Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145 156

www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

The positive effects of silica fume on the permeability, swelling

pressure and compressive strength of natural clay liners
Ekrem Kalkan a, Suat Akbulut b,*
b

a
Earthquake Research Center, Ataturk University, 25240 Erzurum, Turkey
Department of Civil Engineering, Ataturk Universiy, 25240 Erzurum, Turkey

Received 24 January 2003; accepted 16 January 2004

Abstract
Clays are essential materials to reduce the hydraulic conductivity of natural clay liners in landfill sites. Impermeable
compacted clay liners are needed the landfill to be designed. It is known that clays with high plasticity absorb water several
times as much as their weights. The clay liners subjected to water pressure in landfills generate high permeability in time and
instability problems in their body due to their expansive capacity. Though the compacted clay liners possess many advantages
such as low permeability and large capacity of attenuation, they have high shrinkage and high expansive potential causing
instability problem. The aim of this study is to examine the effects of silica fume on permeability, swelling pressure and
compressive strength of the compacted clay liners as a hydraulic barrier. The test results showed that the compacted clay
samples with silica fume exhibit quite low permeability, swelling pressure and significantly high compressive strength as
compared to raw clay samples. Thus, silica fume appears to be promising for construction material of liners subjected to
leachate in solid waste containment systems.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Permeability; Compressive strength; Swelling pressure; Clay liner; Silica fume; Landfill

1. Introduction
Compacted clay liners are widely used in solid
waste landfills due to their cost effectiveness and large
capacity of attenuation. Traditionally, clay barriers for
the containment of landfill leachate are made up of
compacted clay liners. In the absence of impermeable
natural soils, compacted mixtures of bentonite and
sand have been used to form barriers to fluids (Kennay
et al., 1992; Daniel and Wu, 1993). The liner systems

* Corresponding author. Fax: +90-442-236-0957.

E-mail address: sakbulut@atauni.edu.tr (S. Akbulut).
0013-7952/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2004.01.001

utilize natural materials such as compacted clay or

shale, bitumen, soil sealant synthetics and membranes
(Prashant et al., 2001). The main requirements of liners
are to ensure the minimization of pollutant migration,
low swelling and shrinkage and resistance to shearing
(Brandl, 1992; Kayabal, 1997; Cazaux and Didier,
2000). These measures generally involve the applications of low permeable natural clays and sand bentonite mixtures or synthetic materials (Van Ree et al.,
1992). There are several criteria that may be used to
evaluate the performance of landfill liners with respect
to chemical migration (Katsumi et al., 2001; Bouazza,
2002; Shackelford et al., 2000). Membranes composed
of soil should have lower hydraulic conductivity and

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E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

diffusion coefficient than those previously demanded,

and they have to look for more efficient soil types for
the future constructions (Foged and Baumann, 1999;
Patrick et al., 2000).
The thickness used for such liners varies from a
few decimeters to more than 1 m. Typically, the
hydraulic conductivity must also be less than or equal
to 1
10 7 cm/s for soil liners and covers which are
used to contain hazardous waste, industrial waste and
municipal waste (Daniel and Benson, 1990; Das,
1997). The required liner thickness for domestic and
light industrial waste types is to be 0.6 m for compacted clay liners (Bouazza and Van Impe, 1997).
Very little data is available to prove the correlation
between the internal compressive shear of clay CL and
silica fume SF additive material. Therefore, we examined the suitability of silica fume, which is an abundantly available product, for the construction of
hydraulic barrier in landfill. We have experienced on
a membrane composed of the clay and silica fume with
different contents. The performance of silica fume
clay composite liners with the optimum moisture
content was evaluated to develop as an alternative
liner material with low permeability, low swelling
pressure and high compressive strength for landfills.
Data for consistency limits, dry unit weight, permeability, swelling pressure and compressive strength
have been obtained from index tests, compaction,
permeability, odometer and unconfined compression
tests under laboratory conditions. From a logical
standpoint, it was found out that a higher bonding
strength between clay and silica fume particles led to
higher internal shear strength in the clay silica fume
mixture. Therefore, in order to evaluate the interaction
between silica fume and silt or clay particles in
composed samples, the samples were magnified 5000
times by means of a scanning electron microscope
(SEM). Observations of scanning electron microscope
showed that the structure of a material had a profound
influence on its engineering properties such as permeability, strength and stiffness due to silica fume content
in the sample. The chemical analysis, which has
positive effects to improve the properties of composite
samples, also indicated that it could be a chemical
reaction between silica fume and clay particles.
The objective of this paper is to present a novel
liner material compacted of raw clay and silica fume
and to document the structure of clay samples stabi-

