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Title: Current status of vegetable grafting (Diffusion, grafting techniques, automation)
Article Type: Vegetable Grafting Special Issue
Section/Category: Vegetable Production
Keywords: Vegetable grafting, Cucurbits, Solanum spp., Environmentally-friendly produce, Organic
produce, Grafting machine, Grafting robot
Corresponding Author: Dr. Jung-Myung Lee, Ph.D.
Corresponding Author's Institution: Kyung Hee University
First Author: Jung-Myung Lee, Ph. D.
Order of Authors: Jung-Myung Lee, Ph. D. ; Jung-Myung Lee, Ph.D.; Chieri Kubota, Ph. D.; S. J. Tao, Ph. D.;
Zhilong Bie, Ph. D; Pedro Hoyos Echevarria, Ph. D; Luigi Morra, Ph. D.
Suggested Reviewers: Dan Leskovar Ph. D.
Professor, Horticulture, Texas A&M University, USA
d-leskovar@tamu.edu
Transplant Production Specialist
Giuseppa Colla Ph. D.
Professor, GEMINI, Univ. of Tuscia, Italy
giucolla@unitus.it
vegetable specialist
Yun-Chan Heo Ph. D.
Researcher, Plant Genetic Resources, RDA, Korea
wmelon@rda.go.kr
Vegetable and grafting specialist
Yoshiteru Sakata Ph. D.
Researcher, AFFRC, Japan
ysakata@affrc.go.jp
Vegetable seed & transplant specialist
Reza Salehi Ph. D.
Assistant Professor, Horticulture, Univ. of Teheran, Iran
salehir@ut.ac.ir
grafting & vegetable crop specialist
Menahem Edelstein Ph. D.
Researcher, Vegetable, Volcani Agric Institute, Israel
medelst@volcani.agri.gov.il

vegetable grafting specialist

Cover Letter

Cover Letter from JMLee, Korea for an article to Special Issue of Vegetable Grafting
Submitted by Jung-Myung Lee
Republic of Korea
E mail: jmlee@khu.ac.kr

Current status of vegetable grafting

(Diffusion, grafting techniques, automation)
Jung-Myung Lee a,*, C. Kubota b, S.J. Tsao c, Z. Bie d, P. Hoyos Echevarria e, L. Morra f,

M. Oda g

Honorary Professor, Department of Horticultural Biotechnology, Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea
School of Plant Science, Univ. of Arizona, USA
c
Dept. of Horticulture, Natl Taiwan Univ., Taiwan
d
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Huazhong Agric. Univ., China
e
Polytech University of Madrid, Spain
f
Cra-Unita di ricerca, per le colture alternative al tobacco, Italy
g
Osaka Pref. University., Japan
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________
*,1 Corresponding author at : Department of Horticultural Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Global Campus of Kyung Hee
University, Republic of Korea 446-701, Tel: +82-31-201-2618, Fax: +82-31-202-1740, Email: jmlee@khu.ac.kr
b

Abstract:
Vegetable production by using grafted seedlings, which originated in Asia particularly in Japan and Korea to
avoid the serious crop loss caused by infection of soil-borne diseases aggravated by successive cropping, is now
rapidly spreading over the world. Vegetable grafting has been safely adapted for the production of organic as
well as environmentally-friendly produces which are the major concern in recent years as means of minimizing
uptake of undesirable agrochemical residues in fresh vegetables. The number as well as the size of commercial
vegetable seedling producers has markedly increased in concomitant with the increases in farmers preferences
on grafted seedlings of high quality and better performance. In addition to the widely recognized advantages of
disease tolerance and high crop yields, this technology is also highly effective in ameliorating crop losses
caused by adverse environmental conditions such as low soil temperature and high soil salts, especially under
protected cultivations where successive cropping or continuous farming is routinely practiced. Grafted
seedlings are much favored in hydroponics farming systems where the chances of rapid spread of noxious
diseases, once infected, is expected to be phenomenal. Active research has been focused to develop efficient
rootstocks and handy grafting tools. In addition, researchers are eager to develop grafting machines or robots to
reduce the higher price of grafted seedlings for more general use and transplanting machines of the grafted
seedlings. The quality of grafted transplants is extremely important for the successful farming in many cases in
addition to different cultivation techniques for the grafted plants to maximize high-quality crop yield. Use of
grafted vegetables has been and will be markedly increased in concomitant with the increased use of improved
soil mix or substrate, farmers preferences for better seedlings, efficient management of nursery system, lower
prices of the grafted seedlings, and efficient nationwide delivery and/or transportation system. Improved
grafting methods to cut down the labor cost for grafting and subsequent handling of plug-grown grafted
transplants will contribute further for the increased use of grafted vegetables worldwide.
Keywords: Vegetable grafting, Cucurbits, Solanum spp., Environmentally-friendly produce, Organic produce,
Grafting machine, Grafting robot

Editted manuscript
Click here to view linked References

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Current status of vegetable grafting

(Diffusion, grafting techniques, automation)
Jung-Myung Lee a,*, C. Kubota b, S.J. Tsao c, Z. Bie d, P. Hoyos Echevarria e, L. Morra f,

M. Oda g

Honorary Professor, Department of Horticultural Biotechnology, Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea
School of Plant Science, Univ. of Arizona, USA
c
Dept. of Horticulture, Natl Taiwan Univ., Taiwan
d
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Huazhong Agric. Univ., China
e
Polytech University of Madrid, Spain
f
Cra-Unita di ricerca, per le colture alternative al tobacco, Italy
g
Osaka Pref. University., Japan
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
*,1 Corresponding author at : Department of Horticultural Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Global Campus of Kyung Hee
University, Republic of Korea 446-701, Tel: +82-31-201-2618, Fax: +82-31-202-1740, Email: jmlee@khu.ac.kr
b

Abstract:

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Vegetable production by using grafted seedlings, which originated in Asia particularly in Japan and Korea to

18

avoid the serious crop loss caused by infection of soil-borne diseases aggravated by successive cropping, is now

19

rapidly spreading over the world. Vegetable grafting has been safely adapted for the production of organic as

20

well as environmentally-friendly produces which are the major concern in recent years as means of minimizing

21

uptake of undesirable agrochemical residues in fresh vegetables. The number as well as the size of commercial

22

vegetable seedling producers has markedly increased in concomitant with the increases in farmers preferences

23

on grafted seedlings of high quality and better performance. In addition to the widely recognized advantages of

24

disease tolerance and high crop yields, this technology is also highly effective in ameliorating crop losses

25

caused by adverse environmental conditions such as low soil temperature and high soil salts, especially under

26

protected cultivations where successive cropping or continuous farming is routinely practiced. Grafted

27

seedlings are much favored in hydroponics farming systems where the chances of rapid spread of noxious

28

diseases, once infected, is expected to be phenomenal. Active research has been focused to develop efficient

29

rootstocks and handy grafting tools. In addition, researchers are eager to develop grafting machines or robots to

30

reduce the higher price of grafted seedlings for more general use and transplanting machines of the grafted

31

seedlings. The quality of grafted transplants is extremely important for the successful farming in many cases in

32

addition to different cultivation techniques for the grafted plants to maximize high-quality crop yield. Use of

33

grafted vegetables has been and will be markedly increased in concomitant with the increased use of improved

34

soil mix or substrate, farmers preferences for better seedlings, efficient management of nursery system, lower

35

prices of the grafted seedlings, and efficient nationwide delivery and/or transportation system. Improved

36

grafting methods to cut down the labor cost for grafting and subsequent handling of plug-grown grafted

37

transplants will contribute further for the increased use of grafted vegetables worldwide.

38

Keywords: Vegetable grafting, Cucurbits, Solanum spp., Environmentally-friendly produce, Organic produce,

39

Grafting machine, Grafting robot

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1.

Introduction

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Even though grafting has been practiced in fruit trees for thousands of years (Ashita, 1927; Sakata et al.,

44

2007), vegetable grafting has been only recently widely adapted. Old records on vegetable grafting can be

45

found in Chinese as well as in Korean and Japanese writings. The commercial use of vegetable grafting is a

46

relatively recent innovation. The invention of plastic films and active uses for the production of vegetables in

47

the late 1950s provided the momentum for generalized production and use of grafted vegetables. The early use

48

of grafted vegetables was associated with protected cultivation which involved successive cropping.

