

kouros as a

votive figure.

among

covered

led to the

standing boy

end of the

(///.

the rubble of the Acropolis

1 1

Classical art

c.

500-431 bc

6) dis^

from the

Persian sack of the city, has been attributed to Kritios

of the resemblance of the head to that of

Harmodios, the younger Tyrannicide (III. uj). The boy,
carved just before 480 bc, was a victor in the Panathenaea.
because

Instead of being represented in the conventional stride

ing position, he
left

and

leg

result,

the pelvis

the shoulders.
the essence

is

standing

at rest, his

weight on his

the right leg relaxed, bent at the knee.

is

tilted at a slightly different

This creation of a

As

contrapposto position

of classical sculpture; the

angle from

artist shifts

is

the axes

oi the figure by carefully contrasting the positions of the

arms and

and

this

century
their

legs.
is

BC

The

planes of the figure are clearly defined

helped by the change of

hairstyle. In the 6th

youths wore their hair trailing in ringlets over

shoulders, but the hair of the 'Kritian Boy'

is

rolled

115

The

Diskobolos,

recotu

from Roman copies of the

bronze statue by Myron, c. 450 BC.

struction

5'
Y4
Museum, Rome

Bronze

"

(l$3)-

National

117

up above

'

forming an emphatic horizontal line

brow. Having defined the planes of the head,
shoulders and pelvis, the artist has set himself the problem

above

his ears,

his

of explaining their articulation.

The contrapposto position is most clearly seen in the

work of Polykleitos, a sculptor from Argos who worked
mainly in bronze. His major work is the Doryphoros,
c. 440 BC (///. 1
7), the spear^bearer, which has survived
in innumerable Roman copies. It represents a young man
holding a spear over his shoulder in his raised
His weight is entirely on his right leg and only
the left touch the ground. As a result the pelvis

left

hand.

the toes of
is

strongly

tipped while the shoulders slope in the opposite direction,

emphasized by the tilt and turn of the head to the right.

These movements are much more strongly marked than
in the 'Kritian Boy', carved forty years earlier, and the
articulation of the opposing planes of shoulders and hips
is explained by the clearly defined muscles of the torso.
The statue is obviously a very carefully worked-out
study in proportion; the main divisions of the body, such:
as the pectoral

come

pelvis,

at

muscles and the

iliac crest at the tip

of the

distances equal to the length of the head.

Polykleitos wrote a

book on proportion, called the Kanon

and used one of his own statues,

or 'measuring rule',

probably the Doryphoros,

been

text has

lost

and

to illustrate his principles. This

so far

we have been

unable

to

reconstruct the details of his system from measurements

of the
of the

Roman copies. This may be due to the inaccuracy

Roman copies, but Polykleitos is credited with a

rather obscure statement that 'perfection very nearly

engendered out of
Syntaxis IV,

1).

many numbers'

He

imply that although beauty

must transcend pure mathe/

seems

has a geometrical basis

is

(Philo Mechanicus,

to

it

matics.

Greek sculpture

n6

The Kritian Boy,

33" (84).
Museum, Athens

BC.

Marble

before

480

Acropolis

in the 5th century

bc was

confined

one subject, the human figure. Al/

though the Olympian gods were remote figures, they
wide gulf
were given human form and emotions.
almost entirely

to

separated

mankind from

intrinsically different

human

and

the gods, but they were not

it

was

possible for exceptional

beings, such as Herakles, prince of Tiryns, to

become gods. The Athenian philosopher Protagoras

(c. 485-415 bc) suggested that there must be a divine
element in
118

human

nature because

man

'was

first

of all the

only creature to believe in gods because of his kinship

with the godhead'.

He

claimed that 'man

also

measure of all things'.

Greek artists were not interested in individual

is

the

men

but

humanity and the structure of the human body. As a

result of this growing understanding of human anatomy,
Greek art became increasingly naturalistic. No artistic
writings have survived from this period, but leading
wrote treatises and their theories must have
artists
influenced Plato and Aristotle in the 4th century bc.
in

defined

Both

'imitation',
.sense

more

usually

mimesis,

as

art

translated

as

though the word 'representation' renders the

Human

accurately.

actions could be rep/

song and dance, while the visual

resented in verse,

arts

represented appearances.

Both Plato and Aristotle were concerned with the

problem of representation
of

for they realized that if a

appearances

exactly imitated

art

value,

becoming

which

governs

would

it

work

lose

all

mere copy. Plato's philosophy

lis dominated by his awareness that appearances change
.according to the point of view, although the geometrical
artistic

form

fluctuating

these

.remains unchanged. This

unchanging

appearances

experienced directly through the senses but

can be deduced rationally.
this

He

cannot be

reality
its

existence

pictured the inhabitants of

world of the senses as prisoners in a cave chained so

could never see the entrance or the world outside.

that they

;They could only

carried in front

of what the world

appearances

see flickering

of a

fire at

was

shadows cast by objects

and so had no idea

the entrance

like outside.

would be making

The

taking us one step further from truth

true artist

As

and

shadow,
But the

reality.

should create an ideal image, not an imitation

of appearances, that

who copied

artist

shadow of

a result

would

Greek

artists

individual, but in

mankind

represented ideal

human

The Doryphoros,

Roman

copy of the bronze statue by Poly'

kleitos,

c.

440 BC. Marble

6'

',

(212). National Museum, Naples

recreate the real form.

were not interested in the

in general

beings.

and the gods who

on earth

No woman

could be entirely beautiful, so to give a true idea of beauty

it

would be

useless to represent

'When you copy

painter Parrhasios,

types
'it is

one individual woman.

of beauty,' Socrates

tells

so difficult to find a perfect

the

model

that you combine the most beautiful details of several,

and thus contrive to make the whole figure beautiful.'

(Xenophon. Memorabilia III, X, 1)

Plato had no doubt about the nature of beauty: 'The
qualities of measure and proportion
invariably
.

119

art

c.

500 431 bc

and

constitute beauty

excellence.' This

Plotinus seven hundred years

repeated b\

is

things seen,

later: 'In

tht

symmetrical and proportioned.' The

Greeks had always been interested in geometrical shapes,
beautiful

as

the

is

we can

see in the decorations

9th and 8th centuries

proportion, where a line

point,

was

is

divided

the 6th century.

It

at a carefully calculated

can be related

who had

in tht

Six). But geometrical

new. element which came

Pythagoras,

of Greek pottery

BC (Chapter

Greek

into

art in

philosophy

to the

ol

discovered that musical intervals

which a
was divided. If it was divided in half,
i.e. 1:2, the tone was raised an octave, 2:3 a fifth, 3:4 a
fourth, 8:9 the whole tone. This discovery that music
had a rational basis which could be expressed in matlv
ematical formulae was extended into the visual arts.
Pythagoras believed that this was only a small portion of
the underlying mathematical order of the universe, which
was reflected in the arts.
Greek artists therefore searched for the simple geo/
metrical harmony behind the confusion of sense
impressions, and represented the natural details as they
corresponded to this harmony. The result was an economy
of expression in which the basic pattern was stressed in
corresponded

to the geometrical proportions into

stretched string

order to suggest the

this basic order.

was no

To

conflict

full

complexity of

derived from

life

the artists of the 5th century

between appearance and

appearances reflected a universal order

when

bc

architect.

The Greek

for

interpreted

by a rational mind.
Proportion was therefore of supreme importance

Greek sculptor and

there

reality,

temples

to the

we

see

today are superficially very different from the buildings

when

they

were dedicated, with

their

painted

gaily

smoking altars. But they retain the same

geometrical forms, the main concern of the architect,
decorations and

forms so refined that they were carried through

minutest detail of the ornament.

were profoundly interested

art,

in the

they soon learnt that there

geometrical
'refinements',

and

aesthetic

deliberate

counteract optical

effects,

of the mathematical

Though Greek

to the

architects

mathematics of

was

form.

a difference

They

irregularities,

their

between

introduced

sometimes

to

but resulting in the destruction

rigidity

of their designs.

These

minute, incalculable variations within the crystalline

structure transfigure

Greek

art.

CHAPTER NINE
Athens

in

the 5th century BC

The Persian War in 480 bc left the Acropolis and the

of Athens a shattered ruin. Although the city was

city

Kimon rebuilt the Agora, the

on the Acropolis were left untouched
as a reminder of Persian impiety. Persia had been defeated
in 479 bc but still remained a military danger. Athens
therefore formed a defence league with the other Ionian
cities. The strength of this league lay in the Athenian
navy, though the other cities made an annual contribution
of money which was stored on the sacred island of Delos.
The Delian League soon ceased to be a voluntary
alliance and began to take the form of an empire domi'
mated by Athens, whose navy controlled the Aegean.
The treasury was transferred to Athens in 454 bc and
after peace was finally signed with Persia in 449 bc,
1

gradually restored and

destroyed temples

money

Perikles decided to use the surplus

:

to rebuild the

Acropolis, the most ambitious architectural complex in

Greece

118).

(///.

Although

the

new

temples on the Acropolis were

intended as visible proof of the supremacy of Athens, the

:

total

effect

was one of

restrained elegance.

It

was an

workmen were

enormously expensive project, the

the

most skilled in Greece, and citizens and slaves alike

l

'

were

paid.

entirely

of workmanship rather than materials and

precision
i

ornament.
disastrous

isee

Work

continued

after

Peloponnesian war and

the outbreak of the

it is

only then that

we

an increasing use of ornament in the Erechtheion.

The
1

Moreover the temples were constructed

out of marble. But the expense was due to the

sculptor

Phidias,

friend

of Perikles,

was

responsible for the complete replanning of the Acropolis.

He

also

designed the sculpture of the

first

temple

to be

Athena Parthenos, the Virgin. The

architects were Iktinos and Kallikrates and work began in

rebuilt,

447 BC.

dedicated to

121

1 1

8 Reconstruction of the Acropolis,

it was in AD 100. After

Athens, as
Stevens.

Drawn

by

D. Wilsher

The Parthenon was

on the foundations of ar.

which had been abandonee
when the Persians sacked the city in 480 bc. This tempk
had been begun after the battle of Marathon (490 Bcf
and probably replaced the 6th century Hekatompedon.
earlier

built

unfinished temple

the ioo'foot temple.

The

old Parthenon stood on a high

platform on the south side of the Acropolis.

similar to that of the
(///.

8$),

the cella divided into

rounded by
122

Temple of Apollo

a peristyle

of

six

Its

at

plan

i:

Corintr

two rooms, and

by sixteen columns.

It

sur-

wa:

constructed entirely of marble from the newly openec

on Mount Pentelikon, and even though the

had burnt the scaffolding, the platform and many
unfinished marble drums still remained intact.
The new Parthenon was built on this original platform
which was only slightly enlarged on its southern side,
creating a great rectangular area measuring 101.32 feet
wide and 228 feet long, a proportion of 4:9. This classical
quarries

Persians

proportion, corresponding to the formula

1 1

1)

Plan of

the

Parthenon. After

Gert Kaster

whole temple. The peristyle

columns at the front (an extremely unusual
found only in Ionic temples and the grandiose

applied to the
to

:2+i, was
was increased

eight

feature

buildings of Sicily) with seventeen along the sides. The

columns were placed a little more than 13 feet apart,
giving a ratio of 4:9 between the diameter of the column
at its base and the interaxial. This proportion is repeated
in the

height of the strongly

marked horizontal

lines

of the

width of the building. As a result, all the

major dimensions of length, breadth, height and distance
between columns were linked together in one harmonious

cornice to the

design

(Ills

lg, 120).

Even by Athenian standards,

the

columns

are uiv

usually slender, their height being 5.48 times their lower

120

The Parthenon, Athens, 447-

432 BC. Pentelk marble

Athens

in

the 5th century bc

But the entablature they support has beei

proportionally and the columns are placet
together (the distance between the centre of eacl

diameter.

lightened
closer

column

is

only two/and-a^rialf times

its

lower diameter)

Because the columns are so close together, the passageway

between the

peristyle

interaxial deep,

and

the

very narrow

is

wall,

cella

and

only

double angle contraction. The corner columns have

placed

over

feet

closer

together

calculated by theory (see p. 92).

building

columns

is

at

further

the front

The

oni

further reduced b\

instead

o{

beer

foo

dense texture of thi

emphasized by a second row

and back of the cella, a prostyle innei

portico of six columns.

As

a result there

is

a balanct

between the compact plan of the building and the slende

elegance of the columns which surround it.
large number of refinements were introduced int(

the plan of the Parthenon,

lines, for all are
rise

4 inches

at

which contains no

subtly curved.

the centre

The

and

The

this

edges of the

curve

is

straigh
platforrr

repeated in

thi

columns is again a curve

called entasis, and the columns are not vertical but leai
slightly inwards, the corner columns having a diagona
slant. This inward lean is found also in the cella wall:
and the entablature: if they were projected upwards the)
would all meet at a point about a mile above the temple
Refinements were introduced into refinements and minoi
entablature.

taper of the

portions of the building, such as the abacus face, have

slight

tilt

way. In

the other

of an inch, but
thus contrasting

is

it
it

this case

sufficient to

it is

only one sixteenth

change the play of lighi

with the architrave above, leaning

in

the opposite direction.

These minute refinements prove the accuracy of the

yet irregularities were deliberately intrO'
duced: the capitals of the front and sides are not exactly
the same size, the intercolumniations are not completely
consistent and the blocks of the architrave do not meet
exactly at the centre of the column. These variations are,
so small that one is only consciously aware of the grace of
the forms. The architect must have realized that precision
can be deadly and so gave life to the building through
marble cutting,

subtle irregularity

There
overall

design

defies analysis.

number of

irregular features in the

of the Parthenon which

bring Ionic

Doric plan. The prostyle porches of six

columns placed closely behind the front and back of the
features into a

124

which

are also a

Athens

in

the 5th century BC

Temple of Apollo

Interior of the

Epikourios, Bassae,

Limestone
Krischen,
'peristyle

give the impression that this building

is

like a dipteral Ionic

temple. Moreover, the slender porch

columns support an

This

frieze

hidden in
the clarity
is

frieze.

was high up and ran all round the cella, half

the dark shadows of the peristyle. It contradicts
and simplicity of the Doric order in which all

self-evident.

'greater

Ionic

The

architects

and almost organic quality of the

the entrance of the temple was
forest of lavishly ornamented columns

which nothing could be clearly seen.

cella of the Parthenon was unusually broad (5
interaxials) and contained the great cult statue of Athena
by Phidias, made out of gold and ivory and standing
'nearly 40 feet tall. Her dominating presence was not
allowed to overpower the sanctuary because the interior
in

The

columns ran not only along each side of the room (as at
Aegina) but also behind the back of the cult statue. The

was

therefore completely

framed by the two'tier

'colonnade.

The
further

treatment

Epikourios
is

of the interior was developed even

to

Apollo

The

outside

by Iktinos in a smaller temple dedicated

at

Bassae in Arcadia

(///.

121).

of cold grey local limestone and has an old-fashioned

'peristyle

of six by

fifteen

columns imitating

the

After

122

Plan of

the

F.

Temple of Apollo

Epikourios, Bassae

1rw*

have taken advantage of the

which

reached through a

j$o-j20 BC.

1938

decorative effect

Ionic order in

figure

c.

marble.

sur-

rounded by two rows of columns,

entablature decorated with a continuous

and

6th

Athens

in

the 5th century bc

bc Temple

century

of Apollo

divided into two parts,

columns supporting

is

Delphi. But the

cella

decorated with attached

Ionic

a frieze,

entrance to the inner room,

free/standing
capital

column with

The

121).

(///.

at

which, where

crosses th<

it

supported by a slender

is

known

the earliest

Corinthiai

building therefore presented

extraordinary contrast between the stark Doric

and

the richly

influence

ornamented Ionic

upon

interior,

ar

exterioi

and had

a greai

later architecture.

Phidias had created the chryselephantine statue

Athena within

There were at least

of the goddess by him on the Acropolis,

figures

the Parthenon.

0:

thret
eacr.

The earliest wa<

Champion, cast from the

contrasted with the others in character.

the

Athena Promachos,

the

bronze armour taken from the Persians

She was dressed

as a

sunlight flashing on

its

seen by sailors after they

most

easterly point

at

Marathon

warrior holding a spear so

point was the

first

tall that

sight of Athens

had rounded Cape Sounion,

of Attica. In contrast

Athena Lemma, dedicated by

warrior goddess, the

colony of Athenians on the island of Lemnos,

resented her gentle aspect, standing

her

is

the

rep>

unarmed and holding

helmet in her outstretched hand.

beauty of her face

the

to this heroic

The

idealized

preserved in a copy in Bologna. The

Athena Parthenos represents the goddess at her most

majestic. She was standing, wearing a richly decorated
helmet and holding in her left hand a spear and shield,
against which her foster-child, the serpent Enchthonios,
was coiled. In her outstretched right hand she offered the
people of Athens a winged victory.
It

is

paradoxical

ideal beauty

that,

although he created images

which were to have a permanent

Greek and

Roman

portraits into the

cult

statues,

complex of his

represented himself as a bald old

Amazons which

Phidias

design.

man

He

is

ol

influence on

introduced
said to have

in the Battle of the

decorated the outside of the shield

of

Athena and which can still be seen in the copy now

the British Museum. This self-portrait led to a charge

in

sacrilege, a

of

danger sometimes encountered by innovating

artists.

Although no
for like

most

century

bronze, the sculpture

his supervision

126

style.

work by Phidias has survived,

artists, he worked mainly in
of the Parthenon was carved under

original

5 th

and

clearly

shows the innovations of his

Athens

123

in

Battle

Lapith,

the 5th century BC

between

metope

no.

Centaur and

28 from

the

Parthenon,

marble
British

The

earliest

ninety'two in
battles

jjj-432 BC. Pentelic

4 8" x 4 2" (142 *-i2j).
Museum, London

works were the metopes, originally

number, representing the mythological

between gods, giants, Greeks, Amazons, Trojans,

and Lapiths. They symbolize the conflict

iCentaurs
ibetween

reason,

civilization

and anarchy, sometimes

lending in the defeat of civilization. In metope

ptrom the south side of the Parthenon, a

number 28

Centaur prances

:triumphantly over the slumped body of a Lapith

whom

wine jar (///. 123). Compared with

the metopes from Olympia, carved about thirty years
earlier (III. 109), there is much more contrast in move'
ment and the drapery is handled more dramatically.
The Ionic frieze which ran around the outside walls of
,the cella was a complete innovation, representing a
contemporary event. The Panathenaic procession was
he has killed with a

held every four years to bring a

peplos, to the

new

sacred robe, the

archaic figure of Athena in the

Old Temple

on the Acropolis. Over the entrance porch, the robe

ceremonially folded in the presence of the twelve
pian gods

who

sit

enthroned

as guests (///. 124).

is

Olynv

To

the

and left are two companies of citizens and magistrates

land two troops of maidens who head the procession along
right

'.the

sides

animals

of the sanctuary. In front are the

followed

by

offering

bearers;

sacrificial

then

come

127

Athens

in

the 5th century BC

musicians, elders, chariots and,

finally,

young men on

who

carved the gods

horseback.

Whereas
in the frieze

the 6th century sculptor

of the Siphnian Treasury

(///.

100) expressed

the forms of their clothing in linear folds, the sculptor of

the

Parthenon

The

frieze analyzes the effects

of massed drapery.

wrapped in cloaks which fall in a

complex of folds, some created by the position of the
limbs, but others created by the weight and texture of the
seated deities are

material.

chiton

Artemis

is

dressed in an almost transparent

which covers her body

pleats, in contrast to the

in a

complicated maze of

smoother, deeper folds of her

brother's woollen cloak.

Although

the pediments have been severely

damaged,

not only by conversion into a church in the 5th century

ad, but
124

Poseidon, Apollo and Artemis

from the east frieze of the Parthenon,

447-432 BC.

Pentelic

marble

24"

(61). Acropolis Museum, Athens

also

by an explosion

in

1687 caused by

Venetian bombardment of the Acropolis,

sition has survived in

was a draughtsman
in

their

the

compo/

drawings by Jacques Carrey. He

of the French Ambassador

in the suite

Turkey, visiting Athens in 1674.

The east pediment represented the birth of Athena.

The central section, already missing when Carrey visited

Roman circular
Museum in Madrid

Athens, can be reconstructed from a

now

altar,

in the Archaeological

(sometimes called the 'Madrid well-head'), which copies

the composition.

Zeus

crowned by
the

who

from

the Parthenon,

marble,
British

Persephone

and

the east pediment of

447-432 BC.

tallest figure

Pentelic

5' 8" (173).

Museum, London

in the centre of the

strides

open by Hephaistos, who

group are the three Fates

father, split

behind him. Behind

preside at every birth.

British

Demeter,

away from him to be

winged Victory. She had been born from

head of her

stands

the

seated

is

pediment and Athena

12$

messenger,

this

The

Museum.

surviving sculpture

young

girl

is

in

messenger runs

towards Demeter and Persephone, seated on a chest

covered with a folded cloth
reclining figure

on

(ill.

a lion skin

Olympos, thus locating

the scene, or

divinities witnessing the birth,

out of the

sea.

three goddesses reclining

On

personify

may

is

Mount

be one of the

Herakles or Dionysos. In

the angle Helios, personification

his chariot

Behind them

12$).

who may

of the rising sun, drives

the opposite side there are

on a long, drapery^covered rock,

and beyond, the moon goddess Selene and her exhausted

horses sink beneath the horizon.

129

26 Plan

of the

Propylaea, Athens.

After W.Judeich, 1905

Although
explosion,

it

the

was

west

pediment

survived

the

1687

virtually destroyed by the attempts of

the Venetian general Morosini to loot the statues. His

was lowering the central group and the

ground. But Carrey's drawings
clearly illustrate the composition which represented the
competition between Poseidon and Athena for the land
of Attica. Poseidon and Athena have driven to the site
in chariots, escorted by Hermes and Iris and watched by
tackle broke as he

smashed

figures

to the

an audience of divinities. They leap into action in the

centre of the pediment; Poseidon strikes the Acropolis
with his trident, creating a miraculous salt water spring

(which
but

is

said to

have survived until the 2nd century ad)

Athena wins

the contest by giving

Athens

the

first

olive tree.

The forms of the pedimental

figures are soft

with minutely delicate transitions of plane,

to the unnaturally clear articulation

and

fluid,

in contrast

of Polykleitos' figures

Movement is expressed by drapery, rather than

by any new observation of human anatomy in action.
The anxious haste of the running messenger from the east
(///.

1
2 j (right)
sandal before

Victory loosening her

entering

sacred

410

BC

pediment (///. J25) is expressed in the curve of her

costume swung away from her body by the movement of
the figure. Phidias was one of the first sculptors to realize
the importance of drapery to express form, movement and
emotion. There is an explosion of energy at the centre of
each pediment and the action ripples through each of the

e\u

from the balustrade of the

Temple of Athena Nike, Athens, c.

closure,

7).

figures,

As

uniting them into a single composition.

soon

as the

major construction of the Parthenon

was completed in 438 BC, the rebuilding of the Propylaea

was begun by Mnesikles (///. 1 26), but it was brought to a
hasty conclusion because of the outbreak of the Pelopoiv

130

nesian

war between Athens and Sparta

in

431 BC. The

128
theion,
c.

side

of the Erech'

monumental entrance

the Acropolis,

Athens, begun

designed to harmonize with the Parthenon,

The west

421 EC. Pentelic marble

new

to the

Acropolis was deliberately

reflecting!

town-planning introduced by Hippodamos

of Miletos. It is an elaboration of the normal classical
propylon block, a building with a gateway in its centre
and porches at each end. But the porches consist of six
prostyle columns, resembling the facades of a temple, and
ideas in

their proportions are similar to those

is

built

on two

levels, the

side facing the Parthenon,

it is

of the Parthenon.

