Keith Christiansen 93 Giant Mo

SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
285
THE GENESIS OF GIANT PORPHYRY MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS

J. D. Keith, E. H. Christiansen Department of
Geology, Brigham Young University Provo, Utah
U.S.A., 84604
and
R. B. Carten
U. S. Geological Survey, Mackay School of Mines
Reno, Nevada
U.S.A., 89557-0047
ABSTRACT
Giant porphyry molybdenum deposits are best exemplified by the Climax

and Henderson deposits in Colorado. The high grades of these deposits are
probably inherited from magmatic molybdenum concentrations of about 4 to 5
ppm, which are high for metaluminous rhyolitic magmas that average about 2
ppm molybdenum. High magmatic molybdenum concentrations in metaluminous
rocks appear to be related to high magmatic oxygen fugacities (2 or 3 log units
above QFM oxygen buffer) and are correlated with high niobium concentrations.
High oxygen fugacities are likely inherited from calc-alkaline or lamprophyric
predecessors. High niobium and molybdenum are related to extreme fractionation
of rhyolitic magmas. Much higher concentrations of molybdenum ( > 1,000ppm)
in the ore fluid (and the cupola magma) are probably achieved by crystallization
in the deeper portions of a magma chamber accompanied by convection of the
evolved liquid to the cupola and volatile fluxing.
Exploration criteria for a giant, high-grade deposit include: 1) a tectonic
setting that indicates a changeover from compressional to extensional tectonics,
2) thick continental crust at the time of deposit formation may encourage extreme
differentiation and crustal contamination, 3) an isotopically zoned magma chamber
indicative of a long-lived heat source, 4) a large, sub-volcanic, central-vent
ash
flow/dome system that erupted less than 100 km3 of rhyolite, and 5) high niobium
concentrations ( > 75 ppm) in a subalkaline, magnetite-bearing rhyolite.
INTRODUCTION
The grade and tonnage data of each

deposit cited in this paper, as well as the
assignment of each deposit to a general class
(Table 1), is modified from the system
presented in Carten et al. (in press). Deposits
listed in Table I are geographically located in

Figure 1. Deposits considered in this paper
are restricted to porphyry Mo deposits which
characteristically do not contain recoverable
Cu and porphyry Mo-Cu deposits which
contain coproduct or byproduct Cu and grades
of Mo which average greater than 0.05 % Mo .
286

287
Table 1. Grade and tonnage of granite-related Mo and Mo-Cu deposits (modified after
Carten et al., in press).
% Mo
reference
Production + reserves
% Mo
Deposits
GRANITE-RELATED No:
1)
Climax
country grade
% Cu
grade
Henderson
S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990

S.R. Wallace, pers. comm.,
1990 unpublished data
HIGH-SILICA RHYOLITE-ALKALINE SUITE
USCO
0.216
0.240
2)
metric
tons
cutoff
6
(10 )
USCO
0.294
769
0.120
0.228
3)
4)
Urad
Big Ben
USCO
USMT
5)
Middle Mtn
USCO
6)
7)
Mt Emmons
Redwell Basin
USCO
USCO
8)
Mt Hope
9)
Mt. Pleasant
0.171
0.209
0.090
437
727
CNNB
0.120
geologic
0.060 geologic
mined
0.036 mineable
12
109
0.098
USNV
mineable
907
geologic
266
0.180 geologic
376
0.060 geologic
--------
0.264
0.098
141
108
0.162
0.100
0.077
91
125
10) Pine Grove
USUT
0.170
11) Questa
12) Log Cabin
USNM
USNM
0.144
0.090
13) Silver Creek
USCO
0.310
14) Bordvika
15) Cave Peak
NRWY
USTX
0.146 0.040
16) Drammen
18) Flammefjeld
17) Malmbjerg
NRWY
GRLD
GRLD
19) Nordli
20) Three Rivers
NRWY
USMN
0.120 mineable
0.060 geologic
0.120 geologic
510
0.035 geologic
34
geologic
0.120
45
40
geologic
0.120 mineable
0.060 geologic
0.200 geologic
-
----
26
---
0.100 mineable
-----
0.138
0.084
136
181
- ---
Wallace et al., 1978

W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
Ranta, 1974
Ganster et al., 1981
Thomas and Galey, 1982
W.H. White, writ. comm., 1990
G. Westra, pers. comm., 1990
Kooiman et al., 1986
Sillitoe, 1980i
D.E. Ranta, writ. comm., 1982
S.D. Olmore, writ. comm., 1979
Cameron et al., 1986
Geyti and Schonwandt, 1979
Geyti and Thomasson, 1984

Geyti and Thomasson, 1984
--
geologic
Pedersen, 1986
- -- ---
carten et al., 1988a
Sharp, 1979
Ihlen et al., 1982
----
0.100 geologic
0.030
unpublished data
Giles and Thompson, 1972;
Thompson, 1982
20a)Cone Peak
USNM
Mo_
Thompson, pers. comm., 1990
GRANITE-RELATED No: DIFFERENTIATED MONZOGRANITE
21) !danac
CUBC
22) Anduramba
23) Bald Butte
24) Bell Moly
AUQL
25) Bjorntjarn
26) Boss Mtn
27) Canicanian
SWDN
28) Cannivan
29) Carmi
30) Compaccha
USMT
CNBC
CNBC
PLPN
USMT
CNBC
PERU
0.094
0.053
0.070
94
270
16
0.060 geologic
0.030 geologic
geologic
0.100
0.066
0.175
14
32
1
geologic
mineable
geologic

1990
Woodcock and Carter, 1976
Ohlander, 1985
0.074
0.051
63
15
0.096
185
0.091
0.072
100
geologic
geOlogic
geologic
geologic
geologic
Kirkham et al., 1982

Knittel and Burton, 1985
Worthington, 1977
Heintze, 1985; Hollister, 1978b
34

witcher, 1975
287
) East Kounrad
32 ) Endako-Denak
33 ) Kitsault
34 ) Lacorne
35 ) Logtung
36 ) Lucky Ship
37 ) Mackatica
URKZ
0.150
30
CNBC
CNBC
0.087
336
0.048 mineable
0.115
108
0.060 geologic
38 ) Mt. Haskin
39 ) Munka
31
Sutulov, 1978
CNQU
0.210
mineable
CNYT
0.031
0.090
162
14
geologic
geologic
Noble et al., 1984, 1987

Pilcher and McDougall, 1976
YUGO
0.078
181
geologic
H.T. Shassberger
CNBC
0.090
12
geologic
SWDN
0.125
geologic
Ohlander, 1985
CNON
0.080
14
geologic
CNQU
0.199
geologic
USNV
0.060
181
0.030 geologic
K. Roxlo & D.E. Ranta
0.084
54
0.060 geologic
writ. comm., 1982

K Roxlo & D.E. Ranta,
CNBC
writ. comm., 1961
40 ) Pidgeon Mo
) Preissac
42 ) Pine Nut
41
writ. comm., 1982

43 ) Quartz Hill
44 ) Red Bird
45 ) Red Mountain
CNBC
0.108
0.060 geologic.

1990 Wallace, pers. comm.,
S.R.
1990
Kirkham et. al., 1982
CNYT
0.100
187
0.060 geologic
Brown and Kahlert, 1986
46 ) Roundy Creek
CNBC
CNBC
0.208
geologic
0.078
101
0.040 geologic
Bloomer, 1981
USID
0.110
181
0.050 geologic
Schmidt et al., 1982
CNBC
0.138
50
0.060 geologic
Boyle and Leitch, 1983
URRS
0.065
50
CNBC
0.240
21
0.120 geologic
0.151
125
0.060 geologic
W.H. m1ite, pers. comm., 1990
47
storie Moly
48 ) Thompson Creek
49
) Trout
Lake
50 ) Tyrnyauz
51 } Yorke-Hardy
USAK
0.077
0.091
GRANITE-RELATED Mo-CU (No> 0.05
52 ) Buckingham
USNV
1216
0.027 geologic
793
0.060 mineable
1297
0.036 geologic
0.074 0.040
503
0.060 geologic
geologic
CILE
0.070 0.300
50
Cumo
USID
0.059 0.074
1258
0.086 0.058
Sutulov, 1978
%)
0.058 0.034
53 ) Copaquire
54
W.H. White,
pers. comm., 1990
Ambrus, 1978
0.030 geologic
403
0.060 geologic
W.H. White,
55 ) Cumobabi
56 ) EI Creston
MXCO
MXCO
0.099 0.266
67
0.074 0.060 181
0.092 0.071 126
0.060 geologic
W.R. White, pers. comm., 1990
0.030 geologic
0.060 mineable
W.H. ite, pers. comm., 1990

57 ) Hall
58 ) Jin Dui Cheng
USNV
CINA
0.091 0.045
0.100 0.030
181
907
mineable
geologic
59 ) Mocoa
60 ) Mt Tolman
CLBA
0.062 0.400
260
geologic
USWA
61 ) Rialto
0.056 0.090
0.054 0.090 2177
USNM
0.070 0.100
lAbbreviations as used in USGS Bulletin 1693
27
0.036 mineable
0.027 geologic
geologic
pers. comm., 1990
Shaver, 1986
sillitoe et al., 1984
W.C. Utterback, pers. comm., 1982
W.C. Utterback, pers. comm., 1982
Hollister, 1978b; Thompson, 1968
tv
00
00
<>-
.v>-
(j,.27
/'0
57..
.2
\?
CI.l
gs
CI.l
Figure 1. Location map for granite-related Mo and Mo-Cu deposits. Deposit numbers
Western United States
correspond to listing in Table 1. Spatially and temporally related deposits are combined as
follows: 2 = Henderson and Urad; 6 = Mount Emmons and Redwell Basin; 11
Questa
(Sulphur Gulch, Goat Hill) and Log Cabin; 20 = Three Rivers, Cone Peak, and Rialto; 33 =
Kitsault, Bell Moly, and Roundy Creek. State codes for the inset of the western United States
are AZ = Arizona, CO = Colorado, ID = Idaho, MT = Montana, NV = Nevada, NM = New
Mexico, TX = Texas, UT = Utah, and WA = Washington.
=
:>
z
C
-I.l
cA
290 SP-2 GIANT ORE D EPOSITS