lized with different silica fume contents. Clay and

silica fume serve yielding low permeability, low
swelling pressure and high compressive strength.
Various ratios of silica fume to clay were tested to
obtain the most desirable mixture ratio of the ideal
liner material for waste containment systems, and
optimum results were obtained in composite samples
with 25% silica fume content.

2. Materials
2.1. Clays
The natural clay materials (samples 1, 2, 3 and 4)
originated from a clay pit in Oltu deposits in northeast
of Turkey. The clay deposits were discovered during a
researcher working (Akbulut, 1999). This initial investigation was later used as the base of investigation
for the present study. The physical properties of
natural clays used in the tests such as particle size,
Atterberg limits, maximum dry unit weight and optimum water content were determined in accordance
with ASTM D 422, D 4138, D 1557 and D 2216,
respectively. The hydrometer tests were performed to
find the proportion of the clay and to plot the
granulometry curves of clays. The grain-size distribution curves and the index properties of natural clays
are given in Fig. 1 and Table 1, respectively. The
results of Atterberg tests show that clays (four differ-

Fig. 1. The grain-size distribution of clays and silica fume used in

the tests.

E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

Table 1
Index properties of the clays used in the tests
Property
Density, cs (kN/m3)
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Clay content (%)
Activity, A

147

Table 3
Leachate properties used in the tests

Sample
1

Sample
2

Sample
3

Sample
4

26.0
65
42
23
20
1.15

26.6
60
38
22
21
1.04

26.3
65
35
30
24
1.25

26.8
62
35
27
22
1.22

ent clays) are high-plasticity clays as shown in Fig. 3.

The clays are classified as high-plasticity clays CH by
the Unified Soil Classification System. The samples
for the tests at 20 jC were prepared by using the
municipal water under laboratory conditions. The
chemical compositions of clay particles ( < 2-Am fractions) were analyzed in Askale Cement Factory. The
results of the analysis are given in Table 2.

pH

Conductivity, k (ms/cm)

COD (mg/l)

7.71

20.2

6568.9

landfill area in Erzurum city was used in the permeability and odometer tests. The leachate properties,
such as contamination and heavy metal ions, are
summarized in Table 3 and 4, respectively. The
contamination level of leachate was found high,
6568 mg/l, according to Chemical Oxygen Test
(COD). Heavy-metal ion concentrations were determined using an atomic adsorption spectrophotometer
(Schimadzu). Various metal ion concentrations such
as Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cr and Fe were determined from
the leachate as can be seen in Table 4.

3. Methods
2.2. Silica fume
3.1. Clay silica fume mixture preparation
Silica fume obtained from a Ferro-Chromite Factory in Antalya was used in different proportions with
clay in the tests. The granulometry of the silica fume
is shown in Fig. 1. The density of silica fume is
c = 20 25 kN/m3, and its bulk density is cv = 3.0 5.0
kN/m3. The chemical analysis of silica fume is given
in Table 2.
2.3. Leachate
In order to determine the effect of leachate on
permeability and swelling pressure of composite samples with 25% silica fume, leachate from municipal
Table 2
Chemical compositions of the clays and silica fume used in the tests
Property