It

entrance being lower than the

and

the road

running through

flanked by two rows of three Ionic columns. Unlike

the earlier propylaea

it

has side wings,

which were

intended originally to be symmetrical, but the south wing

encroached on the Sanctuary of Brauronian Artemis and

on land set aside for the Temple of Athena Nike,

which had been projected in 449 bc. As a result the
south wing remained a fagade to balance the north wing,
which contained the picture gallery, the first known
building specially designed for the display of works of art.
Although a decree of 449 bc authorized Kallikrates to
design a Temple of Athena Nike to celebrate the peace
also

132

treaty
after

negotiated with the Persians,

was not

it

built until

had
had
Bassae and Phidias was in

the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war. Perikles

and

died of the plague in 429

dispersed. Iktinos
disgrace.

Work

of Nikias

went

to

of

his circle

artists

probably did not begin until the Peace

(421-414 bc) but Kallikrates' design was

followed faithfully.

The temple

dramatically poised

is

over a sheer drop beside the Propylaea,

on

a bastion of the

Mycenaean fortifications. It is a simple Ionic temple with

four columns prostyle at each end but these have unusually
heavy proportions (7.82:1) to harmonize with the Doric
columns of the neighbouring buildings. Although the
1

Athenians regarded themselves

their earliest

as Ionians, this

buildings in a purely Ionic

one of

is

The

style.

2g

Plan of

the Erechtheion

Attic

form did not copy that of Asia Minor but was very much
influenced by the small and elaborately decorated
treasuries dedicated by the Ionian islands at Delphi. The
entablature usually contains a frieze,

of Athena

Nike

it

represents a battle

Persians, referring to the

Greek

and

Temple

in the

between Greeks and

victory at Plataea.

After the temple was completed, about 410 bc, the

pavement was covered

attendants

in

marble and surrounded by a

parapet representing

sculptured

on Athena

(///.

127).

Winged

One

Victories

as

Victory stoops to

remove her sandal, because she is entering sacred ground,

see the
and her garment slips from her shoulder.
influence of Phidias in the treatment of the thin, almost
transparent drapery which envelops the figure in curving

We

But the

folds.

Greek

The

last

temple

Erechtheion
the
It

figure has a sensual

charm which

(Ills

to

relics

new

in

be built on the Acropolis was the

128, 129),

begun

in 421

bc

Old Temple of Athena, and completed

is

is

art.

an extremely complex building

to replace

after

406 bc.

it

contains

for

of the contest between Athena and Poseidon, the

sacred olive tree

joint shrine.

and

The

and
was judged by the

the trident marks,

contest

is

thus their

first

king of

Athens, Kekrops, whose daughters were entrusted with

the care of Athena's foster/child, Erichthonios son of
Hephaistos and Earth.

When

he grew up he became

king of Athens and instituted the Panathenaea. His

grandson Erechtheus also became king. Since

time his cult

temple

was

Erechtheus.

was

identified

dedicated

to

at

some

with that of Poseidon, the

Athena

and

Poseidon'
133

Athens

in

the 5th century bc

an Ionic temple without a peristyle but with three

east, north and south sides. Each porch

It is

porches on the

has a completely different design and yet this curiously

asymmetrical building has a harmony and balance of

own.

It is

of six columns on the eastern

back, where the sacred olive

much

its

entered through a normal Ionic prostyle porch

lower

side.
tree

But the ground

of Athena grew,

at

of the west wall there

level. In the centre

the

is at
is

a
a

doorway which leads to a basement room and above

it is a ledge on which stand four Ionic columns framing
windows. The north porch, covering the trident marks
of Poseidon, consists of four slender Ionic columns along
the front, and two along each side which support a roof
small

at the level

of the

frieze

of the central hall (there

is

a hole

in this roof over the trident marks). In contrast, the south

porch, facing the Parthenon,

the

entablature

is

is

small and massive, for

by caryatids instead of

supported

columns. They stand on a low parapet, the folds of their

long Ionian tunics echoing the fluting of the Doric

columns of the Parthenon opposite.

The

entablature over the south porch has a course of

dentils, in the

manner of Asia Minor. Around

the rest of

the building runs a frieze of grey Eleusis limestone to

which

figures

of white marble were attached. This may

have been a measure of economy to avoid carving large

slabs of marble in relief. But the effect would be a lavish

background of normal
richly ornamented and

imitation of the painted blue

reliefs.

The whole

building

is

anticipates the over-decoration of the 4th century temples.

In contrast to the noble dignity of the Parthenon there

is

a disturbing element of prettiness in the Erechtheion

which

suggests

decadence.

suicidal Peloponnesian

War

was built during

(431-404 bc) and

It

the
it

is

was any building at all during this

period of stress. The war had been caused by the growing
power of Athens which controlled most of the Ionian
maritime cities of the Aegean, and had converted the
Delian League into an Athenian empire. It challenged
the traditional role of Sparta as guardian of the Dorian
cities of the Peloponnese and a war which divided the
whole Greek world became inevitable.
surprising that there

CHAPTER TEN
Greek art

The Peloponnesian War,

after

seven years, ended in 404

bc

result

of mistakes

after the Peloponnesian

dragging on

for

twenty^

in a victory for Sparta, a

made by Athens rather than Spartan

The war had solved no problems,

military superiority.
for

Sparta no longer had the strength to maintain her

leadership over the

Greek

that

little

and the country was

city-states

impoverished and exhausted.

therefore not surprising

It is

building took place on the mainland during

bc and

the 4th century

that the

the east, even those parts

major

art

markets were in

which remained under Persian

domination.

Whereas

the

Doric order was

century BC, there had been

at its

height in the 5th

building in Ionia

little

in the 4th

century

The

bc

after

499 bc. But

the disastrous revolt against the Persians in

the Ionic order achieved

its

fullest

Temple of Artemis at
Ephesos, one of the two great buildings which had
initiated the Ionic order (///. 89), was burnt down in
356 bc by a maniac in search of immortal fame. It was
development.

rebuilt

6th century

on the same foundations,

virtually repeating the

same plan, though the platform had

to be raised, giving

an extra flight of steps surrounding the building and thus

adding
(///.

to

its

impressive exterior.

As

in the old building

columns had sculptured

Pliny, one was carved by Skopas

88), thirtysix of the entrance

bases and, according to

[III 140).

Except

for a

few architectural fragments

Museum and a large hole

nothing now remains of this
of the

in the British

ground in Turkey,
temple which was once one
Seven Wonders of the World. But one of the
in the

architects,

Paionios of Ephesos,

design the

Temple of Apollo

south along the coast

remains clearly

show

(Ills

at

is

ljo,

have helped

said to

Didyma,
131).

little

The

further

extensive

the magnificence of the great Ionic

temples founded in the 4th century bc.

War

404-323 bc

ijo

131

Plan of

the

Temple of Apollo, Didyma. After H. Knackfuss,

Didyma

/,

3,

1940

Temple of Apollo, Didyma, begun end 4th century BC, completed 2nd century AD. Marble

The earlier temple at Didyma had been destroyed by the

494 bc, but it was not replaced until after

Persians in

Greek art
Peloponnesian

War

after the

404-323 bc

Alexander the Great had conquered the city in 332 bc

and building continued spasmodically until the time of
the Roman emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century ad. The

'

plan

is

very similar to that of Ephesos,

inspired by the archaic building.

It

and was

an open courtyard surrounded by

shrine standing in

The whole

massive double pteron of Ionic columns.

clearly

consists of a small

temple stands on a high platform raised above the ground

by seven huge steps.

A great

flight

which is filled with

was no central doorway;

entrance

there

raised 5 feet

oracular

'.

above the

prophecies. This

in

its

place

was

of the porch

floor

would

priest

of steps leads up to the

a forest of columns.

stand

to

window was

which

at

deliver

But

window
the

god's

the

in the centre of a

room

where the oracles were interpreted by priest'scholars.

Although overlooking the porch it could not be entered

from the outside of the temple. Side doors gave

directly

down

entrance to the courtyard

a barrel'vaulted passage^

way. Another flight of steps within the courtyard led up

to the

oracular chamber.

In contrast to the extravagant temples at

Didyma which copied

at

Priene

is

6th century

bc

Ephesos and

forms, the temple

small and symmetrical, betraying Attic in'

had been rcfounded in the

Meander had silted up
the harbour of its original site, which is now completely
lost. The new city, under the protection of Athens, was
laid out on the steep flanks of Mount Mykale with a
fluence (Ills 132, 133). Priene

4th century

gridiron

bc because

street

the river

plan of the type evolved by

Hippodamos

ground sloped
running nortlvsouth had to be

of Miletos in the 5th century bc. But the

so steeply that the streets

cut into steps.

Houses were

and space was reserved

built in rectangular blocks,

for the

major public buildings

including a theatre and a temple.

Although

it

was never

an important town, the citizens of Priene invited the

I

'

time was working for

at

to

design their temple.

The temple of Athena

:

who

King Maussollos of Caria,

leading architect of the Ionian world, Pythios,

that

plan laid out

on

(about half an inch shorter than the British

Attic

feet

foot).

The columns, on

squares.

Polias has a very symmetrical

a platform divided into squares of 6

There

are six

6/foot plinths, stand

columns

at the front

on alternate
and eleven

U7

10

_1_
132

Plan of -the Temple of Athena Polias, Priene. After T. Wiegand and H. Schrader, Priene,

1904

133

20 M
i

Temple of Athena

Polias, Priene,

c.

33^ BC

down

the sides,

an apparently asymmetrical number but

five by ten interaxials. The distance

one which gives

Greek art
Peloponnesian

after the

War

404-323

between the centre of each column is 12 feet, so the axial

dimensions of this temple are 60 by 120 feet. Instead of the

n:2n+i

proportions

of the

upon

evolved a system based

Parthenon,

Pythios

the ratio of n:2n,

has

and

all

dimensions of the temple are in simple numerical

relationship. Yet in spite of this Athenian attention to

the other

proportion,

mathematical

Pythios

chose

to

give

his

columns the type of base developed in Asia Minor and

the entablature had a course of dentils instead of a frieze.

The extreme

classicism of this temple forms a strange

contrast to the other

known work

of Pythios, the unique

tomb of King Maussollos of Halikarnassos,

who

governor of Caria

died in 353 bc.

the Persian

The Mausoleum

from the Athenian form of tomb. It is an

and consists of an
Ionic temple, standing on a high basement, roofed by an
Egyptiaivinspired pyramid of twenty/four steps which
culminates 136 feet above the ground in a platform on
which Pythios had placed his own sculptured group of a
chariot and four horses. The remaining sculpture was by
Skopas, Timotheos,
the leading artists in Greece:
is

very different

elaboration of a local type of monument

Bryaxis

and Leochares

(Ills

This experimentation
order,

139, 143).

not surprising in the Ionic

which had never been

4th century

bc Doric

Greece began
design

is

at

show more

to

a rigid order, but in the

mainland of

architecture in the

variety of form.

Bassae was extremely influential

(///.

Iktinos'

122) and

were daringly combined in the Temple of

Athena Alea designed by the sculptor Skopas at Tegea.
But the Doric order had lost its essential quality of
massive severity: the columns in the peristyle have very
slim proportions (6:1 lower diameters) and the echinus
the orders

of the capital reduced to almost nothing.

The

sanctuary

4th century

at

Epidauros was reconstructed

bc when

birthplace of the

it

was

finally established

god of medicine, Asklepios.

in the
as the

small

Doric temple was built in his honour about 380 bc, and
twenty years

later

Polykleitos the

Younger (perhaps

descendent of the sculptor) designed a tholos to stand in

the
is

same sanctuary. The function of this circular building

not clear (an equally mysterious tholos stands in the

sanctuary

of Athena

Pronaia

religious buildings, they

at

Delphi);

were not temples

although

in the

con/

139

jj Plan

of the Theatre, Epidauros

ventional sense and beneath the floor at Epidauros there

was a labyrinth which was perhaps a sacred snakcpit. It
was surrounded by a pteron of twenty/six Doric columns
and inside the cella there were fourteen Corinthian

columns, curiously not aligned with the outside pteron.

The whole building is extremely ornate with frescoed
walls, gilded ceiling and floor inlaid with black and
white marble in a radiating design of diamond'shaped
blocks diminishing in size towards the centre.

The most famous

building in Epidauros was the

which Pausanius (the author of a guidebook to
Greece in the 2nd century ad) considered to be the finest
in Greece (Ills 134, 135). It was designed by Polykleitos
the Younger who applied the geometrical principles
theatre

evolved for temple

Athens,
theatre

as the

home

buildings

to

theatre

of drama, had

set

which had developed out of the

architecture.

the pattern in a
circular

dancing

floor for the chorus, called the orchestra, standing near

the

Temple of Dionysos. This was overlooked by

natural hollow in the south slope of the Acropolis

was used
the

140

as

an auditorium.

A stoa, part of the precinct of

Temple of Dionysos, was adapted

scenery

and was used

which

to

hold painted

as a setting for the actors.

'

Younger at
and auditorium into one
geometrical pattern. The theatre was designed as if the
circular orchestra had inscribed within it a regular
twenty'sided polygon, and the radii of the circle passing

The

great innovation of Polykleitos the

Epidauros was

to link orchestra

135

The

Theatre,

Epidauros, des'

igned by Polykleitos the

Younger,

c.

3S0BC

through each of the angles were projected into the cauea

(auditorium) to divide

it

into twelve symmetric

wedge'

shaped compartments: the cavea was two sections larger

than a semicircle.

The divisions were created by staircases

running between the blocks of stone benches. Later an

upper section was added with double the number of

The

divisions.

perfection of

its

theatre

was famous

in antiquity for the

acoustics. People sitting in the side seats

may have had some

difficulty in seeing the actors in front

of the scene building, but in the Hellenistic period this

fault

was corrected by building

The

use of a raised stage

Comedy

a raised stage

on which

performed.

the actors

was an innovation of the

introduced by Menander in the

late

New

4th century

bc, in which the plays were domestic and social comedies

,

concerned with the character of individual people rather

than the universal themes of the
interest in

Old Comedy.

new

humanity pervades 4th century bc Greek

art.

141

Goddesses
as sensual

no longer visualized

are

remote

as

women. The most famous

statue

deities but

of this period

was a naked Aphrodite carved by Praxiteles and

bought by the city of Knidos in Asia Minor (it was
offered to the island of Kos but they timidly chose a draped
figure).

It

was displayed

points of view, for the statue

every

to

was

could be seen from

it

compose

represented laying aside her clothing on an

The

she prepares for her bath.

Roman

clumsy

copies

(///.

amphora

137)

which give

unknown

ij6 Head oj Hygeia from the

Temple of Athena Alea, Tegea, e.

obviously influenced by Praxiteles, has

340 BC

gentle melting gaze

of Athena Alea

features

137

Aphrodite

of

copy of the marble statue by

"
Praxiteles, c. 340 BC. Marble 6' 8'/

found

Tegea, of

Temple

authorship but
parted lips and

soft

which give warmth

idea of

little

to the idealized

136).

(///.

Hermes and

Praxiteles'

Knidos,

Roman

at

as

statue has survived only in

her original charm. But a head of Hygeia from the

The

all

'equally admirable from

an interesting comment on Praxiteles'

in three dimensions. Aphrodite is

angle',

ability

(which has

in a circular shrine

been discovered recently) so that

the

Dionysos

infant

Temple of Hera

Olympia,

at

(III.

by Pausanias

in the exact spot described

is

perhaps

138),
in the

our only

(204). Vatican

Museum

work by one of the great figures

The high polish, which has led

surviving original

Greek

sculpture.

doubts about

its

generations of

authenticity,

was probably

of
to

the result of

waxing and polishing by temple

attend/

ants.

The ugly strut which joins the thigh to the supporting

tree

trunk

exploring a
travels

difficult

is

new

explain,

to

but Praxiteles was

which

type of composition in

Instead of dividing the

sections, the

whole

fluctuations in

much more

its

figure

body
is

into carefully calculated

subtly

modulated by

suitable for figures in bronze

so a strut

delicate

was
and must have

planes. This type of composition

raised considerable practical difficulty in a

and

the eye

without hindrance over the curve of the body.

was needed

Praxiteles represents

marble

statue,

for structural purposes.

Hermes

as a

charming youth, an

extraordinary change of character for one of the more

powerful and disreputable gods of Olympos.

He

rests

against a tree stump, partly covered by an incredibly

holding

naturalistic fall of drapery,

in

the crook of his

left

his

baby half-brother

arm while he

dangling a bunch of grapes

teases

him by

There is
a similar playful attitude in the Apollo Sauroktonos (which
has survived only in numerous Roman copies): the god
is

represented as a

just out of his reach.

young boy threatening

to kill a lizard

'

Hermes and

138

the infant

Dionysos, by Praxiteles, from

Temple of Hera, Olym'

the
\pia,
;

7'

c.

340 BC. Parian

(21$). Olympia

marble,

Museum

j<)

Battle of Greeks and

panel from

the

Mausoleum

at

buted

to

Marble,

Halikarnassos,

of the
attr'u

after
353 BC.
33" (89). British

Skopas,
heiglit

Amazons,

east frieze

Museum, London

on a

tree

stump, though the subject was derived from

deadly combat with the serpent Pytho

which Apollo gained

at

the

Delphi,

in

control of the sanctuary.

charm of Praxiteles' figures,

work of Skopas expresses forceful emotions. The east
frieze of the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos is attributed tc
him by some (see p. 1 39). In one panel a Greek soldier ha:
In contrast to the gentle

the

been forced backwards by the violence of the attack of ar

Amazon
with her

139). She pushes aside his protecting shielc

arm and is about to strike him with her raisec

(///.

left

sword: the soldier suddenly

realizes that death

him. The poses show psychological insight and

no concern for grace in the Amazon who has
round to beat off an attack from the rear.
Pliny

Artemis
seen
(///.

in

is

upor

there

i;

twistec

worked at the temple o:

and his influence can b<
the sculptured base in the British Museurr

tells

at

140).

us that

Ephesos

It

Skopas

also

(see p. 135)

represents Alcestis,

who

has saved the

life

husband Admetus by taking his place when it wa:

time for him to die. She stands before Hades anc
Persephone, rulers of the Underworld, between th<
winged figure of Death and Hermes, who looks uf
her

towards the world of light because he hopes to save her

The drama of this crucial decision between life and deatt
is

expressed in the intense faces with deep'set eyes and

way

in

which

the figures are linked

folds of the drapery

144

Death.

and

by

th<

their gestures, th<

the broad spreading

wings o

140

Alcestis in the Underworld, a sculptured column

from

the

Temple of Artemis, Ephesos,

after

356 BC. Marble

5'

u3/4 "

(182). British Museum, London

145

This new expressive

grave

stelae.

style

Athenian

influenced the design of Attic

funeral stelae at the beginning of

bc were long narrow slabs of marble

(///. gg). The later stelae are

the 5th century

framing a standing figure

broader and often shaped like a shrine, with

which support
scene

pediment and frame the

emotional approach

which

indifferent to the

the
c.

stele

of a youth, found

bed of the river

]jo BC.

Pentelic

Ilissos,

in

A them,

marble

5'

6"

him. His father stands

is

man
tored),

c.

350 BC. Bronze

(res'

6'

(194). National Museum, Athens

6"

in misery, half asleep,

is

hand

in grief,

as if

searching for

raised to his beard in

he contemplates the mystery of death.

as

long way from the hoplite Aristion

own

cheerfully guards his

142 Athlete from Anticythera

river Ilissos,

dead young man as a naked hero

tomb and looking out at the spectator,
people around him (///. 141). At his

naked slave/boy crouches

This

gravestone

represented as a hero

be given immortal

life

who,

among

(///. gcj).

There was

growing

interest

personality in the 4th century

Maussollos
portrait

like Herakles,

style in

BC and

143).

(///.

left

behind.

human
tomb of King

p.

He

the

139) contained

dressed in Greek

is

chiton and ample himation (tunic and mantle)

Long

but he has typically Near Eastern features.

and

short curly beard

and

might

in individual

Halikarnassos (see

at

of the king

who
The dead

the gods. Yet at the same

time the sculptor expresses the grief of those

to this

carved

relief,

bed of the

in the

while his hound snuffles the ground

bewilderment

(168). National Museum, Athens

at

seen in a

is

represents a

leaning against his

Grave

death

to

BC and found

about 340

iji

The

husband and
death.
more

usually a sad leave-taking between

is

wife and expresses a gentle regret

feet

pilasters

figures.

full

somewhat corpulent

dignity, but

little

hair, a

sensual lips give individuality

oriental despot.

attempt has been

He has

made

power

to idealize

him.
of the

Instead

self-contained

forms

actions of 5th century statues, there

movement

is

in 4th century sculpture.

and balanced

new freedom

This

is

seen in

bronze statue of an athlete throwing a ball found

sea off

Anticythera

paralleled

(///.

of
a

in the

142) in which the raised arm,

from the side by the bent

leg, creates

an outward

movement.
This statue

still

shows

the influence of the 5th century

master Polykleitos in the powerful muscles and square

forms of the shoulders. But the canon which Polykleitos

had created

in the Doryphoros

(III.

ideal athlete in the 5th century

Lysippos,

who came

117), the image of an

bc, was challenged by

from Sikyon near Corinth and

worked

in the

same medium, bronze.

(Pliny attributes

prolific life

fifteen

He had a long and

hundred statues to

him) and eventually became the court

of Alexander

artist

the Great.

The Apoxyomenos

144)

(111.

is

a rather casual subject

from the palaestra representing an athlete scraping himself

clean from mud and dust after exercise. He stands with
feet

apart,

in front

The

weight on the

left leg,

of him, creating a plane

but with arms thrust out

at right

angles to the body.

which moves with such freedom

According to Pliny, Lysippos

figure

elegant.

is

slender

and

'made the heads smaller than the older artists had done, and
slimmer with less flesh, thus increasing the apparent

the bodies

height of his figures. There is no Latin word for the canon of

symmetry he was so careful to preserve, bringing innovations
which had never been thought of before into the square canon

of the older

(Natural History

artists.'

new
human

These

XXXIV,

19)

Halihamassos,

proportions which Lysippos had created for

Apoxyomenos reflect a general

more slender forms seen throughout the
4th century BC in the changing proportions of the Doric
column.
But Lysippos' new image of the ideal human being was
not entirely governed by mathematics. 'He often said',
Pliny continues, 'that the difference between himself and
[the older masters] was that they represented men as they
were and he as they appeared to be.' There was increasing
naturalism in Greek an in the 4th century and Pliny tells
a story about another artist from Sikyon called Eupompos.
Lysippos had been very impressed by his work and asked
which artist he followed, but Eupompos pointed to a
crowd of men and replied that nature herself should be
the

143 King Maussollos, Persian goverfrom the Mausoleum,

nor of Caria,

1)

As

any

artist.

well as single figures, Lysippos also designed large

groups in violent action, an example being the Lion Hunt

of Alexander the

Great which was

made

for

Krateros

who

had rescued Alexander in an incident in the hunt. The

composition is perhaps reflected in the hunting scene
along the side of the Alexander Sarcophagus

probably
ted

c.

(300).

Marble

753 bc.
British

Museum

figure in the

preference for

imitated, not

10"

made

for

(///.

14$),

Abdalonymos who had been appoint

king of Sidon by Alexander.

Its

front represents the

of the Issus (333 bc) in which Alexander defeated

Darius III of Persia; the back, on the other hand,
battle

represents Persians

and Greeks

has been attacked by a lion,

as allies: a Persian's horse

and Alexander, another

44 The

Apoxyomenos,

Roman

copy oj the bronze statue by Lysippos,

c. 320 BC.
Marble 6' 8%"

(20$).

Vatican

Museum

14^ The Lion Hunt of Alexander the Great, detail of the Alexander Sarcophagus,
BC. Marble with traces of colouring, 23" ($8.$). Archaeological Museum, Istanbul

late 4th century

&L

...