49

Commercial vegetable grafting, originated in Japan and Korea and practiced for about 30 years until 1990, was

50

introduced to the Western countries from the early 1990s and is currently being globally practiced using local

51

scion cultivars and introduced rootstocks. Fortunately, seed companies have been able to select and/or breed

52

well-adapted scion cultivars for intensive growing. Even though the benefits of using grafted seedlings are

53

widely recognized, many other factors should be carefully considered to ensure successful cultivation and

54

satisfactory income with this new technology. For example, generous use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic

55

pesticides should be minimized for the production of environmentally-friendly produces, in which interest has

56

been exploding in recent years (Cushman and Huan, 2008; Davis et al., 2008; Kubota et al., 2008; Lee and Oda,

57

2003; Sakata et al., 2007). It has been well-known that the use of proper rootstocks can minimize the problems

58

associated with successive cropping and stress tolerance (Hoyos Echeverria, 2010; Lee, 1994; Lee et al., 1998,

59

Lee, 2003). The increasing awareness and interest in fresh horticultural produce has rapidly expanded among

60

people of all ages and locations to look for safe, environmentally-friendly, and functional foods. Fast foods are

61

now regarded as dangerous in many developed countries and obesity is currently defined as a disease, rather

62

than a symbol of health and prosperity. Many Asian people have been consuming more horticultural crops as

63

compared to those living in western countries, especially vegetables. However, because of the very limited total

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and per capita cultivation area, intensive use of the land is inevitable to secure food and earnings for the

65

majority of farmers. Intensive land use is most frequently performed by multiple or successive cropping even in

66

Temperate Zone areas (Lee et al., 2008). In the southern parts of Korea, it is not unusual to find watermelon

67

growers producing 3 to 4 crops a year in the same greenhouse. The farmers usually apply heavy amount of

68

chemical fertilizers and frequent pesticides treatment to the densely-planted vines to obtain high crop yield and

69

earnings. Since the plants are cultivated under the protected structures year-round except for several months

70

from May to September, the plants are frequently subjected to poor to extreme environmental conditions in the

71

high tunnels during off- season cultivation (Lee, 2008). As a result farmers frequently encounter various

72

problems caused by successive as well as off-season cropping such as heavy infection of soil-borne diseases,

73

low temperatures during the winter, high humidity in the high tunnels, insufficient light intensity, and lack of

74

well-balanced fertilization. The plants and the fruits grown under these stressful conditions frequently suffer

75

from heavy incidence of soil-borne diseases, suboptimal temperature stresses, various physiological disorders,

76

and quality deterioration.

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2.

Purpose of vegetable grafting

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2.1.

Tolerance to soil-borne diseases

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The vigorous roots of the rootstock exhibit excellent tolerance to serious soil-borne diseases, such as those

83

caused by Fusarium, Verticillium, Phytophthora, Pseudomonas, and viruses, even though the degree of

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tolerance varies considerably with the rootstocks. The mechanism of disease resistance, however, has not been

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intensively investigated. These characteristics are crucial for the plants grown under protected environments,

86

where extended harvesting and higher crop yield are expected. Resistant rootstocks can also effectively

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counteract the rapid disease spread when the plants are grown in hydroponics system. The disease tolerance in

88

grafted seedlings may be entirely due to the tolerance of rootstock roots to such diseases (Table 1). However, in

89

actual planting, adventitious rooting from the scion is common (Fig. 1). Plants having the root systems of the

90

scion and rootstock are expected to be easily infected by soil-borne diseases. However, seedlings having dual

91

root systems occasionally exhibit a certain degree of disease resistance, thus partially supporting the previous

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report that substances associated with Fusarium tolerance are synthesized in the root and move to the scion

93

through the xylem. On the contrary, it is generally accepted that the disease-susceptible characteristics of the

94

scion are not transported to the rootstock.

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Table 1. Purpose of grafting in vegetables (Heo, 2000; Lee, 1994; Lee et al., 1998; Lee and Oda, 2003).

97

Fig. 1. Adventitious rooting from the melon scion grafted onto squash rootstocks through the hypocotyls cavity

98

of the rootstock, thus counteracting the grafting effect in some cases (A) and rooting from the scion of the TAG-

99

grafted cucumber onto figleaf gourd (B).

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2.2.

Plant vigor promotion (Reduced fertilizer and agrochemical applications)

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Since the root systems of selected rootstocks are usually much larger and more vigorous, they can absorb

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water and nutrients much more efficiently as compared to non-grafted plants, in addition to the disease

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tolerance described above.

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For example, in watermelons, it is routinely recommended to reduce the amount of chemical fertilizers

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application to about one-half to two-third as compared to the standard recommendation for the non-grafted

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plants (Lee and Oda, 2003, Salehi et al., 2009). This is especially true for nitrogen fertilizers during early

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seedling growth for the safe setting of fruits at the desired node positions for early fruit set. Early fruit set is

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crucial for the early harvesting in greenhouses to secure good market prices. Otherwise the fruit set as well as

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the fruit quality at harvest will not be high enough to secure highest market grading.

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Cytokinin composition in bleeding xylem sap from decapitated plants, grafted or own-rooted, is much

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different in various cucurbits and, more interestingly, the scion portion is capable of converting the composition

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of cytokinins in the ascending xylem sap (Table 2) in relative short period, thus clearly indicating the

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contribution of higher cytokinin concentration in the ascending xylem sap for the growth promotion of grafted

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scion.

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The frequency of agrochemical application also can be significantly reduced by using vigorous rootstocks.

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Spray of fungicides may also be greatly reduced or totally excluded depending upon the diseases, thus greatly

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enhancing the successful production of organically-grown fruits. It has been shown that the incidence of various

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diseases in tomatoes can be easily minimized by using disease tolerant rootstocks rather than using pesticides.

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Even the scion infection of certain virus diseases (TMV races) could be markedly influenced. Expression of

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deficiency symptoms may be minimized with proper rootstocks. Wise selection of rootstocks can also

123

effectively replace methyl bromide. In cucumber, vigorous root system of the rootstock can effectively absorb

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water so that less frequent irrigation may be practiced.

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Table 2. Cytokinin composition in xylem sap collected from intact and grafted plants of cucumber, squash, and

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figleaf gourd plants.

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2.3.

Yield increases

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Grafting is associated with noticeable increases in fruit yield in many fruiting vegetables regardless of

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infection with certain soil-borne diseases. In oriental melons, fresh fruit weight increases of 25~55% have been

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reported as compared to own-rooted plants. These yield increases were closely correlated with the maintenance

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of good plant vigor until late in the growing season in addition to disease resistance. Virtually no marketable

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yield was obtained from plants heavily infected with Fusarium. Similar results were obtained with tomato. Up

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to 54% increase in marketable yield was obtained with Kagemusia and 51% with Helper rootstocks (Chung

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and Lee, 2007). There were also significant decreases in abnormal fruits in plant grafted onto most rootstocks

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as compared with the own-rooted Seokwang tomato. Similar yield increases have been reported by other

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researchers on watermelon, cucumber (Lee and Oda, 2003), melon, pepper, and eggplant.

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2.4. Tolerances to adverse soil temperature and moisture conditions

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Tolerance to extreme temperature is crucial for the production of fruiting vegetables under the winter

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greenhouse conditions. In cucurbits, cropping area under protected structure is substantially larger than field

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cultivation for watermelon, cucumber, and melon in Korea. The transplanting of seedlings for protected

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cultivation is usually done in early to mid-winter and fruit harvesting is usually finished by spring to early

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summer. Even though many growers heat their greenhouse during the winter, there are more growers who do

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not have electric or gas-generated heating systems and depend solely on preservation of solar energy capture

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during the daytime. These growers find it difficult to maintain optimum temperatures in winter greenhouses,

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especially soil temperatures which are far below the optimum thus causing transplanted plants to suffer during

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the early stages of cultivation. This is especially true with crops that require high temperatures for optimum

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performance such as watermelon and oriental melon. Grafting watermelon, melon, cucumber, even summer

153

squash onto low-temperature tolerant rootstocks such as interspecific hybrid between Cucurbita maxima x C.

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moschata or figleaf gourd can greatly reduce the risk of severe growth inhibition caused by low soil

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temperatures in winter greenhouses. Cucumber grafted onto figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia), an excellent

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grower even at low soil temperature, grows much faster than own-rooted cucumber or even summer squash

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because of the rootstocks ability to absorb water and nutrient more efficiently at low temperatures (Tachibana,

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1982).

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resistance to temperature stresses varies with the rootstocks, different rootstocks should be used during the hot

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summer season.

Many physiological disorders can be effectively minimized by using grafted plants. Since the

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2.5.

Effect of fruit quality

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The fruit size of watermelons grafted to rootstock having vigorous root systems is often significantly

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increased compared to the fruit from intact plants, and many growers practice grafting mainly for this reason. It

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is also known that other quality characteristics, such as fruit shape and skin color, rind thickness, and soluble

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solids concentrations are influenced by rootstock. In cucumbers, especially those for export, external color and

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bloom development are important quality factors. Even though these are usually regarded as cultivar-specific

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hereditary characteristics, they can be greatly influenced by the rootstock. However, the effects of rootstocks on

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some fruit quality are often detrimental, except for increasing fruit size, shape, and bloomless-fruit production

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in cucumber. Therefore, most newly-devised growing recommendations are aimed at minimizing the

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detrimental effects of rootstock on fruit quality (Cushman and Huan, 2008; Ko, 2008)

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2.6.

Others-Physiology, Peculiarity, Hobby, and Education

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Grafting can be demonstrated for various other reasons. For example, tomatoes, eggplants, pepinos can be

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grafted on potatoes so that four or more different kind of vegetables could be harvested from a plant. Chinese

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cabbages and cabbages may be grafted on top of radish with radish roots. Grafting can be made for some

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physiological studies such as flower induction and early flowering. Grafting is also commonly used for

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bioassays of virus infection. Use of grafted plants is highly recommended for hydroponics to avoid rapid spread

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of root disease within the system (Lee and Oda, 2003; Davis et al., 2008).

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2.7.

Rootstocks

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Various rootstocks have been screened from the existing cultivars for use in each crop. Recently, however,

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seed companies and various breeders are eager to breed superior rootstocks for vegetables grown under certain

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conditions and environments. The growers, therefore, have to make decision on selection of rootstocks most

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suitable for their specific requirements. Some of the characteristics in cucurbits are summarized in Tables 3-6.

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Cucurbit species and number of registered rootstock cultivars are rapidly increasing due mostly to the increased

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cultivation of grafted plants under various cultural as well as environmental conditions (Kato and Lou, 1989;

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Ko, 1999; Lee et al., 2008). In general, grafting is more commonly practiced for vegetables grown under

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protected environment as compared to those under the field condition. Rootstocks belonging to different species

193

are preferred because the response to biological and environmental stresses differs considerably depending

194

upon the rootstock and cultivar species in cucurbits (Table 5) as well as in solanaceous crops (Table 6).