Sample
1

Sample
2

Sample
3

Sample
4

Silica
fume

Al2O3
CaO3_a
CaO3_b
CaO
Fe2O3
MgO
SiO3
SiO2
Loss on
ignition

17.82
26.09
24.95
9.55
8.03
2.38
0.15
44.27
10.10

13.63
23.18
17.81
7.98
5.79
4.34
0.54
54.67
11.00

13.94
27.50
29.79
11.02
6.21
3.48
0.12
41.59
12.45

13.24
23.09
21.26
8.26
7.56
6.15
0.44
44.69
13.19

13

0.5 1
12
0.8 1.2

85 95

The clay soils were first dried in heating oven at

approximately 105 jC before using in the mixtures.
The total dry weight of the mixture required to
prepare a specimen, W, is known from the specimens
dimensions and dry unit weight, cd. W can be
expressed as, W = Wc + Ws, where Wc and Ws are the
weights of the dry clay soil and silica fume, respectively. To prepare the clay silica fume mixture, first,
the required amounts of clay and silica fume were
measured by a total dry weight, W, of sample and
mixed together in the dry state. As the silica fume
tended to lump together, it required considerable care
and time to mix them to get an even distribution of the
silica fume in the mixture. The dry clay silica fume
mixture was then mixed with the required amount of
water that is explained as optimum moisture content.
All mixing was done manually, and proper care was
taken to prepare homogeneous mixtures at each stage
of mixing.
Table 4
The amounts of heavy metal in leachate
Cu

Zn

Pb

Cd

Cr

Fe

0.046
mg/l

0.249
mg/l

0.077
mg/l

0.005
mg/l

1.279
mg/l

1.757
mg/l

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3.2. Atterberg tests (consistency limits)

In order to determine the liquid limit, plastic limit,
and plasticity index, various percentages of clay
silica fume mixtures were carried out. Liquid limit
and plastic limit tests were conducted in accordance
with ASTM D 4318. The results for consistency limits
were obtained immediately from the tests.
3.3. Compaction tests
Standard proctor tests (ASTM D 698) have been
carried out to determine the compaction properties of
the samples in which clay and silica fume were mixed.
The necessary compacting was used to obtain a
homogeneous clay membrane. To ensure uniform
compaction, the entire required quantity of the moist
clay silica fume mixture was placed inside the
mould-collars assembly and compressed in three steps
alternately from the two ends till the specimen
reached the dimensions of the mould. Fig. 4 shows
the light (standard proctor) compaction curves of the
raw clay and the silica fume mixtures. The results
showed that the raw clay could be compacted to a
significantly greater dry unit weight than the silica
fume clay mixtures at relatively lower water content.
All the specimens for the compressive tests were
prepared at the optimum water content state of them.

compressive strength of the cohesive soils. In this

laboratory work, three tube samples with a length/
diameter ratio 2 were prepared (L: 70 mm and D: 35
mm). Samples were placed in a moist container to
prevent from drying while waiting a turn at the
compression machine. At least three specimens were
tested for each combination of variables at a deformation rate of 0.16 mm/min. The specimens were
prepared as explained before in the method of specimen preparation. The silica fume inclusions had a
significant effect on the stress strain behavior. It was
observed that the increase in the compressive strength
depended on the silica fume content in specimen. The
lower the compressive strength of the raw clay specimen, the higher was the increase in compressive
strength due to the silica fume inclusion.
3.6. Permeability tests
In the falling-head permeability test, the soil specimen was placed inside a tube, and allowed a flow
through the specimen. The initial head difference h1 at
time t = 0 was recorded, and water was allowed to
flow through the soil in order to obtain h2 in the final
head at time t = t. The hydraulic conductivity K was
calculated by the following equation:
K 2:303

aL
h1
log
At
h2

3.4. Clay silica fume specimen preparation

For unconfined compression tests, cylindrical specimens were prepared at maximum dry unit weight and
optimum moisture content of the raw clay and silica
fume clay mixtures. A 35-mm-inner diameter and 70mm-long mould was used to prepare the samples for
the standard proctor test. The compacted specimen was
extruded from the mould using a hydraulic jack. A
minimum of three specimens was prepared for each
combination of variables for compressive tests.
3.5. Unconfined compression tests
The compressive strength of compacted clay with
silica fume samples was determined from the unconfined compression tests (ASTM 2166). The unconfined compression test is widely used as a quick,
economical method of obtaining the approximate