J./6 Heat/ of
the painting

Darius from

the

Alexander mosaic House of the Faun, Pompeii (probably a cop) oj

c. 330-300 BC). Before AD 79. National Museum, Athens

by Philoxenos of Eretria,

3reek art after the

>eloponnesian War 404-323 BC

Greek and

a Persian,

rush to the rescue.

all

probably Abdalonymos himself,

The composition is crowded with

overlapping figures carved

in

high

relief,

and

there

is

an

explosive outburst of action radiating from the lion's leap

on

to the horse.

This

form and movement influenced the art

linear style of the 5th and early 4th
was abandoned and the figures were

interest in

of painting.

The

Be

centuries

in tone and colour. At first only a limited

was used; red, yellow ochre, black and white; but
Alexander mosaic, a Pompeiian mosaic which

modelled
palette

the

reproduces a

late

Philoxenos oi

Eretria,

could

colours
{Ills 146,

be

century

4th

used

to

probably by

painting

shows how

few
form and drama

effectively these

express

147).

Alexander, bareheaded on a chestnut brown horse, is

galloping at full tilt towards the Persian king Darius,

who

is

wearing a golden headdress and

drawn by black

horses.

is

in a chariot

Alexander's eyes are fixed upon

Darius, but his aim has slipped and his spear has struck

whose wounded horse stumbles. Darius

arm outstretched in dismay as he
realizes the closeness of his enemy; his charioteer whips
the horses into flight. The drama of the encounter is
expressed in the ferocious onslaught of Alexander
towards the centre of the work which is crowded with
overlapping figures. Greek battle scenes had always been
a Persian soldier

stands in his chariot,

41

The Alexander

-louse of the

IDyg.
\12).

mosaic, from the

Faun, Pompeii. Before

8' io3/

"

16'

(2ji x

x
g /2
National Museum, Athens
4

"

violent affairs, but there

complex
Hellenistic

interplay
art.

is

new

intensity of action

of movement

which

with

anticipates

CHAPTER ELEVEN
Hellenistic art 323-133 BC

Alexander the Great defeated Persia and extended his

far beyond the bounds of Greece. After his death
this territory was divided among his generals who
assumed a semi'divine status and ruled like oriental
monarchs. The age of democracy was over.
Egypt had been conquered by Alexander in 331 BC
empire

and he appointed his general Ptolemy as governor.

Ptolemy proclaimed himself king of Egypt in 305 BC

was succeeded by his son Philadelphus, thus

These rulers converted the new city
of Alexandria into one of the most influential cultural
centres of the Hellenistic world by founding the Museum,
a temple of the Muses with an attached library and
research institute. It was modelled upon the school
founded by Aristotle, the Lyceum in Athens, which was
above all interested in logic and science. The Museum
became the centre of scholarship, for not only was past
knowledge systematized, but rapid advances were made
in new fields. Euclid showed that previous discoveries in
geometry were all logical deductions from a small
number of definitions and postulates. At the same time
and

creating a dynasty.

the

invention

of the catapult as a

military

weapon

encouraged the new study of ballistics, and the geometry

of conic

sections

from which Archimedes

laid

the

foundations of modern calculus.

was an age of observation, and much work was done

systematic study of plants, animals and medicine
(///. 212, p. 213). Major advances were also made in
astronomy, partly through Babylonian influence, for
oriental scholarship had become available to Greek
scientists after the conquests of Alexander the Great.
When Copernicus suggested in the 16th century ad that
the earth revolved around the sun he knew that he was
repeating a theory of Aristarchos of Samos, an
Alexandrian scholar.
It

in the

}-I35bc

Greek

astronomers

difficulties

centuries

to those

ad when

encountered

similar

religiou:

experienced in the 16th and

was suggested

it

Only

the centre of the universe.

that the earth

i7tl

was no

the Epicureans regardec

the universe as a purely material creation governed by th<

laws of cause and

state

effect.

The

but which came to be called

was

work

which had many name;

Destiny, and that everything

This notion encouraged belief n

Babylonian science of discovering one'

predestined.

astrology, the
fate

Stoics believed in one

ruled by a supreme power,

through the

stars.

The

and planets moved in th<

and whatevei
world was reproduced on earth
stars

vault of heaven according to fixed laws,

happened

in the sideral

As the stars' movements were predestined,

so

were man's

he was a microcosm, the counterpart in miniature of th<

universe, and his soul was a spark of
which glowed in the stars.

The

that celestial fin

only escape from this predestination was by magi<

or initiation into a mystery cult.

The Olympian gods wen

too remote to care about individual people, although the)

protected the welfare of the

cities.

They were

still officially

worshipped but ordinary people turned to other gods writ

promised salvation. One of the most popular was Sarapis
whose cult originated in Alexandria and was derivec
from Osiris, the Egyptian judge of the dead; he wa
worshipped in the great temple built for him outsidi
Alexandria by Ptolemy III. This was a Greek religion
never accepted by the Egyptians, and the cult statue, i
noble Zeus'like figure with a corn^measure on his head
was believed to be the work of the Greek 4th century
sculptor Bryaxis. The cult of Serapis spread throughou
the Mediterranean, and the Roman emperor Hadriar
copied the Alexandrian temple in the grounds of his villi
at

Tivoli

(///.

193).

Isis,

the wife of Osiris'Sarapis,

wa

the subject of even greater devotion because she claimec

and promised to liberate those initiatec

from the tyranny of Destiny.
The Apotheosis of Homer by Archelaos of Prien
represents the rather cold, academic side of Alexandriai
art (7//. 148).
It commemorates the victory of a poet
perhaps Apollonios of Rhodes, the Alexandriar
to

be above

fate

into her mysteries

Librarian,

at a literary contest.

Homer

is

enthroned

as

god and crowned by Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe, rep

resenting Time and the Universe - a reference to thi
sanctuary dedicated to Homer, built by Ptolemy ii

>

it

Hellenistic art 323-135 bc

Alexandria. History and Myth

an

altar

making

arc

a sacrifice

ai

and behind them Poetry, Tragedy and Comedy

new

proclaim the

At

god.

the far end, a child points

which come from

tc

Homer:
Courage, Good Memory, Trustworthiness and Wisdom.

the four virtues

the top

In

section

Mnemosyne,
This

is

their

the Muses,

are

their

Zeus,

father

mother, and Apollo the god of poetry.

a tortured, intellectual

intellectual

the study of

but

relief,

between the visual

programme

for a tortured',

shows the close relationship

and scholarship in Hellenistic

it

arts

Alexandria.

The

Alexandria was Pergamon in

was a mountain fortress built by
Lysimachos, who became ruler of the greater part of Asia
Minor after the death o( Alexander. He deposited his
cultural rival to

western Asia Minor.

It

fortress, guarded by a eunuch,

Lysimachos had been killed in battle
in 281 bc, Philetairos gained control of both Pergamon
and the treasure, and by skilful diplomacy ensured the
independence of the hill fortress. He was succeeded by
his nephew Eumenes I (263-241 bc), who established
the Attalid dynasty and liberated the city from the control
of Antiochos I of Syria. His son, Attalos I, took the title

within

treasure

this

Philetairos. After

of king

had

after a great victory in

settled in

To

BC

241

over the Celts

who

Asia Minor.

celebrate this victory Attalos

up

set

monument

Temple of
Athena Polias on the upper terrace of the city. The temple
was an undistinguished Doric building of the early 3rd
century bc, but the monument was a completely new
development in sculpture. It was designed to be seen
from all angles and to act as the central focus of a temple
representing his defeated enemies before the

precinct.

In

the

centre

tivity.

They were surrounded by

warriors, one o( them, seen in a

Capitoline

museum

having sounded the

(///.

retreat,

helplessly forward, his

is

6j),

08), but the figure

Greek

naked except

Although

for the

pain.

soldier

is

in the

no longer

The

pose

from the 5th

Temple of Aphaia

accurate representation of a Celt

154

copy

trumpeter who,

has collapsed, head sagging

similar to that of the dying

(///.

dying Celtic

four

the

is

after

into cap/

fall

Roman

brow furrowed by

century pediment of the

himself

Celt stabbed

killing his wife rather than allow her to

at

idealized.

who went

Aegina
It

is

an

into battle

golden torque around his neck.

a barbarian, he

is

portrayed as an individual

agony is much more real

emotion within the spectator than
the idealized dying Greek.
The kings of Pergamon were brilliant diplomats;
of
Attalos I wisely supported Rome against Philip

human being and

and arouses
1

his death

far greater

iji)

Model

of

the

Acropolis

of

Pergamon. Staatliche Museen, Berlin

Macedon and
part

kingdom was extended

of Asia Minor.

As

Perikles

in the 5th century

Athens

''

his

bc

to

had used

over a large
the wealth of

embelish the Acropolis,

Eumenes II initiated an ambitious building pre

gramme to convert Pergamon from a simple hill fortress

so

into a glittering city.

He

carved the hillside into a

series

of

one above the other. At the foot of the hill is the

lower agora through which a road passes up to the new
ring of walls Eumenes had constructed around the
Acropolis. These supported the terraces of two gymnasia,
terraces,

with a covered racetrack between. Higher terraces were

constructed for the Sanctuary of Demeter, the Great

Altar of Zeus

(///.

15 1),

and a

vast theatre

out of the hillside beneath the terrace of the

,

Above

was carved

Temple of

was Eumenes' palace, a relatively

modest building arranged around a courtyard in the style
of a Greek house. It was richly decorated with mosaic
Athena.

floors,

this

but he did not

try

to

emulate the grandiose

arrangement of oriental palaces.

:

Eumenes' two

greatest

and the Altar of Zeus.

achievements were the Library

He

Temple of Athena with

surrounded the

terrace

of the

a twetier colonnade, the lower

155

i$o

151

Terr-ace of the

distant

view

of the

Acropolis, Pergamon,

from

the

Sacred

Great Altar of Zeus, Pergamon, ie)j-i$c)

BC

Way

to the

Temple of Asklepeio.

columns Doric and the upper ones Ionic, decorated with

relief

weapons commemorating Athena as the

of victory. One side of this courtyard was used as

panels of

bringer

of the library, a suitable addition to a sanctuary

the facade

of the

goddess of wisdom. Eumenes was an

bibliophile

and

though in

fact the

is

said to

ardent

152
on

west

Sea gods fighting

the

northern

side

Marble

7'

of

the

giants,

projection

Pergamon

6" (230).

reliej

of

the

altar.

Staatlichc

Mtisecn, Berlin

have collected 200,000 volumes,

surviving building could only have

held about 17,000. This library

became

so

famous

that

Egyptians prohibited the export of papyrus, used in

the manufacture of books in roll form. The scribes of
Pergamon had to return to the ancient practice of writing
the

'

on goat skin;

it

was too thick and heavy

be rolled up

to

but separate sheets were sewn together to form a

codex, a book with pages. Both forms of book were used
easily,

until the

4th century ad,

seded the

roll.

the

codex

finally super/

inserted into

codex gave painters the opportunity to

design full/page illustrations (///. 21 2, p. 21 3) and the art
of manuscript painting became important only after its
papyrus

when

Although diagrams had been

rolls,

the

adoption.

The Great Altar of Zeus was a free-standing monument not attached to any temple. The altar itself was

157

J-

35

bc

architecturally insignificant in relation to the surrounding

It stood on a raised platform approached by an
impressive flight of steps on the west side and surrounded

courtyard.

by an Ionic

The

peristyle.

base of the structure was

decorated with a frieze 7 foot 6 inches high representing

the battle of gods and giants.
the east side the twelve

On

Olympian gods

by Zeus and Athena, on the

south side are the Heavenly Bodies and on the north,
Night is surrounded by the Stars and Constellations. The
are led

is divided by the staircase; on its right are the

gods of the land, Dionysos and his satyrs, and on the left
the sea gods (///. 152).

western side

There was no difference

gods and giants
Treasury
in

at

human

the wild

in the 6th

Delphi

appearance between the

in

century frieze from the Siphnian

(p. 103),

where they

form. But Hellenistic

and

the sublime

exotic,

artists

are all represented

were fascinated by

and emphasized the contrast between

gods, above human feelings, and

Olympian

the snake'legged giants

who

expressed their anguish and

pain without inhibition. In the narrow space on the

left-hand side of the steps, Nereus, the Old Man of the

Dons, who grasps a giant by

and stands on one of his snake legs. The giant
arches his back in agony as he struggles to free himself.
Behind him, Oceanus attacks two giants in human form
who are crouching on the steps of the altar, attempting to
fend off the blows. By placing this frieze on the base of
Sea, stands beside his wife

the hair

much closer
who becomes personally

the platform the figures are brought into

contact

with

involved in

the

spectator

between order and chaos.

this violent struggle

Almost immediately after the

and giants were completed, a

reliefs

frieze

of the battle of gods

was added

to the

inside of the peristyle of the Great Altar telling the story

how Herakles met and seduced Auge, whose son

Telephos founded Pergamon. This frieze was carved
between 164 and 158 bc but the style is calm and lyrical,
with emphasis upon the landscape motifs, in complete
of

contrast to the violence of the battle scenes.

The Great Altar was designed by Menokrates of

Rhodes, indicating a close relationship between Pergamon
and the important school of sculpture founded by
Lysippos on the island of Rhodes. Lysippos had visited
group of the four/horse chariot
city was dedicated. His
pupils, Chares of Lindos, had created one of the most
the island to cast a bronze

of the sun, to which the capital

Hellenistic art 323-135 BC

$3 Boxer by Apollonios

ian,

4'

the

Athen-

2nd or ist century BC. Bronze

2" (128). National Museum,

Rome
famous

statues

of antiquity, the Colossus, a ioo'foot

bronze figure of Helios holding a torch in one hand.

Although

the

size

of the figure

may have

practical purpose, for the statue stood near the

and was used

for

its

own

as a lighthouse,

it

served

harbour

shows admiration of size

sake.

The Nike of Samothrake

from the people of Rhodes

(///.

154) was probably a

gift

to celebrate their victory over

King Antiochus

III of Syria c. 190 bc. She is rep^

on the point of alighting on the prow of a
ship, her huge wings still open, her massed drapery blown
into a thousand criss/crossing folds which repeat the bold
swing of her wings. The twist of the body and movement
iof the drapery invite the spectator to walk around her,
seeing how the composition changes from different points

resented as if

of view.

159

The

movement

expression of

in

composition in three dimensions

device in
the style

we

Greek

see a

complex

This was

the figure

new

and

its

'baroque'

a term invented to describe

ad European art,

in

which

form in space, so that the

between spectator and work of art are

barriers

rigid

art.

of much 17th century

is

analysis of

We see a similar sense of coherent space in

broken down.

Hellenistic town-planning, in the arrangement of terraces

Pergamon,

at

so that the marketplace,

temple precincts were

was

there

of movement, and thus the

from the confining block and

a greater expression

seems to break

figure

gymnasia and

linked together. In sculpture

all

free

even invades the real space of the spectator.

Two

giants

on the Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon are

represented crouching on the actual steps of the altar

in the frieze

IS 2 )- Their emotions are forcefully expressed so that

(///.

similar feelings are aroused in the spectator.

The

i<iS

Roman

copy of the portrait of

Euthydemos of
BC.

Torlonia

Villa Albani,

c.

230-220

collection,

exhibited

Bactria,

Rome

spectator could identify himself with the sculpture

because the figures were no longer idealized. Athletes

when they were no longer at the peak of

form but battered and disfigured by their long
career.
bronze figure of a boxer, signed by Apollonios
the Athenian, is seated resting between rounds and looks
upwards defiantly, perhaps refusing the advice of his
trainer. His nose has been broken, his ears are thickened
were represented
their

and drops of blood ooze from them (///. 153). This is not
a triumphant figure but one who must soon accept
humiliation and defeat.

As
the

a result

of

this

growing

interest in the individual,

o( portraiture became increasingly important.

art

Although there was still a tendency to idealize the

and to represent kings as heroic athletes, there is a
brutal realism in the portrait of Euthydemos of Bactria
(///. J 55). The face is dominated by the huge nose and
the mouth is dragged down by deeply etched lines which
express his aggressive and cynical personality.
As far as we can judge from Roman copies and literary
figures,

sources,

such

as Pliny, great

advances were also made in

painting in the Hellenistic period.

scenes

and

from everyday

for the

first

life

and

New

still/life

subjects, such as

were introduced,

time light and colour became important.

154

Roman an was

developing

they will be described in

its

own

Nike of Samothrake by
the
of Rhodes, from

Sanctuary of the Kabiri, Samothrake,

c.

But no original works have survived from this period,

and the Roman copies were painted at a time when

(left)

Pythokritos

njo BC. Marble 8'

%"

(245).

Louvre, Paris

individual character;

Chapter Thirteen.

161

Hellenistic art 323-135 bc

Mainland Greece came under

Roman

control after the

sack of Corinth in 146 BC. Until the Punic wars with

Carthage,

Rome had

among
Macedonia made

not been interested in the power

kings. But
backing the wrong
side for it seemed inevitable that Carthage should win.
Rome never forgave this interference and took more and
the

struggles

various

Hellenistic

the fatal mistake of

more control of Greek affairs, until finally Macedonia

became a Roman province. Although the rulers of
Pergamon had skilfully remained Rome's ally, Attalos III
bequeathed his city to Rome in 133 bc, and Pergamon
became the capital of the Roman province of Asia. Rome
had become ruler of one of the greatest empires in world
history.

Although Greece continued

Roman

to

be an

art centre

under

occupation, the creative period was over and

considerable export industry was developed copying old

Roman

had had its

from its
Etruscan heritage, came under such strong Greek
influence that we can only describe the style which
masters.

own

appeared in the

162

art,

individual

which up

character

1st

century

to this date

derived

bc

as

partially

Greco^Roman.

CHAPTER TWELVE
Etruscan art 6th-

Italy,

st

century bc

unlike Greece, had never been in close contact with

Bronze Age civilizations of the Near East. The

Mycenaeans had set up a few trading posts in Italy, but
the main cultural contacts were with the north. There was
the great

an Urnfield civilization in

BC

Umbria

in the 12th century

73) and this developed in the 9th century into

(see p.

Villanovan culture. The Villanovans buried the

the

cremated ashes of their dead in biconical funeral urns,

with

covered

sometimes

bronze

8th century

when

of

into Italy in the

southern Italy and Sicily were colonized

and

by the Greeks

helmets

crested

came

northern type. Eastern influence

at

civilization in the north

the same time the Villanovan

was transformed by the Etruscans

new orientalizing culture.

The Etruscans are a mysterious

into a

been deciphered, but

not

has

structure
related

is

is

Their language

apparent that

completely unlike Latin and

that of a

to

scnption

race.

it

on

the

it

seems

non^Hellenic 6th century

of Lemnos.

island

to

bc

According

its

be
in^
to

Herodotos the Etruscans came originally from Lydia,

Asia Minor, and there may be an element of truth in

statement for their culture shows very close con^
nections with that of the east Greek world. But unlike
in

this

Greek colonies

the

not the result of

central Italy out

Their original

in the south, the Etruscan nation was

one single migration. It was created in

of many heterogenous elements.

territory lay

between the Arno and the

bc they had spread south

Tiber, but by the 7th century

.

Campania and had founded

into

close to the thriving

6th century
the
;

bc

Greek colony

they were

at

a capital city,
at

the height of their

power and

half-Etruscan dynasty of the Tarquins ruled

The

Capua,

Naples. During the

Rome.

Rome

from an armed
settlement of herdsmen into a Mediterranean city, giving
it a civic centre by draining the Forum, and starting work
Tarquins

transformed

163

1st

century bc

on the chief temple of the city, the Temple of Jupiter

Capitolinus (///. J56).
It was a major undertaking to build a terraced platform
temple on the Capitoline Hill overlooking the
Forum. The huge building had a typically Etruscan

for this

groundplan, almost square, each side being about 200

feet long. It was not peripteral but had a porch of two

rows of columns facing south. The sanctuary was divided

into three parallel shrines, the middle one dedicated to
Jupiter and those on the sides to Juno and Minerva, all
under one pediment and one roof. Only the foundations
were of stone; the walls were of mud'brick, the columns
of wood and the sculpture of terracotta. Pliny

us that

tells

Vulca was summoned from the neighbouring

of Veii by Tarquinius Priscus to work on the statue

the sculptor
city

of Jupiter.
After the 6th century bc, Etruscan power began
decline.

The Tarquins were

new Republic began

The Romans formed an

the

Cumae and

to

wage war

to

Rome, and

expelled from

against Etruria.

alliance with the

Greeks

of

defeated the Etruscans with the help of Greek

cavalry at the battle of

Lake

Regillus, just east of

Rome,

496 bc. This victory was commemorated by dedicating

the Temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum, for the
in

Greek heroes were believed

the

Roman

to

have come

to the help ol

army.

For a time the southern Etruscan territory survived ir

Latium, but in 438 bc

the isolation caused by the loss of

Capua was captured by the Samnkes, a southern Italiar

Only Tarentum and Naples, the largest Greek

tribe.
cities

out.

survived,

Rome

and the Etruscan

settlements were wipec

aided the destruction of Etruscan power b)

attacking and sacking her northern neighbour Veii, thu:

gaining control of the west bank of the Tiber.

At

th<

same time the Celts were attacking from the north. The}
sacked the
repulsed

city

of

Rome

in 390

them and they began

280 bc the Etruscan

bc, but the Roman:

to

settle

in

Etruscar

were forced intc

alliance with Rome, by which they retained domestu
self/government but were nevertheless forced to submi

territory. In

to the political control

cities

of Rome.

Although eventually

defeated

by the Romans,

Etruscans had a profound influence on

Roman

Roman

th'

culture

temples were built on Etruscan plans. Greel

temples were designed to be seen from

all

points of view

whereas the Etruscan temple dominated the precinct in

of it and could be approached only by the flight of

front

stairs at the front. This plan was followed even in the

Forum of Augustus (///. 184) where the Temple of Mars

Ultor, dedicated in 2 bc, stands

on

high podium

at

i$6

Reconstruction of the Temple of

Jupiter Capitolinus,

50^ BC. After

Rome,

dedicated

E. Gjerstad

the

back of the forum.

The Romans
in

which

the

also copied the Etruscan type of city plan

two principal

streets

points of the compass, the cardo

pointed to the cardinal

running north

to

south

and the decumanus east to west. The aim was to copy the
chief divisions of the vault of heaven, each a habitation
of a deity (this lay behind the whole

art

of divination

which the Romans inherited from the Etruscans).

The Greeks also laid out their cities with streets running
at nght'angles
to each other, and both Greek and
Etruscan city plans were probably derived from the same
oriental source. This type of plan was crystallized by

Hippodamos who redesigned

his

own

city,

Miletos, in

bc, probably in 466 after the Persian

is possible that the gridiron plan of

the early 5th century

destruction.

But

it

Marzabotto, an important Etruscan

south of Bologna,

is

earlier.

city in the hills to the

165

i$y The Tomb of the

Reliefs,

(Cerveteri), jth-2nd century

Caere

BC

The Greek and Etruscan cultures were completer)

The Etruscans did not share th<

different in character.

Greek passion

for

beauty

abstract

which convertec

architecture into a form of sculpture; whereas the Greek;

had invented town planning

beautiful and more efficient

in order to create a
city,

orderly planning of Etruscan cities

the orientation

came from

mon
anc

a wish

tc

build according to divine will.

The

Etruscans,

166

like

the

Egyptians,

were

intensely

and obsessed by death. We know far more abou

them from excavations of their necropolises than from th<
vestiges of their cities. Even their temples were built o
flimsy materials and only their fortifications and thei:
tombs were constructed of stone.
Instead of the simple stone stelae which marked th<
graves of mainland Greece and the islands, the Etruscan:
buried their dead in chambers which imitated the form:
of their houses. These rooms could be either above oi
below ground. At Caere (Cerveteri) they built hugi
tumuli over the grave chambers and in one of the late:
religious

tombs, the

Tomb of the Reliefs,

2nd century bc, even

painted

stucco

158
quinia,

The Tomb of
c.

the Bulls,

Tar-

$50-540 BC

The pillars (with curious

hung with household utensils, an

257).

(///.

archaic capitals), are

axe, a knife, a

from the 4th to the

had been copied in

in use

the furniture

truncheon and a

coil

of rope.