SEG
(Table 1; Carten et aI., in press). Porphyry

Mo deposits are further subdivided into those
associated with high-siliCa or alkaline rhyolites
which are rich in potassium, fluorine, and
incompatible trace
elements and
are
exemplified by the Climax deposit (albeit a
premier example), and those associated with
less silicic granitoids that exhibit average
concentrations of fluorine and incompatible
elements.
Examination of the grade and tonnage
of 61 porphyry Mo and Mo-Cu deposits (Fig.
2) indicates that a continuum in deposit grades
and tonnages may exist; however, most
deposits consist of 50 to 200 million tons of
ore, but only 12 deposits contain more than
200 million tons of ore. These 12 deposits can
be considered "giant" in terms of tonnage, but
only two deposits - Climax and Henderson contain over 200 million tons of high-grade
ore (Fig.
1 and 2). Clearly, the .most
economically desirable molybdenum deposit
must be in this class and be "giant" in terms
of both tonnage (-200 million tons) and grade
(> 0.15 % Mo). Processes and factors which
contribute to the development of these types
of deposits will be emphasized.
The genesis of these deposits in light
of more recent work on the partitioning
behavior . and magmatic abundances of
molybdenum will also be reviewed. Inasmuch
as Climax-type magmas are often equated
with topaz rhyolites, recent studies on the
evolution of topaz rhyolites will be examined
along with the volcanic rocks that are
cogenetic with the Climax-type Pine Grove
and Questa deposits in southwestern Utah and
northern New Mexico respectively. Two large
tonnage deposits that
are
less
well
characterized, but appear to not be Climax
types are the Quartz Hill, Alaska deposit and
Mt. Tolman, Washington deposit; processes
that may have acted to produce the large
tonnages with moderate-grade ores will be
reviewed as well.
Several studies in recent years have
clearly demonstrated that the molybdenum in

289
porphyry deposits is derived "in toto" from

the magma or the resulting stocks (Stein and
Hannah, 1985; Carten et aI., 1988a, 1988b;
White et al., 1981). This being the case, some
factors that might produce a high-grade
deposit seem readily apparent. These include
the initial molybdenum content of the parent
magma and the increase in molybdenum
content with differentiation. The source region
for the magma and metal has been proposed
as residing in the upper crust (Wallace et al.,
1978), lower crust (White et al., 1981; Stein
and Hannah, 1985), and mantle (Westra and
Keith, 1981). Related factors that could
control the grade of the deposit include how
effectively molybdenum is sequestered by
early magmatic minerals (Keith and Shanks,
1988) and how strongly it is partitioned into
an .evolved aqueous phase (Candela, 1989a;
Keppler and Wyllie, 1991). Any discussion of
what factors or processes are responsible for
variations in tonnage and grade must begin
with the source and differentiation processes
of the magma. Processes that control the
location and
duration of
molybdenite
deposition from the aqueous phase
also
obviously control the grade. These include
multiple stocks forming overlapping ore
bodies and steep chemical and thermal
gradients around the stock or pluton.
The tonnages of porphyry molybdenum
deposits are also significantly affected by the
factors just mentioned. However, additional
factors that are perhaps more directly linked
with the tonnages are the size and water
content of the parent magma chamber, and the
size and shape of the ensuing productive stock
or cupola. For example, if mineralization
occurs in a broad, shallow cupola along the
roof of a large batholith, then the total amount
of magmatic water and metals participating in
mineralization may
also
be large, but
unfocused. The ensuing deposit could be
large, but low grade.
Most of these mineralization controls
have been discussed or reviewed by other
workers. However, the essential question that
290
0.35
0.3
'#.
0.25
"-
"-
Mt Emmons "-
0.2
Q uesta
<i---- ..
-- .. .
Mt
-o
t-\O
o >s
0.1
Hope
G-
-.
Big Ben
0.0
....... ::C:: :.
limax
--..Henderson
-<
--.. --..
.....
.......
.... Pine Grove
0.15
'a.
Quartz Hill
J:.
.l...
----DX - - - - - - - - - _ X-x.
t,!oJ!n
2177 tons
5
o
o
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Ore (millions of metric tons)
Figure 2. Tonnage-grade diagram for granite-related Mo and Mo-Cu deposits. Deposits

discussed in the text are labelled. Solid squared represent the high-silica rhyolite - alkaline suite;
open circles are the differentiated monzogranite Mo suite; crosses are the Mo-Cu suite. All data
are from Table 1 (Carten et al., in press).
remains unanswered is whether the processes
Climax-type versus quartz monzonite type
that
(White
produce
giant
porphyry
molybdenum
et
al.,
1981),
granite
versus
deposits are inherently different from those
granodiorite types (Mutschler et al., 1981),
which produce normal deposits. Is there a
calc-alkaline versus alkali-calcic (and alkalic)
discontinuity in either sizes of parent magma
types
chambers
fluorine-enriched
or
the
mineralizing
processes
(Westra
and
Keith,
versus
1981),
and
fluorine-deficient
associated with them? We will discuss this
types (Theodore and Menzie, 1984). One of
question
the
along
with
what
are
the
best
two
classes
is
generally typified
by
exploration characteristics to use in fmding a
high-silica rhyolites or granites that are rich in
giant deposit.
potassium, fluorine, and incompatible trace

elements.
CLASSIFICATION AND GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS
Most
classification
schemes
Characteristics of this class are
exemplified by the Climax deposit. The other

class is typified by a less silicic calc-alkaline
for
granitoid that exhibits average concentrations
porphyry molybdenum deposits divide them
of
into
Climax-type deposits are of primary concern
two
main
groups.
These
include
in
fluorine
this
paper
and
incompatible
because
they
elements.
exhibit
both
291

291

high-grades
of
molybdenum and
large
the mantle abundance of molybdenum and
tonnages (Sillitoe, 1980; White et aI., 1981).
tungsten
However,
respectively
both types will be examined in
are
0.059
ppm and 0.010
(Newsom
and
ppm,
Palme,
1984;
order to understand the processes responsible
Newsom et al., 1986) whereas upper crustal
for formation of high-grade deposits.
abundances
are
1.5
ppm
and
2.0
ppm,
The Henderson porphyry molybdenum
respectively (Taylor and McClennan, 1985).
deposit is one of the premier examples of a
These data suggest that tungsten is more
giant molybdenum deposit in terms of both
incompatible and therefore more enriched in
tonnage and grade (727 millon tons of 0.17
the crust than is molybdenum (by a factor of
wt
% Mo;
Table 1). In addition, the most recent
studies (Carten et al., 1988a; Seedorff, 1988)

represent a culmination of 75 man years of
geological investigation making it one of the
most well-studied porphyry deposits in the
world.
and
tungsten occur in the same group of the

periodic table and exhibit many similarities in
contrast
elements
process.
understand
For example,
and tungsten are often

same
is
instructive
to
and compare the behavior of both

to
the
ore-forming
both
molybdenum
sequestered
by
the
magmatic phases. Such a comparison is
essential because
the
partitioning
molybdenum
has
not
been
oxidation state of 6
behavior
investigated
of
the
of
more
strongly
tungsten
to
an
+, whereas the oxidation

+ to 3 +
state of molybdenum varies from 6

under terrestrial
conditions.
valences less than 5
molybdenum
it
attribute
behavior
Tungsten may
and Palme (1984) suggest the molybdenum
ROCKS
geochemical behavior,
(1984)
incompatible
and Chou, 1987; Candela, 1988). Newsom
GEOCHEMISTRY IN IGNEOUS
as
W and only 25 for Mo). Newsom and
Palme
exhibit an oxidation state of 4 + in some of

the most reduced granitoid magmas (Cygan
MOLYBDENUM AND TUNGSTEN
Inasmuch
200 for
experimentally;
+ are perhaps more

+ valence has
common and evidence of a 4

been observed
in metal-silicate
experiments.
valence
molybdenum
might
partitioning
4+
of
indicate
for
that
its
geochemical behavior would be similar to Ti

(similar
charge
and
ionic
radius).
correlation in the abundance of Mo and Ti has

been obserVed by Kuroda and Sandell (1954)
for some igneous rocks.
Tacker
and
Candela
(1987)
also
suggest that the dominant oxidation state for

molybdenum in silicate magmas varies from
4
+ to 3 + between nickel-nickel oxide and
however, this is the valence that may be most
graphite-methane
important in porphyry
becomes more incompatible in magnetite and
systems and is the
valence commonly exhibited by tungsten.

