PUSAT PENGAJIAN KEJURUTERAAN ALAM SEKITAR

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS

EAT 152 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT
INSTRUCTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

This is an individual assignment

Answer all questions.
Only hand written. No Microsoft word etc. is allowed.
Point form format is allowed.
Reference from books, websites, journals, newspaper
clippings.
6. Must have Reference list.
7. Submit on 20 / 11 / 2015 (part A) and 18/12/2015. Submit to
the main office and make sure your assignment is stamp

PART A

Question 1
a. What is rock deformation?

Within the Earth rocks are continually being subjected to forces that
tend to bend them, twist them, or fracture them. When rocks bend,
twist or fracture we say that they deform (change shape or size).
The forces that cause deformation of rock are referred to as stresses
(Force/unit area).
b. Enumerate the various types of deformations and their
effects.

I.

Stress
Rocks change their shape and volume when they are
subjected to stress.

II. The geothermal gradient

The strong dependence of rock deformation on temperature is
hardly surprising. For example, wax will fracture if it is chilled
and then subjected to a sudden stress (such as dropping it on a
hard floor). The same wax will bend like silly putty if heated to
moderate temperatures and will flow like water if heated to high

.
III. Folding and faulting
enough temperatures

IV. How horizontally-directed plate

motions cause vertical uplift
http://geoscience.wisc.edu/~chuck/Classes/Mtn_and_Plates/
rock_deformation.html
c. Briefly explain the different types of forces responsible for rock
deformation.
Rocks exhibit two principal responses to stresses that are exerted on
them. They may deform like a brittle material, meaning that they
fracture and fault. Alternatively, at higher temperatures and
pressures, many rocks flow in response to stress. This type of
deformation is referred to as ductile. Layers of sediment that are
only weakly consolidated or cemented might also flow when
stressed.

Question 2
a. Differentiate between the following:
a. Anticline and syncline folds
Anticline

syncline

(i) The up fold or crest of the fold is called

the anticline,

(i) The down fold or trough of the fold is

called the syncline.

(ii) They form the top/peak of the

mountain.

(ii) They form the valleys.

(iii) They have a greater depth.

(iii) They are of a greater height.

b. Plunging and non-plunging fold

Plunging
plunging is the tilting of the fold
towards the front or back end--all
anticlines and synclines have
some degree of plunge

non-plunging
non-plunging folds contact lines
separating formations shown in
the surface view are parallel and
straight---the contact lines in one
of the two profile views are
horizontal and parallel---the
contacts in the other profile view
are arched up or down--in
plunging folds contact lines in
the surface view are curved--contact lines in one of the profile
views dip in the direction of
plunge---contact lines in the
other profile view are arched up
or down--the surface contact
lines between formations are
convexed (closed) in the
direction of plunge for the
anticline and concave (open) in
the direction of plunge for the
syncline

b. Describe the anatomy of folds with sketches

c. What are folds? Explain how they are recognized in a field.

Folds are normally formed under compression. For folding to occur,
the rocks must have some sort of layering. Because so much rock
on earth has layering (for example, strata or bedding), folds are very
common.
Folds occur in a huge variety of sizes and forms. To help us analyse
these, we first need to look at the anatomy of a fold.
Wave length and amplitude can be used to describe the size of
folds. In nature this can vary from many kilometres down to
millimetres.
The fold hinge is the area of greatest curvature, the fold limb the
area in between.
The fold axis is a (imaginary) line that can be traced along a single
folded surface.
The fold axial plane is a (imaginary) plane that contains the hinge
zones of a single fold, in multiple beds
Question 3
Differentiate between the following :
a. Dip-slip and strike-slip faults
b. Normal and reverse faults
c. Thrust and overthrust faults
Question 4
Write short notes on the following
a. Columnar and sheet joints