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Table 3. Rootstocks for cucurbitaceous crops and some related characteristics (Lee and Oda, 2003).

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Table 4. Rootstock species and number of registered rootstock cultivars for cucurbitaceous crops in China (Bie,

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2010, Personal communication).

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Table 5. Response of cucurbits to biological and environmental stresses (Ko, 1999).

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Table 6. Rootstocks for solanaceous crops (Lycopersicon, Solanum, Capsicum, and Datura) and their

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performances (Lee and Oda, 2003).

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3.

Current status

3.1.

Production

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Although the possibility and benefits of using grafted plants were recognized much earlier, large-scale

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commercial growing of grafted vegetables can be traced from the late 1950s to the early 1960s in Japan and

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Korea. Statistics on the current use of grafted plants in Korea and Japan is shown in Table 7. In cucurbitaceous

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crops, over 90% of watermelon seedlings are grafted onto various rootstocks and about 75% of cucumbers in

211

both countries. Melons show variable grafting percentages depending upon the genotypes. For example,

212

virtually all the oriental melons (Cucumis sativus var. makuwa MAKINO) are grafted onto squash in Korea, but

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other melons are selectively grafted depending on the genotypes using various rootstocks (Ko 1999, 2008). In

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solanaceous vegetables, 20~40% of tomatoes are grafting, 20~40% of eggplants, and 5~10% of capsicum

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peppers. Since grafting is mostly practiced in cucurbits and solanaceous vegetables, the percentages of

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grafting in all vegetables was only about 5% in 2007. More than 700 million grafted seedlings were estimated

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to be produced in 2008 in Korea as well as in Japan (Table 7).

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Even though vegetable grafting is actively practiced in other countries (Tables 8 and 9), accurate statistics are

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unavailable. However, 40 to 45 million grafted seedlings were distributed in North America in 2005, about 30

220

million in Spain (Hoyos Echevarria, 2010, personal communication), 25 million in Italy (Morra and Billoto,

221

2008), 60 million in Honduras, etc. It was estimated that about 20% of Chinas watermelons and cucumbers are

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grafted (Bie, 2010, personal communication).

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throughout the world for some decades (Davis et al.,2008; Lee 2003; Lee 2007; Lee and Oda 2003; Oda 2007).

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Well known multinational seed companies are now supplying the rootstock seeds which virtually have little or

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negative effects on fruit quality. Even though cucurbits (watermelon, melons, and cucumbers) and solanaceous

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crops (tomatoes, eggplants, capsicum peppers) are routinely grafted, many other vegetables can be grafted for

227

other purposes (Lee and Oda, 2003).

Rapid increases in the use of grafted seedlings are expected

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Table 7. Vegetable cultivation area, number of total seedlings, and number of grafted seedlings needed in Korea

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and Japan. Approximate 40 million grafted seedlings are estimated to be used in North American greenhouses

231

(Kubota, 2008).

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Table 8. Current status of the estimated use of grafted vegetables in Asian and other countries and regions as of
April 30, 2010.

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Table 9. Current status of the estimated use of grafted vegetables in European and other countries as of April 30,

235

2010.

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The majority of the grafted seedlings are produced by commercial growers globally. In Korea, more than 200

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seedlings growers, excluding individual farmers and farmers associations, are producing plug seedlings and

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about half of them are producing grafted seedlings. Hoban Nursery, the largest one in Korea located in

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Chooncheon, Gangweon-do, produced 15.6 million grafted seedlings in 2007 (Table 10, Fig. 2). Nongwoo

241

GreenTek produced 9.0 million followed by Nosung, Gongju, and Yeoju. Pureun Nursery produced about 2.8

242

million seedlings, mostly for export. Yet, less than 10% of all grafted seedlings are estimated to be produced by

243

commercial growers in Korea (Ko, 2008). The price of grafted seedlings varies with crops and countries,

244

0.8~1.2 $ in the USA and some Asian countries including Japan and Korea, and 0.6~1.0 euros in Spain and

245

some European countries (Table 9). The price of scion seeds, rootstock seeds, and labor cost for grafting and

246

postgraft care are considered to be the major factors in price determination. In Shandong Province in China,

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over 200 commercial growers are currently producing grafted vegetables and the biggest one produced 20

248

million grafted seedlings in 2009 (Bie, 2010, personal communication).

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250

Table 10. Number of grafted seedlings produced by some major nurseries in Korea in 2008 (unit: thousand).

251

Fig. 2. Hand grafting of high quality tomato seedlings at Hoban Nursery, Gangwon-do, Korea.

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253

3.2.

International Export

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Even though plants growing in pot soil are frequently rejected at customs because of strict quarantine

256

regulations, grafted seedlings produced by export-oriented nurseries easily pass through the regulation. One of

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the reasons for this easy pass is the use of sterile substrates rather than contaminated soils. Furthermore the

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growing period is very short, usually less than 30 days in most cases except eggplants. Transportation and

259

shipping are also easy with plug seedlings grown in cell trays. Tomatoes are the major grafted vegetable for

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export, followed by watermelons and eggplants. It is worthwhile to note that seedling growers in Agadir,

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Morocco exported 12 million grafted seedlings to southern Europe countries in 2007 and it is expected that this

262

kind of export will be markedly increased in coming years (Fig. 3).

263

source of grafted seedlings, exporting more than 10 million grafted plants to the USA and northern Mexico.

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Active export of grafted transplant from Korea to Japan had been taken place for several years via several

265

nurseries.

In North America, Canada is the major

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Fig. 3. Plug seedlings grown in Morocco for export to southern European countries.

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4.

Grafting methods and acclimatization

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9

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Graftage is a process that involves: (1) the choice of rootstock and scion species, (2) creation of a graft union

272

by physical manipulation, (3) healing of the union, and (4) acclimation of the compound plant. In fruit species,

273

pruning is often an essential part of the grafting process. Grafting methods vary greatly and considerably

274

depending upon the kind of crops, farmers experiences and preferences, facilities and machines available,

275

numbers of grafting, and even by the purpose of grafting such as grafting for their own uses or for sales only by

276

commercial growers. In case of Japan (Table 11), hole insertion grafting is by far the most popular grafting

277

method in watermelon. However, in cucumbers, tongue insertion grafting is most popular among the individual

278

growers producing transplants for their own use. In contrast, the commercial growers prefer splice grafting. In

279

eggplant, individual farmers prefer split grafting where as the commercial growers definitely prefer splice

280

grafting. In summary, less experienced, small-scale farmers select tongue approach grafting for most vegetables

281

whereas large-scaled experienced professional seedling producers like to adapt splice grafting. It is generally

282

accepted that the quality of seedlings grafted by splice grafting is much better than those grafted by tongue

283

approach grafting. Manual or hand grafting is by far the major grafting method even though several grafting

284

machines and semi-automatic machines or robots have been developed and commercially available.

285
286

Table 11. Grafted seedlings produced by different grafting methods in Japan (revised from the survey data of

287

Yoshioka, 2001).

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289

4.1.

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There are a number of grafting methods applicable for herbaceous grafting. Some of the most frequently used

291

methods are diagrammed in Fig. 4.

292

Fig. 4. Major grafting methods in cucurbits and solanaceous vegetables.

293

Hole insertion grafting (HIG).

Manual or Hand Grafting

294

Grafting methods vary with the kind of crops being grafted, preferences and experience of the growers, and

295

the kind of grafting machines or robots available. For watermelons, hole-insertion hypocotyl grafting (Fig. 4A)

296

is favored by many farmers in many areas because of the smaller seedling size of watermelon as compared to

297

the size of the rootstock, which is usually squash or bottle gourd. Watermelon seeds are sown 7 to 8 days after

10

298

the sowing of gourd seeds (rootstock) or 3 to 4 days after sowing squash rootstock seeds. Grafting is made 7 to

299

8 days after the sowing of watermelon seeds. Both the scion and rootstock should be uniform and strong

300

enough to undergo the grafting operation. The true leaf including the growing point should be carefully and

301

thoroughly removed and a hole is made with a bamboo or plastic gimlet or drill at a slant angle to the

302

longitudinal direction. The hypocotyl portion of the watermelon is prepared by slant cutting to have tapered end

303

for easy insertion. Care should be given to avoid the insertion into the hypocotyl cavity since this greatly

304

interferes with formation of a rapid union and facilitates later protrusion of watermelon adventitious roots into

305

the soil after downward elongation through the pith cavity of the rootstock (Fig. 1). Some growers insert young

306

watermelon seedlings (usually somewhat etiolated seedlings with cotyledons still in folded position) into the

307

hypocotyl (Fig. 4B). HIG had been favorably practiced for tomato and eggplant for a while, but splice grafting

308

is definitely much favored even among the farmers for their own uses.