The
concentration
of
both
molybdenum and tungsten in the mantle is
less than in C1
chondrites,
indicating
fraction of Earth's
that
significant
original endowment of
ilmenite
as
buffers.
oxygen
Molybdenum
fugaCity is
increased
(Tacker and Candela, 1987; Bouton et al.,

1987).
Associated alkaline mafic rocks
these metals now resides in the core (Newsom

The presence of lamprophyre dikes at
and Palme, 1984). Although molybdenum and

strongly
Climax, Henderson, Quartz Hill, and Chicago
incompatible behavior in crystallizing magmas
Basin and of zoned magma chambers that are
due to formation of large oxy-anions, under
floored
sufficiently
Gr ove,
tungsten
generall y
reducing
exhibit
conditions
(Fe-FeO)
these metals may be strongly partitioned into

a liquid metal phase, as apparently happened
during core formation. The best estimates of
with alkaline mafic rocks at Pine

Questa,
(mid-Tertiary
and
volcanic
Grizzly
field
in
Peak
central
Colorado) indicate that mantle-derived mafic

alkaline magmas may represent a portion of
the parental magma of Climax-type rhyolites.
There is no isotopic constraint for eliminating
them as a portion of the source material.
Alkaline igneous rocks (minettes, lamproites,
and nephelinites) from the Cenozoic volcanic
fields in the Elkhead Mountains in Colorado,
the Leucite Hills, Wyoming, and the western
Colorado Plateau, Utah, have epsilon Nd and
epsilon Sr values (Thompson et aI., 1991;
Vollmer et aI., 1984; Tingey et aI., 1991) that
are not far removed from those exhibited by
Climax-type systems. Despite the generally
low concentration of molybdenum in the
mantle (0.059 ppm), mantle-derived alkaline
magmas formed by extremely small degrees
of partial melting 1 % ) have substantially
higher concentrations of molybdenum that
would not lower the average molybdenum
content of a largely crustal melt. For
example, Newsom and Palme (1984) noted
that continental alkali basalts have high
contents of incompatible elements including
molybdenum concentrations up to 4.5 ppm
(well above the crustal average of 1.5 ppm)
and Newsom et al. (1986) report as much as
6.3 ppm Mo in alkaline ocean island basalt.
Shoshonites, minettes, and melanephelinites
from central Utah contain 0.2 to 3.0 ppm Mo
(unpublished data).
The source region for mafic alkaline
magmas on the continents is often proposed to
be the metasomatized lithospheric mantle.
Hattori et al. (1992) examined the metal
content
of
magmatic
sulfides
from
metasomatized (amphibole-bearing) peridotite
xenoliths from a variety ofloealities; a
xenolith from Nunivak Island, Alaska
(underlain by continental crust) contained
magmatic sulfide blebs with up to 60 ppm
molybdenum, whereas sulfide blebs
in
xenoliths from other localities contained no
detectable molybdenum. Insufficient data are
available to speculate on whether the
molybdenum content of lithospheric mantle of
different Precambrian provinces may vary
enough to account for the occurrence of

porphyry molybdenum "provinces".
Oxidation state
incompat
ibility in magmas
and
molybdenum
Perhaps the geochemical characteristic

inherited from the source region that is most
critical for the development of porphyry Mo
magmas is the oxidation state of the magma.
This parameter is fundamental because a
buffer parallel oxidation state is not easily
modified during magmatic fractionation
(Carmichael, 1991). This characteristic may
affect the oxidation state of molybdenum
which in tum affects how incompatible it may
behave during crystal fractionation. As
previously noted, molybdenum may exhibit
valences of 4 + and 3 + between nickel-nickel
oxide and graphite-methane oxygen buffers
(Tacker and Candela, 1987). Most subduction
related (calc-alkaline) and
lamprophyric
magmas have oxidation states roughly 2-3 and
4-5 log units above nickel-nickel oxide
respectively. If the trend of increasing
incompatibility of
molybdenum with
increasing f02 noted by Tacker and Candela
(1987) continues, then
molybdenum may
become
even
more
incompatible
in
calc-alkaline and lamprophyric magmas with
high oxygen fugacities where molybdenum
valences greater than 4 + may exist.
Evidence of variable incompatibility
for molybdenum in various rock series should
be noted here. Rubidium is insensitive to
changes in the oxidation state of the magma
and can be used in variation diagrams as a
monitor of magma evolution. A plot of the
abundance of tungsten versus rubidium in
fresh volcanic rocks ranging in composition
from mid-ocean ridge basalts to high-silica
rhyolites shows linear, strongly incompatible
behavior over a range of almost four
orders-of-magnitude (Fig. 3). However, the
enrichment of molybdenum in the same rock
series is much more subdued increasing only
two orders of magnitude; in addition, the
293
enrichment trend branches according to rock
type (Fig. 3). Ocean island basalts and
alkaline rocks exhibit a stronger enrichment
trend than
calc-alkaline (metaluminous)
volcanic rocks; very
reduced strongly
fractionated rocks such as macusanites,
ongonites, and some topaz rhyolites, such as
Spor Mountain, even show sharply lower
abundances of molybdenum with increased
fractionation, despite strong enrichment of
tungsten (up to 30-70
ppm;
E. H.
Christiansen, unpublished data; Pichavant et
aI., 1987). The differences in the behavior of
molybdenum may be the result of variable
oxidation states with molybdenum in a lower
oxidation state (3 + (?
behaving more
compatibly than at higher oxidation states
(6 +, similar to tungsten?) where molybdenum
appears to be moderately incompatible.
The oxidation states of most porphyry
molybdenum systems are not well constrained.
Keith (1982) demonstrated that the oxygen
fugacity of the Pine Grove magma was about
2 log units above nickel-nickel oxide (similar
to most calc-alkaline rocks). Christiansen et
al. (1986) found that the magmatic oxygen
fugacity of the topaz-bearing Chalk Mountain
rhyolite (comagmatic with Climax) was also
about 2-3 log units above nickel-nickel oxide.
However, some
topaz
rhyolites from
west-central Utah (including Spor MountitiiJ.)
were found to be substantially more reduced,
with magmatic f02 values 2 units below
nickel-nickel oxide. Therefore, this
is
permissive evidence that Climax-type magmas
would exhibit
modest' enrichment of
molybdenum with
continued fractionation,
probably along the
trend of
other
metaluminous (apparently more oxidized)
magmas (Fig. 3), rather than depletion as
found in more reduced magmas.
From the incompatible trace element
systematics, we conclude that magmatic
concentrations of Mo in metaluminous,
calc-alkaline magmas are generally quite low.
This is indicated by the average molybdenum
content of continental crust and granitoids

293
(1.5 ppm, Taylor and McLennan, 1985).
More importantly, because the enrichment
trend of molybdenum in metaluminous rocks
is relatively flat through the granitoid region
(Fig.
3 ),
an
approximate
magmatic
molybdenum concentration (between 1 and 5
ppm with an uncertainty of only a few ppm)
can be inferred from the granitoid's rubidium
concentration. Rhyolites or granites with
rubidium concentrations of over 1000 ppm are
rare and commonly are reduced types that
display
molybdenum
depletion
with
fractionation. Even if highly evolved oxidized
granitic magmas existed with concentrations
of Rb as high as 2000 ppm, magmatic Mo
concentrations predicted by this trend would
still be less than 6 or 7 ppm. Moreover, a
survey of the molybdenum contents of
subalkaline volcanic rocks worldwide indicates
that concentrations in excess of 10 ppm have
not been found (Smith, 1985). This does not
include potentially large
enrichments of
molybdenum that are inferred to occur at the
apices of Climax-type intrusions (13,000ppm,
Carten et al., 1988a) due to accumulation of
a separate aqueous phase (discussed later), but
only to molybdenum enrichment due to crystal
fractionation.
"
Molybdenum and niobium

Another explanation of the moderately
incompatible behavior of molybdenum is that
its magmatic fractionation is similar to
niobium. Molybdenum and
niobium may
commonly exist as cations of approximately
similar size and charge in magmas. Ocean
island basalts and continental alkaline magmas
(excluding
minettes)
exhibit
higher
concentrations
of
niobium
than
do
calc-alkaline magmas at the same rubidium
concentrations (Fig. 3). In addition, niobium
concentrations
probably
decrease
with
continued evolution in macusanite, ongonites,
and the most
evolved topaz
rhyolites
(Christiansen et al., 1986; Pichavant et al.,
1987; Congdon and Nash, 1991) as does
100
A
10
1
0.
0.
0.1
s:
0.01
0.001
B
10
High f0 trend
2
ADR
Lowf0 2
trend
0.
0.
0.1
0.01
Niobate
Fractionation
0.
0.
.c
0.01
Rb (ppm)
295
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE D EPOSITS

295
Figure 3. Concentrations of Rb versus W, Mo, and Nb. A) Concentrations of Rb and W

in fresh terrestrial volcanic rocks are strongly correlated over almost 5 orders of magnitude
showing that W generally behaves as a strongly incompatible element. Mid-ocean ridge basalts
(MORB) and ocean island basalts (OIB) form distinct but nearly continuous fields (stippled). The
field for andesites, dacites, and rhyolites (AD R) extends from but overlaps the upper end of the
field for ocean island basalts (OIB). For rhyolites, only data collected from glassy samples has
been included. B) Concentrations of Rb and Mo in most fresh terrestrial volcanic rocks are
strongly correlated showing that Mo generally behaves as a moderately incompatible element.
Mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and ocean island basalts (OIB) form distinct but nearly
continuous fields. At a given Rb content, the Mo enrichment in andesites, dacites, and rhyolites
(AD R) from subduction zones or continental settings is less than in (OIB). Highly evolved
rhyolites that crystallized under reducing conditions (macusanites and some topaz rhyolites;
stippled pattern, "low f02 trend") have even lower Mo/ Rb ratios, apparently as a result of
magmatic depletion of molybdenum. For rhyolites, only data collected from glassy samples has
been included. C) Concentrations of Rb and Nb in fresh terrestrial volcanic rocks reveal a pattern
similar to that for Rb and Mo in that andesites, dacites, and rhyolites (AD R) from continental
and subduction zone settings are depleted in Nb compared to ocean island basalts (OIB) and even
some mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB). Although apparently more incompatible than Mo in most
magmas, Nb behaves like Mo in that low Nb/ Rb ratios are found in highly evolved rhyolitic
rocks indicated by magmatic depletion of Nb in these rocks. D ata from Newsom et al. (1986),
Govindaraju (1989), Christiansen et al. (1986), Kovalenko et a1. (1978, 1981), Pichavant et al.
(1987), Congdon and Nash (1991), Turley and Nash (1983), Mahood (1981), Hildreth (1981)
and our own unpublished analyses.
molybdenum. For
example, the
strongly
reduced macusanite glasses also show