One

of the

body has been provided with pillows,

a low bedside table with the master's
Prancing beside the bed is a little animal,

niches for the dead

and beside

it

is

sandals laid out.

at first

sight a pet dog, but in fact three-headed Cerberus,

grim guardian of the Underworld.

At Chiusi and Tarquinia the tombs, still copying the
plans of houses, have been carved out of the rock underground and are painted. They have a vestibule with
ridged roof and two or three doorways in the wall opposite
the entrance leading to the tomb chambers. The earliest
tomb at Tarquinia is the mid-6th century Tomb of the
the

Bulls,

named

after

its

paintings

(III.

15$).

horseman, a chimaera and a sphinx confront an

the

bull, a
altar in

topmost section of the wall opposite the entrance. In

the next section,

above the two doorways leading

to the

167

i$g

Dancing couple from

the Lioness,

oj

60

Tomb
quinia,

(below)
oj
c.

Tarquinia,

the
c.

Tomb

^20

Seascape from

BC

the

Hunting and Fishing, Tar'

510 BC.

Museum, Florence

Archaeological

tomb,

is

a mysterious scene

religion, in
bulls.
Iliad,

which

perhaps referring

to a fertility

groups of figures confront two

erotic

Between the doorways

is

an

Achilles ambushing Troilos

61

Wrestling match jroin the

c.

Tomb

530 BC

from the

illustration

at a

of the Augurs, Tarquinia,

fountain.

At

floor

groups of bushes. Although the subject of the

main scene is Greek, the style does not seem to be Hellenic
and the composition is quite different from that on the
level are

contemporary 'Francois Vase' (p. 104; ///. 101). The

figures wear Etruscan clothing and are subordinated to
the landscape setting.

The Tomb of Hunting and

Fishing, painted about

510 bc, shows the importance of nature in Etruscan art.

The tomb is divided into two rooms, the first decorated
with typically Greek themes of
hunt, music

un'Greek

men

in

theme, for

it

is

filled

including gaily coloured

and diving off rocks.

The normal subject
5th centuries

bc was

fishes

for

completely

life

at

sea

(///.

and birds and boys

tomb

the funeral

Augurs

is

with a landscape

with various episodes illustrating

Tomb

returning from the

and dancing. The second room

frieze

160)

fishing

decorations of the 6th and

banquet and games. The

530 bc) represents the violent

side of Etruscan funeral ceremonies (///. 161). Instead of
an entrance to the funeral chamber, there is a painted
doorway representing the Doors of Death. Flanking it
stand

of the

(c.

two mourners, hands

raised to their heads, while

169

Etruscan art 6th-lst century bc

birds

fly

among

past

On

the trees.

the side walls are the

games which included not only Greek athletics

but also human sacrifice in which men fought to the
death. On one side of the wall two naked athletes compete
in a wrestling match for a prize of three vases. Opposite
there is much more sinister episode in which a blind'
folded man, his head wrapped in a bag, is being attacked
by a masked man, aphersu, and at the same time by a dog.
This was the origin of the brutal gladiatoral combats
which the Romans adopted from Etruscan funeral games.
funeral

The Tomb of the Lioness, painted about 520 bc, is

named after the animals (which are actually panthers) in
upper section of the wall opposite the entrance. There
no funeral chamber, for the body had been cremated
and the ashes placed in a niche under a painting of a large
the

is

funeral urn.

To

the right of the urn there

by a naked boy and a

makes
urn a
ful,

girl in a

a sign against the evil eye.

On

(///.

a wild dance

259).

who

the other side of the

priestess in full robes joins in the

rhythmic movements

is

transparent chiton

dance with power'

are watched by

They

banqueters reclining along the side walls.

The moderating

influence of Greek painting

is

seen in

Tomb

of the Baron, decorated about 510 bc.

procession of horsemen accompany a husband who offers
the

bowl of wine

figures

rock,

and seen

dead wife. The

as a farewell gesture to his

are painted

in a

directly

dim

an illusion of

on

to

the cream-coloured

light, the pale grey

The

underpainting

and solemnity
of the procession are very different from the orgiastic
funeral ceremonies normally represented on the walls of
creates

relief.

restraint

Etruscan tombs.
In the later tombs cheerful banqueting scenes were

replaced

by

disquieting

views

expressing real horror of death.

begun

most
head

bc and was enlarged in the

pan of the tomb contains the
of Velia, wife of Arnth Velcha. This is one of the
The

attractive
is

Underworld,
of Orcus was

in the 4th century

3rd century.
portrait

of the

The Tomb

shrouded

demon Charon.

older

of Etruscan paintings, though Velia's

in

dark clouds and next

In the later

chamber

to her stands the

are scenes

from the

Underworld. It is inhabited by heroes, who are menaced

by demons, and those who cannot drink of the blood
libation are like little grey monkeys gibbering in a tree.
solemn banquet has been prepared for the dead in the
Underworld, but the magnificent array of golden vessels

70

62

The Banquet of

the

Dead from

the

Tomb

of

Onus,

Tarquinia, 3rd century

BC

171

truscan art 6th-lst century BC

has been laid out by a servant accompanied by a winged

demon

(///.

162).

Although

the uncremated bodies were sometimes laid

uncovered on benches within the tomb, they were often

placed in sarcophagi in the form of banqueting couches.

The

deceased

were

pouring libations

represented

as if at their

reclining

own

on

them,

funeral banquet.

The

Sarcophagus of the Married Couple from

Caere is mid'6th century in date (///. 164). It represents
the husband affectionately sharing his couch with his
terracotta

wife (unlike the Greeks, Etruscan

together).

Although

the subject

men and women

is

not Greek, the

similar to that of archaic sculpture

and

dined
style

is

the faces are

illuminated by the typically brilliant smile of that period.

Late Etruscan sarcophagi have an almost expressionist

quality.

The

lid

of a cinerary urn in Volterra, in the form

of a miniature sarcophagus, represents a dead

man and

woman

figures

in a curiously twisted position

e
id

\\

dead

man and

the goddess

of death,

century BC. Terracotta 16'

xji). Museo Etrusco

icci,

Volterra

x 28"
Guar'

63).

have disproportionately large heads which

modelled with deeply incised

5j Lid of a cinerary urn representing

(///.

lines.

The
are

The woman might

be the dead man's wife, but the position of the figure

suggests a hovering spirit

and she probably

represents the

dread goddess of death, Vanth.

Marble

is

not as

common

the Etruscans tended to

in Italy as

work

it is

in

in terracotta

Greece and
and bronze.

1
6 4 The Sarcophagus of the Married
Couple from Caere (Cerveteri),

mid'6th century BC. Terracotta,

size.

Their temples were decorated with terracotta

statues,

Villa Giulia,

life*

Rome

not

only in the pediment, but sometimes also along the central

beam of the roof,

as in the 6th century

Portonaccio Temple

These life-size figures represent the

struggle between Apollo and Hercules (Herakles) who
had tried to carry off the hind of Apollo's sister Diana
(Artemis). This figure is obviously derived from an
archaic Greek kouros, but it is much more broadly
modelled and intended to be seen from the side, not the
front. The balanced forms of Greek 5th century bc art
had little influence on the Etruscans, and their art
remained archaic in style until the 4th century bc. But
at

Veii

(///.

168).

the greater naturalism o( late classical art, especially the

style

of Lysippos, appealed

see his

to

Etruscan

taste

and we can

influence in the figure of Apollo from the pediment

of the dello Scasato Temple

at Falerii

Veteres

(III.

166).

Greek models,
there is a fierce intensity in Etruscan sculpture found
nowhere else. This is seen in the head of a bald man from

Yet, in spite of obvious derivation from

the Belvedere

Temple

at

expression of a prophet

Orvieto
(111.

who

165).

has the brooding

173

l6_5

Head

Temple,

of

man from

bearded

Orvieto,

4th

the

BC.

century

Belvedere
Terracotta

6%"(i6)
1

66 (below

dello

left)

Scasato

Apollo from

Temple,

the

Falerii

Castellana), 4th- jrd century

BC

2$%"

Rome

(64.8).

Villa Giulia,

i6y (below

right)

century BC.

Bronze 22

Guamacci, Volterra

pediment of the

Veteres

(Civita

Painted terracotta

The 'Ghost of Night' jrd- 2nd

(57.5). Museo Etrusco

Etruscan and Greek

art are superficially similar;

used the same themes and share an interest in

But Etruscan

which

it

ordinary

art

ignored
series

votive offerings

they

Etruscan art 6th

1st

century BC

human form.

has no interest in abstract proportion,

for the

sake of expression.

An

extra--

of immensely elongated figures used as

and found

in different sites,

have such

attenuated forms that they seem to represent the spirit of

dead (///. i6y). Etruscan art lacks the balance and

harmony of Greek art, and in comparison, can look
crude and violent, yet it expresses an intensity of life
found in few Greek works.
the

168

Apollo from

Portonaccio

Apollo),

Temple

Veii,

late

the

Temple of

6th century BC.

Painted terracotta 5' g"

Gitilia,

roof of the

(the

ij$). Villa

Rome

175

HAPTER THIRTEEN

oman

art during the Republic and the early

id century bc

1st

Empire

century AD
Roman
During

had

art

a struggle to achieve an identity of its

were the leading

artists in central Italy

and

copied their plans for temples, houses and

same time

there

the

cities

of southern

but also indirectly through the Etruscans.

Roman

Romans
At the

cities.

was an increasingly strong influence from

Greece, not only from the Greek

artists

own.

the early years of the Republic, the Etruscans

Italy,

After the

conquest of Greece in the 2nd century bc, Greek

came

to

work

in

Rome and works of art and

copies

of old masters were imported. This Greek influence

reached

ad

its

height during the reign of Augustus (27

bc-

14).

Roman architecture had a

style of its own.

from the use of local
building materials. The most important Greek temples
were built out of marble but the Etruscans mainly

Nevertheless,

This

style

was

partially derived

constructed their buildings out of mud'bncks and

and

there

Luna

was

little

marble available

opened

quarries were

Augustus.

Roman

at

monumental forms than were

Carrara

at the

were seeking

architects

wood

in Italy until the

time of

for

possible with the

more

humble

Etruscan building materials, but the importation of Greek

marble was prohibitively expensive. They found that the

hard creamy^white limestone from Tivoli, called traver/
tine, could be used as a substitute for marble, and they
built the foundations

sandstone called

make

tufa.

and walls out o{ a soft volcanic

But their major innovation was to

extensive use of concrete, roofing their buildings

with arched vaults instead of

Roman

wooden

architecture acquired

its

or stone beams.

character from this

and vaulting. It was not an innovation, for

Mesopotamia since the earliest
times (see p. 28). The Greeks were also familiar with the
arch from their oriental trade, and used it occasionally
use of the arch

arches had been used in

when

structurally

necessary,

for

example, the

barrel/

\6g

Temple of

Vesta, Tivoli, ist century

BC

man

art during the Republic

the early Empire

century BC-lst century AD

vaulted passageways in the temple

and the arched entrance

at

Didyma

market

to the

(see p. 137)

Priene.

at

Etruscans also built arched entrances to their

Perugia and Volterra.

Although

the arch

Romans were

the

first

was not
to

make

a purely structural feature,

Roman

full use

The

cities

at

invention, the

At

of it.

first it

was

used to cover wide spans in

bridge and aqueduct construction.

The oldest aqueduct

Marcia, begun in 144 bc; the arches of the
Pons Aemilius, the Ponte Rotto (Broken Bridge) in
is

the

Aqua

Rome, were
bridges, the

constructed in

The

142 bc.

Pons Mulvius begun

Pons Fabricius, 62 BC, increased

succeeding

109 BC and the

in

the span of the arches

from 60 to 80 feet. Roman engineers became more and

more daring in piling arches on top of each other, not
only to span wide gaps, but also to reach great heights.
This culminated in the Pont du Gard, built in c. ad 14
to carry the
feet

aqueduct of Nimes

in three tiers

high over the Gard valley

(///.

170).

amazing engineering achievement, and

still

in use as a bridge.

beauty

which

The

reminds

of arches 161

This was an

the structure

is

ranges of arches have a severe

us

of

19th

century

railway

architecture.

Later

Roman

architects

found endless

possibilities in

the arch. Free-standing arches were built as triumphal

monuments to the emperors {Ills

also combined with the Greek
Pont du Gard, Nimes,

c.

ADi 4

185, 202).
orders,

They were

rising

directly

from columns. But the most important use of the arch

was in the development of concrete vaulting. As early as

fff*&,

Tabulanum, the Record Office in

Forum, was built with a barrel/vaulted roof.
78 BC, the

Roman

the

Roman

am/
programme instigated by Sulla when he
became Dictator in 81 Be after the disastrous Social War.
architecture reached maturity with the

bitious building

His most grandiose

was

project

Temple of Fortuna Primigenia

at

the restoration of the

Praeneste, a building

so vast that the

whole medieval town,

be built within

its

terraces

iji).

(///.

Palestrina,

The

could

overall design

of connecting terraces was Hellenistic, for example the

acropolis of the city of Pergamon (///. 1 ^p), and ultimately
derived from Egyptian architecture. But the

Fortuna Primigenia was

and more varied

much

larger than

in the contrast

curved forms. Moreover, there

is

Temple of

any

between

in

Greece

and

straight

an axial symmetry in the

design alien to Greek architecture.

During

the ist century

Greek

to assimilate

Be,

Roman

architects

were able

influence, modifying the Etruscan

plans of their temples without altering their essential

character.

looked

and
the
first
is

at

Whereas Greek temples were intended

from

all

be

to

points of view, the facades of Etruscan

Roman temples were strongly emphasized. Although

Temple of the
sight to be

so

Sibyls

at

Tivoli (near

surrounded by a Greek

broad that

it

Rome)

appears

at

peristyle, the cella

engages the columns

at the

Temple of Fortuna Primigenia,

(Palestrina), c. 80 BC.
Axonometric plan after A. Bo'ethius
iyi

Praeneste

and f. B.

and

Ward

Roman

Perkins Etruscan

Architecture, igjo

back and

podium with steps at the

front only. Close by is the circular Temple of Vesta which
also stands on a high podium with steps at the entrance
sides

only.

and

It

it

stands on a high

has a structural core of concrete, concrete cella

walls and was possibly even roofed with a concrete dome.

But it is surrounded by a peristyle of eighteen slender

Corinthian columns made from travertine, supporting
an entablature decorated in a Hellenistic style with a
frieze

of garlanded bulls' heads

Roman

(///.

169).

houses followed Etruscan rather than Greek

plans in having an entrance courtyard, the atrium,

an aperture in the
tank beneath
atrium and

it.

roof, the compluvium,

lit

The bedrooms were grouped around

at the

by

with a rainwater
the

end, opposite the entrance, was the

tablinum, the family

reception room.

Beyond was

the

garden which, under Greek influence, was surrounded

by a

access to more bedrooms and

was the plan of the old patrician
Herculaneum and Pompeii, but in Rome con'

peristyle

giving

reception rooms. This

houses

at

ditions forced ordinary people to live in blocks of flats.

179

j 2,

J3

Painted Hall

in the

Villa of Mysteries, Pompeii,

c.

50

BC

The

patrician house presented a blank face to the

no windows looked out on to the street

and the only entrance was through a passage guarded by
a porter. Inside it was cool and dark, light coming only
from the compluvium and the doorways leading on to
the peristyle. Although the Romans had invented underfloor heating for their public baths in the ist century bc,
it was not commonly used for houses and in winter the
only heating was from a brazier. Some houses had
outside world;

running water, but bathing facilities were primitive;

went to the public baths, which became
elaborate architectural complexes during the ist centuries
bc and ad. The Stabian Baths at Pompeii have barrel'

J4

Garden

Room from

the

of Livia, Prima Porta, near

Late

ist century

eum,

Rome

BC. National

Villa

Rome.

MuS'

everyone

181

c
'

The Odyssey landscape from a

on the Esquiline Hill, Rome,
BC. Vatican

Museum

vaulted hot and tepid

rooms and

swimming

circular cold

concrete^domed

pool.

2nd century BC houses were decorated in

manner with painted stucco reliefs
imitating masonry construction and rich marble ven^
eering. This First Style was followed by purely painted

During

the

Hellenistic

the

introduced

decorations,

at

the

beginning of the

ist

century BC, which convincingly create an illusion that

room was surrounded by columns. Although

the

painters of the

Second

the

Style did not completely under^

stand the principle of parallel lines appearing to converge

at eye'level,

they were obviously interested in the theory of

perspective.

Towards

the

middle of the

ist

century

simple architectural decorations were used to frame

bedroom

BC

the

vistas.

had walls divided

columns (///. iy6). In
one compartment is the shrine of a goddess whose statue
stands beneath a 'sacred gateway', and there is an altar
before the closed doors of her sanctuary. The ivory and
in a villa at Boscoreale

into panels by painted Corinthian

tortoiseshell inlaid gates

ofa luxurious

villa are represented

compartment, and in the third is a tholos in a

colonnaded courtyard. There seems to be some con'
nection between these paintings and the fashion,
mentioned by Vitruvius, of decorating houses with
in the next

tragic,

satyric

obviously

not

and comic

stage

straightforward

paintings.

scenery, but stage sets were copied as

architecture.
their

of theatre
models of luxurious

Though Roman houses were plain externally

painted

palaces.

They were

imitations

decorations

inside

converted them into

Roman

art during the Republic

and the early Empire

2nd centuryBC-lst century AD

ij6
the
c.

Architectural wall painting from

bedroom of the Villa at Boscoreale,

50 BC. Metropolitan Museum of

Art,

New

York, Rogers

Fund 1903

Although many of the house paintings were purely

room in the Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii
seems to have been decorated for religious purposes, and
decorative, one

the paintings have been interpreted as a scene of initiation

into the cult of Dionysus (Ills
size,

72,

73).

The

figures, life'

stand on a shallow platform before a wall with

Second

typical

Style decorations, divided into brilliant

and green strips. The total

solemn and impressive. At the entrance is the
of the domina of the villa, seated in a cushioned

red panels separated by black

effect

is

portrait

chair, resting her

as she

head pensively against her raised hand

contemplates the

initiate enters

and

young boy under

ritual

listens to the

The

enacted before her.

reading of the ritual by a

the direction of a seated matron.

Then

follows the lustral purification to the lyre music of Silenus,

the

companion of Dionysus. After

been made and the god

is

the preparations

invoked, the

initiate

is

have

struck

which faces her on the opposite

She starts back in alarm, eyes wide open, nostrils
dilated and lips parted as she sees the scene of flagellation.
winged figure flogs a fainting girl, collapsed into the
by

terror at the ordeal

wall.

183

fT!5P

Villa landscape from the

icretius

Fronto,

House

Pompeii,

c.

lap of her

companion, and

a bacchante

drowns

her cries

with the clashing of her cymbals. But the ordeal

over and she
represented
revealing

is

on

its

adorned

the

secret

is

soon

as a bride for the revelations

end wall. The mystic basket is unveiled,

of fertility. The hideous satyr is stripped

of his theatrical mask and beneath

is

the wise

and

sensitive

face of a philosopher resembling Socrates. In the centre,

Dionysus relaxes in the arms of Ariadne, who is raised

up and enthroned as an immortal through the love of a
god.

The paintings of the Villa of Mysteries and of the whole

Style show the concern of Roman painters in the
i st century bc to create an illusion of volume and space.
The figures are basically Hellenistic in style, painted in
the round and appearing to move against the architectural
Second

background. Real and

as the

pictorial space

painted figures look across the

have been blended,

room

to events taking

place on the opposite wall.

The

ultimate

achieved

was

after the

treated as a

naturalism

in

and illusionism was

middle of the century when the wall

window opening on

to a

wide and

The Odyssey landscape is from a

Esquiline Hill in Rome. It is divided into

boundless landscape.

house on the
eight

compartments by Corinthian

these divisions there

Books

is

pilasters,

but behind

a continuous landscape illustrating

and XI of the Odyssey:

the encounter with the

Lastrygonians,

Underworld
as a great

Circe's

(111.

175).

island

and

the

The Underworld

to

visit
is

the

represented

rocky cavern, with light flooding through the

opening on to tiny
the blood libation.

figures of the

dead flocking

to

Roman

art during the Republic

and the early Empire

2nd century BC-I st century AD

drink

The work was obviously Greek inspired, for nymphs

and mountain gods are personified and the names are
written in Greek. But this major development in land'
scape painting was not a purely Greek achievement.
According to Pliny, a fashion was started in the reign of
Augustus for decorating houses with garden scenes and
landscapes by a

Roman

painter called Studius (another

him Ludius). We can, perhaps, see an

example of his work in the villa at Prima Porta owned
by Livia, the wife of Augustus. A room is decorated
manuscript

calls

with a garden scene, without architecture or

(///.

174).

A fenced pathway runs

all

the

figures

way round

the

178

StillAije

from

the

House of

Julia Felix, Pompeii, late 1st century

BC. National Museum, Naples

Roman

art during the Republic

and the early Empire

2nd century BC-lst century AD

room, with

which

recesses for trees

columns. Behind the fence

flowering bushes and

branch

to

branch.

parallel in

Roman

The

replace the customary

an impenetrable thicket of
trees, with birds flying from
is

fruit

naturalism of this painting has no

Greek work.
landscapes are of two types.

rustic shrines

and

of an unreal Arcadia. Both subject and

of the pastoral

Some

represent

are soft, sentimental misty paintings

idylls

mood remind

by the 3rd century

written

us

BC

Alexandrian poet Theokntos. In contrast there was a

group of landscapes which represent contemporary
buildings, villas and harbour scenes, reflecting the
Roman's interest in their own surroundings. Unlike the
Greeks, the

ljg Portrait

of

Aide Mctcli

(the

Orator), from Sanguineto, near Lake

Trasimene,

arm and
5'

io'/2

c.

left

"

80 BC. Bronze
index finger

(ijg.$).

Museum, Florence

(right

restored),

Archaeological

Romans

themselves country houses

built

which were designed to look out over a beautiful view.

Such a villa is represented in the tablinum of the House
of Lucretius Fronto in Pompeii (///. ljj)Another attractive side of Pompeiian painting is seen
in the little stilMife panels inserted into the complex of
the architectural decorations.
objects,

such

Julia Felix at

as the eggs

Pompeii

The

subjects are everyday

and game from

(///.

j8).

They

the

House of

are arranged

with

showing interest in tone

values and related colours, and are examples o{ pure
painting in which the handling of the tones and colours
is more important than the subject. It is possible that they
were copied from some pattern book of Greek master^
pieces: Sosos of Pergamon was famous for his represent
tation of an unswept floor of a triclinium still littered with
the debris of a banquet and this subject was copied in
Roman mosaics. But still'lifes are also found in Etruscan
painting, for example the golden dishes in the 3rd century
bc Tomb of Orcus at Tarquinia (III. 162).
The sources of Roman painting are complex. There is
no doubt that Roman painters owed a great debt to the
Greek masters of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC whose
works they copied on the walls of Pompeiian houses. It
was the Greeks who extended the subject matter of
painting beyond the confines of mythology, introducing
scenes from everyday life, landscape and stilMife. More^
over it was the Greeks who developed the technique of
painting from the linear style of the 5th century BC to one
a pleasing sense of composition

with a limited palette but

figures fully modelled in tone

end of the 4th century BC (///. 146). In
the Hellenistic period painters began to use the full range

and colour

at the

of colours, and they explored the expressive quality of

brushwork, applying the paint in an almost impression^
istic

technique.

The importance of the Etruscan

tradition in painting

Greek painting was

intended for display in public monuments and art
galleries, whereas the Etruscans decorated tombs with
banquet scenes, landscapes and mythological subjects.
The architecture o^ the tombs imitates that of private
houses, which suggests that Etruscan houses, unlike
Greek houses, were also decorated with paintings. Artists
working in Rome, whether Greek or Italian, transformed
house decorations into major works of art.
mixture of Greek, Etruscan and Roman elements
can also be seen in the development of Roman sculpture
in the ist centuries bc and ad. Above all, the Romans
should

not

underestimated.

be

excelled

at portraiture.

of their ancestors in the

Patrician families displayed busts

of their houses and masks

tablimnti

were carried in funeral processions. Portrait sculpture

developed in
artists

Italy just

had become

when

the time

at

Hellenistic

interested in the portrayal of individual

80

Before

personality

(III.