Joints are fractures in rocks, and columnar joints are a specific type of joint pattern. Columnar
joints contain aspects of both petrology and structural geology, but the discussion will address
only the structural aspect. Columnar joints are defined as parallel, prismatic columns in
basaltic flows and sometimes other rocks, and this specific pattern is a result of cooling (Bates
and Jackson, 1984). The columns are normally found in shallow intrusive or extrusive
igneous rock bodies, generally, basaltic, sills, dikes and lava flows.
The columnar fractures are a result of the cooling process. The basalt cools rapidly from the
outside toward the center, causing shrinkage cracks to form, commonly, in a hexagonal
pattern. There are examples of the more uncommon forms that display 3 to 12 sides. The
shape of the columns is attributed to tensional stress. The columns vary from a few inches to
several feet in diameter. The length of the column is ordinarily perpendicular to the contact.
Hill (1972) explains that the sides of the columns commonly exhibit horizontal markings
called chisel marks. Where a column may have broken, one side exhibits a concave surface
and the other a convex surface - this is called cup and ball jointing.
There are several places in the United States where columnar jointing is exhibited, a few
examples are, Devils Postpile in California, Devils Tower in Wyoming (pictured below),
Sheepeaters Cliffs in Yellowstone National Park, and Palisades sill in New Jersey.

Bates, Robert L. and Julia A. Jackson, Dictionary of Geological

Terms. Doubleday, New York. 1984.

Hills, E. Sherman, Elements of Structural Geology. John Wiley and

Sons, Inc. New York, 1972.
Julie Welch, 2/10/97

b. Classification of faults
There are two type of classification of faults:
1. Geometric classification.
2. Genetic classification.
1. Geometric classification:
This classification is strictly based on the attitude of the faults. There are five
bases of geometric classification, which are as
(i) The rake of the net slip,
(ii) The attitude of the fault relative to the attitude of the adjacent rocks,
(iii) The patterns of faults,
(iv) The angle at which the fault dips, and

(v) The apparent movement on the fault.

2. Genetic classification:
It is well known that along the shear fractures the displacement is parallel to the walls
and there is no movement perpendicular to the fracture. It is assumed that the
displacement is caused by some stresses. Three types of principal stresses have been
assumed. Three main types of faults have been recognized basing on the orientation of
the three principal stresses.
(a) Normal faults. In this case,
(1) Maximum stress -Vertical (M1)
(2) Mean stress -Horizontal (M2)
(3) Minimum stress -Horizontal (M3)
(b) Strike-slip fault. In this case,
(1) Maximum stress -Horizontal (M1)
(2) Minimum stress -Horizontal (M3)
(3) Mean stress -Vertical (M2)
(c) Thrust fault. Here,
(1) Maximum stress -Horizontal (M1)
(2) Mean stress -Horizontal (M2)
(3) Minimum stress -Vertical (M3)
http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010519934/brief-notes-on-the-classification-offaults.html

c. Drag fold and ptygmatic fold

Folding is a deep and complex subject in geology. Drag folds are

one of the simpler types of fold. They occur in conjunction with
faults, and they represent the bending of rock before it breaks. In
this example the fault is a thrust fault with the top side (the
hangingwall) moving to the right, and the bottom side (the
footwall) displays drag folding. Probably the folding occurred when
the rock was deeply buried. Later, when the rock was being
uncovered during its rise to form the Oakland Hills in the San
Francisco Bay area, further movement on the fault shattered the
rock in the hangingwall and destroyed its drag folds.
http://geology.about.com/library/bl/images/bldragfold.htm
Primary folding in migmatites (injection gneisses, etc.), caused by the
high-temperature and high-pressure processes to which the migmatites
owe their origin and composite character

http://www.mindat.org/glossary/ptygmatic_folding

Question 5
a. Explain the criteria for identification of folds and faults in field

b. Give a brief account of classification of rocks

Question 6
a) What is the difference between a slip plane in a plastically deforming crystal and a slip plane associated with brittle faulting?
A slip plane in the brittle crust is a plane along whichthere is or has
been frictional sliding so that the rockis permanently destroyed. A
slip plane in a plasticallydeforming crystal is much smaller (it occurs
within agrain at the atomic scale) and heals continuously with-out
loosing strength. Intercrystalline plastic slip im-plies movement of a
dislocation front within a plane inthe crystal, and such a slip plane is
usually the plane ina crystal that has the highest density of atoms

https://www.coursehero.com/file/p8rs9pq/Chapter-10-1-What-is-thedierence-between-a-slip-plane-in-a-plastically-de/

b) What are the main principal differences between brittle and

plastic deformation?
The two differ in terms of microscale deformation processes
(mechanisms): Brittle deformation occurs through brittle
(frictional) processes (cataclasis, rigid rotation and frictional
sliding) while plastic deformation occurs by diffusion and
dislocation creep.