a
decoupling of the behavior of niobium and
tantalum resulting in a very low Nb/ Ta ratio
of 1.7 (Pichavant et al., 1987). Whether the
behavior of niobium can be ascribed to a
change in oxidation state from 5 +to 4 +in
reduced magmas is unknown. But whatever
magmatic phases control the abundance of
niobium may
also
control that
of
molybdenum..
In summary, ocean island basalts and
continental alkali basalts may inherit modestly
high molybdenum and niobium concentrations
from their sources. However, the high oxygen
fugacities inherited from the source regions of
minettes and calc-alkaline magmas may be of
fundamental
importance
in
allowing
molybdenum concentrations to increase during
crystal fractionation of magmas related to
porphyry molybdenum deposits.
Preservation of magmatic molybdenum

and tungsten concentrations
There are several reasons to believe
the tungsten and molybdenum concentrations
of many silicic igneous rocks often do not
represent magmatic values. Perhaps most
importantly, both elements are substantially
partitioned into an aqueous phase when one is
evolved from a crystallizing granitic magma
(Candela, 1989a). If an aqueous phase escapes
from a pluton, then the tungsten and
molybdenum content of a granitoid will be
reduced whereas country rock might become
enriched by deposition of these metals from
that fluid. The very process that makes
mineralization possible, makes determination
of
original
magmatic
values
almost
unattainable. In this regard, Ivanova (1963)
studied the distribution of tungsten in biotite
granites and
correlative greisens and
concluded that tungsten content of the rocks is
10
-
JI'.
-c..
0.1
0.01
o .00
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
10
1
E
c..
c..
Granites
'.. .::a \ "
0.1
.r
Granites

0.0
1
o.
001
0.01
0.1
100
1000
10000
100
-
c.
.
c..
o
10
1
0.1
F?ine
Grove
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
Rb (ppm)
100
1000
10000
297
Figure 4. Concentrations of Rb versus Wand Mo for volcanic and granitoid rocks. A)

Concentrations of W in fresh granitoids from western North America are generally depleted
compared to fresh terrestrial rocks of the same Rb content, including the andesites, dacites, and
rhyolites (ADR) commonly associated with tungsten deposits. B) Concentrations of Mo in fresh
granitoids from western North America are generally depleted compared to fresh terrestrial rocks
with similar Rb concentrations, including the andesites, dacites, and rhyolites (ADR) commonly
associated with porphyry molybdenum deposits. C) Judging from the correlation of Rb and Mo
in glassy rhyolitic rocks, the Mo concentrations in the rhyolitic magma at Pine Grove may have
been as high as 3 ppm. However, concentrations of Mo in the volcanic rocks range to as low as
0.2 ppm as a result of post-magmatic losses including loss of a volatile phase during eruption and
meteoric leaching (Keith and Shanks, 1988). Includes unpublished data of J. D. Keith.
primarily a function of alteration. Keith et al.
(1989) made the same conclusion from a
study of the CanTung granitoids, Northwest
Territories. Figure 4 illustrates that the
tungsten content of. granitoids from western
North America (Keith, unpublished data)
scatter above and mostly below the trend
established for fresh andesites, dacites, and
rhyolites. Keith et al. (1989) also examined
the molybdenum content of barren and
tungsten-related granitoids from western North
America. No correlation of molybdenum.
content with degree of differentiation, size of
associated deposit, or other trace element
concentrations was found. As was the case for
tungsten, the molybdenum concentrations in
these granitoids generally are substantially less
than those of fresh andesites, dacites, and
rhyolites (Fig. 4).
Molybdenum concentrations of rocks
from a porphyry molybdenum deposit would
always be suspect of being either enriched
(especially within 300 m of an ore zone,
Mutschler et aI.,
1981) or depleted by
hydrothermal leaching or
loss
of
a
molybdenum-rich aqueous phase. Even fresh
volcanic rocks may
exhibit molybdenum
concentrations lower than
pre-eruption
magmatic values due
to loss
of a
molybdenum-bearing aqueous phase or to
leaching by meteoric fluids. Keith and Shanks
(1988) documented that at least 90% of the
molybdenum in the non-welded tuff of Pine
Grove was leached by meteoric water; in
addition, they inferred that very fresh

comagmatic rhyolite cobbles eroded from an
extrusive dome had lost -70% of their
original molybdenum content due to escape of
magmatic volatiles (Fig. 4). Although
measured molybdenum concentrations in fresh
Pine Grove rocks range from 0.20 to 1.82
ppm, the pre-eruption magmatic level may
have been as high as -3 ppm (Fig. 4); the
difference may have been lost to meteoric
leaching or degassing of the ash flow tuff
shortly after er uption. Consequently, it is
difficult to determine the magmatic tungsten
and molybdenum concentrations of evolved
water-rich
granites
and
rhyolites.
Molybdenum has. been found in fumarolic
crusts associated with similar rhyolitic tuffs
(Zies, 1929). Even strongly differentiated
rhyolitic magmas such as those that formed
the molybdenite deposits at Climax and
Henderson, may originally have contained
only about 4 ppm molybdenum; magmas with
lower rubidium and niobium - such as those
from Quartz Hill and Mount Tolman - may
have
o rig in a lly
h a d . moly bdenu m
concentrations closer to - 2 ppm. Actual
magmatic concentrations of molybdenum for
these deposits may be unattainable for the
reasons just outlined. If such molybdenum
niobium-rubidium correlations have some
validity, then the more niobium-rubidium-rich
magmas might be expected to produce larger
tonnages of higher grade molybdenum ore.
Figure 5 illustrates that deposits with higher
1000
Mo
(wt%)
N
1.0
00
Tonnes
Millions
500
300
200
<> Henderson
0.294
266
D Pillel Grove
0.170
125
Questa
0.144
277
Quartz Hill
0.091
793
MtTolman
0.056
793
..........
0.
0.
100
'-""
-C
30
20
10
10
20
100
Rb
(ppm)
200
300
500
1000
t:::1
0
en
Jooo3
en
....
299
299
Figure 5. Rb and Nb concentrations in silicic igneous rocks associated with porphyry

molybdenum deposits in western North America are similar to other members of the andesite,
dacite, rhyolite group world wide. Granitic rocks at Urad/Henderson are the most fractionated
(indicated by their high concentrations of the incompatible elements Rb and Nb) and host the
highest grade Mo deposit. Rb, Nb, and Mo ore grade decrease regularly in the sequence Pine
Grove, Questa, Quartz Hill, and Mt. Tolman.
niobium and rubidium concentrations do have
larger tonnages of high grade ore.
PETROGENESIS OF MAGMA
RELATED TO CLIMAX-TYPE
MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS
Lower and upper crustal sources

Do the igneous rocks associated with
giant porphyry molybdenum deposits inherit a
special composition from their magma source
region that distinguishes them from lesser
deposits? Is there a unique tectonic setting or
epoch for their development? In this regard,
White et al. (1981) proposed that because the
Colorado Rocky Mountain region exhibits
many deposits or mineral occurrences
enriched in molybdenum, tungsten, and
fluorine, this indicates a "long-term source"
for these
elements in the underlying
continental lithosphere (1.7 Ga).
They
suggested that Climax-type magmas were
generated by fractional melting of the lower
crust followed by fractional crystallization of
each batch of magma as it diapirically rose
through the crust. White et al. (1981) suggest
the
magmas would be
enriched in
molybdenum and other incompatible trace
elements as a consequence. What levels of
molybdenum enrichment would be achieved
by this process are not specified, but they
suggest that Climax-type granitoids are "rather
like" the topaz rhyolites of Burt et al. (1982).
Extensive data on the molybdenum content of
topaz rhyolites are not available, but Keith
and Shanks (1988) found that fresh topaz
rhyolite from southwestern Utah with niobium
and rubidium concentrations similar to those

at Henderson contained 3.3 ( + /- 0.2) ppm
molybdenum. Turley and Nash (1983) found
from 2 to 6 (+ /- 1.5) ppm molybdenum in
vitrophyres from topaz rhyolite lavas at
Smelter Knoll, Utah. There is no evidence
that topaz rhyolites generally contain higher
concentrations of molybdenum than
these
values.
Stein
(1988) investigated the lead,
strontium, sulfur, and oxygen isotope ratios
and rare earth-element compositions of ores,
and of volcanic and plutonic rocks from the
Colorado mineral belt;
the genesis of
Climax-type systems was
of particular
concern. Her data were interpreted to indicate
that all the Laramide-Tertiary intermediate to
felsic magmas (including calc-alkaline) had a
lower crustal origin; however, Climax-type
granites were proposed to have originated
from a unique lower crustal source (not
related to calc-alkaline magmatism). The
magmatic
characteristics
critical
to
Climax-type mineralization acquired from this
unique source are not specified.
In their review of the Henderson
deposit, Carten et aI. (1988b) suggest that a
unique
magma
that
contained
high
concentrations of ore components was not
required to form the deposit. They argue that
the initial concentration of molybdenum in the
ore-related magma is not as critical to ore
formation
as the type and duration
of fractionation processes in a high-level
magma chamber.
The average molybdenum content of
the lower and upper crust is estimated to be
0.8 and 1. 5 ppm respectively (Taylor and
300
McLennan, 1985). One of the ftrst attempts to
defme a special molybdenum-rich source for
Climax-type deposits was analysis of the
molybdenum
content
of
Idaho
Springs
Formation and the Silver Plume Granite;
300
the compositions of
3
samples from
Henderson. Epsilon Nd for these samples
ranged from -9.5 to -9.9. These values are
indistinguishable from the high end epsilon
Nd of Precambrian (1.6 to 1.8 Ga) basement
Zahoney (1968) found an average of 5 ppm
rocks,
and 2-3 ppm Mo in these respective rock
(1984) that the "granitic magmas were derived
(1978)
exclusively from mid-Proterozoic crust".