155).

was

It

time too, that the

at this

Etruscans began to create important portraits; for example

the Orator in Florence

inscription saying that

(///.

it is

has an Etruscan

It

179).

of Aule Meteli, but

a portrait

was cast about 80 bc when the territory where it was

found near Lake Trasimene was under Roman control.

it

what was

difficult to distinguish

It is

and what had come under

Aule

basically Etruscan

the influence of

Roman

art.

arm upraised in
Although the pose

Meteli stands rather clumsily with

the conventional

gesture.

orator's

lacks the elegance of

Greek

portraits, the face has refined

and

bony

features

with sensitive

skull

visible beneath the soft texture

is

portrait of a cultured

end of his

lips,

man who

the

is

structure of the

of the

flesh. It is a

aware of the inevitable

civilization.

In contrast, the portrait

herm of the

rich

banker Lucius

Caecilius Jucundus from his house in Pompeii, rep/

resents

him

expression

as
(7//.

an

astute, cheerful

180).

He

man

has a firm

with a confident

mouth but asynv

metrical features further disfigured by large projecting

ears

and

a wart.

He was a

successful businessman without

any pretentions of being a Greek hero. There

in

Roman

portraits

which goes much

Hellenistic or Etruscan sculpture.

is

a realism

further

than

Portrait

Jucundus, from

AD

jg.

of Lucius
his

house

in

Caecii

Pomp

Bronze i8'/2

National Museum, Naples

"

(j

CHAPTER FOURTEE

Roman

Imperial art 27 BC-ADl*

The new Roman style, which had been created in the

i st century
bc out of Etruscan and late Hellenistic
elements, was used by Augustus to glorify his empire. The
from the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta represents
Augustus barefoot as a Greek hero, but wearing Roman
armour (///. 181). Although the figure lacks the realism
of the Etruscan Orator (III. 1 jg) and the features have been
statue

idealized, this

Roman

is

not an abstract hero but the portrait of a

emperor.

The Ara Pads

(Altar of Peace) was one of the

great achievements in
sacrificial altar

Roman

sculpture.

of Greek type on a raised

It

is

first

a large

podium and

surrounded by a sculptured enclosure wall broken by

was inaugurated in
Augustus' return from the western

entrances at east and west

13

bc

to celebrate

(///. 1

82).

It

182
Pacis,

Reconstruction

of

the

Rome, inaugurated 13

Luni marble

A
l

83

Mother Earth,

enclosure

wall

of

the

panel on the

Ara

Pacis
"

(Altar of Peace). Ltiui marble

'

(1S7)

5' i3/
4

provinces, but

it

expresses the general feeling of relief in

war following the murder of Julius

Caesar was over and that there was once more a strong

Italy that the civil

and capable government. The

with a conventional
priests,

sacrificial

relief of a

enclosure,

much

on

becoming completely
the other, the senate

at a rustic

shrine

golden age of

is

Roman

procession
sides

of the

in character;

and

the

on

official

and the people. The panels

Roman

represented by

and on

Italy

on both

priests

flanking the two entrances are

basic piety of the city

The

Parthenon.

larger scale

one side Augustus, consuls,

family;

was decorated

attendants and victims, a theme ulti'

mately derived from the

continues on a

altar itself

procession of vestal virgins,

in

theme; the

Aeneas

sacrificing

the opposite side of the altar the

under the Pax Romanci

is

symbolized

by Mother Earth (or Venus, ancestress of Augustus'

adoptive family) seated with her children and with her
lap

filled

with

fruit (///. 183).

The

figures in these reliefs

Greek manner, but the details of the

landscape setting and the exquisite carving of the plants,
trees, and animals, show far more careful observation of
nature than is ever found in purely Hellenistic art.
As leader of the Roman army, Augustus converted the
triumphal arch, erected in honour of successful generals,
are idealized in the

into

190

an imperial monument. Several arches were erected

in his honour, including

one in the

Roman Forum, and

they

set

monuments. The

the pattern for all succeeding

end of the Roman Forum,

commemorating Titus' conquest of Jerusalem in ad 8i,

Arch of Titus,

at

the eastern

and

a single arch of exceptionally fine proportions,

is

decorated with relief sculpture representing Titus'

umphal

procession

(///.

On

18$).

one jamb

tri^

soldiers

booty from Jerusalem, including the sevens

branched candlestick, and opposite the emperor riding

carry the

crowned by Victory (///. 186).

show a significant change of style from
naturalism of the period of Augustus. Although
in his chariot

These

is

reliefs

the
the

procession with the booty gives the impression of life and

approaching an archway proportionally too

bustle,

it

small.

Similarly,

is

the

in

chariot, the direction in

not clearly indicated.

profile

to

moving

is

full face.

The

relationship

each other in space was no longer of interest to

and we see declining interest in the values of

the end of the 1st century ad.

artist,

Greek

the figures are

chariot horses are seen in strict

while the emperor stands

of figures
the

The

of the emperor in his

relief

which

art at

Because the emperors were the richest men in the state,

many used their personal fortunes to embellish Rome
with new buildings. One of the city's most pressing needs

was

to increase the size

Forum was

of the administrative centre,

The

184

Rome,

Plan

of

the

Imperial

1st- 2nd century

Fon

AD

for the

was
begun by Julius Caesar on the north side of the Forum,
and succeeding emperors added to it, repeating the
original architectural layout and axial alignment (///.
1 84). The most magnificent of these Imperial Fora was the
one designed by Apollodorus of Damascus for Trajan
(ad 98-117). It was a huge rectangular courtyard with
semicircular recesses on each of the long sides masked
by a portico, and the whole of the west side was filled by
old

hopelessly congested.

Rome.

the Basilica Ulpia, the largest basilica in

Roman

rectangular

extension

plans.)

Greek and

Latin

libraries

stood in the courtyard between them.

Trajan's

memorate

Column was
the

present-day

Rumania.
spiral

interior

dedicated in

ad

1 1 3

to

com/

emperor's conquest of the Dacians in

an

capital

were

and Trajan's

attached to the west side of the basilica

Column

(Basilicas,

invention, were all-purpose buildings with

It

is

staircase

on which stood

100

Roman

winding up

the statue of the

feet

high with

Doric
emperor (replaced
to

the

by one of St Peter in 1587). Instead of flutes, a figured

3 feet high spirals around the column, describing

frieze

19

i#5 Arch of
c.

AD

81-82

Titus,

Roman Form

in detail Trajan's

and 104-106).
details

of military

that they

two Dacian campaigns (ad 101-103

It is

carved in a very

life

realistic style, for the

have been recorded so accurately

must have been based upon sketches made

during the campaign. For example, the opening scene

campaign when the Roman

Danube, one of the frontiers of the

represents the start of the

army crossed

Roman

the

empire, by a pontoon bridge

drawn

(III.

18J).

The

and accurate detail, clearly

showing how the wooden roadway was supported by
boats lashed together and kept in position against the
bridge

is

by their steering oars.

river current

The

sculptor

foreground
small; there

river

and
is

The
the

interested in creating
figures

buildings

no attempt

are
are

an illusion^

crowded

into

the

disproportionately

to create a sense

of recession into

Although the river is symbolized by a classical

god who raises his head above the water to watch

space.

192

was not

landscape.

istic

in precise

the departing army, this relief

which owes

is

Greek art.
pontoon bridge
to

little

carved in a

No

Greek

Roman

new style
would

Imperial art

27BC-ADI92

artist

in a battle scene and the

Greek convention of heroic nudity would have seemed

have included a

literal Roman artist who knew that

Roman soldiers wore armour.
The Column of Marcus Aurelius, erected between ad

ridiculous to the

176 and 193, was obviously copied from that of Trajan.

too, is 100 Roman feet tall and has a spiral staircase up

It,
its

centre.

The

upper part

his

commemorates in the lower

war with the Germans, and in the

spiral relief

part the emperor's

war with

the Sarmatians. Instead of being

an objective account of a successful campaign, the

war

express the horrors of

villages

the

with weeping

Roman army

in scenes

women and

of sacking

reliefs

German

children. Moreover,

did not triumph solely by armed

strength but also with the help of divine intervention; the

'age of miracles'
(III.

had begun. The Miracle of

188) represents a

defile

and saved by

Roman

the

Rain

legion trapped in a narrow

sudden downpour. The rainstorm

is

symbolized by a huge winged figure which hovers over

on top of each other on the

The Roman soldiers on the
left all stand in one plane in the foreground, placed one
above each other to indicate recession (though without
diminution of size), so that they fill the entire surface of
the relief. The outlines of the figures have been emphasized
with deep grooving by means of a drill which increases
the general flatness of the design. The work is harsh and
grim, a monument to warfare and far removed in spirit
the

drowned enemy,

piled

right-hand side of the scene.

186 The Emperor's triumphal pre

from the Arch of Titus,
Forum, Rome. Marble 6' yy2 "
12 8" (202 xj86)

cession,

i8j Detail of the frieze on Trajan's

representing the Roman army

Column
crossing

AD

13.

the

Danube.

Marble,

100 Roman
Rome

feet.

Dedicated

height

oj

Trajan's

from the
(///.

in

column

Forum,

naturalism of Augustus' Altar of Peace

lyrical

183), carved nearly

Just as

doned

Roman

two

sculptors

centuries earlier.

had

Roman

architects

abaiv

to a large extent

their Hellenistic heritage in the

2nd century ad,

combined Greek forms with Roman

concrete construction, producing a completely

new

style.

The Pantheon, created by Hadrian AD

(///.

189),

is

1 1

8-126

the complete reversal of classical architecture, being a

great

domed

circular building with only an entrance

Even when still sheathed in marble

must have been extremely ugly, and the

porch and no
the outside

peristyle.

entrance portico has extraordinary proportions for the

pediment rises at far too steep a pitch. But inside, the

whole building is dominated by the dome, an architect
tural simulacrum of the dome of heaven (///. 190). The
building was not dedicated to the Olympian gods, but to
the planetary deities, whose statues stood in seven niches
which pierce the wall. The arches over the niches are
hidden behind an entablature supported by Corinthian
columns. The concrete walls were faced in coloured
marble and the whole complex structure of the building

was

disguised.

to float

As a

result the great coffered

dome appears

unsupported, and on entering the building one

is

overwhelmed by the great volume of curved space. The

space was defined not so much by form but by light for
in the centre of the dome there was a circular opening
through which the sunlight flooded, moving around the
building with the passage of time.

Hadrian had

Rome

at

relatively

an enormous villa outside

Unlike Hellenistic kings who lived in

built himself

Tivoli.

Roman

emperors lived in

Although Augustus had

lived simply as a

modest palaces, the

great state.

private citizen in the fashionable residential area

194

Palatine

Hill

overlooking the Forum,

on

Tiberius,

the
his

successor,

had destroyed

all

the private property

north-west side of the Palatine to

the Domtis Tiberiana,

make way for

on

Roman

the

Imperial art

27BC-ADI92

his palace,

which was extended by Caligula.

A new palace was begun by Claudius, or more probably

Nero, but

it

was destroyed

in the

fire

of ad 64. This gave

Golden House, the

Domus Aurea. Although situated in the centre of Rome,
the Domus Aurea was designed as a country house
Nero

the opportunity to lay out his

overlooking extensive parkland with a lake. After Nero's

suicide in ad 68, Vespasian converted the ground into a
public park and drained the lake to form the foundations

of the world's largest amphitheatre, the Colosseum. But

this reaction against

personal lavish display was short'

Domitian, when he became emperor in

ad 81, took over the whole of the Palatine Hill as his
private and official residence. He was the first emperor to
proclaim himself a god within his own lifetime, and his
banqueting hall had an apse, reached by steps, where he
dined alone to avoid profane contact with his guests.
Hadrian's Villa consists of a number of groups of
lived; his son

buildings linked by gardens and pools

(7//.

191).

sentimental and nostalgic retreat from the bitter

It

was

realities

which had grown

The wealth of this empire had been used to
recreate the most famous monuments of the ancient world

of a

life

spent administering an empire

too large.

of Greece, for example the Serapeum in Alexandria

193). This

(///.

wa; not an exact reproduction of the Temple

188

Detail

Column

of

senting the

of the frieze

Marcus Aurelius

Roman army

Miracle of the Rain,

on

the

repre^

saved by the

AD

ij6-i<)j.

Piazza Colonna, Rome

195

89

The

118-126

Pantheon,

Rome,

AD

of Serapis, but a highly schematic analogy.

The

canal

from the Nile is suggested by a rectangular pool suf

rounded by a portico of Corinthian columns supporting
lintels

flat

and curved

standing on the banks

The Temple was

dile.

amongst the sculpture

god and a croco'

arches;

is

the Nile river

represented by a fountain with a

semicircular apse with mosaic encrusted semi'

great

dome, pierced by niches for waterfalls. Roman archie

had completely outgrown its dependence upon

tecture

Greece.

The most
the

reception hall.
at

one

side

and complex

original

'Piazza

d'Oro',
It is

probably

a large

through a

part of the palace

the

emperor's

is

main

colonnaded courtyard entered

domed

octagonal vestibule

(///.

192).

On

the opposite side of the courtyard

much

larger

hall

with a square plan but roofed by an octagonal

dome

supported on eight

piers.

The

is

bays between the piers

curve alternately inwards and outwards.

The whole

monumental development of the atrium

house with its entrance opposite the main reception room.

scheme

is

But instead of simple rectangular rooms,

its

halls are

vaulted in complex intersecting curves. Hadrian's Villa

represents

196

materials

Roman

art at its best

with

its

vast scale, lavish

and imaginative handling of space.

igo

The

interior of the

Pantheon. Painting by Giovanni Paolo Panini ( i6gi\2-i]6$). Samuel

Kress Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington

H.

i)i

Model

by

I.

Gismondi

Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli,

1

]j.

il)2

The park

Plan

Hadrian's

is

c.

AD

of

118-

one mile wide

of the

Piazza

d'Oro,

Villa,

Tivoli.

After

Winnefeld

igj

The Canopus and Serapettm,

reflecting

pool

and fountain

grounds of Hadrian's Villa

in

the

1M

CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Late

The Roman empire had been

at the

height of

Roman

its

art 3rd-4th centuries

AD

power

under the Antonine emperors in the 2nd century ad, but

it

was already beginning

empire was too large

to

to

show

signs of strain.

be administered

efficiently

The

and

it

was constantly under attack. The Antonine dynasty

ended with the murder of Commodus (ad 192). Even-'
tually the North African governor of Upper Panonia,
Septimius Severus (ad 193-21 i), gained supreme power
but still had to fight a disastrous civil war for four years
against the rival contestants put forward by the different
armies.

Although he temporarily

halted the

breakdown

of the empire and was succeeded by his son Caracalla

was harsh and taxation became

More and more money was needed
to pay for the army which became dangerously powerful.
In the half century between AD 235 and 285 there was
(ad 211-217),

bis rule

increasingly heavy.

a complete collapse of central administration because

civil

war between

their

own

the different armies

who

of

put forward

generals as emperor. In this period there were

twentysix

Roman

violence.

The

guarded and

emperors, and only one died without

frontiers
Italy

no

were

was open

to

longer

adequately

barbarian

194

Possible portrait of the emperor

Gallus, AD 251-253.
Bronze 10 //' (27). Archaeological

Trebonianus

Museum, Florence

invasion;

Aurelian (ad 270-275) was forced to build defensive

walls around the city of Rome.
Although Septimus Severus and his son Caracalla
had continued the ambitious building programmes of the
Antonines, there was a great change in
lost its self'confidence.

of portraiture.

Museum

in

This

is

Roman

art

which

seen most clearly in the art

The bronze head

in the

Archaeological

Florence, believed to be a portrait of the

emperor Trebonianus Callus, AD 251-253 (///. 11)4),

could not be mistaken for a work of the early empire.
The style is realistic and the head is firmly modelled with
contrast between bone^structure and texture of the
flesh; the

deeply furrowed forehead and the stubble o{

199

ig$

hair

and beard

Bacchus and

But

the face

The Badminton Sarcophagus

the Four Seasons, c. AD
220-230. Marble j_s '/2 " x 8j3/4 "

(go X223). Metropolitan Museum

of Art,

New

York

is

all

contribute to

dominated by the

its

expressive quality.

large, staring

almost

desperate eyes.

The major works of art of this period were funeral

monuments. There had been a change of burial custom
during the 2nd century ad when instead of cremation,
burial in a sarcophagus became increasingly popular.
There were three main types of sarcophagi, Roman,
Attic and Asiatic. The Roman sarcophagi were
decorated on three sides only, and in the 3rd century ad
sarcophagi with rounded ends which were decorated
with figures or animals in high relief, came into fashion.
Attic

manufactured

sarcophagi were

exported to

Roman

Italy,

and

ones except that they cover

Asiatic sarcophagi from Asia

the deceased reclining

tinuous

relief

in

Greece but

their decorations are similar to the

on

along the

the

all

four sides.

The

Minor usually represented

lid, and instead of a con'

sides, the figures are

framed by

and gods.
the hunt
decorate sarcophagi, the most

aediculae, creating a palace peopled by heroes

Although Greek themes of

continued

to

be used to

and

the battle

popular subjects were connected with the saviour gods

who brought hope of life after death. Bacchus, the

Roman Dionysus, was worshipped as a saviour because
he had given immortal

life

to

Ariadne. Girls were

initiated into the mystery of his cult,

and

room was

aside for his religion in the Villa of Mysteries at

(Ills

200

ij2,

173).

set

Pompeii

The Badminton Sarcophagus, now

New York, represents the Triumph of Bacchus (111.

in

19$).

The god

rides

on

Late Roman art

3rd-4th centuries AD

a panther surrounded by cupids, satyrs

maenads. Alongside him stand four youths,

holding symbols of the seasons to suggest the triumph of
Bacchus over time.

and

The

packed together and

is an
This
new style which rejects spatial relationships first appeared
in the imperial monuments of the 2nd century ad, such

figures are densely

almost claustrophobic lack o{ space in

as

Trajan's

became

Column

(///.

i8y).

there

this relief.

In the 3rd century

and was discussed

generally accepted

in

it

con/

temporary philosophy. Plotinus (ad 204/5-270) denied

the validity of the classical laws of perspective on the

grounds

that space distorted the

appearance of objects

to

such an extent that one could never obtain true knowledge

of an object seen

make

a true

at

a distance. Therefore, if an artist

image he should represent

is

to

his subject as close

According to Plotinus, the

no bare reproduction of the
thing seen but to go back to the Reason/Principles from
which Nature itself derives' (Enneads V, 8, 1). The
problem which faced artists and philosophers in the 3rd
century ad was the belief that appearances were com/
pletely deceptive. This belief goes back to Plato, who
pictured humanity as prisoners bound in a cave so that
to the spectator as possible.

aim of the

artists

was

to 'give

they could never see the real world of light outside,

but only

and

its

shadow. According

relationship between the

little

reality that there

them.

Instead,

spiritual

reality.

he

to Plotinus there was so

shadow of appearances

was no point

should

Plotinus

create

in
his

an

artist

copying

own image

intensification of certain important details, but the

and

the space in

which

of

advocated a selection and

they exist did not matter.

form

n)6
the

Christian
church

Rome,

c.

of

sarcophagus
S.

Maria

2jo. Marble

from

Antique,

Late Roman art

3rd-4th centuries

The

AD

world and the search for spiritual

growing popularity of a number of
mystery religions which offered personal salvation.
Among these religions was Christianity. There was no
basic difference in form and style between Christian and
pagan art in the 3rd century ad, and they often shared the
same themes. Grapes were sacred both to Bacchus and
Christ, and pastoral themes were also given a Christian
interpretation. The figure of the Good Shepherd on a
3rd century sarcophagus in S. Maria Antiqua in Rome
reality

(///.

rejection of the
led to the

n)6) resembles the Moschophoros

(III.

92), an Attic

farmer carrying his offering of a calf to the temple.

Although

the

different, for

had saved
shared

a lost sheep. This basic

alike

developed

forms were similar the meaning was

Christ was represented as a shepherd

theme of

by pagan and Christian sarcophagi,

in the other reliefs

on

is

sarcophagus, which

this

represent the rescue of Jonah. Jonah's escape

whale's belly was a popular subject because

a

who

salvation,

miraculous salvation taken from the

it

from the

combined

Old Testament

with an analogy of Christ's resurrection.

There were no public cemeteries

were buried either on

their

from landowners. In the

own
early

in

Rome and

people

land or in plots bought

years

of Christianity,

Roman custom except that

practised. Tombs could be built

Christian burial followed

cremation was never

igj

Wall

painting of Christ as the

Good Shepherd over the font in the

baptistry at Dura Europus, c. 2jo

both above and below ground because the bedrock

around Rome is mostly tufa. Long galleries were
excavated out of the soft rock and niches were cut for the
dead bodies. Larger chambers were also constructed for
the burial of entire families, and these were often decorated
with paintings imitating contemporary house decorations.
The walls and ceilings of the chambers were divided into
panels containing figures and decorative motifs.
The subjects of catacomb paintings are similar to those
of the sarcophagi, symbolizing the theme of redemption:
the Good Shepherd (///. 198), Daniel in the lions' den,
the three children in the furnace, Susanna and the Elders,
Jonah and the whale, Moses striking the rock and saving
the

Israelites

from dying of

Favourite subjects from the

thirst

New

in

the

wilderness.

Testament were the

healing of the Paralytic, the raising of Lazarus, Christ

and

the

woman

of Samaria. Salvation through the sacra/

ments was represented

in

paintings of the baptism of

Christ and in stilMifes of bread, wine and

fish.

The

bread and wine were the elements of the Eucharist

was both the food with which Christ fed

the multitude and an anagram in Greek of Christ's
name.
and

the fish

We find similar subjects in the earliest known Christian

198

Wall

painting

from

the

Catd'

comb of S. Sebastiano, Rome, showing

Christ as the

Good

After J.
Sotteranea, 1903

century.

yd
Roma

Shepherd,

Wilpert,

ad 240 at Dura Europos

on the Euphrates in Syria. We know from the Villa of
Mysteries in Pompeii that it was a Roman custom to set
aside a room for religious purposes (see p. 183) and this
custom was continued by the Christians. The house
has a central courtyard with the church on the south
side, while in the north-west corner there was a baptistry
with a font covered by a baldachin. Since baptism was
regarded as the death of the old life and rebirth as a
church, in a house built about

Christian,

it is

not surprising that the decorations of this

room have been derived from

those o{ a

tomb; the

Above
Good Shepherd

paintings symbolize the redemption of mankind.

the font, Christ
(///.

is

represented as the

igj) and errant

mankind

is

indicated by the minia^

Adam

and Eve.
The Good Shepherd is painted in a flat linear style,
standing on a stark groundline without any attempt at

ture figures of

landscape

setting.

This

is

a revival

of the oriental tradition

of flat decoration which was not concerned with illusion^

istic

space.

It

represents a reaction against centuries of

Greek influence

and Mesopotamia during the

Although this was completely in'
rejection of classical values which was

in Syria

Hellenistic period.

dependent of the

203

taking place in

Roman

art in the

2nd and 3rd

centuries

ad, there is a remarkable resemblance in the two styles

which appeared simultaneously at opposite ends of the

Roman

Empire.

The revival of the Roman Empire and the

acceptance of christianity
The whole structure of the Roman empire was reorganized
by Diocletian (ad 284-305), son of an Illyrian peasant
who had risen to power through the army. He co-opted

Maximian as joint emperor, and in ad 293

two Caesars, Constantius Chlorus and Galerius,

his friend

created

who

were adopted into the deified families of Diocletian

and Maximian as their assistants and successors (///. 199).

