HEAT PUMP EFFICIENCY AND

CLIMATE CHANGES
I. BOIAN1

N. IORDAN1

Abstract: Climate changes became more obvious in the last period. Different
scenarios have been developed to repair the imbalances resulting from the
human activity. The heat pump technology seen as a green one is staying too long
as a future hope. The price is one of the motivations for this delayed massive heat
pump system application, and the concern for the unknown implications could
be another one. Global warming is analyzed in connection with the groundwater
temperature which is an important factor determining the heat pump efficiency.
Key words: climate changes, groundwater temperature, heat pump efficiency.
1. Introduction
The surface of the earth undergoes
periodic variations, cooling off at night and
heating up during the day. In addition to
these daily variations there are yearly
variations, the average surface temperature
rising during the summer and lowering
during the winter. Temperature fluctuations
at the earths surface influence shallow
groundwater temperatures to depths of
approximately 10 m.
Table 1
Temperatures, deg C
Location
Bucureti
Cluj-Napoca
Craiova
Galai
Iai

Local
Mean
Annual
9.77
7.93
9.18
9.54
7.64

Mean
Earth

Difference

9.33
7.13
8.59
9.25
6.81

0.44
0.8
0.59
0.29
0.83

Table 1 presents 10-year average values

recorded for some Romanian cities: the
atmospheric temperature (local mean annual)
and the mean earth temperature [8]. As can
1

be noticed the mean earth temperatures are

approx. 1C smaller than the local mean
annual (ambient) temperatures.
For depths of 10 m to 20 m (maximum
depth of annual cyclic variation),
groundwater temperatures remain relatively
stable at temperatures typically 1C to 2C
higher than local mean annual temperatures
[1]. Below these depths, groundwater
temperatures gradually increase at a rate of
roughly 1C per 35 m depth towards the
earths interior in what is termed the
geothermal gradient [2].
Environmental degradation due to the
long-term warming or cooling of the
environment will affect also the
distribution of the temperature in the soil
and in the groundwater too. The paper focuses
on the influence caused by the global
warming on the groundwater temperatures.
2. Global Warming As Temperature
Change
Greenhouse Gases (GHG) resulting from
fossil fuels combustion is responsible for
the Global Warming (GW) effect which is
more and more visible. An average

Dept. of Civil Engineering Installations, Transilvania University of Braov.

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Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braov Vol. 1 (50) - 2008 Series I

temperature rising by 0.3 to 0.6 C occurred

since the 19-th century and a growing of 1.5
to 4.5 C is expected for the next century. In
fact the climate changing can be resumed in
a lower temperature during the heating
season and a warmer temperature during the
cooling season. In other words this means
extended amplitude compared with the
average value resulted from the data
recorded for the last 90 years, as can be
seen in Figure 1. The temperature history
reflects the values recorded for Trgu
Mure, Romania, but similar profiles stand
for all other existing meteorological stations.

Fig. 1. Climate change: the winter is

becoming cooler and the summer warmer
and longer as it was in the past century
(recorded values for Trgu Mure)
The rising temperature trend is obvious
especially for diurnal values and for the
first half of the year as shown in Figure 2
(values recorded in Braov, Romania). This
25
2005

20
Temperature, deg C

2006
2007

15
10
5
0
-5
-10

Jan Febr Mar Apr May Jun

Jul

Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Month

Fig. 2. The monthly average of diurnal

temperatures for Braov (years 2005, 2006
and 2007)

is due to the increasing energy retained by

the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide,
methane, water vapor and nitrous oxide)
from the solar radiation. Their concentration
in the atmosphere is increasing continuously.
It must be pointed out that the
temperature rising (Figure 1) exceeds the
difference existing between the values
recorded at meteostations situated in the
urban area and those placed outside the
city as can be noticed from Figure 3.

Fig. 3. Monthly average temperatures

(1962 to 1996) recorded inside the urban
area of Braov and in an isolated location
near Braov (Ghimbav)
3. Periodic Process of Thermal Penetration
into the Earth
The physical processes of conduction
(diffusion) and convection govern the
transport and storage of heat in an aquifer.
Conductive heat transport refers to the
movement of heat along a thermal gradient,
while convective heat transport refers to the
movement of heat by moving groundwater.
Groundwater refers to subsurface water
found below the water table within the
void spaces of unconsolidated (i.e., sands
and gravels) and consolidated (i.e.,
sandstone and volcanic rocks) geologic
formations. A groundwater aquifer existing
where geologic formations are sufficiently
permeable to store can yield large quantities
of groundwater. The groundwater may retain
a temperature higher or lower than the
undisturbed ground temperature, depending