PART B
Question 1
a. What are the important physical and geomechanical
properties of rocks? State their importance.
The important physical properties is :
i)
Luster : the state or quality of shining by reflecting light;
glitter, sparkle, sheen, or gloss
ii)
Texture : the visual and tactile ( how it feels )quality of a surface
rough,rigid,smooth,soft,bumpy,hard,gritty.
iii)
Shape:a specific form and the words that use when describing
the shape of a rock is
round,circular,oval,square,diamond,rectangle

iv)
v)
vi)

Size:the spatial dimensions,proportions,magnitude,or bulk of

something and the words that use when describing the size of a
rock is small,large,medium,tiny,pea size.
Weight:the amount or quantity of heaviness or mass and the
words that use when describing the Weight of a rock is
heavy,dense,volume,sum,piece,pile,bulk,chunk
Color:the quality of an object or substance with respect to light
reflected off the object.

http://www.slideshare.net/moniquewilson/physicalproperties-of-rocks
b. Describe the factors affecting the strength, hardness and
toughness of rocks?
STRENGTH OF ROCK
Rock strength can be dependent on many different factors. A scheme devised by M.J.
Selby incorporates 7 factors:

1. Strength of intact rock

depends mainly on mineral composition and rock structure. Granite, for example,
is mainly hard feldspar and quartz grains which interlock, making for a relatively
strong rock.

2. Degree of weathering
Weathering changes hard minerals into softer ones and loosens up the structure
of a rock -> reduced strength (note: complete weathering creates soil). This
means that even a hard rock like granite can be a lot softer if its highly
weathered.

3.Joint Spacing
all cohesive strength is lost along a joint - the greater the
density of joints, the weaker the rock (close spacing results in a
greater number of joints).
4. Joint orientation
dip into slope = stronger; dip out of slope = weaker; can be graded accordingly

5. Joint width
affects cohesion, friction and water movement - the wider the joints the weaker
the rock.

6. Joint continuity and infill

Thick infill -> weaker rock, because strength of rock becomes strength of
infilling soil (i.e. no points of rock contact along joint plane - all shear
stress carried by weak soil layer in the joint).

7. Flow of ground water through joints

as in soil, water can develop positive pressure in joints in rock. This water
pressure can push rocks apart, effectively lowering friction and decreasing

strength. The water pressure can be estimated based on outflow of water from
the rock
http://geography.unt.edu/~williams/GEOG_3350/examreviews/strength_of_
rock.htm

Question 2
a. Write short notes on the following:
i.
Rock quality designation
Rock-quality designation (RQD) Rough is the measure of the degree
of jointing or fractures in a rock mass, measured as a percentage of
the drill core in lengths of 10 cm or more. High-quality rock has an
RQD of more than 75%, low quality of less than 50%. Rock quality
designation (RQD) has several definitions.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O13-rockqualitydesignation.html
ii.

Uniaxial compressive strength

is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size. It can
be measured by plotting applied force against deformation in a testing machine. Some
materials fracture at their compressive strength limit; others deform irreversibly, so a
given amount of deformation may be considered as the limit for compressive load.
Compressive strength is a key value for design of structures.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressive_strength
iii.

Hardness and its measurement

Question 3
a. What are the important geological conditions of site
investigation for tunnelling with regard to their safety and
stability?
b. Explain different methods of tunnelling.
Question 4
Comment on the problems and associated hazards of tunnelling in
the following cases.
a. Normal and reverse faults
b. Strike direction of beds
c. Anticline and syncline structures
d. Groundwater
Question 5
Discuss the geological factors influencing the site selection for an
arch dam. Use illustration to assist you.