Maximian and Constantius Chlorus ruled the west and
Diocletian, assisted by Galerius, the

east.

In theory they

ruled as colleagues, but in practice the empire

was now

divided into eastern and western halves. Diocletian

Nicomedia, the
The Four

lgi)

cletian,

Tetrarchs

Maximian,

Dio'

Constantius

Chlorus and Galerius. 3rd' 4th

tury

AD. Porphyry,

3'/4

"

ceri'

(130).

St Mark's, Venice

200 Probable
Maximian,

portrait of the emperor

detail

of the Great

mosaic. Late 3rd century

Villa,

204

Hunt

AD. Imperial

Piazza Armerina,

Sicily

new eastern administrative centre.

much in political importance that
at the

made

Asia Minor, his

Rome had declined so

capital of Bithynia in

very end of his reign.

he visited the city only

With

the

return

of more

settled

conditions

Diocletian's administration, a lavish building

under

programme

was begun. Diocletian built himself a huge fortress

palace at Spalatum (Split in modern Yugoslavia) in the
plan of a

Roman

military

camp

201

Plan

century

Roman

Imperial

of the

Piazza Armerina,

Sicily.

Villa,

Late

yd

AD. After G. Hanfmann,

Art, 1964

but including the

emperor's octagonal mausoleum. In Sicily, a magnificent

hunting lodge
his

colleague

Piazza Armerina may have belonged to

Maximian. The different rooms of the

at

palace were arranged according to the basic layout of a

Roman
casually

Villa

at

atrium house, but the separate buildings were

grouped together
Tivoli

(///.

201).

around a peristyle and

forming a long entrance

in the

The
at

manner of Hadrian's

palace rooms were grouped

the far

end was

in the centre of the east side of the peristyle.

for official receptions,

a corridor

hall, or narthex, to the basilica

with an apse

This was

at the far

a hall

end contain^

ing a niche for a statue beneath which the throne

was

placed.

The corridor was covered in mosaic representing

Maximian supervising the capture of exotic animals for
the circus which was such an important feature of Roman
life (///. 200).
The figures are stiff and formal in their
elaborately decorated uniforms
create a coherent

landscape

and

setting.

there

is

no attempt

to

205

Late Roman art

3rd-4th centuries

202

AD

Arch of Constantine, Rome,

AD 312-31$
In

ad

305 Diocletian abdicated and persuaded his

Maximian

partner

do

to

But

likewise.

his

scheme

to

down

in

ensure the succession of the next emperor broke

civil

war, and Constantine,

throne, seized

power

in

who had no

claim to the

306 and became ruler of the west

in 312.

Constantine celebrated

his

victory

by building a triumphal arch close

Rome

over Maxentius

to the

no

Colosseum

in

from that
of the arches of the 1st century ad, but sculptors were no
longer capable of achieving the results the emperor
wanted, and earlier relief sculpture had to be recused.
(///.

202).

The jambs of

Its

architecture

is

different

the arch are decorated with reliefs

memorating Trajan's

conv

and the
reliefs in the attic are from a monument of Marcus
Aurelius. The eight medallions below the entablature
representing hunting and pastoral scenes are Hadnanic.
victory over the Dacians,

Only the frieze and the winged victories in the spandrels

and the captives at the base of the columns, were carved
specially for this
as

one of the

first

monument. One

is

tempted

examples of 'ready-made'

superbly effective structure, incorporating

203

Head

colossal

Basilica

great
of Constantine from the

statue

in

the

Nova, Rome,

Marble,

about

Palazzo

dei

ten

apse
c.

times

Conservatori,

to see this

art, for it is

relics

of the

emperors which culminate in the long narrow

friezes celebrating the principal events in

Constantine's

of the

AD

330.

lifesize.

Rome

victory.

There

is

marked

of the 2nd century

stantine.

The

contrast in style between the reliefs

ad and

frieze to the left

those of the reign of Con-'

of the north side represents

Late Roman art

3rd-4th centuries AD

Constantine speaking on the Rostra in the Forum,

surrounded by his courtiers and flanked by

emperors Marcus Aurelius and Hadrian

statues

(///.

of the

204). In the

background are the Arches of Septimius Severus and

Tiberius and the Basilica Julia, all presented on one flat
plane, though in reality they stood at right angles to each
other.

Similarly, the figures in the audience,

who

in

would have faced the emperor, all look towards the

spectator, for the new style eliminated side and back views.
reality

similar

change of

style

apparent in portraiture: the

is

colossal figure of Constantine, carved

stand in the apse of his basilica in

of his physical appearance

at the

ad

gives

330 to

little

idea

become an
expressed by the huge eyes

(///.

ikon of the emperor's majesty,

which no longer look

about

Rome,

203).

It

has

physical world.

After Constantine had gained control of the west he

issued the Edict of Milan

Christianity,

Nicaea
religion.

to

and

solve

With

in

which ended

ad

the

official

325 he called the Council of

doctrinal

problems of the new

acceptance the church congre^

gations increased enormously

were no longer

the persecution of

sufficient

to

and

the old meeting places

house them. During the

204

Arch of Constantine,

the

peror speaking from the Rostra

Roman Forum,
roundels

below,

and

em-

in the

above,

from a Hadrianic monument

representing a boar hunt and a sacrifice

to

Apollo

c.

AD

124.

Marble, dia-

meter oj roundel 7' j" (231).

period of persecution Christians had met to celebrate the

room set aside in a private house, as at

Dura Europa. They also remembered the anniversary of
Eucharist in a

ceremony at
tomb. But these simple buildings were inadequate
the death of a martyr by performing the

the vast

new

his
for

congregations, and in addition the cere/

monies had become elaborate

rituals requiring special

architectural settings.

The new churches commissioned by Constantine in

Rome, Bethlehem and Jerusalem were of two types, the
and the centralized church. There was, of course,
no simple derivation for the early Christian basilica.
Roman basilicas were all-purpose buildings, and as early
as the ist century ad one had been adapted to suit the
congregation of a mystery religion which met at the
underground basilica at Porta Maggiore in Rome
(///. 20$). Basilicas were also used as throne rooms, like the
one in the late 3rd century imperial villa at Piazza
Armenna (///. 201) which was entered through a
basilica

2o<,

Underground

basilica

at

Porta

Maggiore, Rome, midlist century

AD

narthex, the throne standing in an apse. This

was the
which

direct antecedent of the early Christian basilica in

the throne

The

was replaced by an

altar (///. 206).

dome, was derived

from the circular and octagonal mausolea built for the
burial and worship of the emperors. After Theodosius
had closed the pagan temples at the end of the 4th century
ad, the Mausoleum of Galenus, built by the Tetrarch at
the end of the 3rd century as part of his palace in
centralized church, roofed by a

Thessaloniki, was transformed into a church.

It

was

decorated with mosaic on the theme of solar symbolism

in

206 Plan

of St Peter's,

326. After

M. Gough, The

Christians, 1961

208

Rome,

c.

Early

which

the

movements of the

planets

and

the stars are

governed by the sun.

At

the sun

first

the emperor, later with Christ.

was

identified

The dome was

with

divided

into three zones, the lowest filled with architectural decor'

ations reminiscent of the

p.

Pompenan Second

182), but used here as a

martyrs

(///.

20j).

is

making

it

dome

Church oj St George, Thes'

saloniki.

Mosaic. Early $th century

of

names and

a calendar

mosaic in

indicated by saints in heaven instead of the

movement of the
temporal zone,

stars.

is

In the apex of the dome, above the

the ascension of Christ derived

representations of the apotheosis of the emperor,

death

Portraits of martyrs in the

Style (see

to portraits

Inscriptions give their

the dates o( the festivals,

which time

background

2oy
of the

rises like

was

therefore

who

rules the

the sun into heaven. Christ

represented, like the emperor, as the sun

from

who on

which mark the passing

mark the seasons in
palaces as if the whole of

revolution of the heavenly bodies

of time.

The

saints,

whose

festivals

the lowest zone, stand before

heaven were one imperial palace.

The

architecture

and decorations of

early

Christian

churches were to a very large extent inspired by the

palaces of the

Roman

emperors. Christ was worshipped

209

208

Mosaics

in

S. Vitale, Ravenne,

the
c.

Church
540

of

as ruler

of the universe but the emperor was His

resentative

on

and

so

it

was natural

rep--

to transfer the

and architecture developed for the Roman emperors

supreme ruler.
This image of Christ as emperor culminates in the
sanctuary mosaics in S. Vitale, Ravenna, decorated after
the Byzantine emperor Justinian had reconquered the
city from the Goths in ad 540. In the apse (///. 208) the
youthful, Apollo'like Christ is enthroned on the globe of
the universe flanked by two angels as court attendants. He
receives the church from the archbishop Ecclesius and
gives the crown of martyrdom, an insignia of rank in
heaven, to St Vitalis. The court ceremony continues in
the lower part of the apse where the emperor Justinian
and his wife Theodora present the church with its chalice
and paten.
art

to Christ, the

210

earth,

EPILOGUE

The

Two

completely different

early

Christian

and

art,

One was

building.

styles existed side

found even

are

abstract,

by side in

same

in the

interested

little

survival of classical art

the

in

appearance of the material world, the other continued

the illusionist style of

Roman

After the
capital

was

finally established

emperor Hononus
Placidia
a

c.

AD

dome and

in the side

Greco/Roman

built a

440.

art.

empire had been divided, the western

It is

in

Ravenna, where the

mausoleum

for his sister

decorated throughout in mosaic.

arms

Psalm 42: 'As

the water brooks, so panteth

The

The lunettes

with symbolic deer drinking

are filled

a pool, illustrating

Galla

a cruciform building roofed with

my

at

the hart panteth after

soul after thee,

God'

doorway represents the

Good Shepherd, an illustration of Psalm 23 (///. 211).
The deer are drawn in profile and the dark blue back'
ground is filled with an acanthus scroll. The pool is seen
(///.

210).

lunette over the

bird's eye perspective

in

Good Shepherd

is

from above. In

among

seated

his

contrast, the

flock

which

is

grazing in a rocky landscape with a pale blue sky in the

background. Whereas the deer are treated as flat symbols,

Good Shepherd is seated in a landscape which gives

the

the illusion of space.

It is

true that the abstract,

symbolic

style

of medieval

art

was often dominant, but a debased classical style

managed to survive. Even after Theodosius had closed
the pagan temples at the end of the 4th century ad, artists
still
continued to represent pagan and mythological
subjects.

The Symmachus Diptych, an

ivory hinged

two'leaved writing tablet commissioned to celebrate a

wedding
altar

c.

ad

of Jupiter

400, represents a priestess sacrificing

(111.

209).

It is

the lyrical naturalism of the

a nostalgic

work

Augustan age

(///.

Constantinople, founded by Constantine in

as his eastern capital,

was

at

an

recalling

sacrifice

Wing

at

the

Altar

the marriage of a daughter oj

inachus,

c.

AD

of

of diptych celebrating

400. Ivory

(30 x 1 2.5/ Victoria

Museum, London

i$j).

ad

2og

Jupiter.

Sym'

u3^"x^"
and

Albert

330

lavishly decorated with classical

211

SI@lRHI@!@lln!i^!lflSfi
210
c.

'As

440'.

211

the hart panteth after the

Mausoleum of Galla

'The Lord

is

my

water brooks, so panteth

Placidia,

my

soul after thee,

God.' Mosaic,

Ravenna

Shepherd'. Mosaic,

c.

440. Mausoleum

of

Galla Placidia, Ravenna

The

212

survival of classical art

Portrait of Dioscorides,

from

manuscript on medicinal herbs, ad

illumination

(3 x

statues

from Greece.

Homer remained one

The

Byzantine education.

<j6).

on

vellum,

21

a
2.

X22"

National Library, Vienna

of the bases of

imperial library was

filled

with ancient manuscripts copied in the scriptorium, and

many of these must have been

scientific treatises

illustrated.

Even

were reproduced, such

Hellenistic

one on

as the

medical herbs by Dioscorides, copied for Julia Anicia in

ad

512. This contains a portrait of the author, seated in

which

a chair before a personification of Discovery,

strongly

GreovRoman

is

in style (///. 212).

Greco/Roman author/portraits, such

as the

Dioscorides

Vienna, obviously influenced the design of Christian

manuscripts, and we find author^portraits of the Evan^
in

gelists

introduced into Gospels from the 6th century

onwards.

The

of Luke,

portrait

in

century

10th

Byzantine Gospel in the library of the monastery of

Stavronikita on

Mount Athos,

clearly

shows not

persistence of this style, but a deliberate revival

Constantinople was a centre of

lasted until the
It is

Turks captured

just the

(///.

classical revival

2 if).

which

the city in 1453.

surprising that there should be any Christian art

at all, for

representation

had been forbidden

Commandments. 'Thou

shalt not

is

any

thee

graven image, or any likeness of any thing that

heaven above, or that

Ten

in the

make unto

in the earth beneath, or that

is

is

in
in

213

the water under the earth' (Exodus XX, 4). Yet even the
Jews had broken this commandment during the Greek
and later the Roman occupation of Palestine and the
synagogue at Dura Europos is decorated with illustrations
from the Old Testament. Because o{ the all/pervasive
Greek influence at that date no religion could survive

without representational
in spite

of the

art:

thus Christian

Old Testament

art

developed

prohibition.

Most churches contained images of Christ, His Mother

and the saints, as well as scenes from the Old and New
Testaments.

Many

o{ these

were

images

venerated

because of the sanctity of their subjects. They were not

in the sense of representing the outward
appearance of the sacred figure (though many contained
an element of physical likeness), but they expressed his

portraits

true religious nature, sacrificing natural

spiritual reality.

This

is

Plotinus (see Chapter Fifteen,

made

the

Zeus

[at

appearances for

the type of reality described by

p.

201):

'When

Phidias

Olympia], he did not use any model

which could be perceived by the senses but rather he

a conception of what Zeus would be like if he
chose to reveal himself to our eyes' (Enneads V, 8, 1). To
the Christian artist, the sacred image was an emanation

formed
21 j
1

Portrait of

Luke

the Evangelist,

oth century. Illumination on vellum.

Mount Athos

proceeding from the Divine Essence.

was

The

sacred figure

spiritually present in his representation.

The

veneration of images was dangerously close to

paganism and
religious art in

Leo

III

banned

Constantinople in

all

ad

representational

726.

To

a certain

was influenced by the rise of Islam which strictly

obeyed Mohammed's law based upon the Old Testament
forbidding representation. But Iconoclasm created such
popular ill-feeling in Constantinople and so aroused the
enmity of the Church that after more than a century of
dispute, in which many men died, it was finally repealed
in ad 843. The Iconoclast Byzantine emperors had
extent he

discovered to their cost that representation

and powerful an element

abandoned.

214

is

too important

in art to be ever completely

MAPS

Basse

Altar

Bisenzio

S3
Malta

Prehistoric

Europe

21$

The

3 The

216

ancient

Near East

classical

world

Glossary
Abacus The upper

portion of a capital, usually a square

beneath the architrave.
(-on) The inner sanctuary of a Greek temple.
Aedicule A shrine framed by two columns supporting
an entablature and a pediment.
flat

slab placed

Adytum

Alabastron Oil vase.

Architrave The lintel

carried

column to the next.

Atrium The inner court or
rounded by rooms and lit by

hall
a

from
of

the

top of one

Roman

house sur-

rectangular opening

the

roof.

of Athens or Attica e.g. Protoattic - Athenian

pottery of the seventh century BC. (2) A storey above the
entablature
of a building.
main
Aurignacian Palaeolithic period represented by remains found in the Aungnac cave of the Pyranees
r.30, 000-27, 000 BC.

Attic

(i)

Barrow Grave mound.

Basilica (1) Rectangular building used as a public assembly hall in the Roman period, usually divided into
three aisles by a double colonnade supporting a clerestory,
and with an apse at one or both ends. (2) Form of early
Christian church divided into 3 or 5 aisles by colonnades
and with an apse at the east end.
Bucranium An ox-head or ox-skull used as a decorative
motif.

Egyptians which bears

Fascia A

ot a

plain horizontal

window.
Kore Statue of a girl.
Kouros Statue of a boy.
Krater A vase with a broad body and wide mouth
which wine was mixed with water.

Magdalenian

Caryatid Sculptured female figure used as a column.

Cavea Auditorium of a Greek theatre.
Cella The main body of a Greek classical temple excluding the peristyle.

Chiton The tunic, short or long, worn by Greek men

and women.
Cist A round receptacle for sacred offerings.
Clerestory The upper part of the walls of a basilica,
above the aisle roofs, pierced by windows.
CompluYium The rectangular opening in the centre of
the roof of the atrium of a Roman house.
Contrapposto A position of the body in which the limbs
are placed deliberately in opposition to each other in

order to produce a subtle twist to the torso.

projecting block, usually of stone, supporting
another horizontal member.
Cornice A projecting ornamental moulding along the
top of a building: the top section of the entablature.
Corona The vertical-faced projection in the upper part
of the cornice, above the bed-moulding and below the

Corbel A

gutter (sima).

Cubiculum Bedroom.
Dentils A row ofsmall square blocks placed immediately
below the cornice of an Ionic temple, imitating beam

Palaeolithic

mains found at
8500 BC.
Mastaba Ancient Egyptian tomb with sloping

building.

Megaron A rectangular hall with a central hearth

entered from an open porch by a single door.
Mesolithic Period in human culture at the end of the
Ice Age but before the introduction of agriculture.
Menhir Tall, upright megahthic monumental stone.
Metope Rectangular panel between the triglyphs of a
Doric

frieze.

Narthex The transverse vestibule of a church.

Neolithic The New Stone Age, period in human culture
after

introduction

the

of agriculture but before the

development of metal working.

Opisthodomus Porch at the rear of a Greek temple.
Orchestra Circular dancing floor in a Greek theatre.
Ovolo moulding A quarter-round moulding usually
decorated with egg-and-tongue.
Palaeolithic The Old Stone Age, period of human
culture from the origin of the human species until the end
of the Ice Age.

Palaestra Place

for athletic training.

Palmette A fan-shaped ornament.

Passage grave A Megahthic grave

of

sea-urchin.

Entablature The

superstructure carried by the columns

Greek temple, i.e. architrave, frieze and cornice
Entasis A very slight convex curvature in the profile of a

portico.

A woollen garment worn by Greek women

fastened on both shoulders.

shell

with an approach

passage leading to the burial chamber.

Pediment A low-pitched gable above

Peplos

curve of the spheroidal prickly

and

monumental

large stone used in prehistoric

ends.

capital imitating the

sides

roof.

Dolmen

Megahthic tomb.
Echinus The convex moulding beneath the abacus of a

in

period represented by reLa Madeleine, Dordogne, France c.i 5,000-

Megalith A

column.

resemblance to glazed

band on an architrave.
Genre Scenes of every day life.
Gravettian Palaeolithic period represented by remains
found in the cave of La Gravette in the Dordogne, sometimes known as the Upper Aurignacian or Pengordian
period r. 27, 000-18,000 bc.
Herm A square pillar surmounted by a head.
Himotion A Greek mantle generally of wool.
Hypogeum An underground room or sanctuary.
Interaxial Distance between the centre of one column
and the next.
Intercolumniation Distance between the edge of onecolumn and the next.
Jamb The straight side of an archway, doorway or

flat

Capital Head

a superficial

pottery.

Peripteral A Greek temple surrounded by

a single

row

of columns.

Peristyle A

range ot columns surrounding

building or

Exedra An open recess for sitting in, often containing

stone seats. It may be rectangular or semi-circular in plan.

open court.
Pilaster A shallow pier attached to a wall and conforming to one of the Greek orders.
Plinth
A square block beneath an Ionic or Corinthian
column. (2) The projecting base of a wall.
Porticus Villa A Roman villa with a colonnade along

Faience

its

in

.1

column

shaft.

(1) Pottery term derived from the city of

in Italy, used to describe tin-glazed earthenware
general (i.e. with a white opaque glaze). (2) Archaeological term for the glazed quartz frit-ware of the ancient

Faenza
in

facade.

Propylaion (propylon) Gate building of a temple.

Propylaea Monumental entrance to the Acropolis of
Athens.

217

Prostyle A porch with columns standing

side

by them.

walls, not enclosed

stand between

tin-

antae oi the

Milt-

the

columns

Stoa f\ covered colonnadi with a wall at the back

Stylobate Platform on which columns of a (.reek temple

is

called in

.1

in

When
walls

from

it

ol thi

Pteron

Rhyton

re

placed: the top step ol (his platform

reception room of a Roman house
to the atrium (q.v.) and usually placed oppothe entrance.

Tablinum The mam

antis

covered colonnade surrounding a temple.

A vase in the shape of an animal's horn or head

Ik

rectangulai chamber excavated

Burial in a
out ol the ground.
Shaman Siberian priest with supernatural power,
Slip Semi-fluid clay for coating or making a pattern on

pottery

Solutrian

site

Tempera

used tor libations

Shaft grave

opening on

period represented by the rethe Solutre cave. Saone-ct-Loirc

ranci

Palaeolithic

mains found in
C20, 000-15, 000 BC.
Spandrel Space between the shoulder of an arch and the
surrounding rectangular moulding or framework.
Stele Upright stone slab usually used as a gravestone in
Greece
I

A method of painting where the pigment

mi Ned with so me form of glue or egg yolk.

is

11l.11 building.
Tholos \
Trabeation rhc post-and-lintel system ofconstruction.
;

11

Triclinium Dining room.

Trilithon In megalithic construction a horizontal stone
resting upon two upright stones.
Triglyph A rectangular block with two vertical grooves
separating the metopes in a Doric frieze,
Volute A spiral scroll.

Ziggurat A

Mesopotamia!!

temple-tower

built

in

diminishing stages, each stage being reached by ramps.

Chronology
BC
30,000 Beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic Age in
Western Europe.
20,000 Cave paintings at Lascaux c. 15,000
10,000 End of the 'Ice Age'
9000 Domestication of sheep in northern Mesopotamia.
Cultivation of cereals in Palestine
8000 First settlement at Jericho grows into a walled town
7000 Neolithic town at Catal Hiiyiik. Development of
pottery. Introduction of agriculture into eastern Europe
5000 Use of stamp seals in Mesopotamia. Development of
metal working
4000 Beginning of the 'Ubaid period in Mesopotamia.
Development of writing in Iran and Mesopotamia.
Egypt united into one country c. 3100 BC beginning of
:

the Early Dynastic Period

(c.

3000 Foundation of Troy

I.