421

Heat Pump Efficiency and Climate Changes

on the thermal properties of the Earth and

flow characteristics of the aquifer.
The periodic fluctuation of the temperature
T(z,t) can be written as a function of depth
of penetration, z and of time, t respectively.
The dimensionless temperature is defined
as the difference between the mean annual
surface soil temperature, Tg and the periodic

= 0.0172 day1. The spatial scale is in

the range = 2.2 to 3.7 m in case of the
usual types of soil: the thermal diffusivity
for heavy clay with 15% water [7] is
a = 0.042.... 0.061 m2/day, and for light sand
with 15% water a = 0.055... 0.12 m2/day).

fluctuation of the temperature T(z,t) rated at

the annual surface temperature amplitude As:
=

Tg T ( z , t )

(1)

Tmax Tmin
.
2

(2)

As

where:

As =

Tmax and Tmax are the extreme values of

the monthly average temperatures recorded
during a year.
Considering the resistance to heat transfer
in the surrounding phase for a semi-infinite
soil the dimensionless temperature can be
written as [5]:
z
= b1 exp

where: b1 =

cos t +

b sin t z

(3)

1
, b2 = 1 , Bi = ,
1 + b2
Bi + 1

1+
Bi

2a and = 2 ,
T

with: - film heat transfer coefficient for

air; - heat conductivity coefficient for soil;
a - thermal diffusivity of the soil; - spatial
scale; - frequency of the temperature
variation given by its period T.
For the yearly pulsation (T = 365 days)
the corresponding frequency is about

Fig. 4. Temperature distribution

with depth for Bucureti
( Tg = 9.33 o C, Tmax Tmin = 22 o C )
The Biot number Bi depending on the
film heat transfer coefficient for air
( = 130 W/m2K) and on the soil
conductivity ( = 14 W/mK) will vary
between 0.5 and 100. For the higher limit
of Biot number the magnitude of the
amplitude is decreased by the thermal
resistance in the air. In this case at the
earth surface (z = 0) the dimensionless
Bi
amplitude is given by
and
( Bi + 1) 2 + 1
the corresponding temperature variation
can be simply computed as:
z
z
T ( z , t ) = Tg As exp cos t .

(4)

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Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braov Vol. 1 (50) - 2008 Series I

4. The Temperature Response of the Soil

Figure 4 presents the temperature
fluctuation with time and soil depth for the
case of Bucureti computed with the model
described above. The mean annual surface
soil temperature is in this case 9.33 oC. The
maximum amplitude of the temperature
occurs at the soil surface (22/2 = 11 oC)
and is smaller than the air amplitude
(25.6/2 = 12.8 oC) as can be seen in Figure 5.

Fig. 6. The dimensionless amplitude as a

function of soil depth
Differences between the temperature
values for a specific depth and for the
diffusivity lying in the range of 0.042 and
0.084 m2/day are 1 to 2 oC.

Fig. 5. The response of the soil (surface

and max depth of 3 m) to the periodic
ambient temperature
The maximum (+) / minimum (-) temperature of the soil are:
z
Tg , max/ min = Tg As exp ,

(5)

On the surface of the soil (z = 0) the

temperatures take their absolute maximum/
minimum values, (in this example
Tg ,max/ min = 9.33 11 = 20.33 / 1.67 degrees
C).
The amplitude decreases exponentially
with the depth of the soil z.
Figure 6 shows the dimensionless amplitude, being 1% at the soil depth of 10 m,
0.1% at 15 m, and only 0.01% at 20 m.
The amplitude of the temperature
fluctuation depends on the thermal diffusivity
too. For smaller values of the diffusivity the
amplitude of the temperature is decreasing
as can be seen in Figure 7.

Fig. 7. The influence of the thermal

diffusivity on the temperature amplitude
For smaller values of the diffusivity the
amplitude of the temperature is decreasing
as can be seen in Figure 7. Differences
between the temperature values for a
specific depth and for the diffusivity lying
in the range of 0.042 and 0.084 m2/day are
1 to 2 oC.
In an underground water system,
conductive heat transport occurs due to the
temperature gradients induced by warmer
or cooler storage water coming into contact
with the surrounding aquifer water. The
conduction of heat in the aquifer is
governed by the aquifer thermal properties:
the volumetric heat capacity (indicating
change that occurs when the aquifer media
absorbs or loses a specific amount of

423

Heat Pump Efficiency and Climate Changes

energy) and the effective thermal

conductivity (the ability of the aquifer
media to transmit heat). Convective heat
transport results from groundwater
movement driven by hydraulic head and
temperature differentials, which exist both
locally in the vicinity of the well field (as a
result
of
pumping/injection
of
groundwater) and regionally within the
aquifer. Convective heat transport has both
advective and dispersive components.
Advection describes the movement of
thermal energy directly due to the linear
flow of groundwater through the porous
medium whereas thermal dispersion refers
to the microscopic dispersal or spreading of
thermal energy in three dimensions beyond
the regions it normally would occupy as a
result of advection alone.
Dispersion can be viewed as a zone of
mixing, which travels in advance of the
thermal energy front defined by advection.
In addition, free convection also occurs
when groundwater movement is driven by
density variations caused by temperature
gradients.
The maximum/minimum temperatures
are delayed with the depth: the time lag
depends on the depth, being zero at the
surface of the soil:
t =

z
.