where K is the hydraulic conductivity, in centimeters

per second, h is the head difference, in centimeters, at
any time t, A is the area of specimen, in square
centimeters, a is the area of standpipe, in square
centimeters and L is the length of specimen, in
centimeters. The permeability apparatus had a plastic
mould 10 cm wide, 20 cm high and 2 mm thick. The
test apparatus consisted of a mould with lids and a
standpipe 10 mm in diameter and 100 cm high.
The permeability of clay samples with silica fume
was calculated from the falling-head permeability tests
done under laboratory conditions. Falling-head permeability tests were performed according to the ASTM D
5084. Composted clay samples with silica fume in
different ratios of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%
and 50% were subjected to the permeability tests. To
obtain the accurate results from the tests, five different
samples were used for each composite sample. During

E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

the permeability tests, prepared samples in moulds

were saturated under water pressure for a day or more,
and then permeability values were calculated for 48 h.
At least five specimens were tested for each combination of permeability values in permeability tests.
3.7. Odometer tests
Swelling pressure tests were conducted on compacted samples of the raw clay and silica fume clay
mixtures in initial water contents and dry densities for
odometer cells. The swelling pressure of each specimen was directly measured from the surcharge, which
loads the sample. The sample was confined in the
consolidation ring, and water was added to the sample, and it was allowed to swell freely. The samples
used in the tests were 74 mm in diameter and 20 mm
high in standard Odometer apparatus (ASTM D
2435). Samples of modified natural clays were all
initially compacted (in optimum water content) in a
standard Procter mould and extruded using a cutting
ring before odometer tests. Compacted composite
samples were subjected to the neat water and the
leachate to determine effects of silica fume on the
swelling pressure. As the samples were swelling, the
deflection of the dial gauge was set up to zero. As a
result, the samples showed no further tendency to
swell and the maximum surcharge load, Pms, at that
point was used for the calculation of the swelling
pressure. The swelling pressure can be expressed as
Swelling pressure Pms =A

149

presented in Fig. 2. The liquid limit and plasticity

index values slightly decreased with increase in silica
fume content up to 50% in all the clay samples.
However, the plastic limit slightly increased in silica
fume content up to 50% in all the clay samples. The
liquid limit of composed clay samples decreased from
65% to 56%, from 60% to 53%, from 63% to 53%
and from 65% to 53% for the samples 1, 2, 3 and 4,
respectively. The plastic limit of composite samples
slightly increased from 29% to 33%, from 25% to
31%, from 32% to 36% and from 26% to 34% for the
samples 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. The reason of this
could be explained depending on the soil type and
associated exchangeable cations (Bell, 1993; Sivapullaiah et al., 2000). Due to this change in consistency
limits, some of the composite samples with high silica
fume contents changed the soil groups from highplasticity clay group (CH) to low-plasticity clay
groups (OH) as shown in Fig. 3.
4.2. Effect of silica fume on compaction effort
Standard proctor tests were done on both raw clay
and silica fume clay composite samples to determine
their optimum water content and maximum dry unit
weight relationships. These results, shown in Fig. 4,
were used to determine the optimum water content and
maximum dry unit weight for raw or composite clay
sample preparation. The addition of silica fume to clay
samples increased the optimum moisture content and

where swelling pressure is in kilopascals, Pms is the

maximum surcharge load on the specimen in kilonewtons, and A is the area of the specimen, in square
centimeters. The time required to reach a maximum
value varies considerably, depending upon the percentage of clay (or silica fume). For the lowest percentage
of clay, swell stops in a day, but the swell for the
highest percentage of clay stops in 2 days or more.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Effect of silica fume on consistency limits
The effects of silica fume content on liquid limit,
plastic limit and plasticity index for sample 3 are

Fig. 2. Influence of the silica fume content on the consistency

indexes of clay samples (sample 3).