3100-2686)
Metal working introduced

Old Kingdom
Egypt (c. 2686-2258): Pyramids built in the Fourth
Dynasty (c. 2613-2494). Sargon ruler of Akkad and
Sumer 2371-2316
2000 Middle Kingdom 111 Egypt (c. 2134-1786). First
palaces built in Crete. Stonehenge begun. Hammurabi
king of Babylon 18th century. First grave circles in
Mycenae c. 1600. New Kingdom Egypt c. 570-1085.
Linear B (Mycenaean form of writing) found in Knossos
c. 1450. Beginning of iron working in Anatolia. Urnfield
into Greece. First temples built in Malta.

civilization in Central Europe. Destruction of

Mycenae

and Tiryns c. 120

1000 Sub-Mycenaean and Protogeometric pottery in
Greece
900 Rise of Assyrian power. Geometric pottery in
Greece
800 Introduction ot the Phoenician alphabet into Greece.
First temple of Hera built on the island of Samos. First
Olympic Games 776. Epic poems of Homer. Colonization of Italy by Greeks and Etruscans. Celtic (?) warriors
buried in the cemetery at Hallstatt. Sargon II (742-705)
builds his palace at Khorsabad
700 Assyrian invasion of Egypt defeated 663, and the
Babylonians conquer Nineveh 612. Early Doric temple
built at Thermon c. 640
1

218

600 Athenian constitution reformed by Solon 594 and

Kleisthenes 507. Development of stone and marble architecture and sculpture in Greece. The Persians capture
Babvlon 538. Roman Republic founded 510/509
500 War between Greece and Persia 490 and 480-479.
Peace with Persia 449. Parthenon begun 447. Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta 431-404
400 Celts sack Rome 390. Philip of Maccdon gains control of Greece (359-336) and is succeeded by his son,
Alexander the Great (336-323). Ptolemy proclaims himself king of Egypt 305
300 Rise of Roman power: alliance with Etruscan cities
2 So, Wars with Carthage 264-241 and 21 8-201. Attalos
king of Pergamon 241-197
200 Eumenes II king of Pergamon 197-159. Rome
destroys Corinth and Carthage 146. Pergamon becomes
I

Roman province 129

100 Julius Caesar Roman dictator 49-44. Octavius conquers Egypt 31, proclaimed Augustus and emperor 27

AD
dies 14. End of theJuho-Claudian dynasty with
ot Nero 68. Flavian emperors Vespasian,
Domitian 69-96. Destruction of Pompeii 79
00 The Antomne Age (96-1 80) Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian,
Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius
200 Septimus Severus Roman emperor 19321
Bar-

Augustus
the

suicide

Titus,
1

barian invasions of Italy: Aurelian (270-275) builds walls

around Rome. Diocletian (284-305) reforms the administration of the Roman empire and persecutes the
Christians

300 Constantine Roman emperor 306-337. Edict of

Milan legalizing Christianity 313. Council of Nicaea 325.
Foundation of Constantinople, capital of the eastern
Roman empire, on the site ot Byzantion 330
400 Ravenna capital ot the western Roman empire. 402476: tall of the western Roman empire
500 Justinian Roman emperor 527-565. Behsarius reconquers Italy trom the Ostrogoths 540.

Bibliography
This

is

English.

selection of the

a
It

most recent publications

in

does not include articles from periodicals or

Near
ol the

East,

Near

London 1961; J. Mellaart,

East, London 196s.

Mesopotamia

detailed excavation reports.

the British
I

ANCIENT SOURCES

The Art of Greece 1400-31 BC and The Art of

733 BC-AD 337. Sources and Documents in the
History of Art series ed. H. W.Janson, Englewood Cliffs,
Newjersey, 1965, 1966; Herodotus, The Histories, trans.
Aubrey de Selincourt, Harmondsworth 1954; Pausanius,
Guide to Greece, trans. Peter Levi S. J., Harmondsworth
1971; Caius Plinius Secundus. Tlie Elder Pliny's Chapters

Rome

c.

on the History of Art, ed. K.Jex-Blake, E. Sellers, London.

York 1896, Chicago 1968; Vitruvius. De Architettura Lihri X, trans. M. H. Morgan, Cambridge 19 14,

New

New York

1960.

SURVEYS AND GENERAL ASPECTS OF

ART
II

G. Becatti, The Art of Ancient Greece and Rome, trans.

London 1968; V. G. Childe, The Dawn of European
Civilization, 6th ed. London 1957; K. Clark, The Nude,
London 1956; G. Daniel, The First Civilizations. The
Archaeology of their Origins. London 1968; W. Fleming,
Arts and Ideas, 3rd ed. New York 1970; H. Gardner, Art
Through the Ages, 5th ed., rev. by H. de la Croix and R.
Tansey, New York 1970; E. H. Gombrich, Art and
3rd ed. London 1968; M. Grant ed., The Birth
of Western Civilization, London 1964; H. W.Janson, A
History of Art, London 1962; D. Morris, The Biology oj
Art, London 1962; S. Piggott ed.. The Dawn of Civilization, London 1961; D. Talbot Rice, A Concise History oj
Painting from Prehistory to the Thirteenth Century, London
1967; D. S. Robertson, A Handbook of Greek and Roman
Illusion,

Architecture, revised ed.,

tzeff,

as

Cambridge 1955; M.

I.

Rostov-

History of the Ancient World, 1925, 1927, reissued

York i960;
York 1963, II Rome,
A History of Science, vols. I and II, Harvard

Greece,

New

New

G. Sarton,
1952.
III
S.

PREHISTORIC ART
Piggott, Ancient Europe,

Edinburgh 1965; T. G.

E.

Prehistoric Art in Europe,

London 1966; N. K.
Harmondsworth 1968.

Palaeolithic Art

Graziosi, Palaeolithic Art, trans,

Powell, Prehistoric Art,

P.

Sandars,

A. Laming, Lascau.x, Harmondsworth

1959; A. and G. Sieveking, The Caves oj France and
Northern Spain. A Guide, London 1962; P.J. Ucko and
A. Rosenfeld, Palaeolithic Cave Art, London 1967.
Neolithic and Bronze Age R. Atkinson, Stonehenge,
Harmondsworth i960, G. E. Daniel, The Megalith
Builders of Western Europe, London 1958; J. D. Evans,
Malta, 1959. The Prehistoric Antiquities of the Maltese
Islands, London 1971
M. Gimbutas, Bronze Age Cultures
in Central and Eastern Europe, The Hague 1965; G. S.
Hawkins and J. B. White, Stonehenge Decoded, New York
1965; S. O'Riordain and G. Daniel, New Grange and the
Bend of the Boyne, London 1964.
Celts and Scythians J. Filip, Celtic Civilization and its
Heritage, trans. Prague 1962; P. Jacobsthal, Early Celtic
Art, Oxford 1944; T. G. E. Powell, The Celts, London
1958; T. Talbot Rice, The Scythians, London 1957.

London

i960;

IV

Museum, London 1970;

Sumerians, Chicago

J.J. Polhtt,

THE NEAR EAST

H. Frankfort, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient,

Harmondsworth 1954; S. Lloyd, The Art of the Ancient

Earliest Civilizations

R. D. Barnett, Assyrian Palace Reliefs

S.

in

N. Kramer, The

M. E. L. Mallowan, Early
Mesopotamia and Iran, London 1965; E. Strommenger,
The Art of Mesopotamia, trans. London 1964.
Syria and Palestine W. F. Albright, The Archaeology
oj Palestine,
Harmondsworth 1949; D. Harden, The
Phoenicians, London 1962; K. M. Kenyon, Archaeology in
the Holy Land, London i960.
Egypt C. Aldred. The Development oj Ancient Egyptian
Art, London 1952; British Museum, Introductory Guide
to the Egyptian Collection, London 1969;
E. S. Edwards,
The Pyramids of Egypt, London 1961; A. Mekhitanan,
Egyptian Painting, Geneva 1954; K. Michaowski, The Art
of Ancient Egypt, London 1969; W. S. Smith, The Art and
Architecture of Ancient Egypt, Harmondsworth 1958, A
i960;

I.

History

oj Egyptian
Sculpture and Painting in the Old
Kingdom. 2nd ed. 1949.
Asia Minor O. R. Gurncy, The Hittites, Harmondsworth 1952; E. Akurgal, The Art of the Hittites, London
1962; S. Lloyd, Early Anatolia. Harmondsworth 1956;
J.

Mellaart, Qatal Hityitk.

London

Neolithic

Town

in

Anatolia,

1967.

V THE AEGEAN
P. Demargne, Aegean Art. The Origins of Greek Art, trans.
London 1964; R. Higgins, Minoan and Mycenaean Art,
London 1967; S. N. Marinatos and M. Hirmer, Crete and
Mycenae, London i960; F. Matz, Crete and Early Greece,
trans. London 1962; W. S. Smith, Interconnections in the
ancient Near East, New Haven 1965; E. Vermeule, Greece

Bronze Age, Chicago 1964.

Evans, The Palace of Minos at Knossos, London
1921-35; J. W. Graham, The Palaces of Crete, Princeton
1962; R. W. Hutchinson, Prehistoric Crete, Harmondsworth 1962; J. D. S. Pendlebury, The Archaeology of Crete,
London 1939; N. Platon, Crete, London 1966.
Troy and Mycenae C. W. Blegen, Troy and the Trojans, Princeton 1963; C. W. Blegen and M. Rawson, A
Guide to the Palace of Nestor, Princeton 1962; V. R. d'A.
Desborough, The Last Mycenaeans and their Successors,
Oxford 1964; G. E. Mylonas, Ancient Mycenae, Princeton
1957; H. Schhemann, Ilios, London 1880; Lord William
Taylour, The Mycenaeans, London 1964; M. Ventris and
J. Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek, Cambridge
1956; A.J. B. Wace, Mycenae, Princeton 1949.
in the

Crete A. J.

VI

GREEK ART

Akurgal, The Birth of Greek Art, London 1968; J. D.

Beazley and B. Ashmole, Greek Sculpture and Painting,
revised ed. Cambridge 1965; J. Boardman, Greek Art,
London 1964, The Greeks Overseas, Harmondsworth
1964; J. Boardman, J. Dong, W. Fuchs and M. Hirmer,
Art and Architecture of Ancient Greece, London 1967; C. M.
Bowra, The Greek Experience, London 1957; T.J. Dunbabin, The Greeks and their eastern Neighbours, 1957, The
Western Greeks, Oxford 1948; C. M. Havelock, Hellenistic
Art, London 1971; H. D. F. Kitto, The Greeks,
Harmondsworth 1951 E. Langlotz and M. Hirmer, The
Art of Magna Graecia, London 1965; P. Mackendrick,
The Greek Stones Speak, New York 1962; J. J. Pollitt, Art
and Experience in Classical Greece, C.U.P. 1972; G. M. A.
Richter, A Handbook of Greek Art, revised ed. London
1965 C. G. Starr, The Origins of Greek Civilization, New
E.

219

York 1961; B. Schweitzer. Greek Cfoiiulru lir. trans

London [971; T. B. L. Webster, Hellenistii Art, mi. Ion
1

1. jr.

Greek Architecture, town planning and topograc,

ondon 1966 11 Bei vi
Bean, iegean Turki
Gruben and M. Hirmer, (Jr.cek Temples, Theatres and
Shrines, tr.ms London 1963; M. Bieber, The History oj

phy
(

1-

Greek and Roman

thi

Theater, Princeton iv'.i. R.

I'mik. Southern (,ree,e

[968;

B.

and K.

an Archaeological Guide, LoihI.hi

Dinsmore, The Architecture oj indent Greece

London 1950; I. T. Hill. The Ancient City oj Athens,

London 1953; A. W. Lawrence, Greek Architecture,
Harmondsworth 1957; R. E. Wycherley, How the Greeks
hmli Cities, London [9 v>
Greek Sculpture
Ashmole and N. Yalouris,
B.
Olympia
The Sculpture oj the Temple 0) Zeus, London
Sculpture
Bieber.
M.
1967;
ofthe Hellenistii Age, revised ed.
New York 1961; C. Bluemel, (jreek Sculptors
Work,
trans. London
1955; R. Carpenter, Greek- Sculpture,
.if

Chicago i960;

Charhonneaux. Greek Bronzes,

J.

tr.ms

London 1962; P. Corbett. The Sculpture of the Parthenon,

Harmondsworth 1959; F. Johansen, The Attic Grave
openhagen 195

Sculpture,

London

A.

W. Lawrence,

1927, Classical Sculpture,

Later Greek

London 192N;

and M. Hirmer, Creek Sculpture, London [960;

A. Richter, Sculpture and Sculptors of the Greeks, 4th
New Haver. 1970, Three Critical Periods in Greek

Sin Giovenale and its environs by members of the

Swedish Institute in Koine. New York and M.ilmo.
1962; M. Pallottino, The Etruscans, Harmondsworth
mi

/ truscan Painting, Geneva

ivsj
Poulscn, / truscan
Tomb-Paintings, then Subjects and Significance Oxford
1922; B. Randall-Maciver, Villanovans and Early Etrus-

1955,

cans,

Oxford 1924;

M.

ed.

Sculpture,

Oxford

1951,

Kouroi,

London

i960,

The

Arc luu, Gravestones of Attica, London 1961, Korai, London

1968; B. S. Ridway, The Severe Style in Greek Sculpture,

Princeton 1970.

Greek Vases and Painting P. E Arias and M. Hirmer.

revised by B. Shefton. A History of a Thousand Years oj
Greek Vase Painting, New York 1961 J. D. Beazley,
Potter and Painter in Ancient Athens, London 1944. The
Development of Attic Black Figure, Berkeley 195 1; R. M.
Cook, Greek Painted Pottery, London i960; A. Lane,
Creek Pottery, London 1963; E. Pfuhl. trans. J. D.
;

Beazley, Masterpieces of Greek Drawing and Painting, 1926,

reprinted 1955; G. M. A. Richter, Attic Red Figure Vases,
New Haven 1958; M. C. Robertson, Greek Painting,

Geneva

1959.

Greek Coins

British Museum. A Guide to the Principal

Coins of the Creeks, London 1959; P. R. Francke and M.
Hirmer, Greek Coins as Art, London 1965; C. Seltman,
Greek Coins, London 1955.

ITALY

VII

The Etruscans
The

Etruscans,

R. Bloch, Etruscan Art, London 1959,

Etruscan Culture, Land and

London 1958;

People, Archaeological Research

220

and Studies conducted

H. Richardson, The Etruscans

An and Civilization, Chicago 1964.

The Romans R Bloch. The Origins

oj

Rome,

their

.union

i960; A. Boethius, The Golden HouseofNero, Ann Arbor

i960; A. Boethius and J. B. Ward Perkins, Etruscan and

Roman
Roman

Architecture,

Architecture,

Harmondsworth 1970; F. E. Brown,

New York 1961 M. Grant, Tin;

World of Rome, London [960; G. M. A. Hanfmann.

Rowan Art, Greenwich, Conn. 1964; H Kahler, Rome
P. W. Lehmann.
ambridge 1953;
Maiun. Roman Painting, Geneva 1953; L. Rossi,
1,1 hin'
Column and the Dacian Wars, trans. London 1971
D. Strong, Roman Imperial Sculpture. London 1961;
Toynbee, The Art oj the Romans, London 1965,
M.
C.
J.

and her Empire, trans. London 1963;

Roman Wall Paintings from Boscoreale,

A.
1

Death and Burial in the Roman World, London 1971;

M. Wheeler, Roman Art and Architecture, London

R. E.

1964.

R. Lullies

G.

E.

VIM LATE

ANTIQUE AND EARLY

CHRISTIAN ART
D. V. Ainalov, The Hellenistic Basis of Byzantine Art (in
Russian), St Petersburg 1900-1901, trans. The Hellenistic
Origins of Byzantine Art, New Brunswick 1961 J. Beckwith, Early Mediaeval Art, London 1964; B. Berenson.
The Arch oj Constanline, or the Decline of Form, London
1954; G. Bovini. Ravenna Mosaics, London 1957; P.
;

Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971;

M. Cough, The Early Christians, London 1961 G. M. A.
Hanfmann, The Season Sarcophagus in Dumbarton Oaks,
Cambridge 1951; E. Kitzinger, Early Mediaeval Art,
London 1940; P. Krautheimer, Early Christian and
Byzantine Architecture. Harmondsworth 1965; D. Levi,
;

Antioch Mosaic Pavements, Princeton 1947; C. R. Morey,

Early Christian Art, 2nd ed. Princeton 1953; J. Natanson,
Early Christian Ivories, London 1953; W. Oakshott,
Inspiration in Mediaeval Art, London 1959;
Panofsky, Renaissance and renascences in Western Art,
Rice, The Beginnings qj Christian
Art, London 1957; M. I. RostovtzefT, Dura-Europos and
its Art, Oxford 1938; E. B. Smith, Architectural Symbolism
of Imperial Rome and the Middle Ages, Princeton 1956;
E. H. Swift, Roman Sources of Christian Art, New York
W. Volbach, Early Christian Art, New York 1961
195
F. Wickoff, trans. E. Strong, Roman Art, London 1900.
Classical

E.

Stockholm i960; D. T.

Index
numbers

Italic

Abdalonymos, KingofSidon
Aegina: Temple of Aph.ua
1

-S4

86,

147. 150

no II,

to6-8

of Mycenae

Agamemnon, King

59,

64; 48

Akhenaten King
Akkadians 30-1

ol

Egypt

Alexander the Great 137. 147-50.

[51; 145-7
Alexandria is 1-4, [86; Apotheosis oj
Homer 152-3; 148; Museum 151;
Serapeum [956; 193
Alkmaionids, the 95-6
Al Mina, Syria 84
alphabet: origins of 8; Phoenician So:
and see writing
Altamira, Spain 13. 216; 3
Neolithic skull 22;

12

amphora. Attic Geometric

Anticythcra. athlete from

Cairo

83 72-}
14O; i_)2;
;

Cycladic

79;

female figure 42-3;

31; Cycladic vase 40; 28; Kouros of

Piraeus 101-2; 98: Kouros ofSoumon

101; 07; Mycenae, funeral masks
59-60: 48-g: Mycenae, stone stele

Mycenae, treasures from

shaft graves 60-1; 50-r. Mycenae.
Warrior Vase 63; 33; Poseidon 115;
59;

47:

2.114; Temple of Apollo, Therm on.

metope 89; 8y, Vapheio gold cups

55-6, 60; 43-6

Att.ilos
of Pergamon 76 7,
Attalos III of Pergamon 102
1

Anatolia 39; pottery 39, 45, 67; 56-7;

,1/11/ see
Beycesultan, Qatal Hiiyiik.
Hittites

Hacilar 25;
I

Babylon 28, 131, 152

Baghdad. Iraq Museum: head
Sargon 30; 1; ritual jug 27;

Uruk

57- 8, 59,

isi

151;

Old Temple

at

127; Parthenon 97,

98,
122-30. 132. 134. 139: 119-20;
Propylaea 130-2; 126; Temple ot
Athena Parthenon 121: Temple at
Athena Nike 132-3; 127. Pottery:
Geometric 81-3, 83-4; 72-3; ami

Athena

vase-painting. Sculpture: Acro-

votive chariot y\;

Museen: model of

Bible, illustrations

of

4g

78, 213; 70. 213

Emperor 199

Caracalla.

Carrara 176
Carrey, Jacques

catacombs 202-3

28-30

'98
Anatolia
agriculture
architecture
22 3;
metal
working 25; shrine decoration 23-

Catal

Hiiyiik,

22-3;
28;

4.

,.

Celts 74. 7s. 76

7.

164; beaked flagons

Desborough Mirror 77-S;

head ot deity 10'; !; Kells, Book

77; 68-9;

-1)

Cernavoda, Rumania, pottery figurines 67; 56-7

Cerveteri see Caere
chamber tombs 202
Chares of Lindos 158-9
Cheops, King of Egypt 34; 23
Chephren, King of Egypt 34
Chiusi: 'Francois Vase' 104, 169; 101;
tombs 167

Turkey 24
Emperor 195
Commodus, Emperor 199
Claudius.

concrete 176, 178-9

Constantine, Emperor

10,

206-8, 211;

Constantinople
Copernicus 51
copper see under metal working
Corfu, Temple of Artemis 89, 97; 84
Corinth: Chigi Vase 84; 75-6; pottery
86: Temple of Apollo 91-2, 98, 122;
10. 21 1- 14; 4

8s. gi

Bordeaux. Muscc d'Aquitaine: woman from Laussel 15-16; 7

Corinthian order 126, 140. 179, 184;

Boscorcalc, Italy, wall paintings

Crete 8, 38, 42 3 and see ireros, Hagia

Heraklion
Triada,
Museum.

s 2

76

Boston,

Museum

Mycerinus and

of Fine Arts: King

his

queen

3 5

24

Desborough Mirror 77Kells, Book of 78; 70; New

British Isles:
-1;

8;

Grange. Ireland 70; 60-1; Rillaton,

Cornwall 60. 72; Stonehenge 70-3:
62

polis

97; Parthenon: Athena, by

126;
Athena Nike
Phidias
125,

Bronze Age 8-10. 25-6,

balustrade 133; \2J; friezes 127; 124:

metopes 127; \2y, pediments 12930; 12s. Vase-painting: black-figure

bronze

103-8; amphora by Exckias 105;

102- ;; 'Francois Vase' 104-3. 169;
101; Geometric 83; 72-y, ProtoAttic 84, 105: 74; red-figure 106-8.
tup by Oltos 106; 104
Athens. Acropolis Museum: Athena
and fallen giant 98; gy. 'Kritian boy'
117-18; 116; marble kore 99; 04;

163, 164

203

51

Acropolis ot Pergamon
Beycesultan, Anatolia 4(1

Buildings: Acropolis 91. </.

10, 117. 121-34. 140. 155; (J2-6,
118-20, 123-9; Erechtheion 96. 98,
133-4: 128-9; Hekatompedon 97,

Capua

Berlin, Staatliche
14; 7"

Athens.

Lyceum

1S1-2

63

astronomy and astrology 131-2

122;

Roman

441;

Museum:

Beni Hasan, Egypt

gg
Aristotle 119. 151
;

Assyrians 84-6,

77: <>8 -g
baths: Minoan

Belgrade

Samos

Aristarchos of

190-1,

157

Cilicia,

Arcadia: temple ot Apollo

Epikounos 125-6; 121-2
beaked flagon
Basse-Yutz, Lorram

2S-9, 176-9, 1S1-2,

294, 206; 170, 185, 202

arches

of
16;

vase 26; (7

Bass.ie.

Anstokles 103

''

''s

7;

Museum: Prince Rahotep and

wile 35; 25; votive palette of
20-1
King Narmer 3
Caligula, Emperor 193
his

of 78

ss

15

Antiochus of Syria 54
Antonine dynasty [99
Apollodorus of Damascus 191; 187
Apollonius the Athenian Idi 153
aqueducts ?n
70
Archelaos of Priene 152: 148

Argos

from

Antenor 114-15

S4,

Aurehan, Emperor 199

vase

the Reliefs [66

71;

Augustus, Emperor 176, 183, 189-91,

194:

Andokides 106
Ankara Museum: Neolithic

see

Caere (Cerveteri): Sarcophagus of the

Married Couple 172; IP4; Tomb at

gg;

Alaca Hiiyiik -4

Amman Museum:

Moschophoros 98; g2; Nereus gy,

Parthenon frieze 127 S; 124; Peplos
Kore 99-100:96. National Museum:

Anstokles. grave stele by 103. 146:

Athens, grave stele from 146;
141; Athens, ivory statuette 86-7;

_s^

refer to illustrations

57-8, 59. 68, 71. 74.

working
working
Brumquel I 5 8

see

10,

39-46,

38,

114- 163

metal

under

Bryaxis 139
burial and cremation customs: Christian 202; Cretan 46; Egyptian 32,
34-5 Etruscan 166-7, 172; Hallstatt
74, 75-6; Mycenaean 59-61 Neanderthal 14; Neolithic 22; Roman
200, 202; Sumenan 29-30; Urnfield
73 Villanovan 63
;

12
I

Knossos.
Phaistos,

Cycladic

Malha,
Zakro

art

42-3;

Mochlos.

28, 31

Dacians 191-2, 206

Daedalic sculpture 88
lXinus I, King of Persia 109, 114; 712
Darius III. King of Persia 147. 150;
146

Delian League 121, 134

Delos 121
Delphi: Athena Pronaia, sanctuar) ot
139; Siphnian Treasury 94-5, 103,
106, 128, 133, 158; go. 100;

Temple

of Apollo 95, 125-6

Desborough Mirror, the 77-8;

7'

Didorus Siculus 77

Didyma, Temple
I

at

Apollo 135-6.

78; lyj-i

Dimini, Thessaly

39. 46.

221

Emperor

>io< leti in,

">i.

>m

orides

Gudea

206

;,

ol

agash

mperoi
79-t

>omitian,
'..1

ians 8,

10-12.
ros,

Palace 4snake goddess 54; 42

rete,

J9

bronze

passim,

101

34,

82, 83, So. 01.

Yugoslavia,

Duplaja,

Hacilar, rurkey, Neolithic vas< 24

95

s.i 26, 133,

24

14.

81,8

order,

39

106,

107

;s

st,

Middle Kingdom

g^ pt.
ol

Neb-Amon

si

|8;

New

2; (4.

omb

King-

Old Kingdom: Great

Pyramid of Cheops 34; portrait ot
Rahotep 35; 25; Sphinx .,4; 23;
statue of King Mycerinus 35; -'4;

dom:

38.