309
310

Tongue approach grafting (TAG)

311
312

Tongue approach grafting (Fig. 4C) is usually favored by less experienced farmers and those who do not have

313

a greenhouse with good microclimate control system. Even though this method needs more space and labor as

314

compared to other methods, a higher rate of seedling survival is possible even for beginners. Furthermore, no

315

special facilities and machines are needed for this grafting technique. Since the grafting operation would be

316

much more efficient with both scion and rootstock seedlings having similar height, the seeds of scion (usually

317

watermelons, cucumbers, and melons) are sown 5 to 7 days earlier than the rootstock seeds. The growing point

318

of the rootstocks should be carefully removed before grafting to reduce the unnecessary loss of nutrient for the

319

bud growth and to promote the rapid union of graft interface. Occasionally one cotyledon may also be removed

320

when removing the growing point to ensure complete removal of the growing point and to avoid overcrowding

321

in limited space on the greenhouse bench. The grafting cut for rootstock should be made in a downward

322

direction and the scion cut in an upward direction at an angle, usually 30 to 40 to the perpendicular axis, and

323

deep enough to allow the fusion of as many vascular bundles as possible. After the graft is completed, specially

324

designed clips are placed to fix the graft position. Grafted plants are then planted together in a 9 to 12 cm

325

diameter container.

11

326

The grafted plants are partially shaded for one or two days before placing them under normal greenhouse

327

growing conditions. The lower hypocotyl of the scion of several test plants is cut to examine the degree of

328

graft-take 10 to 12 days after grafting and based upon the results the remaining plants can be handled as

329

described below. The root and lower hypocotyl of the scion are removed from the grafted plant by simply

330

cutting off at the desired position, preferably at the closer position to the grafted position held by the clip. The

331

clips are usually removed at later stages, shortly before transplanting. An experienced person can graft about

332

800 plants per day, but grafting machines and robots specifically designed for this kind of grafting are also

333

available at varying prices.

334

TAG is the oldest and perhaps the most convenient grafting method for herbaceous plants. The method can be

335

used for basically any kind of plants such as cucurbits, solanaceous plants, and many other types. Grafting is

336

performed with very young seedlings and preferably at the hypocotyl portion of the rootstock and scion of

337

cucurbitaceous plants and at the lower epicotyl portion in solanaceous crops. In spite of the simple and easy

338

grafting operation and higher rate of survival, this method is not extensively used by commercial seedling

339

growers mainly because (1) labor required for grafting, (2) labor needed for cutting the rootstock again, (3)

340

needs for removal of clips after union, (4) larger space is needed for growing grafted plants as compared to

341

other methods, and (5) frequent rooting from the scion after transplanting if the seedlings are transplanted too

342

deep (Lee 1994).

343
344

Splice grafting (SG), Tube Grafting (TG), and One Cotyledon Splice Grafting (OC-SG)

345
346

Splice grafting (Fig. 4D, E, J) is very popular among experienced growers and commercial plug seedling

347

nurseries. Splice grafting can be done by hand, machine, or robot and can be applied to most vegetables. The

348

major advantage is the production of strong and healthy grafted seedlings since all the vascular bundles of the

349

scion are fused with those of rootstock and the graft union is strong enough to take all the rough post-graft

350

handling.

351

farmers preference. For the cucurbit rootstocks, one cotyledon and the growing point are removed for grafting.

352

After placing the scion on the rootstock (Fig. 4D, E), ordinary grafting clips as in tongue approach grafting are

353

used to fix the grafted position tightly together.

354

called as one cotyledon splice grafting (OC-SG). For solanaceous crops, grafting is usually made at lower

355

epicotyl and fixed (Fig. 4J) with ordinary clips, elastic tube-shaped clip with side slit, or ceramic pins (see Pin

Intact or excised (root-removed) rootstock seedlings may be used depending upon the growers and

This is the most common methods for cucurbits and also

12

356

Grafting below) developed specifically for this type of grafting. Tube grafting is performed by holding the

357

grafted position together in a slit elastic tube rather than using the usual grafting clips. The tube may be used

358

several times depending upon the materials.

359
360

Cleft grafting (CG)

361
362

Cleft grafting (Fig. 4F) in herbaceous plants may be somewhat different from those of woody plants. Usually

363

a portion of the stem is cut longitudinally. The rootstock seedlings are decapitated and longitudinal cut is made

364

in a downward direction, 1 to 1.5 cm long and 3/4 depth of the stem diameter. The scion is pruned to have 1 to

365

3 true leaves and the lower stem is cut to slant angle to make a tapered wedge. After placing the scion into the

366

split made on the rootstock, a clip is placed to hold in position until the union. Various types of grafting clips,

367

differing in material, size, shape, and others, have been developed for cleft grafting. Cleft grafting had been

368

used in cucurbits for a while in several countries, but the use is usually confined to solanaceous crops these

369

days.

370

Pin grafting (PG)

371
372

Pin grafting (Fig. 4H, I) is basically the same as the splice grafting. However, instead of placing grafting clips

373

to hold the grafted position, specially designed pins are used to hold the grafted position in place. The ceramic

374

pin developed by Takii Seed Co. in Japan is about 15 mm long and 0.5 mm in diagonal width of the hexagonal

375

cross section. The pins are made of natural ceramic so it can be left on the plant without any problem. The price

376

of ceramic pin is fairly high so that alternative methods are being sought. Experimental results revealed that

377

bamboo pins, rectangular in cross-sectional shape, could successfully replace the expensive ceramic pins at

378

much lower price. Watermelon seedlings grafted by HIG described above are shown in Fig. 5 and a

379

solanaceous grafted plant near maturity is shown in Fig. 6.

380
381

Fig. 5. HIG grafted watermelon seedlings ready for transplanting.

382

Fig. 6. Shape of grafted plant near harvest time (tomato on potato).

383
13

384

4.2.

Tools, clips, and grafting aids

385
386

A number of grafting tools to perform automated grafting and to hold the graft union together have been

387

developed by various agricultural companies (Lee and Oda, 2003). Unfortunately, however, most of them have

388

not been widely used by the commercial growers. Simple grafting aids, such as grafting clips, tubes, tapes, and

389

pins have been selectively but widely used for grafting (Fig. 7). The ordinary grafting clips consisting of a

390

round spring made out of plastic (Fig. 7A), have been most extensively used for tongue approach grafting in

391

cucurbits and other crops. The clips, although slightly different in size and shape depending upon manufacturer,

392

are inexpensive, ease to operate and handle for various stem sizes, and can be used many times. Various other

393

clips, especially elastic tube-shaped clips with or without attachment for supporting pole for the grafted

394

seedlings (Fig. 7), are also widely used by many commercial growers for manual grafting as well as for

395

machine or robot grafting. Much smaller elastic slit-tubes are being used in many countries including Israel and

396

The Netherlands (Fig. 7E) for tomato and pepper grafting. Ceramic pin is a very handy and efficient aid to fix

397

the grafted interface, and highly suitable for machine or robot grafting. It can be used with naked hands, with

398

simple pencil-shaped device, or with machine or robots. Adhesive tape or glue, or sometimes aluminum foil, is

399

another means of holding the grafted counterparts in place. Specially designed knives and gimlets for grafting

400

have been manufactured and are used by growers in different parts of the world. A special knife with self-

401

feeding connection of skimmed milk or alcohol to inactivate some potent viruses has been developed in The

402

Netherlands and in Korea. A hand held grafting device constructed with changeable stainless steel, single-edge

403

razor blades, makes it possible to simultaneously create a uniform wedge and a receptacle in the stem of

404

Phaseolus vulgaris. Rapid changes have been taking place recently and it is evident that marked progress will

405

be made on these devices with the improvement of grafting technology and introduction of new and efficient

406

grafting robots. Uniformly small seedlings are definitely favored for grafting, especially for machine grafting,

407

so that experienced growers are eager to produce uniform healthy seedlings for efficient grafting by using better

408

quality seeds preferably primed seeds.

409

Fig. 7. Grafting clips and other aids.

410
411

For tomato, a combination of high humidity and weak light, slightly higher than the light compensation point,
prevents wilting of grafted tomato scions and promotes healing of the cut surfaces of grafts. Films reducing

14

412

thermal radiation on acclimatization tunnels depress the rise of leaf temperate and increase the favorable range

413

of light intensity for graft healing. Under these high light intensity and high humidity conditions, healing of the

414

graft union is accelerated by air movement. Several types of acclimatization chambers have been developed and

415

widely used by commercial plug seedling growers in Japan and Korea (Lee and Oda, 2003).

416
417

4.3.

Grafting Machines and Robots

418
419

The first robot, the One Cotyledon Splice Grafting system was developed in 1980s by IAM BRAIN in

420

Japan to graft cucurbit vegetables (similar to the latest Korean version shown in Fig. 8). The robot took into

421

account variation of seedling shape, location of cutting and gripping, cutting, and attachment. Seedlings were

422

cut at the point of attachment of the cotyledon to the hypocotyl at an angle of 20 ~ 30 for the scion and the

423

rootstock, respectively. The prototype grafting robot was constructed in 1987 and the second in 1989 (Ito, 1992;

424

Kubota et al., 2008). It took 4.5 seconds to make a grafted plant with 95% survival. The demonstration model

425

robot was deemed practical and the results were transferred an agricultural machinery company that developed

426

machines for the market. Prototype semi-automatic grafting system was also developed in Korea. Several

427

grafting robots have been manufactured by the Rural Development Administration (RDA), Korea, and will be

428

distributed to the commercial plug seedling growers at relatively reasonable prices. Three grafting robots have

429

been developed in Korea, two in 1998 and one in 1999, and one was commercialized in 2001. The pin-grafting

430

robot developed by Rural Development Administration for solanaceous crops can graft 1,200 seedlings per

431

hour. The simple and economic grafting machine was developed by Yupoong and has been very popular in

432

Korea. This machine by Yupoong, priced about US $400, has been exported for more than 10 years to many

433

Asian countries and some European countries. This machine can graft up to 600 seedlings per hour by tongue

434

approach grafting, mostly in cucurbitaceous crop. However, an experienced operator is needed to run this

435

machine effectively and efficiently. Recently a multiuse semi-automatic grafting machine has been developed

436

by a private company in Korea (Helper RoboTech) and many growers purchased this machine to graft tomato

437

and pepper plug seedlings. This machine (Fig. 8) has also been actively exported to many foreign countries in

438

recent years because of the reasonable price, multiple functions (can be used for both cucurbit and solanaceous

439

crops), and convenient handling. More recently, a fully-automated grafting robot (1000 grafts per hour) has

15

440

been developed and used commercially for tomato in the Netherlands (ISO GROEP). With increasing demand

441

of grafted plants, faster, more reliable, and more flexible automation of grafting operations is one of the key

442

technologies need to develop in the future.