(6)

Changing in the soil composition and in

its water content will affect the thermal
diffusivity and is resulting in different time
lag as shown in Figure 8. It also will
determine a perturbation of the temperature
profile computed as above.
5. The Influence of Water Content on
the Soil Temperature Profile
Small-scale vertical and horizontal
variations in hydraulic conductivity or
heterogeneity in the aquifer that result from

Fig. 8. The time lag correlated with the

depth of the soil and with the thermal
diffusivity
changes in geology are important, as these
will affect the dispersion of the thermal
field existing in the soil. The soil type,
number of layers, layer depth, and soil
texture are all important for the
temperature field developed in the ground.
Rooting depth has also a significant
influence on ground water recharge:
increasing rooting depth decreases the
amount of ground water recharge, as larger
soil moisture deficits can develop that must
be replenished before recharge can take
place.
Both temperature and precipitation play
an important role in the amount and timing
of the ground water recharge that is
produced. The aquifer system is in an
interaction with the surface water.
Measured temperature values of the main
water from the pipes buried at 2 m depth
differ from the calculated ones as a result
of the modification of water content of the
soil appeared in some periods of the year
(see Figure 9) [7]. In high temperature
groundwater systems, the effects of free
convection will become important, as the
thermal energy will rise due to a lowered
density of the heated water.
In lower temperature aquifer systems,
including heat storage and cold storage, the
density differences between the stored water
and the ambient groundwater will be small
enough so that free convection is minimal.

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Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braov Vol. 1 (50) - 2008 Series I

(see Table 2) in case no sea or river exists

next to the location.
Temperature amplitude, deg C

35
1901-1990

30

2003

25
20
15
10
5

G
ala
ti
M
ag
ur
e le
Tu
rn
u

la
si
Ca
la
fa
t

Bu
za
u

Jiu
Tg

Ba
ca
u

M
ar
Clu
e
j-N
ap
oc
a
Su
ce
av
a

De
va

Sib
iu
Tim
is
oa
ra

an
ta
O
ra
de
a

Vf
O
m

Co
ns
t

Location

Fig. 9. Graphical comparison of calculated

and measured temperatures for Toronto,
Canada (Huate,1998)

Fig. 11. Annual temperature amplitude

(average values for the period 1901-1990
and for the year 2003)

Regional groundwater flow is an

important consideration in the evaluation of
temperature for water systems as higher
groundwater flow regimes can lead to
advection or down-gradient drift of stored
energy beyond potential recovery regions
[7]. In the presence of a steep regional
gradient in hydraulic head, which would
correspond to faster groundwater flows, a
lower permeability aquifer is required to
minimize convective losses.

The modification of the statistical pattern

of the temperature fluctuation of the
atmosphere (GW) results in an attenuated
but still important change in the groundwater
temperature profile. The ambient air
temperature variation influences the soil
temperature directly but through the
rainwater too. Deep layers of the earth are
influenced rather by the content of water
and also by its natural movements.
Table 2
o

Average amplitude, [ C]

14

1901-1990
Mean annual temperature, deg C

12

2003
10

8
6

4
2

0
Suceava

Sibiu

Bacau

Satu Mare

Deva

Targu Jiu

Oradea

Buzau

Timisoara Constanta

Turnu
Magurele

Calafat

Location

Fig. 10. Annual average temperature for the

period 1901-1990 and for the year 2003
Annual average temperature of the
ambient air suffers an apparently small
yearly increasing (0.1 to 0.5 oC as can be
seen from Figure 10).
But the annual amplitude rising is more
evident, i.e., 2.6 to 7 oC (Figure 11). As a
consequence the annual earth amplitude
will be affected especially by the latter.
The Earth average amplitude is 3 to 4 oC
less as the ambient temperature amplitude