However, it should be noted that DePaolo
types. On this basis, Wallace et a1.
suggested that the tungsten and molybdenum

of the Climax and Henderson deposits were
derived from these upper crustal host rocks.
However, later isotopic studies (White et
aI.,
1981; Stein,
1988) have
demonstrated
that Climax-type magmas and ore deposits in

the Colorado
not
mineral
belt
have incorporated
could
any appreciable
amount of these upper crustal rocks.

Most recent workers have proposed
that the magma source of Climax-type systems
and topaz rhyolites is in the lower crust
(White et aI., 1981; Christiansen and Wilson,
1982; Christiansen et aI., 1988; Stein, 1988)

although enriched upper
mantle has been
(Westra and Keith, 1981).

(1981) noted that the initial
values for "unaltered" Climax
proposed
also
White et al.
87Sr/86Sr
and
Henderson
rocks
varies
between
0.705 -
0.710. Stein (1988) found signiftcantly higher

and widely varying values of 0.7085 to 0.740
for Climax and Henderson rocks. Chalk
Mountain rhyolite is a relatively unaltered
topaz-bearing
extrusive
dome
that
is
comagmatic with the Climax rhyolites (Burt et
aI., 1982). Stein (1988) reported a 87Sr/86Sr
value of 0.7085 for Chalk Mountain and
0.710 - 0.711 for Climax samples. Fused
ash-flow tuff associated with the Climax-type
Pine Grove deposit in Utah, which is
suggesting to Farmer
and DePaolo
(1981) observed
that Proterozoic crust in

Colorado could have had epsilon Nd as low as
-14 during the middle Tertiary. If such crust
was involved in the genesis of Climax-type
rhyolites then a signiftcant mantle component
with
higher
present
epsilon Nd
even
Moreover,
in
this
must
have
magma
been
system.
the occurrence of igneous rocks
with epsilon Nd values as low as -13 (Johnson

and Fridrich, 1990) in the same region and
broadly coeval with Henderson is consistent
with
the
involvement
mantle-derived
magma
at
of
signiftcant
Henderson.
As
noted below, Johnson et a1. (1989) also

propose a similar mixed (mantle and crustal)
heritage
for
the
magmas that led to the
formation of the Questa deposit.
Tectonic setting
Sillitoe
molybdenum
(1980) subdivided
deposits
into
porphyry
rift-related
subduction-related deposits that
and
correspond
fairly well to Climax-type and the "other"

categories respectively. Several authors have
recognized that few Mo deposits occur in
young island arc settings (i.e. Canicanian,

Table 1), and almost always in areas underlain
by at least thin continental crust (Sillitoe,
underlain by Proterozoic crust of the same age
1980; Westra and Keith, 1981; Christiansen
as Climax, has an initial 87Sr/86Sr value of
and Wilson, 1982). Although some have

claimed that Climax-type systems correlate
with thicker continental crust, others suggest
that they are independent of crustal thickness
0.7099 (Christiansen and Wilson, 1982).

Although sparse, Nd isotopic data may
reveal more about the source(s) of Climax
type rhyolites, because they are probably less
affected
by
hydrothermal
alteration
and
wall-rock contamination than Sr isotope

ratios. Farmer and DePaolo (1984) reported
(Westra and Keith, 1981). Perhaps the most

commonly suggested tectonic setting for
Climax-type systems is
during the changeover
from compressional to extensional tectonics
301
(Sillitoe, 1980; Westra and Keith, 1981;
Mutschler et aI., 1981; White et aI., 1981;
Bookstrom, 1981). Some authors prefer to
consider this setting as "atectonic" or back-arc
spreading rather than simply rift-related.
The "changeover" tectonic setting has
also recently been documented for the Coulee
D am intrusive suite (Carlson and Moye, 1990)
that hosts the Cu-rich Mt. Tolman deposit
whose ore-related granite porphyry clearly
evolved from a dominant volume of
granodiorite (Carlson and Moye, 1990).
Addit io n a l ly,
a
" p ost-orogenic" ,
extension-related setting has been proposed for
the Quartz Hill deposit (Hudson et al. , 1981).
The Quartz Hill intrusive complex was
emplaced in the Coast batholith after it had
been extensively uplifted and eroded. A
regional
extension-related joint
system
controls emplacement of many lamprophyre
dikes as well the Quartz Hill intrusions.
However, the initial 87Sr/86Sr values of 0.7051
for the Quartz Hill intrusions do not differ
significantly from those of the older
su b d u c t i o n- r e l a t e d
pl utonic rocks.
Additionally, the Quartz Hill intrusions show
minimal enrichment of K20, fluorine, and
other incompatible elements (Hudson et al. ,
1981).
Crystal fractionation
predecessors
from
calc-alkaline
D espite accumulation of a large

amount of data on the petrogenetic and
isotopic evolution of Climax-type rhyolites, a
number of differing source rocks are
permissible. Questa and Pine Grove show
many petrogenetic similarities. Pine Grove
(23-22 Ma; Fig. 1) is located in the Indian
Peak volcanic field that produced dominantly
high-K calc-alkaline dacitic ash flows from 32
to 27 Ma (Best et al., 1989). More than
50,000 km3 of ash flow tuff was erupted.
Smaller volumes of
high-K calc-alkaline
rhyolite, trachyandesite, and minor dacite
were erupted near the Indian Peak volcanic
301
field
at 18-23
Ma and are roughly
contemporaneous with
the
inception of
extension in the area (Best et aI., 1987). The
Pine Grove porphyry molybdenum deposit
occurs in the eroded vent of an ash-flow/ dome
complex just east of the rim of the Indian
Peak caldera complex. Initial eruptions began
with high-silica rhyolite and later eruptions
simultaneously vented rhyolitic and dacitic
magma. High-silica rhyolite subsequently
filled the vent to form domes and intruded to
shallow levels to form a Climax -type deposit.
The co-erupted dacitic magma exhibits a mode
and major-element composition very similar to
the voluminous dacitic ash-flows that were
emplaced during the Oligocene and to other
intermediate volcanic rocks of the same age
(23-21 Ma) to the west (Best et ai., 1992).
Shortly after complete crystallization of the
magma chamber, trachyandesitic magma
intruded the vent and other portions of the
crust and covered the tuff of Pine Grove
across the region. Keith (1982) demonstrated
that 60% fractionation of dacitic magma,
using
observed phenocryst proportions and
compositions, could
produce the major
element composition of the Pine Grove
rhyolite. The available Sr isotopic data are
consistent with this idea; no significant
differences exist
between the Sr-isotopic
compositions of the Pine Grove magma and
the older dacites of the Indian Peak volcanic
field.
Jo hnson
and
Lipma n
(1988)
investigated the origin of the metaluminous
and alkaline volcanic rocks of the Latir
volcanic field, host of the Questa deposit (Fig.
1), in the Rio Grande rift near the
Colorado-New Mexico border. Magmatism in
the Latir field (22 - 28.5 Ma and 11-15 Ma)
is approximately coeval with Climax-type
systems (i.e.
Climax, Henderson, Mt.
Emmons) farther north along the Rio Grande
rift. In addition, the age of magmatism spans
the inception of rifting in the area (26 Ma).
Molybdenum mineralization is associated with
waning stages of caldera magmatism. The
302
302
highest grades of ore are associated with the

Sulphur Gulch pluton (23-25 Ma)
that
rhyolites are exposed. The published analyses

carry all the earmarks of strongly fractionated
intruded
magma: low
the
southern rim
of the
Queta
caldera (Johnson et al . , 1989) . Johnson and

Lipman
(1988)
suggested that
60 %
fractionation of a parental magma similar to
the Cabresto Lake monzogranite, a slightly
older resurgent pluton, could produce the
major-and trace-element composition of the
Sulphur Gulch pluton. They suggest' that a
"base level" intermediate composition magma,
exemplified by the majority of the local
volcanic and plutonic rocks , persisted in the
area for 6 m . y . The inferred monzogranite
parent is very similar to the dacite co-erupted
with the rhyolitic Pine Grove magma and the
"base level " composition of the Indian Peak
volcanic field (Best et aI. , 1989) .
A critical question that should be asked
is
whether the
petrogenetic processes
exemplified by Pine Grove and Questa
magmatism operated at
other Climax-type
porphyry Mo
systems. Bookstrom (1981)
states that the Climax-type deposits in the
Colorado mineral belt occur along the axes of
slightly
older calc-alkaline plutons (mostly
less
than
40 -Ma) . There are about 30
molybdenum prospects with up to
0. 1 %
MoS2 mineralization in, the mineral belt and
most of these are associated with broadly
calc-alkaline igneous rocks and appear to be
subduction related.
He notes that
the "
Climax-like"
rhyolite
porphyries of
the
Winfield prospect (35-38 Ma) formed within a
granodioritic pluton well before initial riftrelated basaltic volcanism C24-26 Ma) .
These data would suggest that Climax-type
rhyolites
and
calc-alkaline
intermediate
plutons may be
comagmatic . A similar
temporal association of broadly calc-alkaline
magmas (50 to 45 Ma) , topaz-bearing granites
and rhyolites (48 Ma) , and a Climax-type Mo
deposit at Big Ben (48 .5 Ma) , Montana, has
been noted by Christiansen et al. (1986) .
The petrogenesis of the igneous rocks
at
Climax and
Henderson is difficult to
interpret when generally
only high-silica
concentrations of
compatible
elements (notably Sr, Mg, and Ti) and high

concentrations of incompatible elements like
Rb and Nb . Thus the nature of their more
mafic predecessors is difficult to deduce.
I sotopic ,
maj orand
trace-element
compositions of the rhyolitic rocks present no
reason to exclude the possibility that they
evolved by crystal fractionation from high-K
calc-alkaline
partially
magma
(which
itself
was
derived from lower crustal and
mantle sources) .
One of the reasons that White et al.
(1981)
exclude
magma evolution
from
calc-alkaline parents is that one
of the
Climax-type deposits, Mt. Emmons, is much
younger (17 Ma) than the
cessation of
apparently subduction-related magmatism ( 26
Ma).
However,
non-subduction-related
v o l c an i c
rocks
wi th
calc- alkaline
characteristics are present elsewhere in the