Ephesos,

Asia

Artemis 92

Temple

Minor:
135,

4.

[37,

S3, 4/

144;

139,

Queen

ot

Egypt

si

Roman

-1

50;

PhaistOS

Hagia
style

}8\

Iriada

jug

S4
29;

jo;

'Palace

19:

53;

Style'

Knossos 53; 40; rhyton, Zakro

54; 4?; sarcophagus. Hagia Triad.
vase,

S3; 41

140-41 134-3
Ergotimos 104; 101
Eridu, Sumeria 2-

Etruscans 74, 77, 104. 1C12, 163-4. 176,

187 and see Caere, Chiusi, Falerii
Veteres, Marzabotto. Orvieto, Veii,
Volterra. Tarquinia
Euclid 51
1

ofPergamon

Euphronios 197;

Eupompos

155-7

154.

103

213; 148

173: 166
Florence, Archaeological

104-5.

Museum

iron

187; 179; Portrait ot Trebomus

Gallus 199; 11)4. seascape from
Etruscan tomb 169; 160
frescoes 4X. 50-3. 60. 62-3, 69; ;s

10,

123-

Baghdad.

Iraq

Museum, Zawi

Chemi Shamdar
Age 73-8

Iron

169;

working

metal working
Istambul, Archaeological Museum:
Bust ot Evangelist 4, Lion Hum ol
Alexandei the Great 14" so; 14=,
see under

Jericho 22. 26
Galla Placidia 21

Geometric

style

80,

83-4.

8".

89,

96-7, 120
Gizeh, Egypt 34; 23
14, 15; 6-7
211-13
Aegina, Corfu, Corinth,

Gravettian period

Greece

see

Delos.
Eleusis,

art

Delphi. Didyma. Diniini.

Elis,
Epidauros. Lemnos.

Olympia,

Priene,

Prinias,

Pylos,

Rhodes. Samos, Sesklo, Sparta,

Syros, Tegea, Thermon, Troy

222

Cretan 57;

)<;;

.reek

<

frame

s.

39, 57,

79-80

20; 9-11

16

Franc

[6; 7

Museum:

Scythian gold belt buckle 7s

Leo< hare s 139

Libon of
London.

Elis

British

Museum:

Alcestis in

Underworld 144; 14c ApotheHomer 152-4; 14S: Celtic

oj

the
:

beaked

flagons

77;

borough Mirror 77
ot

6; 66

12

Lagash

30;

Mausoleum

Des-

71;

Gudea

Halikarnassos

19:

144,

68-9
.

14'.;

14;.

139,

Parthenon, metope 127: 123; Parthenon, pediment 129; 123, 'Royal

Standard' of Ur 29-30; 1*'; tomb of
Neb-Amon, painting si 2 ,4 Victoria and Albert Museum: S\m:

machus Diptych 211; 209

Ludwig, King of Bavaria
Lydia, Asia Minor 163
1

Lysimachos ofPergamon 154

Lysippos: 158, 173; Apoxyomenos 14";

Hum 01

Alexander the Great

39,

[62

Museum,

Jerusalem 191. 208

Julius Caesar 78, 190, 191
Justinian, Emperor 210

culture [4, 16; 5, 8 11

Malha, Crete, palace 43. 4s
Malta: Hal-Saflieni 68-9; 58-9; HalTarxien 68

Malta,

National

Museum:

votive

figure 69; 59

manuscript painting
212-1}

78,

157. 213; 70,

Marcus Aurelius, Emperor

193, 206.

207; 188
Mari, Palace of Zimri-Lin 50; 33
Marzabotto 165
Maussollos, King of Caria 137, 139,
146; 143
Maximian, Emperor 204, 205. 206;
199-2110

monuments

inegalithic

sir

New-

Gran ge. Stonehenge

Goths 210

Greco-Roman

163;

in

ascaux,

Magdaleman

Iran: writing 7-8; and see Persepolis

10;:

Vase'

jo; 19

Madrid,
Archaeological
'Madrid well-head' 129

Imhotep 32
Ionic order 81, 92-5. 98-9,
39 passim, 155-7; 87,89

Portrait of Aule Meteli (the Orator)

ia

Anatolian

Macedonia

Iraq see

[8; 113, 116

[47-8; 14^

Iktinos 121, 125-6. 133, 139; 122

Temple

of 59;

155

faience 54
Falerii Veteres, dello Scasato

Sumei

144: Lion
1

47

ot Bactria 161

Evans. Sir Arthur 43, 47

Exekias 105-6, 107; 102-3

'Francois

Hononus. Emperor 21
horse. Mycenean representation
Hyksos, the

147

Euthydemos

Etruria 164

Eumcncs

henges 69-71 62
lerculaneum 79
Herodotos 28. 74-5, 101, 163
Hipparchos 96,
Hippias 96
Hippodamos of Miletos 132. 13-. [65
Hittites 64-5, 66, -4. 79; 55
Homer 59, 62. 64. 80, 96, 106. 152-4.
I

agash,

Kamares

44.

5;

Kamares style
Marine Style' jug.

45;

pithos 45;
Palaikastro

Style' jug,
'Harvester Vase'.

'Floral

13;

si.

Lemnos, island of 126. 163

Leningrad. Hermitage

52,

s.

language

L.uissel,

s8-6o

[elladic periods

117, 173; 97-8, 116

2.

Latium 164

<

140

Kritios

Epicureans sj
Epidauros: sanctuary 139-40; theatre

Etrusi

psut.

rete: doorway,
Heraklion Museum,
Prinias 87-8; 81; faience snakegoddess S4: 42. fresco, Hagia nada

9,

94. gf

on 99

Kushites 86
1

Mausoleum

si,

;<

44; sar-

of

144; 88

62

so.

Krateros [47

19

l.iisln

heating.

of King Zoser 32-3; 22:

of Ti 358; 26; votive
palette of King N.irmer 31-2; 20-1
Eleusis, Proto-Attic vase 84; "4

113-14

s.i

Hattusas (Boghazkoy) 66; 55

law kins. Professoi ( ierald s

Tomb
Tomb

Elis 111,

\ as,

Halikarnassos

1. 11

ophagus

kouros 88, 101

1

imagi
votive chariot

Dura Europos, Syria synagogue 214.

w allnainting of Chris) 103; 197

s.

\~.
Hadrian. Emperor 60,
S2. 194.
[95-fi
106, 207; 19/
<
Hagia
iada, Creti
frescoes 5

cult

'Palace Style'

New

40;

dolmens 69

Doru

potiers.

57, 60;

19

|i

Guti

Kallikrates 121, 132-3

Menander

Kells, Book of 78; 70

Khorsabad, Mesopotamia 85; 77

Menokrates of Rhodes

K11111111

121

Kitto, H. D. F. 99
Kleisthenes 96
Kleitias 104; 101

Knossos, Crete: first palace 43, 46;

frescoes 50, 52-3; 32; linear B script

141

158; 131-2
Mesolithic culture 21-2. 39
Mesopotamia: agriculture 27; architecture X, 34, 46. 176; metal working
2S;
sculpture S,
25-6; potters

writing

7-8,

Assyrians,

26.

Sumeria

Messenians 84

2-.

28;

.11/1/

set

;;

metal working, introduction ot 8, 21,

25-6, 39. 73-4; bronze 25-6, 73-4,
87; copper 25-6, 27; iron 73-4
Miletos 165
Minos. King 43, 47, 88
Mnesikles 130; 126
Mochlos, Crete 46
Mohammed, Prophet 214
Betirac
Collection:
Montauban,

spear-thrower 15; 8
Morosini, Genera] 130
Mount Athos: Portrait ot Luke the
Evangelist 213 213
Msccke-Zehrovice, Central Bohemia
head of Celtic deity 77; 3
;

Munich, Antikensammlung: cup by

Euphronios 107; 105
Munich, Glyptothek; dying warrior
111;/ 08
fortifications 64-5; frescoes
623; funeral-masks 59-60; 48-9;
Circle A 50-60, 66, 72;
47-9; Lion Gate 66; 54; metalworking 72-3; pottery 8; Warrior
Vase 63; 53; stone stele 59; 47;
Treasury of Atreus 60-1; 50-1
Mycerinus. King of Egypt 34, 35; 24
Myron, Diskobolos 115-16; 115

Grave

Naples 163, 164

Naples, National
Mosaic.
so;

Museum: Alexander

146;

130,

Doryphoros
Pompeii, still-

146-7;

life

ii~:

178; Tyrannicides 114,

117; 113

Portrait ot Lucius Caecilius Jucundus 187; 180

Narmer, King of Egypt 2f>, 31; 20Natufians 22
Naukratis, Egypt 86
Neanderthal man 14
Neolithic culture 7, 21, 22-5, 27, 28,
39, 70-1, 108

Nero, Emperor
Nesiotes

1^4; relief

from Khorsabad

95

New
New

Grange. Ireland 70; 60-1

York, Metropolitan Museum of
Art: Badminton Sarcophagus 2001;
195; Boscoreale wall painting
[82; 176

Pergamon,

Asia

Minor: Acropolis
ofZeus 155,

1212.

153.

55
Persepolis, Iran 114; 112
Persia set Persepolis and Iran
1

Peter the Great, Tsar 75

Phaistos, Crete: first palace 43, 45;
'Floral Style' jug 53; 38; Kamares
4.6;

Phidias

125,

126,

Olmo

Bcllo, Bisenzio 74
Oltos 106; 104
Olympia 80, 214; Hermes and the infant
Dionysos (Praxiteles) 142-4; 138;
Temple of Hera 89, 91, 142; Temple
of Zeus 1 1 4, 127; 109-11 votive
cauldrons 87; 80
Orchomcnos, 'Treasury of Minyas' '1
Orvieto, Belvedere Temple 173; 16s
1

Paiomos ofEphesos 135; 130-1

Palaeolithic culture

7,

14-20, 21, 24

Palestine 22

Palestrina 179

Panathenaea, the 96, 97, 17

Paris. Louvre: Nike ot Samothrakc
1

V of Macedon

130,

133;

155

Philo Mechanicus 118

Pisa 111. 114

Plato 1 19-20, 201
Pliny 115. 116. 135. 147, 161, 164, [85
Plotinus 120, 201, 214
Plutarch 47

Polykleitos 118, 130, 146; 117

Polykleitos the Younger 139, 140-1;

134-5
Pompeii. Alexander mosaic 150; 1467; house architecture 179; House of
Julia
Felix
186; 178; House of
Lucretius Fronto 186; 177; portrait
ot Lucius Caecilius |ucundus 187;
180; Stabian Baths 131-2; Villa oi
Mysteries 183-4, 200, 203; 172-3
portraiture 22, 146, 161, 187, 199-200,
213; 12, 143, ms, 179-81, '94.
199-200
pottery: development of 24-5, 28, 39,
42. 45, 46, 67, 81-3. Anatolian: 39,
black figure
103-8; 101-3; 'Francois Vase' 1045, 169; ;oj; Geometric 83-4, 105;
72-3; Proto-Attic 84, 105; 74;
Proto-Geometric 83 red figure 106,
108; 104 Corinthian: 86, 104, 105;
Chigi Vase 84; 75-6. Cretan: Early
36-7.

Attic:

Minoan 43-5; Vasiliki ware 45;

Middle Minoan 43-5; Kamares
ware 46; 29-30; Late Minoan:
'Floral Style' 53; 38; 'Marine Style'
53: 39; 'Palace Style' 53; 40. Meso-

potamian: 8, 46; Mycenaean: 8;

Warrior Vase 63; 53. Neolithic:
24-5, 39, 108; 15. Sumenan: 29;
16-17
Praeneste (Palestrina), Temple ot
Fortuna Primigcnia 179; 171
Praxiteles: Aphrodite of Kmdos 142;
137; Apollo Sauroktonos 142 4.
Henna and the in/ant Dionysos 142:
138

8i

King of Egypt 152

King of Egypt 152-4

III,

IV,

Pylos 57, 66; Nestor's Palace 62; 52

pyramids 32-4; 22
Pythagoras 120
Pythios 137. 139: IJ2-J
Pythokntos of Rhodes 154

Rahotep, Prince of Egypt 35; 25

Ravenna: Mausoleum of Galla Placida
212: 210-11;

S.

Rhodes 84, 158,

Rhoikos 92; 87

Vitale 210; 208

59

Rome. Arches: 178-9; Arch of Con-

Philoxenos of Erctna 148, 150; 146-7

Phoenicians 86-7
Phylakopi, Mclos 53
Piazza Armerina, Sicily: Imperial
Villa 205, 208; 200-1

67;

Ptolemy
Ptolemy

29-30

121.

Philadelphia, King of Egypt 151

Philetairos of Pergamon 154
Philip

of
Augustus

temple doorway 87;

8-19
Psamtik I, King of Egypt sc>
Ptolemy I, King of Egypt 151
Protagoras

are

Polias

Villa

[89; 181
Prinias, Crete,

157-8, 161; 151-2; The Dying (.'.111/

76-7, 154-5; 67; Library 155-7;
Temple of Athena 155-7; townplanning 16

Athena

Livia 185-6; 174; statue of

155, 179; 149-50; Altar

Perikles

ot

137-9; 132-I

Peisistratos 96, y8. 99,

45.

New York, Museum of Fine Art: Thi

Helmet Maker s 7; 78
Nicomedia, Asia Minor 204
Nimes, aqueduct 178; 170

Temple

Priene.

Prima Porta, near Rome:

123 5

Mycenae:

118,

[5960;

85;77
Pausanius 110, 140

stantine 206; 202. 204;

191;
Porta

i.s's

Arch of Titus

Buildings:

basilica

at

Maggiorc 208; 105; Basilica

Ulpia 191; Colosseum 195; Domus
Aurea 195; Domus Tibcriana 195;

Forum 1634, 190-4; 184-6; Forum

of Augustus 165; 1S4; St. Peter's
208; 206 Trajan's Forum 191; 1^7;
Pantheon 60, 190, 194; 189-90;
Temple of Castor and Pollux K14;
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 1634, 136; Temple of Mars Ultor 165.
Churches: 208-10; 207-8. Housearchitecture:
179-182,
195-6.
Sculpture: Ara Pacis 189-90, 194;
182-3; Arch of Titus 191: 185-6;
Arch of Constantino 206; 202, 204;
Column of Marcus Aurelius 193-4:
188; colossal statue ot Constantino
207; 203; S. Maria Antiqua, Chrissarcophagus 202; 196. Wall
tian
paintings: 82-7: 175
Rome. Capitoline Museum: Tlie
Dying Caul 76-7, 154; 67. National
1

Museum: boxer by Apollomos

161

153; 'Diskobolos' 115-16; 11 5; Garden Room. Villa of Livia 185-6;

1

'4.

Torlonia collection: portrait ot

Euthydemos 161, 187; 155. Vatican

Museum: amphora by Exekias
165-6; 102-3; Aphrodite of Knidos
142; 137; Apoxyomenos by Lysippos
147; 1 44; Odyssey Landscape 184-5;
175; statue of Augustus 189: 181.
Villa Giulia: Apollo 173; 166. 168;
Chigi Vase R4; 75 c: Sarcophagus
of the Married Couple 172: 164
Sais,

Egypt 86

Egypt: pyramid of King

Zoser 32; 22; Tomb of Ti 35-8; 26
Samnites 164
Samos, Greece, Temple of Hera 80-1
Third Temple of Hera 92, 93; 87
Sakkara,

sarcophagi: Asiatic 200; Attic 200;

Christian 196; Etruscan 172; 163-4;
Minoan 53; 41; Roman 200-2; /o>

221

Sargon, King of Akkadia

Sargon
s,

hliemann,

Si

thians -4

leini
'

i< li

78

hessal)

Ms

shaft-graves,

mperoi

207

[99,

170-2,

enaean 59 60

Sii

Ms 67

Sik) on

Skopas

84, 12.1. 163,

35,

Km"

Snefru,
S01 rates

205

1
I

Egypt

86
Spalatum (Split, Yugoslavia) 205
Sparta 80, 84,99, 109-10, 130. 135
Stoics

52
:

Mesopotamia!]

8;

Mycenaean

in: Cyclamarble 42-3;

Corinthian 89-91; Daedalic 87-8;
Egyptian 34-8; Greek S, 97 8;
Greek, development oi marble 95,
98-101; Mycenaean sy. 66; Roman

60-2, 66. Early sculpture

development

dic,

Roman

stage

1S2;

sets
'

'

Strettweg. Graz,

from

vehicle

\J

[63
e s

Vapheio, gold cups 55, 60: 45 6

Veu 164; Portonaccio Temple 173;

21

Venetians 28, 30
Ventris, Michael 57
Vespasian, Emperor 9s
Vienna. National Library: Portrait of
Dioscoridcs 213; 212. Naturhistorisches Museum: "Venus' of Willcn1

dorf [4-15; 6
Villanovan culture
Vitruvius 82

73, 163

Thermon. Temple

Vix 77

of Apollo 81, 89;

Museo Etruso Guarnacci:

'Ghost of Night' [75; 167; lid of
cinerary urn 72; 163
Vulca 164
Vulci Ids; 102-3
Volterra:

82-3

Thermopylae 109
Thcssaloniki, Church

of St

George

208-9; 207
tholos tombs, Mycenaean 60-1
Thorvaldsen, Bertel
Tiberius,

ritual

Umbria

Thera 43

Stonehenge 70-3; 62

at

Theodoros

ot

176

theatre

pidauros 14
.</ 5
of Samos 92
Theodosius, Emperor 20N.
Theokritos [86
1

Egyptian 8, 32;
Building 111
Greek, early 87, 89 96; marble,
early Greek 95 6; megalithic 69-

stone.

72;

drama

140,

-'"

168

drama,

development of classical
I'umalv
141
new
96;

47,

62, (14:

Uruk. Sumeria: architecture 28; vases

"-

Athenian and Attu

theatre:

Pergamon

139,

Museum:

Archaeological

s'J.

l".

Urartian empii

relief of Darius 114;

[9

42,

26, 27; l6

Museum, cup by

Temple of Athena Alea

:g< -a.

jy

Ur, Sumeria, 28 30; 'Royal Standard'

of 29 30; 18
Urnfield culture 73, 74. 77. [63; 63

62

)ltos io6; 104

leher.m,

3 5

Solon 96, 97
Sosos of

[42; 136

144

39,

oi

86;

i..\

Augurs

the

omb oi the Hulls

omb of lunting and
the
160; Tomb oi
159; Tomb oi Orcus

arquinia, National

147

(.6,

17";

ioness

)9
1

1
1

oi

Siberia, belt but klc 7s; 66

s,

[69 70; 161

167 9; 155;
Fishing [69;

59

66

Septimus Severus,
Sesklo,

arquin dynasty [63

tomb
rarquinia

|0;

Assyria 84, ss; 77

ol

II

50-1

Willendorf, 'Venus' of 14-15; 6

writing 7. 21k 27. 28. 31, 57, 62, 80,
57; I/, 20-1

Emperor 194-5, 20 7

Timotheos 139

lryns, Argolis 62, 63, 66

74 65
Studius (Ludius) 185

Titus,

Sulla 179

Tivoli:

Sumeria

see

205;

Akkadians, Eridu, Lagash,

Man, Uruk
Syria 50, 84, 159, 203
Syros, Cycladic vase 42; 28

Emperor

Xenophon

191

Hadrian's Villa
191-3;

152,

Temple of

19

Xerxes, King of Persia 109

194-6,

the Sybils

179; Temple of Vesta 169

Trajan, Emperor 191-3, 201, 206; 157
travertine 176, 179

Zawi Chemi Shanidar,

Trebonianus Gallus, Emperor

Zimri-Lim, King 50; 33

Zoser, King of Egypt 32-4; 22

200;

Tarentum 164

Iraq 22

Zakro, Crete 46, 50; Zakro Vase 54;

43

199-

11)4

Acknowledgments
Acrofilms 02; Alinari-Giraudon 77; American School of
57-8; Staathchc Museen
Classical Studies 52; Anderson
Director
711 Berlin 149, 152; British Museum 50, 68, 71;
Cairo 20. 21; Oriental
Antiquities,
des
General, Service
Institute, University of Chicago 112; Peter Clayton 25,
28. 185; Walter Drayer 165; ENIT, Rome 189; Fototeca
Unione, Rome 187, 205; Alison Frantz 97; Furbock,
Graz 6s; Gabinctto Fotografico Nazionale 166; German
Archaeological Institute'. Athens 2, 72-4, 80, 84. 97;
I

German Archeological

Institute.

Rome

155,

182.

184;

55; Green Studio 70;

29-30, 37-8. 40, 42, 45,
06, 109-1 1,
47, 49, 54, 7S-6, 79, 81, 92, 95-6, 99-104,
114. Ll6, 120, 123-4, 127, 132, 135-6, 138, 141-3, 145,
Iraq
Antiquities,
General
of
191-1, 199, 203, 207; Director
17; Irish Tourist Board 60; Photo Kohbroser 105; C. H.

Giraudon 154;
Hirmer Vcrlag

Adrian

Grant

17.

22. 26,

1,

4.

224

Kruger-Moessner
1

17,' 147,

153.

108; Lykides 213; Manscll 67, 93,

160-1, 174.

200, 202, 204. 208. 210-1

1;

is.

179-81, 183, 186, 18S, 194.

Bildarchiv Foto Marburg 81
;

Georgma Masson 164, 176, 193; Leonard von Matt 43;

V.S. Megaw, Sydney University 69; National MuJ.

National Library. Vienna 212;

55, 58 9;
National Tourist Office of Greece 31, 48, 96; Natural
History Museum. Vienna 64; Or A. Powell 128. 132,
150-I, 172; Josephine Powell is. 30. 4'. 44- 4 f 5L 53.
Campania
63, 169; Soprintendenza alle Antichita della
Soprin113; Soprintendenza .illc Antichita, Rome 191;
tendenza alle Antichita d'Etruna 166; Eileen Tweedy
Albert
and
Victoria
Museums
137, 144;
178; Vatican

scum, Malta

>,

173,

Museum

Wood

23

209; John

Webb

125,

139

40.

14 s

Roger

WKSMmssoiura
I

1.50 net

About this book

l)r

History of Art

in

seven volumes

Powell begins her survey about

The Renaissance
and Mannerism

30,000 bc and goes on to discuss the

ancient Near East and its contribution

of Greece

to the art

seventh

centuries

in the eighth

and

Although

this

bc.

in Italy

influence continued into the Hellenistic

Alastair

and Late Antique period, classical

Greek art exhibited an individual style
inherited by the Romans and transmitted throughout their empire. The
Bronze and Iron Age cultures of the
north had an independent art of their
own which rejected classical rules, and
the

abstract

patterns

of the

became an important element

eval

art.

The

division of the

in

Smart

The Renaissance
and Mannerism
outside Italy
Alastair

Smart

Celts

medi-

Baroque and Rococo

Roman

empire by Diocletian and the eventual

triumph of Christianity led to a reorganization of the ancient world; yet,
as Dr Powell explains in her epilogue,
classical art survived into the middle

Art
A. C. Sewter

Modern

ages until the Renaissance. Architec-

European Art

emphasized throughout, but all

the other main art forms are discussed
with numerous illustrations, and a
glossary of technical terms is included.

ture

uk only

in

is

Alan Bowness

Volumes

in

preparation

About the author

Byzantine,

Ann Powell is a

Romanesque and

graduate of Edinburgh

and received her Ph.D

after spending two years in Rome and
Athens collecting material for a thesis
on Byzantine art. After a period of
research at Edinburgh University and
working in the Department of the
History of Art, Oxford University,
Dr Powell joined Ealing Technical
University,

College,

where she

is

now

Gothic Art
Donald Bullough

Neoclassicism,

Romanticism
and Realism

Senior

A. C. Sewter

Lecturer.

THAMES AND HUDSON

mot

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thf ns

30

Bloomsbury Street London wcib

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