443

Fig. 8. Semi-automatic grafting machine developed by Helper Robotech in Korea.

444

4.4.

Monitoring Graft Success and Acclimatization

445

Proper acclimatization is critical for grafted plants to survive. Acclimatization involves healing of the cut

446

surface and hardening for field or greenhouse survival (Lee and Oda, 2003). Maintenance of proper moisture

447

content before and after grafting is critical for the production of uniform grafted seedlings. Acclimatization may

448

be achieved simply by enclosing the rootstock and scion in a black plastic bag (to avoid heat buildup) until the

449

union is formed. Growers usually achieve acclimatization by use of plastic film coverings (Fig. 9). In many

450

commercial nurseries, the grafted plants, usually in cell trays of 32 to 72 cells, are placed on a greenhouse

451

bench and the trays are sealed with a single layer of semi-transparent high density polyethylene film (0.01 mm

452

or thinner) to reduce the moisture loss and kept sealed for 57 days without additional irrigation. Partially

453

shading may be needed during the daytime to avoid excessive heat build-up.

454
455

Fig. 9. Plastic film covering at Uri nursery, Ansung, Korea.

456
457

5.

Commercial production and quality of grafted seedlings

458
459

Increasing use grafted seedlings is frequently accompanied by increases in commercial seedling growers,

460

especially plug seedling growers.

461

quality grafted seedlings are usually produced by professional seedling growers rather than individual farmers.

462

The overall quality as well as the price of those grafted seedlings produced by large commercial growers is

463

much higher than those produced by smaller growers or farmers associations. However, the sale of these

464

grafted seedlings grown in cell trays has been grown explosively during the last decades. Even though there are

465

considerable differences in quality of plug-grown seedlings depending upon the growers as well as the substrate

Since the grafting usually takes additional facilities and techniques, high-

16

466

(Fig. 10), farmers would like to order their seedlings grafted on preferred combinations from the industrial

467

growers. Most of the seedlings are grown in trays of different number of cells. The cell trays in Korea are the

468

same in size and the seedlings are easy to handle for grafting and transport including export and also can be

469

efficiently transplanted by machine. Even though problems arising from the use of grafted seedlings are rather

470

common especially with respect to seedling health and quality of produces, more farmers are purchasing grafted

471

seedlings rather than grafting their own seedlings.

472
473

Fig. 10. Variation of pepper seedlings as affected by different nurseries (A.B.C) and

474

substrates [own(upper case letters) and commercial (lower case)]. Same scion cultivar seeds

475

were sown in the cell trays at the same date and the seedlings were photographed 50 days

476

after sowing. Note the great variation in seedling vigor depending upon growers and

477

substrate.

478
479

Since more and more farmers are purchasing grafted transplants from professional nurseries, the quality has

480

become one of the keen concerns among the farmers. As clearly recognized in Fig. 10, the quality of transplant

481

varies greatly depending upon the growers. The definition of high-quality seedling would be very complicated

482

task because so many factors are associated with quality evaluation. Seedlings are in the first place normal and

483

abnormal seedlings based upon the external appearance. Various factors influence the outcome of abnormal

484

seedlings. Uniformity in terms of genetic quality and cultural and/or physiological quality are the two major

485

factors influencing seedling quality (Lee, 2007). Mineral deficiency in the soil or substrate, frost damage,

486

heating, mechanical damage, insect damage, chemical treatment injury, declining vigor, pathogen infections,

487

water and temperature stresses, and many others. In vegetable seedlings, the quality of seedling also varied

488

greatly depending upon the kind of crops and types of seedling distribution such as seedlings without soil or

489

substrate, seedlings grown in conventional pots, or seedlings grafted or non-grafted, or seedlings grown in cell

490

trays. The performance check of the seedlings would be the best way to evaluate the seedling quality, but this is

491

almost impossible, because so many other factors also influence the seedling performance after the

492

transplanting. Therefore, the quality of seedlings is mostly evaluated at the time of transplanting or seedling

493

purchase at the commercial nurseries. On the basis of this concept, the high quality seedlings should be uniform

494

in size and traits, proper size or height with thick healthy stem with large thick leaves. The seedling should have

495

well-developed root systems and show good top/root ratio (T/R). Seedlings for fruit production should have

17

496

large number of flowers (female flowers) in good vigor. Those seedlings for leaf such as lettuces and cabbages

497

should not bolt after transplanting. The seedlings should not be exposed to extreme water and/or temperature

498

stresses during their growth stage.

499

One of the conveniently used parameters to evaluate the seedling quality is the ratio of shoot dry weight

500

divided by shoot length. This may be appropriate for tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants. However, in cabbages

501

and Chinese cabbages, different criteria should be adapted and so are the cucurbits. In pepper, six parameters

502

were plotted in a graph based upon image analysis and the shape as well as the total area driven by evaluation

503

of each parameter (Fig. 11). Parameters such as number of expanded leaves, plant height or shoot length, shoot

504

dry weight, shoot dry weight (DW)/plant height, stem diameter, and stem diameter, and chlorophyll contents.

505

Other parameters, if needed, to be added or subtracted from this kind of evaluation based upon image analysis.

506

Perhaps, the critical factor involved in seedling quality is the infection of serious bacterial and viral diseases

507

which may not be easily recognized at the time of seedling purchase. Serious outbreaks of tomato bacterial

508

canker had been reported in Mexico caused by infected seeds, causing closure of a commercial propagation in

509

Mexico who was a main supplier of grafted seedlings (Kubota, 2009, personal communication). Serious

510

outbreaks of cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV), a strain of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), in many

511

parts of the world, causing tremendous damage to the farmers as well as the seed companies who supplied the

512

virus-infected rootstock seeds for watermelon seedling production. Since the spread of these diseases is

513

phenomenal, the presence of a single infected plant can destroy the entire field. Two large seed companies in

514

Korea were bankrupted after serious outbreaks in 1997 and 2000.

515

CGMMV can be transmitted by seeds, contact, grafting, and some other means such as soil and water. Dry

516

heat treatment is the only practical way of eliminating this virus from infected or infection-suspected seeds and

517

has been used routinely for all the cucurbits seeds in Japan and Korea (Kim and Lee, 2000). Production of

518

organic vegetables using pesticide-free seeds can only be performed by using dry heat treatment in various

519

vegetables including lettuce and Brassica crops. However, production, supply, and use of healthy seeds should

520

be the first choice for the production of healthy seedlings, especially in cucurbits and solanaceous crops.

521

Overuse or misuse of bioregulators or chemical inhibitors to suppress the overgrowth of seedlings grown in

522

high-density cell trays (Fig. 12) is another problem to be minimized and replaced by other physical means.

523
524

Fig. 11. Quality determination of pepper seedlings raised by different nurseries by plotting of multiple parameters.

18

525
526

Fig. 12. Shape of Chinese cabbage seedlings ready for transplanting as affected by diniconazole or tebuconazole
treatment.

527
528

6.

Conclusion and Prospect

529
530

For decades, vegetable grafting has been successfully practiced in many Asian countries, and is becoming

531

increasingly popular in Europe. Many multinational seed companies are eager to develop and distribute

532

rootstock seeds through their commercial seed catalogs. Identification of compatible multi-disease resistant

533

rootstocks with tolerance to abiotic stresses is a basic requirement for continued success. Watermelon and

534

tomato are the two major vegetables for grafting and worldwide distribution. Grafting in herbaceous plants is

535

routinely practiced in cucumber, melon, oriental melon, greenhouse squash, eggplant, capsicum peppers as well

536

as cactus.

537

machines including grafting robots will greatly encourage the extended use of grafted vegetables over the

538

world. There are many problems commonly associated with vegetable grafting and cultivating grafted seedlings

539

(Lee, 1994; Lee and Oda, 2003; Davis et al., 2008). These include the additional cost for rootstock seeds, labor

540

required for the grafting and raising grafted seedlings, lack of experience and technique for grafting and

541

cultivation of grafted plants, and incidence of possible physiological disorders associated with grafting.

542

However, there are enormous benefits from using grafted seedlings. These include income increase by high

543

yield and off-season growing, lower input of fertilizers and irrigation water due to the wide root systems of the

544

rootstocks, considerable saving in agrochemicals due to high resistance of the rootstocks, extension of the

545

harvest period, efficient maintenance of popular cultivars against diseases and other physiological disorders, no

546

need for long-term crop rotations, overcoming problems due to saline soils, reduced expense needed for soil

547

fumigation, ease of producing organically-grown vegetables, and reduced use of agrochemicals.

548

take of these benefits will depend upon various factors such as farm size and degree of mechanization,

549

cultivation practices such as crop rotation and transplanting, technology level, understanding the full benefits

550

and risks of grafted seedlings, and the uses of protected cultivation and hydroponics. Use of grafted seedlings is

551

strongly recommended for hydroponics culture of tomato, pepper, eggplant, and cucumber.