Tertiary of the western United States. For
example, a 16.5 Ma volcanic center in the
Gold Springs and Stateline districts of Utah
and Nevada exhibits a complete spectrum of
compositions ranging from 68 to 77 % Si02
The lower-silica rocks have the calc-alkaline
characteristics of
steep REE
patterns,
abundant magnetite, and
nonevolved trace
element abundances . The culminating events
of tl!e volcanic center were eruption of a
high-silica ash-flow tuff and emplacement of a
dome of topaz rhyolite in the vent. The latter
hosts a gold-bearing fluorite pipe and quartzsericite-pyrite and argillic alteration; preciousmetal veins occur adjacent to the vent. Both
older (18-21 Ma) and younger (10-12 Ma)
topaz rhyolites occur nearby (Best et al. ,
1992; Best et aI . , 1987) .
Although
isotopic
signatures
of
Climax-type
rhyolites
are
marginally
perrmsslve of purely
crustal
sources,
well-studied rhyolitic
ash-flow systems that
erupted a
spectrum of cogenetic magma
compositions suggest that other interpretations
303

303

are also possible . For example, the
34 Ma
Grizzly Peak Tuff, located approximately 80
compOSItIon volcanic
uniform initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios of approximately
km southwest of the Climax deposit, varies in
0.7055 (identical to the intermediate lavas of
composition from high-silica rhyolite at the

base to low-silica rhyolite at the top of a
single eroded cooling unit; two heterogeneous
tuff layers also contain dacite to mafic latite
fiamme (Johnson and Fridrich, 1990). Initial
the San Juan volcanic field; Lipman et al. ,
87Sr/86Sr ratios range from
0.7170 to as low as
0.7099 and epsilon Nd values vary between

-13.0
and -11.3;
similar variations are
exhibited by Pb and 0 isotopes. Johnson and
Fridrich (1990) point out that the most mafic
composition (57 wt% Si) is too mafic to be a
partial melt of crustal rocks; this magmatic
composition
is
best
explained
by
approximately 50 wt% crystal fractionation of
basaltic magma, accompanied by 20 to 40
wt% assimilation of Proterozoic crust. The
more silicic
portions of the magma were
modeled
to
have
formed
by
crystal
fractionation accompanied by late-stage crustal
assimilation .
Evidence
for
late-stage
assimilation included isotopic disequilibrium
between whole-rock fiamme and early- and
late-crystallizing phenocrysts separated from
the same fiamme . They note that without the
fortuitous eruption of the more mafic portions
of the magma chamber, they would have
drawn the erroneous conclusion that the tuff
was generated by 1 0 0 % crustal melting. The
high-silica portion of the Grizzly Peak Tuff
would fit all
of the isotopic criteria for
derivation
from
a
"Climax-type
source"
(Stein, 1988; Stein and Crock, 1990), in spite
of its inferred mantle heritage .
Isotopically
chambers
zoned
magma
Plutonic and volcanic rocks related to

the Questa caldera and porphyry molybdenum
deposit also show evidence of derivation from
chemically
and isotopically
zoned magma
chambers. The Questa caldera formed upon
eruption of > 500 km3 of the high-silica
peralkaline Amalia
Tuff
(Johnson and
Lipman, 1988) .
Precaldera intermediate
1978;
Johnson
rocks
et
aI . ,
have relatively
1990). Initial
87Sr/86Sr
ratio
in
the
Amalia
Tuff
increases
monotonically with
decreasing Sr
content
from 0.7057 to 0. 7098, the
Sr-poor tuff
representing the early eruptions . Late-stage
roofward assimilation of Proterozoic rocks is
proposed as the preferred explanation of the
increasing initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios; convincing
evidence of this model is the roofward
increase in the
proportion of zircons with
Proterozoic cores relative to Tertiary zircons
wi th
no
Protero z o i c
c o re s .
The
Mo-mineralized Sulphur Gulch pluton exhibits an
analogous trend of decreasing initial
0 . 7085 to 0 . 7067) with
87Srf86Sr ratios (from
increasing Sr content. The inferred parent

(Cabresto Lake pluton) has an initial 87Sr/86Sr
ratio of
0.7053
(Johnson et aI . ,
Late-stage roofward
1990) .
contamination may
also
cause some of the large variations in initial

87Sr/86Sr noted in the Climax, Henderson, and
1988). Stein
(1990) reject that possibility
Mt. Emmons rhyolites (Stein,

and Crock
because the inferred proportions of wallrock

needed
to
produce
the
variations
are
substantially different for the Nd, Sr, and Pb

isotopic constraints . However, Johnson et al.
(1990)
encountered very similar isotopic
inconsistencies in modeling the
late-stage
assimilation of the Sulphur Gulch (Questa)
pluton.
Not all high-level magma chambers or
post-caldera
plutons
show
evidence
of
late-stage assimilation . If late-stage roofward
assimilation
is
a
common process
in
Climax-type
magma chambers ,
then what
process
is
responsible
for
causing
assimilation? Ultimately , the answer is related
to
heat, whether by crystallization or by
underplating or injection of new magma. The
fact that Climax-type
magmas may show
consistent isotopic evidence of late-stage
assimilation of roof rocks should not be
304
surprising inasmuch as one of the most widely
recognized characteristics of this deposit type
is the occurrence of multiple intrusions and
ore bodies that are generally emplaced by
assimilation and stoping.
Chondrite-normalized
rare-earth
element patterns from Climax, Henderson,
Questa, and Pine Grove (discussed in a later
section) show evidence of some crystallization
and fractionation of the parent magmas
between intrusive units; this could be one
source of heat for assimilation. All four
of these deposits were apparently developed
during the change from subduction-controlled
to extensional tectonics. Thompson et al.
(1991) suggested that extension-related mafic
magma associated with the Rio Grande rift
played a substantial role in extending the life
of "pre-rift" volcanism approximately by 3
m.y. For example, the Sulphur Gulch pluton
(23-25 Ma), which hosts the Questa deposit,
may have evolved from pre-rift magmas that
were kept "alive" by basaltic magmatism
related to
rifting (26
Ma).
Therefore,
underplated mafic magma at Questa may have
been responsible for the gradual elevation in
initial 87Sr/86Sr associated with roofward
assimilation.
Evidence for
extension-related
trachyandesite underplating of the Pine Grove
chamber is perhaps even more conclusive in
substantiating a role for extension-related
magmas. Trachyandesitic magmas were
clearly associated with extensional tectonics
from
22
to
18
Ma
across
the
Pioche- M arysvale
volcanic
belt.
Trachyandesite magma co-erupted with the
tuff of Pine Grove and intruded the vent just
after final
consolidation of the magma
chamber. Keith and Shanks (1 988) suggested
that the trachyandesitic magma may have
provided the heat to allow the water-rich Pine
Grove magma to ascend to slightly higher
levels in the crust without solidifying.
White et al. ( 1 981) and Stein and
Crock (1 990) point out that assimilation of
highly radiogenic country rocks around

305
Climax and Henderson could not have been a
very significant magma modifying process.
However, even
a trivial amount of
assimilation (0-2 % of Silver Plume Granite,
Bookstrom et aI., 1 988) may explain the
monotonic increase in initial 87Sr/86Sr values
between comagmatic rhyolite intrusions. We
do not propose that late-stage assimilation is
adding anything "special" to the magma
chamber, but it may point to a long-lived heat
source at the base of the system that permits
extended crystal fractionation, volatile loss,
and perhaps volatile fluxing without rapidly
solidifying the entire chamber. Isotopic
zonation of the high-level magma chamber
may be one signature of that heat source.
White et al. (1981 ) also note that
basaltic volcanism is not associated, on a local
scale, with Climax-type systems. However,
felsic rocks at Climax, Henderson, and
Chicago Basin are contemporaneous with
minor volumes of cross-cutting biotite-rich
lamprophyre
dikes
(Bookstrom,
1981 ;
Bookstrom et aI., 1 988). Additionally, mildly
alkaline to transitional basalts (24-20 Ma)
interfmger with basin-fill sedimentary rocks
of the Browns Park Formation west of
the Colorado mineral belt (Thompson et
al.,
1 991). Bookstrom (198 1 ) suggests that the
lamprophyres represent "a different type of
bimodal suite. " Some have suggested that
lower thermal input may result in selective
partial melting of less refractory "plums" in a
"plum pudding" mantle with the resulting melt
being isotopically enriched and of alkaline
affinity (Thompson et aI., 1 991 ; Perry et aI.,
1987). Climax, Henderson, aild Chicago
Basin are sufficiently removed from areas of
substantial rifting that rift-related thermal
input may have been low, but sufficient to
extend the life of the magma chambers.
In summary, when only high-silica
rhyolite is erupted or
exposed for
examination, the petrogenesis is ambiguous
(Christiansen and Wilson, 1 982; Johnson and
Fridrich, 1990).
Inasmuch as high-silica
rhyolitic magmas lie near the ternary
306 SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