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E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

Fig. 3. The plasticity chart for clays and silica fume clay samples
used in the tests.

Fig. 5. Influence of the silica fume content on the optimum water

content of clay samples.

reduced the maximum dry density for the same compaction effort (Figs. 5 and 6). The significance of these
changes depends upon the amount of silica fume added
and the chemical composition of the clay minerals.
Silica fume, depending on its content, increased the
total particle surface of the mixture as compared with
that of raw clay sample. Therefore, the optimum water
content increased in the composite samples. Of course,
depending on an increase in optimum water content,
maximum dry unit weight decreased in the composite
samples gradually. The optimum water contents of the
composite samples ranged from 25% to 30%, and the
maximum dry densities ranged from 12.4 to 13.8 kN as
compared all the samples with each other. The low

optimum water contents and the high dry unit weights

occurred in raw clay samples, while the high optimum
water contents and the low dry unit weights occurred
in 50% silica fume clay composite samples.

Fig. 4. Influence of the silica fume content on the compaction

curves of sample 3.

4.3. Normalization of the experimental results

Practicing engineers who are accustomed to using
conventional experimental results may not prefer the
normalized values. Hence, the results are normalized
to gain an international significance to the experimental results. The conventional permeability silica fume

Fig. 6. Influence of the silica fume content on the maximum dry unit
weight of clay samples.

E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

151

content, swelling pressure silica fume content and

compressive strength silica fume content relationships were modified in terms of normalized permeability, normalized swelling pressure and normalized
compressive strength which accounts for the variation
in maximum dry densities.
Normalized permeability Kexp Gstd =cdmax

Normalized swelling pressure Psw cdmax =Gstd

4
Normalized compressive strength Pcs cdmax =Gstd
5
where Kexp is the permeability from tests, Psw is the
swelling pressure from tests, Pcs is the compressive
strength from tests, cdmax is the maximum dry density
of the sample and Gstd is the standard value of specific
gravity. A specific gravity value of 2.65 was adopted
as the standard specific gravity in this investigation
since it represents that value for most of the soils (Das,
1983). The permeability, swelling pressure and compressive strength values presented in Figs. 7 10 were
normalized using a specific gravity of 2.65.
4.3.1. The normalized permeability and the normalized swelling pressure of composite samples
The Figs. 7 and 8 represent the silica fume content
against the normalized permeability and the normalized swelling pressure for clay samples, respectively.
Permeability and swelling pressure values steadily

Fig. 7. Relationship between normalized permeability and silica

fume content.

Fig. 8. Relationship between normalized swelling pressure and

silica fume content.

decreased with increasing silica fume content and

the low values were finally reached in the composite
samples with 30% and 50% silica fume contents.
Silica fume contents up to 25% significantly affected
permeability and swelling pressure values. Permeability and swelling pressure decreased with more than
25% silica fume content for all the samples. After that,
these values seemed to be less affected by silica fume
contents for all the samples.
As can be seen in Fig. 7, silica fume decreased
the permeability of composite samples, and lowpermeability values were yielded in the composite
samples with 20%, 30% and 50% silica fume as

Fig. 9. Relationship between normalized compressive strength and

silica fume content.

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E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

compared with those of raw clay samples. As compared

with raw clay samples, it was found that the permeability of composite clay samples with 25% silica fume
decreased from 3.8
10 7 to 1.46
10 7 cm/s, from
3.68
10 7 to 1.41
10 7 cm/s, from 3.51
10 7 to
9.03
10 8 cm/s and from 2.94
10 7 to
1.22
10 7 cm/s for the samples 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. The permeability of all the samples was
calculated by averaging five test results shown in
Fig. 7.
In each sample, it was observed that improvement
in swelling pressure was obtained by using silica
fume contents. The swelling pressure in composite
samples was decreased with silica fume contents as
shown in Fig. 8. It was observed that the decrease in
the swelling pressure occurred with rising silica fume
contents, which ranged from 0% to 25%. The swelling pressure of the samples with silica fume content
more than 25% remained almost the same. The
swelling pressure of composite samples with 25%
silica fume contents decreased from 88 to 9 kPa, from
98 to 11 kPa, from 109 to 19 kPa and from 108 to 16
kPa for the samples 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. It can
be seen from Figs. 7 and 8 that the regression
coefficient (R) is quite high, and its values are 0.95
for two cases. The given equations are also valid only
for the normalized permeability and normalized
swelling pressure.