552
553

Introduction of excellent rootstocks possessing multiple disease resistance and efficient grafting

Partial or full

Growers can now purchase grafted seedlings of any specific combination from many commercial plug
seedling growers rather than doing the tedious grafting themselves although growers need to place orders in

19

554

advance in most cases. This is especially true in Japan, Korea, and the Netherlands. With the invention of more

555

efficient grafting robots and acclimatization facilities, the price of grafted seedlings could be considerably

556

reduced in the future to meet grower expectations (Lee and Oda, 2003). Positive use of grafted seedlings can

557

solve much of the problems arising from conventional cultivation such as use of methyl bromide for soil

558

sterilization, incidence as well as the rapid spread of diseases caused by successive cropping, low soil

559

temperature damage during the early stages, heavy use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, and economic use

560

of irrigation water. For organic produces, the seeds of both scion and rootstock may be treated with dry heat to

561

eliminate seed-borne diseases such as Fusarium and viruses. Effective dry heat treatment method has been

562

developed (Lee, 2003) and rapid detection technique on the inactivation of some seed-borne virus, such as

563

cucumber green mottle mosaic virus, has also been established. Even though the benefits of using grafted

564

seedlings are now fully recognized over the world, production of uniform, healthy grafted seedlings at

565

reasonable prices is the key point for wider use, especially in those countries with limited experience. Visitors

566

were eager to learn the modern grafting technology as well as the labor-saving grafting practices here in Korea.

567

The demonstration of grafting technology as well as the grafting machines and robots during the exhibition

568

period of the International Horticultural Congress of the International Society for Horticultural Science, held at

569

COEX in August, 2006, was well participated by scientists from all over the world (Lee et al., 2007).

570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
20

581

References

582

Ashita, E. (ed.), 1927. Grafting of watermelons. Korea (Chosun) Agricultural Newsletter 1, 9 (In Japanese).

583

Chung, H. D., Lee, J.M., 2007. Rootstocks for grafting. p. 162-167. Horticulture in Korea. Published by the

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585
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590
591
592
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597
598
599
600
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602
603
604
605

Korean Society for Horticultural Science.

Cushman, K. E., Huan, J, 2008. Performance of four triploid watermelon cultivars grafted onto five rootstock
genotypes: Yield and fruit quality under commercial growing conditions. Acta Hort. 782, 335-342.
Davis, A. R., Perkins-Veazie, P., Sakata, Y., Lpez-Galarza, S., Maroto, J. V., Lee, S.G., Huh, Y.C., Sun, Z.,
Miguel, A.,. King, S. R , Cohen, R.,. Lee, J.M., 2008. Cucurbit grafting. Critical Rev. Plant Sci. 27, 50-74.
Heo, Y.C., 2000. Disease resistance of Citrullus germplasm and utilization as watermelon rootstocks. Ph. D.
Diss., Kyung Hee Univ., Korea (In Korean with English summary).
Hoyos Echeverria, P., 2010. Spanish vegetable production: Processing and Fresh market. Chronica
Horticulturae 49 (4), 27-30.
Ito, T., 1992. Present state of transplant production practices in Japanese horticultural industry. In Transplant
Production Systems (eds. Kurata and Kozai). Kluwer Academic Publishers p. 65-82.
Kato, T., Lou, H., 1989. Effect of rootstock on the yield, mineral nutrition and hormone level in xylem sap in
eggplant. J. Japan. Soc. Hort. Sci. 58, 345-352.
Kim, D.H., Lee, J.M., 2000. Seed treatment for cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV) in gourd
(Lagenaria siceraria) seeds and its detection. J. Kor. Soc. Hort. Sci. 41, 1-6.
Ko, K.D., 1999. Response of cucurbitaceous rootstock species to biological and environmental stresses. Ph. D.
Diss., Seoul Nat'l Univ., Korea.
Ko, K.D., 2008. Current status of vegetable seedling production in Korea and its prospects. Inaguration
Seminar of Korean Plug Growers Assoc. June. 2008.
Kubota, C., McClure, M.A., Kokalis-Burelle, N., Bausher, M.G., Rosskopf, E.N., 2008. Vegetable grafting:
History, use and current technology status in North America. HortScience 43, 1663-1669.
Lee, J.M., 1994. Cultivation of grafted vegetables. I. Current status, grafting methods, and benefits.

606

HortScience 29, 235-239.Lee, J.M., 2003. Advances in vegetable grafting. Chronica Hort. 43 (2), 13-19.

607

Lee, J.M., 2008. Vegetable grafting: A powerful aid for cultivation of environmentally-friendly produce. KAST

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609

Rev. Modern Sci. Technol. 4, 68-85. The Korean Academy of Science & Technology.
Lee, J.M., Bang, H.J., Ham, H.S., 1998. Grafting of vegetables. J. Japan. Soc. Hort. Sci. 67, 1098-1114.

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Lee, J.M., Kubota, C., Tsao, S.J., Vinh, N. Q., Huang, Y., Oda, M. 2008. Recent Progress in Vegetable

611

Grafting. International Workshop on Development and Adoptation of Green Technology for Sustainable

612

Agriculture and Enhancement of Rural Entrepreurship. 21 pp. IRRI, Los Baos, Laguna, Philippines.

613

September 28 October 02, 2009.

614

ornamental crops. Hort. Rev. 28, 61-124.Lee, S. G., 2007. Production of high quality vegetable seedling

615

grafts. Acta Hort. 759, 169-174.

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Lee, J.M., Oda, M. 2003. Grafting of herbaceous vegetable and

Morra, L., Bilotto, M., 2009. Mercato in fortissimo ascesa per I portinnen sti Orticoli. Edizioni Linformatore
Agrario S.p.A. 2009-1, 51-54.
Sakata, Y., Ohara, T., Sugiyama, M., 2007. The history and present state of the grafting of cucurbitaceous
vegetables in Japan.

Acta Hort. (ISHS) 731, 159-170.

Salehi-Mohammadi, R., Khasi, A., Lee, S.G., Huh, Y.C., Lee, J.M., Delshad, M., 2009. Assessing survival and

621

growth performance of Iranian melon to grafting onto Cucurbita rootstocks. Kor. J. Hort. Sci. Technol. 27

622

(1), 1-6.

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Tachibana, S., 1982. Comparison of root temperature on the growth and mineral nutrition of cucumber cultivars
and figleaf gourd. J. Japan. Soc. Hort. Sci. 51, 299-308.
Yoshioka, H., 2001. Present status of vegetable production using grafted plants in Japan (in Japanese).
Hort. 76, 342-348. Oda, M., 2007. Vegetable seedling grafting in Japan. Acta Hort. 759, 175-180.

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22

Agr. &

647
Table 1. Purpose of grafting in vegetables (Heo, 2003; Lee, 1994; Lee et. al., 1998; Lee and Oda, 2003).
Direct response or effect
Indirect response or effect
Shoot growth promotion
Juvenile and adult phase changes
Disease tolerance
Translocation studies or stimuli
Low temperature tolerance
Sex expression
High temperature tolerance
Hormonal regulation
Enhanced mineral uptake
Physiological changes or disorders
High salt tolerance
Organic substances; translocation & composition
Increasing fertilizer uptake efficiency
Propagation and transformation
Wet soil tolerance
Fruit yield and quality
Enhanced water uptake
Heritable changes or agent(s)
Root nodulation
Ornamental value
Winter hardiness
Earliness
Xylem sap composition
Fruit size control
Nematode tolerance/resistance
Extended harvest period

648
649
Table 2. Cytokinin composition in xylem sap collected from intact and grafted plants of cucumber, squash,
and figleaf gourd plants.
Cytokinin content (ng/ml sap)
Crop
Zeatin
Dihydozeatin
Isopentenyl
(Scion/rootstock)
Zeatin
riboside
riboside
adenine
Total
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
0.08
4.55
0.80
Trace
6.11
Squash A (Cucurbita moschata)
Trace
3.67
0.43
3.63
7.73
Squash B (Cucurbita maxima)
Trace
4.06
0.57
1.84
6.47
Figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia)
Trace
4.54
1.48
6.18
12.2
Cucumber/Cucumber
0.55
5.58
0.96
Trace
7.07
Cucumber/Squash A
1.65
4.29
0.20
Trace
6.14
Cucumber/Squash B
Trace
5.36
0.19
Trace
5.55
Cucumber/Figleaf gourd
1.49
5.08
0.65
Trace
7.22

650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
23

Table 3. Rootstocks for cucurbitaceous crops and some related characteristics (Lee and Oda, 2003).