SEG
minimum, a variety of source materials and
petrogenetic paths may yield essentially the
same bulk composition. We see no reason
that topaz and Climax-type rhyolites could not
be developed by either partial melting of
lower crustal felsic granulite (Christiansen
et al . ,
1988; Stein, 1988; Stein and Crock, 1990;
White et aI., 1981), differentiation . of
subduction-related
high-K
calc-alkaline
magmas (Keith et aI . , 1986;
Westra
and Keith, 1981), or extreme fractionation
of rift-related basaltic magma significantly
contaminated by lower crust . However,
rhyolites generated by these processes may not
be equally capable of generating a giant
deposit.
CONCENTRATION AND
TRANSPORTATION MECHANISMS .
Wallace et al. (1968) emphasized

that
100-125 km3 of magma is needed to supply
the molybdenum found in the Climax ore
bodies . Carten et al . (1988a) concluded that
enrichment of ore components in tbe .cupola
occurs prior to the onset of crystallization and
that the initial concentration of molybdenum
in the parent magma chamber is not as
significant to ore formation as the type and
duration of
processes
that
deliver
molybdenum to the cupola. Intermingled
barren and productive stocks at Henderson
have the same isotopic composition (Farmer
and DePaolo, 1984) and probably represent
successive draughts from a large, persistent
magma chamber that was contiguous with
each intrusion. Carten et al. (1988a) also
concluded that either variations in residence
time or variations in the efficiencies of
fractionation processes could account for the
intermingling of barren and productive stocks .
Crystallization
Candela (1989a) states that partitioning
of molybdenum into an aqueous phase is most
efficient when an initially dry
melt

305
fractionates at shallow depth or when melt
evolves water at great depth, he suggests that
in either case evolution of vapor during
crystallization (second boiling) is more
effective in removing Mo from the melt than
any reasonable first
boiling scenario .
However, there is no reason to believe the
Climax-type rhyolitic magmas are dry C 1%
H20) and do not evolve an aqueous phase
until the last few percent of the magma
crystallizes. Keith
and
Shanks (1988)
documented a high water fugacity and content
for the Pine Grove rhyolites; most rhyolitic
magmas are probably saturated or nearly
saturated with water when they erupt . In
addition, rhyolites that appear to have erupted
from Pine
Grove, Questa, Climax, and
Henderson have less than 35% phenocrysts.
The
alternative Candela (l989a)
proposes for generating a molybdenum-rich
magma--evolving an aqueous phase at great
depth--may have
some
application to
crystallization of drier, intermediate-or-mafic
magma at the roots of a stratified magma
system. If buoyant fluids that evolved as a
result of crystallization at depth can extract
molybdenum from the magma they traverse
and then collect efficiently in a high-level
c u p o la , the n
they
ma y
for m a
molybdenum-rich magma and consequently
contribute to ore formation .
Some
have proposed that little
additional crystallization or differentiation of
the parent magma chamber occurred from the
time of emplacement of one stock to the next
(Keith and Shanks, 1988; Carten et aI.,
1988a) . For example, zirconium and niobium
concentrations are approximately the same for
all stocks at Henderson. However, relatively
constant concentrations of these elements are
perhaps not unusual for metaluminous
magmas; crystal fractionation can occur and
maintain relatively constant values for
zirconium, niobium, and molybdenum.
306
Variations in vapor/melt partitioning
In orthomagmatic hydrothermal fluids,
Mo does not appear to be complexed and
transported with either CI or F; in fact,
Keppler and Wyllie (1991)
found that
molybdenum is most strongly partitioned into
an aqueous phase (KD = 5 . 5) when CI and
F are
absent. Consequently,
if
our
conclusions regarding the
maximum
enrichment, -5 ppm, of molybdenum in
magmas are
correct, none of
the
experimentally
determined
vapor/melt
partition coefficients for molybdenum would
produce an extremely molybdenum-rich ore
fluid (one with thousands of ppm Mo) from a
water-rich rhyolitic melt at shallow depths
(Keppler
and
Wyllie, 1991;
Tacker
and Candela, 1987) .
Lowenstem et al. (1991) investigated
the copper content of melt inclusions in quartz
phenocrysts from the peralkaline rhyolites
from Pantelleria. They found 3 ppm copper in
matrix glass and in melt inclusions with
fractures to the crystal surface . Non-degassed
melt inclusions contained 20 ppm copper and
melt inclusions that also contained large vapor
bubbles contained up to 300 ppm copper .
They calculated that the vapor/melt partition
coefficients for copper may be well over
1000; this value is much higher than those
determined experimentally ( -50; Candela and
Holland, 1984). Lowenstem et a1 . (1991)
propose that the stronger partitioning of
copper into the fluid phase could be due to
more "available CI" in the fluid phase than in
the experiments. This might have been caused
by a high CO2/H20 ratio, rendering He! more
dissociated. They also emphasize that
crystallization-induced volatile saturation
(second-boiling) may not be necessary for the
production of Cu-rich fluids . Exsolved
volatiles were present in pantellerite magma
with only 10% crystals and in rhyolite from
the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes with only
2% phenocrysts (Lowenstem et aI . , 1991).
Similarly, there are several reasons
why the vapor/melt partitioning coefficients of

molybdenum in natural systems may be
significantly higher than experimentally
determined values. For instance, porphyry
molybdenum systems have f02 conditions of
calc-alkaline rocks (about 2 log units above
NNO) that are well above the f02's
investigated experimentally; the trends of the
experimental data suggest that molybdenum
should be even more strongly partitioned into
the aqueous phase under such high f02
conditions. Candela (1989b) also speculates
that if the oxidation state of molybdenum in
the aqueous phase is higher than in the melt,
then the tendency of molybdenum to enter the
vapor phase may be compounded .
Keith and Shanks (1988) reviewed the
evidence that extension-related trachyandesitic
magmas were episodically injected into the
base of the Pine Grove magma chamber. If
such magmas are injected into the base of a
dacitic or rhyolitic magma chamber, they
would quench or crystallize and release
volatiles that could be fluxed through the
magma chamber . Lamprophyric magmas or
less primitive K-rich mafic magmas that are
generally volatile-rich, may have interacted
with Climax, Henderson, Quartz Hill, and
other porphyry molybdenum systems to
produce similar volatile fluxing.
If such a molybdenum-transporting
magmatic fluid phase existed and was
CO2-rich,
then
evidence of
CO2 in
high-temperature fluid
inclusions should
perhaps be found. Linnen and Williams-Jones
(1990) note that
aqueous-carbonic fluid
inclusions are common in fluorine-deficient
molybdenum deposits, but are scarce in
fluorine-rich deposits. However, White et
a1. (1981) note that a carbonate daughter
mineral is present in some fluid inclusions
from Henderson. Seedorff (1988) found
similar daughter minerals in fluid inclusions
from
a rhodochrosite-bearing
alteration
assemblage at Henderson . Thus, CO2-rich
fluid inclusions have been observed at Climax
and Henderson, but
are
not
abundant
(Seedorff, 1988; Hall et al.
1974).
Hypersaline fluid inclusions are

rare in the F-deficient deposits, but common in
Climax-type systems (Linnen and WilliamsJones,
1990) . These data suggest that
volatile fluxing by a CO2-rich fluid phase in
Climax-type systems may not be a significant
process.
Analysis of volcanic gas emissions
from active volcanoes indicates that sulfurous
gases are emitted upon the inferred arrival of
new magma at the base of a magma chamber.
At the f02 conditions of calc-alkaline magmas,
S02 and H2S would be present with about
sub-equal fugacities (Whitney, 1988) . The low
solubility of S02 in magmas may allow a flux
of S02-bearing volatiles to rise through a
zoned magma chamber and perhaps scavenge
molybdenum. Molybdenum is not complexed
with sulfur; but the partitioning behavior of
molybdenum relative to a fluid phase that is
rich in an oxidized sulfur species has not been
investigated. Indeed, fluxing of S-rich fluids
through a magma is probably required to
account for large amount of magmatic sulfur
associated with a giant porphyry molybdenum
deposit. The low solubility of sulfur in
high-silica rhyolitic melts argues for such a
process, but mass balance calculations to test
this scenario would involve much uncertainty.
Convection
fluxing
and
volatile
There are several reasons to suspect

that the process of metal enrichment involves
convection and volatile fluxing through a
large volume of the chamber. Keith et al.
( 1986) document that large blocks of
biotite-rich (5-7 %) dacitic magma from the
base of the Pine Grove magma chamber were
rafted to the top of the cupola just prior to the
main episode of ore formation.
Individual
blocks are surrounded by rhyolitic magma and
successive intrusions are rhyolitic. Because of
the higher density of dacitic magma relative to
rhyolitic magma, emplacement of dacitic
blocks at the top of a rhyolitic intrusion would
not be expected to occur. One mechanism for
reducing the density of dacitic magma below
307
that of the rhyolite is by exsolution of

volatiles in the dacitic magma. Crystalliiation,
magma mixing, and/or arrival
of mafic
magma at the base of the chamber may have
helped create a flux of components with low
solubility such as CO2 or S02 ; exsolved
bubbles of these gases would contain some
water and other ore constituents such as
molybdenum. Evidence of similarly rafted
blocks in other porphyry systems may often go
unrecognized. As a possible example, White
et al . (198 1) describe a textural variant of the
Late rhyolite at Climax wherein blocks of
biotite-rich (3-5 %) rock, 2 m to 1 cm in size,
occur as inclusions within the mam phase.
Carten et al. (1988a) propose that convection
could augment the transport of ore components
as dissolved or undissolved volatiles. These
data indicate that a stream of undissolved
volatiles could begin at the deepest levels of
the magma chamber.
Central vent architecture
Magmatic volatile collection associated
with both porphyry copper and molybdenum
deposits often appears to be channelled to a
vent associated with prior eruptions; such is
clearly the case with Henderson and Climax.
Although many authors lament the loss of
volatiles and ore constituents associated with
opening a vent, it may be a critical positive
feedback mechanism. Subequent volatiles
could be collected from the roof zone by a
single, flaring funnel, eroded into the wall
rocks during eruption. Volatiles collected in the
sub-volcanic pipe could experience a pressure
drop to hydrostatic values more readily than
any other portion of the roof zone. If the pipe
geometry is lacking, then the ore zone may be
more sheetlike extending along the roof of the
chamber as seen at Mt Tolman (W . Utterback,
unpublished report) . The same volume of
magma that could be "seen" by the vent
during eruption may also be seen during
collection of volatiles . The larger the volume
of magma seen by one vent