Fig. 10. Effects of maximum dry unit weight on (a) normalized

permeability, (b) normalized swelling pressure and (c) normalized
compressive strength of composite samples.

4.3.2. The normalized compressive strength of

composite samples
The effects of silica fume contents against the
normalized compressive strength for composite samples are presented in Fig. 9. Maximum compressive
strength values were obtained in composite samples
with 30% and 50% silica fume contents. Compressive
strength for all samples significantly increased with
silica fume content up to 25%. However, after that,
compressive strength was slightly affected by silica
fume content rise.
Silica fume increased the strength of the composite
samples. It was found that the compressive strength of
natural clays increased due to the rise of 25% silica
fume content from 84 to 116 kPa, from 77 to 113 kPa,
from 91 to 114 kPa and from 85 to 110 kPa for
samples 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. Silica fume
reinforcement resulted in an increase in the compressive strength of clay samples (Kalkan and Akbulut,

E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

153

2002). The increase in compressive strength was

attributed to the internal friction of silica fume particles and chemical reaction between silica fume and
clay materials. Clay samples treated with silica fume
reached their peak strength of the 30% silica fume
contents. An increase in silica fume content in clay
made the clay sample with silica fume more brittle
than the raw clay sample, though the fracture in the
raw clay samples was ductile as compared to all the
composite samples. The equation given in Fig. 9 is
valid only for the normalized compressive strength,
and the regression coefficient (R) is 0.95 for this case.
4.4. Effect of dry unit weight on the properties of
composite samples
The relationships of maximum dry density normalized permeability, maximum dry density normalized swell pressure, and maximum dry density
normalized compressive strength for all the raw and
silica fume clay samples are shown in Fig. 10. While
the permeability and the swelling pressure decreased
(Fig. 10a and b), the compressive strength increased
with a decrease in maximum dry density (Fig. 10c).
4.5. Effect of leachate on composite samples
From permeability and swelling pressure tests subjected to the neat water and the leachate, it was seen
that composite samples with 25% silica fume had low
permeability and swelling pressures as compared with
raw clay samples (0% silica fume). Therefore, permeability and swelling pressure tests using leachate were
done on the samples with 25% silica fume. Composite
samples had more resistance to leachate than raw
samples as can be seen in Fig. 11. The permeability
and swelling pressure values of raw clay and composite samples with 25% silica fume content, which were
tested with leachate, are shown in Fig. 11a and b. The
main trends in Fig. 11a and b are similar to those in
Figs. 7 and 8; the permeability and swelling pressure
of samples with 25% silica fume content decreased as
compared with those of raw clay samples.
4.6. Image of composite samples
In order to evaluate the interaction between silica
fume and silt or clay particles, composed samples

Fig. 11. The effect of leachate on properties of composite samples

(a) permeability and (b) swelling pressure.

with 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% silica fume were

magnified 5000 times by means of a scanning electron
microscope (SEM) modeled Jeol 6400 SEM. After
curing stabilized specimens, small samples were taken
from the stabilized composite samples for microscopic
analysis to determine the nature of the pores and the
effect of silica fume contents on the pore structure.
Fig. 12 shows SEM micrographs of composite samples prepared with silica fume contents (0%, 10%,
20% and 30%). Samples with 30% silica fume content
show a denser structure than those of the samples with
0%, 10% and 20% silica fume contents. The clay or
silt particles are coated with a thin layer of silica fume
and form groups. Fig. 12a (0% silica fume) shows that
large continuous pores (up to 30 Am) among the soil
particles provide the large portion of total void ratio,

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E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

Fig. 12. Images of composite sample 3 with (a) 0% SF, (b) 10% SF, (c) 20% SF and (d) 30% SF.