676
677
678
679
680

Scion/Rootstock
Watermelon
Bottle gourd
(Lagenaria siceraria)
Squash (Cucurbita
moschata)
Interspecific hybrid
squash (Cucurbita
maxima x C. moschata)
Pumpkins
(Cucurbita pepo)
Wintermelon
(Benincasa hispida)
Watermelon
(Citrullus lanatus)
African horned (AH)
cucumber
(Cucumis metuliferus)
Cucumbers
Figleaf gourd
(Cucurbita ficifolia)
Squash
(C. moschata)
Interspecific hybrid
squash (C. maxima x C.
moschata)
Bur cucumber
(Sicyos angulatus)

Cultivar a

Major characteristics

Possible disadvantage

FR Dantos, Dongjanggoon,
Bulrojangsaeng,
Chinkyo, No. 8, Keumkang

Vigorous root system, resistant to fusarium

and low temperature
Vigorous root system, resistant to
fusarium and low temperature
Vigorous root system, resistant to fusarium
and low temperature, excellent vigor and
high temperature tolerance
Vigorous root system, resistant to
fusarium and low temperature
Good disease resistance

New fusarium race,

Susceptible to anthracnose
Poor fruit shape and
quality
Reduced fertilizers required,
reduced quality

AH cucumber
(Cucumis metuliferus)
Melons-Oriental Melons
Squash (Cucurbita
moschata)
Interspecific hybrid
squash (Cucubita maxima
x C. moschata)
Pumpkin
(Cucurbita pepo)

NHRI-1

Shintozwa, Shintozwa #1,

Shintozwa #2, Chulgap
Keumsakwa, Unyong,
Super Unyong
Lion, Best, Donga
Kanggang, Res. #1,
Tuffnes, Ojakkyo
NHRI-1

Heukjong (black seeded,

figleaf gourd)
Butternut, Unyong #1,
Super Unyong
Shintozwa, Keumtozwa,
Ferro RZ, 64-05 RZ,
Gangryuk Shinwha
Andong

Fusarium tolerance, but not resistance

Excellent fusarium resistance and
good nematode tolerance

Poor fruit shape and

quality
Incompatibility
Not enough vigor and disease
resistance
Medium to poor graft
compatibility

Good low temperature tolerance

and disease resistance
Good fusarium tolerance and
bloomless fruit skin
Good fusarium and low
temperature tolerance

Narrow graft compatibility

Good fusarium tolerance, low and

high soil moisture tolerance
and nematode tolerance
Excellent fusarium resistance
and good nematode tolerance

Reduced yield

Baekkukzwa, No. 8,
Keumkang, Hongtozwa
Shintozwa, Shintozwa #1,
Shintozwa #2

Good fusarium and low temperature

tolerance
Good fusarium resistance, low and high soil
temperature tolerance, and high soil
moisture tolerance
Keumsakwa, Unyong,
Good fusarium resistance, low and high soil
Super Unyong
temperature tolerance, and high soil
moisture tolerance
Melon (Cucumis melo)
Rootstock #1, Kangyoung,
Fusarium tolerance and good
Keonkak, Keumgang
fruit quality
AH cucumber
NHRI-1
Good fusarium tolerance, low and high soil
(Cucumis metuliferus)
moisture tolerance and nematode tolerance
a
Cultivars vary greatly depending upon countries, growing types, years, and grafting methods.

Affected by Phytophthora
Slight quality reduction
expected

Weak temperature
tolerance
Phytophthora infection
Phytophthora infection,
poor fruit quality
Phytophthora infection

Phytophthora problem
Weak temperature
tolerance

Table 4. Rootstock species and number of registered rootstock cultivars for cucurbitaceous crops in China (Bie, 2010,
Personal communication).
Crop
Watermelon
Cucumber
Melon
Bitter
Summer
Wax gourd
Sponge
Rootstock
melon
squash
gourd
Lagenaria siceraria
6
2
0
0
0
0
0
Cucurbita moschata
4
5
6
2
0
2
0
C. maxima x moschata
4
2
5
0
0
0
0
C. maxima
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
Citrullus lanatus
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Cucurbita ficifolia
0
7
1
1
1
1
1
Luffa acutangula
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
Luffa cylindria
0
0
0
3
0
0
0

681
682
683
684
685
686
687
24

Table 5. Response of cucurbits to biological and environmental stresses.

Fusarium
Rootstock
and scion

Ia

II

III

IV

Nematode
M.
M.
incognita
halpa

Low
temp
tolerance

High
salt
tolerance

Graft compatibility
Watermelon

Cucumber

Oriental
melon

Rootstock b
Shintozwa
HRc HR
HR
HR
S
S
HR
HR
HCd
HC
HC
Hongtozwa
HR
HR
HR
SR
S
S
MR
MR
SC
HC
HC
Figleaf gourd
MR SR
MR SR
S
S
HR
HR
IC
HC
IC
Bottle gourd
MR HR
HR
SR
S
S
SR
MR
HC
HC
IC
Wax gourd
HR
MR
HR
HR
S
SR
SR
SR
HC
HC
Bur cucumber
HR
HR
HR
HR
S
HR
SR
SR
HC
MC
HC
AH cucumbere
HR
HR
HR
HR
S
MR
SR
?
HR
HC
HC
Scion
Watermelon
S
SR
HR
HR
HR
SR
S
SR
Cucumber
HR
SR
HR
HR
S
S
HR
SR
Oriental melon HR
HR
S
HR
S
S
S
S
a
I, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum; F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum; III, F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis; and IV, F. oxysporum f. sp. lagenariae.
b
Shintozwa (Cucurbita maxima x Cucurbita moschata), Hongtozwa (Cucurbita moschata), figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia), bottle gourd
(Lagenaria siceraria), wax gourd (Benincasa hispida), bur cucumber (Sicyos angulatus), and AH cucumber (Cucumis metuliferus).
c
HR, highly resistant; MR, moderately resistant; SR, slightly resistant; and S, susceptible.
d
HC, highly compatible; MC, moderately compatible; SC, slightly compatible; and IC, incompatible.
e
AH: African horned cucumber.

688
689
690

25

Table 6. Rootstocks for solanaceous crops (Lycopersicon, Solanum, Capsicum, and Datura) and their performances (Lee and Oda,
2003).
Rootstock
Scion
Performance
Reported by
L. esculentum
Tomato
Modify boron absorption
Brown et al. 1971
L. esculentum
Tobacco
Nicotine & alkaloid absorption affected
Dawson 1942
L. esculentum
Tomato
High temperature tolerance
Okimura et al. 1986
L. hirsutum
Tomato
Resistant to corky root disease
Harrison & Burgess 1962
Solanum spp.
Tomato
Resistant to bacterial wilt & nematode
Tikoo et al. 1979
Yield increase
Matsuzoe et al. 1993a
S. sodomaeum
Tomato
Growth & yield reduction
Shackleton 1965
S. auricularum
Tomato
Growth & yield reduction
Shackleton 1965
S. laciniatum
Tomato
Resistant to water-logging
Shackleton 1965
S. melongena
Tomato
Growth & yield reduction
Abdelhaffz et al. 1975
S. integrifolium
Tomato
Sugar content increase
Oda et al. 1996
S. sisymbrifolium
Tomato
Disease resistance, no effect on sugar content
Matsuzoe et al. 1996
S. torvum
S. toxicarium
S. melongena
L. hirsutum L.
esculentum
L. esculentum L.
hirsutum

S. torvum S.
sanitwongsei
S. integrifolium S.
melongena
Capsicum spp.
C. annuum C.
chinensis
Datura patula

Tomato
Tomato
Eggplant
Tomato

Disease resistance, no effect on sugar content

Disease resistance, no effect on sugar content
Multiple disease resistance
Low Fusarium infection

Matsuzoe et al. 1996

Matsuzoe et al. 1996
Monma et al. 1997
Harrison & Burgess 1962

Tomato

Multiple disease resistance

Gindrat et al. 1977

Tomato

Bravendoer 1962

Tomato
Tomato
Eggplant

Resistant to corky root (K), Root knot nematode

(N), Verticillium wilt (V), and Fusarium wilt (F)
Yield increase
Low & high temperature tolerance
Resistance to tomato brown root rot
Resistance to bacterial wilt

Eggplant

High temperature tolerance

Okimura et al. 1986

Sweet pepper
(green)
Green pepper

Compatible with Capsicum only

Beyries 1974

Superior growth & yield

Yazawa et al. 1980

Tomato

Low yield

Kramer 1957

691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
26

Okimura et al. 1986

Kuniyasu & Yamakawa 1983
Monma et al. 1997

Table 7. Vegetable cultivation area, number of total seedlings, and number of grafted seedlings needed in
Korea and Japan. Approximate 40 million grafted seedlings are estimated to be used in North American
greenhouses (Kubota, 2008) a.
Vegetable
Cultivation Cultivation No. of
Maximum no. % use of
Maximum no.
area-2000
area-2005
seedlings
of seedlings a
grafted
of grafted
per ha
(million)
Seedlings a
seedlings a
(x1000)
2005
(million)
Republic of Korea a
Watermelon
30,451
23,179
6~ 9
208.6
95
198.2
Melon b
13,800
13,000
7~10
130.0
90
117.0
Cucumber
7,269
5,853
20~30
175.6
75
131.7
Tomato
4,916
6,749
20~30
202.5
25
50.6

725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766

Eggplant
1,100
933
10~20
Pepperx
80,130
67,023
20~40
Sub-Total
Japan
Watermelon
16,900
13,400
6~ 9
Melon b
13,800
10,400
7~10
Cucumber
15,200
13,400
20~30
Tomato
13,600
13,000
20~30
Eggplant
13,300
10,400
10~20
Pepper c
4,110
3,620
20~40
Sub-Total
a
75 ha of area belonging to 135 growers.
b
Including net melons, cantaloupes, oriental melons.
c
Including hot peppers for dry and fresh uses.