SEG
during fluid collection, then the larger, or
higher grade, the deposit could be. Certainly
a single, well-situated vent would be optimal.
Smith (1979) pointed out that central
vent volcanoes do not erupt more than about
100 km3 of ash flow tuff; larger eruption
volumes are related to calderas where
multiple vents are probably involved, as is
the case of the 500 km3 Amalia Tuff expelled
from the Questa caldera. Several resurgent
(or slightly younger) plutons occur along the
ring fracture and
elsewhere; all
of the
intrusions
are variably mineralized with
molybdenite (Johnson et aI.,
1989). In
addition, the molybdenite-bearing Sulphur
Gulch and Bear Canyon plutons connect at
depth (Leonardson et aI., 1983), but only
the Sulphur Gulch pluton is
ore-grade.
Multiple vents or caldera-related systems
may not be as likely to produce a single giant
deposit.
The 10 :1 ratio of chamber volume to
eruption volume (Smith, 1979) suggests that
a central vent volcano that erupts the
maximum 100 km3 could "see" no more than
- 1000 km3, but much less may be required
considering that 150 km3 of magma stripped
of 3 ppm of molybdenum would supply all the
metal needed to form the Henderson deposit.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
DEPOSITIONAL SITE
There is no evidence to indicate that

Climax-type systems more efficiently deposit
molybdenum from a magmatic ore fluid than
other types; but they may do it in a smaller
volume of rock t() produce a higher grade.
Carten et al. ( l988a) identified one of the
primary controls for
the
deposition of
molybdenite at Henderson as the presence of
K-feldspar along vein margins. Westra and
Keith (1981) noted a linear correlation
between KzO content of hydrothermally
altered rock and grade, K20-rich stocks may
have equilibrated with a larger volume of
magmatic water prior to consolidation, and
thereby originally contained a greater amount

308
of molybdenum (White et al., 1981) .
However, on a fme scale, molybdenite
crystals are preferentially deposited along
K-feldspar crystals relative to quartz or other
minerals. Sericite separates molybdenite from
the K-feldspar. The high modal abundance of
K-feldspar in some C limax-type stocks may
be, in part, a depositional control to their
grade.
Climax-type deposits may also be
high-grade due to deposition from a purely
magmatic aqueous
phase that
begins
deposition at the magma-wallrock interface .
The ore-fluid for F-deficient deposits may be
a mixture of magmatic and meteoric water
and, at deposits such as Trout Lake, must
have cooled at least a few hundred degrees
prior
to
mineralization
(Linnen
and
Williams-Jones, 1990). This amount of
cooling and mixing may result in deposition
over a larger volume of rock resulting in
lower grades. Deposition of molybdenite from
the
ore
fluid in
both
Climax- and
F-deficient-type
deposits is related to
decreasing temperature and/or pH (Linnen and
Williams-Jones, 1990).
Processes that control the location and
duration of molybdenite deposition from the
aqueous phase would also obviously control
the grade. These would include multiple
stocks forming overlapping ore bodies and
high chemical and thermal gradients around
the stock or pluton.
SUMMARY MODEL AND
EXPLORATION CRITERIA
From the foregoing discussion it is

apparent that the most significant process (or
problem) in the formation of Climax-type
deposits is
scavenging a
few
ppm
molybdenum from a large chamber eventually
to yield an ore fluid with thousands of ppm
molybdenum. A Mo-rich magma would be
formed in the cupola during this process due
to equilibration with the fluid after its arrival
and prior to release during mineralization.
309
SEG
SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
309
The following processes appear to have acted
together to produce a molybdenum-rich
cupola of magma :
1. Crystallization along the walls or

floor of the magma chamber would
account for the gradually reduced REB
content of the
magma between
successive intrusions. The successively
deeper U-shaped REE patterns are not
unique to Climax-type systems, but
have been noted in
comagmatic
intrusions from other non-mineralized
granitoids (Johnson et al . , 1989) .
Gradual accumulation of water and
fluorine along the chamber roof may
low er
the
s o l i du s ,
prevent
cry s t a l l i z at i o n ,
an d
pe rmit
assimilation.
2.
Underplated or injected mafic
magmas may play several roles. They
may melt the lower crust and mix with
lower crustal melts to provide an
oxidized
magma
in
which
molybdenum
would
be have
incompatibly during
fractionation.
They may provide heat for: a)
convective transport of dissolved and
undissolved volatiles to the cupola, b)
assimilation of roof rocks and the
cores of older stocks, c) extension of
the life of the chamber to allow
generation of a large volume of
rhyolitic magma and emplacement of
multiple intrusions. They may also
supply some flux of less soluble,
especially sulfurous , gases .
Examination of the histories of most
volcanoes reveals that they tend to be
complex rather than simple ,
with the
common occurrence of repeated injections
of magma, storage of magma at different
levels, and magmatic degassing occurring
during periods of relative quiescence or
activity . Ore deposits would be far more
common if simple passive

309
crystallization of modestly water-rich magma
near the surface produced an ore deposit. In
terms of increased complexity beyond simple
crystallization of cupola magma, this model
only suggests that convection aids the
transport
of
volatiles produced by
crystallization along the walls and floor and
from underplated
mafic magma. The
processes of convection and volatile fluxing
may have helped transform Mo-poor magma
(3 ppm) into Mo-rich magma ( > 1000 ppm) ,
an
enrichment that otherwise would be
impossible by crystal fractionation alone
. Similar processes may have operated in the
parent magma chambers of many porphyry
Mo
systems, although the evidence for
these processes often cannot be found in
mineralized cupolas alone . Geochemical data
reviewed here suggest that initially high
incompatible trace element abundances may be
much less a "cause" of mineralization than
the above processes. However, fluorine and
water may be important positive feedback
parameters; as their concentrations increase,
they reduce the viscosity of the magma and
allow more rapid convection and accumulation
of ore fluid components in the cupola.
Exploration criteria for a giant,
high-grade deposit include:
1 . a tectonic setting that indicates a
changeover from compressional to
extensional tectonics,
2. thick continental crust at the time
of deposit formation may encourage
extreme differentiation and
crustal
contamination,
3 . an isotopically zoned magma
chamber indicative of a long-lived
heat source,
4. a large, sub-volcanic , central-vent
ash flow/dome system that erupted less
than 100 km3 of rhyolite, and
5 . high niobium concentrations ( > 75

ppm)
in
a
subalkaline ,
magnetite-bearing rhyolite .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Reviews of this paper by J. F. H.

Thompson and A . H. Clark are gratefully
acknowledged. We appreciate the patience
and helpfulness of the editors - especially
Ben Whiting . This work was supported by
NSF grant EAR-8904774 to JDK.
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SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

THE GENESIS OF GIANT PORPHYRY MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS

Giant porphyry molybdenum deposits are best exemplified by the Climax

The grade and tonnage data of each

listed in Table I are geographically located in

SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990

HIGH-SILICA RHYOLITE-ALKALINE SUITE

10) Pine Grove

13) Silver Creek

Wallace et al., 1978

Geyti and Thomasson, 1984

carten et al., 1988a

Giles and Thompson, 1972;

Thompson, pers. comm., 1990

GRANITE-RELATED No: DIFFERENTIATED MONZOGRANITE

S.R. Wallace, pers. comm.,

Kirkham et al., 1982

W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990

SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

Kirkham et al., 1982

W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990

Kirkham et al., 1982

Noble et al., 1984, 1987

Kirkham et al., 1982

Kirkham et al., 1982

Kirkham et al., 1982

K. Roxlo & D.E. Ranta

writ. comm., 1982

writ. comm., 1961

writ. comm., 1982

S.R. Wallace, pers. comm.,

Brown and Kahlert, 1986

Schmidt et al., 1982

Boyle and Leitch, 1983

W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990

W.H. m1ite, pers. comm., 1990

W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990

GRANITE-RELATED Mo-CU (No> 0.05

Kirkham et al., 1982

pers. comm., 1990

W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990

W.R. White, pers. comm., 1990

W.H. ite, pers. comm., 1990

lAbbreviations as used in USGS Bulletin 1693

pers. comm., 1990

290 SP-2 GIANT ORE D EPOSITS

(Table 1; Carten et aI., in press). Porphyry

SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

porphyry deposits is derived "in toto" from

SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

.... Pine Grove

Ore (millions of metric tons)

Figure 2. Tonnage-grade diagram for granite-related Mo and Mo-Cu deposits. Deposits

Climax-type versus quartz monzonite type

deposits are inherently different from those

granodiorite types (Mutschler et al., 1981),

which produce normal deposits. Is there a

calc-alkaline versus alkali-calcic (and alkalic)

discontinuity in either sizes of parent magma

associated with them? We will discuss this

types (Theodore and Menzie, 1984). One of

exploration characteristics to use in fmding a