while small connected pores (less than 5 Am) exist

among the micro-fine silica fume particles.
It was seen from the images that silica fumes
covered the surrounding of silt and clay particles
and filled the voids in samples. Silt and clay grains
showed angular or subangular shapes (Fig. 12a). In
the samples with 10% silica fume, grain surfaces were
partly covered by silica fumes (silica fume micro
particles), and most of the pore spaces still contained
air (Fig. 12b). In the samples with 20% silica fume,
soil grains were covered by fume in significant ratio,
and micropores were filled by fume (Fig. 12c). In the
samples with 30% silica fume, all grains were covered
by relatively thick silica fume material, which formed
cementing medium (Fig. 12d). Fig. 12 shows the silica

fume particles settle in the pore space among the silt

clay grains, then the settled silica fume particles react
to form hydration products (flocculation products) in
the surrounding of soil grains. This textural event
caused a significant improvement in permeability,
swelling pressure and compressive strength (reached
to ultimate values in 50% silica fume content). This
effect also can be seen in Figs. 7 9. A detailed
examination of each micrograph reveals that most of
the flocculation products are deposited on the surfaces
of the soil grains or at the contact points. For this
reason, these micrographs and the experimental
results above have also released a possibility that a
chemical reaction with silica fume and clay particles
may occur.

E. Kalkan, S. Akbulut / Engineering Geology 73 (2004) 145156

4.7. Chemical modification of silica fume clay

mixtures
It is difficult to give a reaction of silica fume with
clay under normal conditions. However, interpretation
of chemical reactions must be explained to understand
silica fume clay modification. To produce the modification of clay, the important two effects are the
quality and quantity of silica fume added to clay and
the chemical composition of clay. The clays used in
this research have significant quantity of calcium
compounds (Table 2), which form Ca2 + ions and
hydroxyl ions by reacting water molecules. The active
silica reacts with calcium hydroxide and forms calcium silicate hydrate gels (CaSiO3H2O). The basic
reaction of silica fume calcium in clay could be
indicated as
Ca2 OH soluble silica
! calcium silicate hydrate

It was found out that the material from this reaction

became stronger and more brittle than previous form
as can be seen in Fig. 9. There are similar researches
to these concepts (Bell, 1993; Sherwood, 1993).

5. Conclusions
The following conclusions are derived from this
investigation:

155

contents for all the samples. The low permeability

and swelling pressure and high compressive
strength were calculated in the composite samples
with 25% or more silica fume contents.
Observations of scanning electron microscope
showed that the structure of raw clay samples
could be changed through silica fume contents in
the sample. The structure of a material had a
significant influence on its engineering properties
such as permeability, strength and stiffness.
The chemical analysis of the silica fume clay
mixture products showed that a chemical reaction
between silica fume and clay particles could appear
depending on the chemical characteristics of clay
and the properties of silica fume type.
The investigation showed that the silica fume is a
valuable material to modify the properties of clay
liners to be used in the landfill sites. In the design
of a liner system, the silica fume content in the
liner should be taken into account due to its
positive effects on the permeability, swelling
pressure and compressive strength of clay liners.

Acknowledgements
This research was conducted by a project, numbered 2002/139, supported by the Research Development Center of Ataturk University. The authors also
thank Prof. Dr. Sahin Gulaboglu, from the Chemical
Engineering Department, for his valuable contributions to clarify the chemical reaction in the study.

Silica fume decreased the liquid limits and

plasticity index and increased the plastic limits in
all the clay samples. For this reason, the soil types
of composite samples with high silica fume
contents changed from high-plastic clays (CH) to
low-plastic clays (OH).
Silica fume slightly increased the optimum water
content and decreased the maximum dry unit
weights of the samples for all the composite
samples in the same compaction effort.
A significant improvement on the permeability,
swelling pressure and compressive strength of
composite samples was obtained by using silica
fume. As the permeability and swelling pressure
decreased, the compressive strength of clay
samples proportionally increased with silica fume

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