27

18.6
2681.9

20
10

3.7
268.2
766.3

120.6
104.0
402.0
390.0
208.0
144.8

92
30
75
40
55
5

111.0
31.2
301.5
156.0
114.4
7.2
721.3

Table 8. Current status of the estimated use of grafted vegetables in some Asian and other countries and regions
as of 2010 a.
Crop
Item
Japan
Korea
China
Taiwan
USA
Watermelon
Acreage (ha) a
13,000
20,756
2,162,456
13,431
50,810
Graft % b
92
95
20
35
NA c
d
Grafting method
HIG,S
HIG,TAG
HIG,TAG,SG HIG,TAG,SG
Rootstocks e
Ls,Cl
Ls,Cmm
Ls,Cl
Cmm, Ls
Cucumber
Acreage (ha)
12,800
5,630
1,702,777
2,666
59,480
Graft % b
75
75
30
11
NA c
d
Grafting method
TAG,SG
SG, TAG
HIG, TAG
TAG
Rootstocks e
Cmm,Cf
Cmm,Cf
Cm,Sa,Cf
A
Melons
Acreage (ha)
10,500
6,607
570,874
6,441
35,790
Graft % b
30
90
5
0.1
NA c
d
Grafting method
TAG,SG
SG, TAG
HIG
Rootstocks e
Cmm,Cm
Cmm
Cm,Cmm,Cl
Bitter melon Acreage (ha)
NA c
NA c
200,000
1,802
NA c
b
Graft %
2
30
Grafting method d
HIG, TAG
TAG,CG
Rootstocks e
Lc
La, Cm
Pickling melon Acreage (ha)
232
NA c
NA c
NA c
NA c
b
Graft %
Grafting method d
TAG
Rootstocks e
Tomato
Acreage (ha)
12,700
6,144
1,454,533
4,235
330 f
b
Graft %
40
25
1
25
70 f
d
Grafting method
SG, TAG
SG
SG
HIG, SG
SG
Rootstocks e
Le, St
Le, Ss
Le
Ss, Le
Ss
Eggplant
Acreage (ha)
10,800
325
1,051,537
1,503
2,200
Graft % b
55
20
1
1.3
NA c
d
Grafting method
SG, TAG
SG
SG
Rootstocksv
Ss
Ss
St
Pepper
Acreage (ha)
3,620
61,023
16,625
2,405
32,140
Graft % b
5
10
1
2.5
NA c
d
Grafting method
SG, TAG
SG
SG
Rootstocks e
Ca
Ca,Cs
Cf
Data supplied by
M. Oda
JM Lee
Z. Bie and
SJ Tsao
C. Kubota
Y. Huang
and M.
Bausher

767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787

Cultivation area was obtained from FAO Statistics 2008 except Taiwan. Other countries actively using grafted vegetable
seedlings include Vietnam (6,000 ha out of 20,000 ha tomato production area is planted with grafted plants in Vietnam)
and possibly many others.
b
Percentage of cultivation area with grafted plants.
c
Data not available (NA).
d
Major grafting methods are TAG:Tongue Approach Grafting, SG:Splice Grafting, HIG: Hole Insertion Grafting, and CG:
Cleft Grafting, respectively.
e
Rootstocks are Cf: Cucurbita ficifolia, Cm: Cucurbita moschata, Cmm: Cucurbita maxima x C. moschata, Cl: Citrullus
lanatus, La: Luffa aegyptiaca, Lc: Luffa cylindrica, Le: Lycopersicum esculentum, Ls: Lagernaria siceraria, Sa: Sicyos
angulatus, Sm: Solanum melongena, Ss: Solanum species including interspecific hybrids, and St: Solanum torvum,
respectively.
f
Greenhouse hydroponic tomato cultivation area only. Little or no grafting had been reported for field tomatoes of 162,580
ha in the USA.

28

Table 9. Current statusa of the estimated use of grafted vegetables in some European and other countries b as
of April 30, 2009.
Crop
Item
Spain
Italy
France
Netherlands
Watermelon
Acreage (ha)
16,100
11,091
186
NA a
No. of grafts (million)
48.2
10.0
NA
NA
Rootstocks b
RS-841
Macis
NA
NA
Shintoza
RS-841
Strongtosa
Shintoza
Melons
Acreage (ha)
38,600
28,199
14,747
3086
No. of grafts (million)
2.5
8.2
NA
NA
Rootstocks b
RH-841
Shintoza
RS-841
NA
Shintoza
Camelforce
TZ-148
Strongtosa
Dinero
Dinero
Cucumber
Acreage (ha)
7,000
2,065
631
NA
No. of grafts (million)
0.5
0.8
NA
NA
Rootstocks b
Azman
NA
NA
NA
Hercules
Titan
Tomato
Acreage (ha)
55,300
115,477
4,122
1,800
No. of grafts (million)
72.8
15.1
50%
75%
Rootstocks
Maxifort
Beaufort
Maxifort
NA
Beaufort
Maxifort
Beaufort
He-Man
Eggplant
Acreage (ha)
3,500
10,862
417
115
No. of grafts (million)
1.8
11.8
65%
75%
Rootstocks
Torvum Vigor Espina
Beaufort
NA
Beaufort
Salutum
Brigeor
STT3
Maxifort
Pepper
Acreage (ha)
24,100
11,721
NA
41
No. of grafts (million)
4.0
1.2
NA
NA
Rootstocks
Atlante
Tresor
Tresor
NA
Rocal
Galaxy
Atlante
Snooker
Other Note c,d
Price and Planting c,d
Information in this table was obtained by contacting seed companies, related horticultural agencies, seedling
producing nurseries, and personal communications. Acreage was obtained from FAO Statistics 2008.

788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811

Data not available as of April 2010 are marked NA in the cell. Other countries actively using grafted vegetable seedlings
include Turkey (50% of watermelons), Belgium (mostly tomatoes), Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, and UK (50% or
higher), and Morocco (also for export).
b
Seed companies supplying the rootstocks seeds are Seminis, Syngenta, Nunhems, Clause/Tezier, De Ruiter, Rijk Zwaan,
Ramiro Arnedo, and others.
c
The price of grafted seedlings varies from 0.6 to 1.0 euro depending upon the crops (Pedro Hoyos Echevarria, 2010).
d
Number of seedlings planted per hectare varies from 15,000 to 30,000 depending upon the kind of crops and planting
densities. Use of double-stemmed tomato grafted transplants may cut down the purchasing expense by half (Pedro Hoyos
Echevarria, 2010).

29

Table 10. Number of grafted seedlings produced by some major nurseries in Korea in 2008 (unit: thousand).
Nursery Watermelon Cucumber
Melon
Pumpkin
Tomato
Pepper
Eggplant
Total
Hoban
100
5,000
100
200
10,000
200
15,600
GreenTek
2,500
3,000
500
3,000
9,000
Nosung
4,000
300
700
300
5,300
Gongju
1,500
1,000
500
1,000
4,000
Yeoju
600
1,000
1,200
200
1,000
4,000
Pureun a
300
500
1,000
1,000
2,800

812
813

Major exporter in Korea.

Table 11. Grafting seedlings produced by different grafting methods in Japan (revised from the survey data of
Yoshioka, 2001).
Area
Percent share of grafting methods a (%)
b
surveyed
Tongue
Split
Hole
Root-removed &
Splice
Others &
Crop
(ha)
approach
insertion
insertion
unknown
Grafted seedlings produced by farmers for their own use
Watermelon
9,244
7
1
53
38
Cucumber
6,648
89
1
5
4
1
0
Melons c
1,715
56
16
27
1
Tomato
2,412
36
13
6
45
0
Eggplant
2,034
3
79
7
10
1
Grafted seedlings produced by commercial nurseries for sale
Watermelon
4,455
1
5
35
55
3
1
Cucumber
3,171
14
2
18
26
39
1
Melons c
236
8
14
38
39
2
Tomato
2,081
4
4
1
90
1
Eggplant
3,436
2
18
8
71
1
Sub-total (own use + commercial)
Watermelon
13,699
5
3
47
44
1
0
Cucumber
9,819
65
1
9
11
13
1
Melons c
1,951
50
16
28
6
0
Tomato
4,493
21
9
4
66
0
Eggplant
5,470
2
41
8
48
1

814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835

See Fig. 4 for grafting methods.

Only those who responded to the survey was included.
c
Only the field melon data was listed (house melons and greenhouse melons were not listed).
b

30

836

Figures

Fig. 1. Adventitious rooting from the melon scion grafted onto squash rootstocks through the hypocotyl cavity
of the rootstock, thus counteracting the grafting effect in some cases (A: left) and rooting from the scion
of the TAG-grafted cucumber onto figleaf gourd (B: right).

837

Fig. 2. Hand grafting of high quality tomato seedlings at Hoban Nursery, Gangwon-do, Korea.

838

Fig. 3. Plug seedlings grown in Morocco for export to southern European countries.

839
840
841
842
843
844
31

Fig. 4. Major grafting methods in cucurbits and solanaceous vegetables.

845

Fig. 5. HIG grafted watermelon seedlings ready for transplanting.

846

Fig. 6. Shape of grafted plant near harvest time (tomato on potato).

32

Fig. 7. Grafting clips and other aids.

847

Fig. 8. Semi-automatic grafting machine developed by Helper Robotech Co. in Korea.

848

Fig. 9. Plastic film covering at Uri nursery, Ansung, Korea.

849
850
851
33

Fig. 10. Variation of pepper seedlings as affected by different nurseries (A.B.C) and substrates [own(upper
case letters) and commercial (lower case)]. Same scion cultivar seeds were sown in the cell trays at the
same date and the seedlings were photographed 50 days after sowing. Note the great variation in seedling
vigor depending upon growers and substrate.

852

Fig. 11. Quality determination of pepper seedlings raised by different nurseries by plotting of multiple
parameters.

853

Fig. 12. Shape of Chinese cabbage seedlings ready for transplanting as affected by diniconazole or tebuconazole
treatment.

854
34