Location
Timioara
Craiova
Cluj-Napoca
Braov
Iai

Ambient
24.05
24.29
24.78
25.65
27.55

Earth
20.8
21.3
21.8
22.4
23.7

Difference
3.25
2.99
2.98
3.25
3.85

Small temperature differences of 1 to 2 oC

between the groundwater and the soil
exists and it is difficult to predict them for
different periods of time and geographical
locations. The thermal diffusivity of the
soil influenced by its content of water will
result in different amplitude of its
temperature and especially in a time lag of
the induced temperature perturbation (i.e. a
week to six or even nine months). The time
lag depends on the depth, period of
fluctuation and thermal diffusivity. Usually

425

Heat Pump Efficiency and Climate Changes

the amplitude of the soil temperature is 3

to 4 oC smaller than that of the air. Global
warming resulting in smaller annual
growing of the mean temperatures (0.1 to
0.5 oC) but greater amplitude rising of the
ambient temperatures (2.6 to 7 oC) will
affect the groundwater temperature especially
through the amplitude modification. Even
if the deep groundwater temperature will
be modified with a delay of months this
effect will be resented in the future with
pronounced evidence.
5. Global Warming Impact on the Heat
Pump Performance

the fluid return temperature of 0.6 oC to

0.8 oC per year will create a long-term
thermal imbalance in the ground which could
be amplified by a predominating summer
cooling load. Hybrid geothermal systems
are in this case an attempt to balance the
high cost of construction with the efficiency
gains. Such a system is operating for most
of the time using geo-source (highly
efficient), and only a small part of the year
using
conventional
equipment
to
supplement [10]. Paybacks can be lengthy
depending on the baseline system to which
the heat pump system is compared.

The temperature of the groundwater

entering the heat pump [4] has an
important influence on its heating, and its
cooling capacity, as shown in Figure 12.

Fig. 13. The COP correlation with the

temperature of the water entering the heat
pump

Fig. 12. The influence of the temperature of

the water entering the heat pump on its
capacity
The lowering of the groundwater
temperature at the end of the heating
season previously discussed will cause a
diminishing of the heating capacity. On the
contrary, during the summer the cooling
capacity will lessen as a result of the rising
temperature of the groundwater. This will
result in a smaller coefficient of
performance as shown in Figure 13.
Inhibiting the ability to cool during the
summer and to heat during the winter with
the delay discussed above must be put
together with the payback period. A rise of

Climate changing could deteriorate the

actual situation concerning the efficiency
and the payback period for the heat pump
systems because of the more accentuated
temperature amplitude and because of the
time lag, especially at the end of the heating
season. Using more profound boreholes in
order to decrease the influence of the air
temperature fluctuations will lead to a more
expensive initial cost with an unacceptable
long payback period i.e. many decades.
6. Conclusions
The primary justification for a geothermal
heat pump system is based on improvements
in heating and in cooling efficiencies. This
is the case in most climate zones.
Depending on the system to which the
geothermal is being compared (gas,

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Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braov Vol. 1 (50) - 2008 Series I

petroleum products, and electricity) the

improvements in heating/cooling efficiencies
could differ with time because of the
imbalances induced by the continuous
operation of the heat pump but also by the
climate changes reflected in the ground
water temperatures. Simulations and
experimental studies should offer an issue
for this complex function having the
development and the sustainability as
opposite but coexisting terms.
References
1. Bridger, D.W., Allen, D.M.: Designing
Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage
Systems. In: ASHRAE Journal 47
(2005) No. 9, p. S32.
2. Domenico, P.A., Schwarz, F.W.:
Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology.
2nd Edition. New York. John Wiley &
Sons, 1998.
3. Jyrkama, M.I., Sykes, J.F., Normani,
S.D.: Recharge Estimation for
Transient Ground Water Modeling.
Ground Water; Nov/Dec 2002; 40, 6;
Academic Research Library, p. 638.

4. Midkiff, K.C., et al.: Long-Term

Performance of an Air-Conditioning
System Based On Seasonal Aquifer
Chill Energy Storage. In: Proceedings
of the Intersociety Energy Conversion
Engineering Conference, 1992.
5. O'Neill, Z.D., Spitler, J.D., Rees, S.J.:
Performance Analysis of Standing
Column Well Ground Heat Exchanger
Systems. ASHRAE Transactions. In:
Career and Technical Education 112
(2006), p. 633.
6. Whitaker, St.: Fundamental Principles
of Heat Transfer. New York. Pergamon
Press, 1977.
7. *** ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Applications. 1791 Tulie Circle, N.E.,
Atlanta, GA, 2007.
8. *** RETScreenInternational: Solar
Water Heating Project Analysis.
Natural Resources Canada, 2005.
9. *** NASA Surface meteorology and
Solar Energy. Atmospheric Science
Data Center.
10. *** Durkin, Th.H., Keith, C.E.: Geothermal Central System. ASHRAE Journal,
2007.

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