Intake, Exhaust, and

In-cylinder Flow
Section 4

Valve Flow
At WOT the most significant gas flow restriction in an IC engine is the flow
through the intake and exhaust valves
Pv

The mass flow rate through the valve is given by:

1
2

Pcyl

2 Pv Pv

m = c f o Av co
k 1 Po Po
m , Po , o

Po = upstream stagnation pressure, Pv = valve static (for subsonic =Pcyl)

o = stagnation density, co = kRTo stagnation speed of sound,
Av = valve area, cf = flow coefficient
2
k

Flow chokes when

Po k + 1
=

Pv 2

2
m cr = c f o Av co

k + 1

k
k 1

k +1
k

1.9 , mass flow rate independent of Pv

k +1
2 ( k 1)

= c f Av

k Po 2

R To k + 1

k +1
2 ( k 1)

Valve Flow

Minimum areas:
low lift - Av = A1= dl
high lift - Av= A2=

d2/4

A1
A2

High lift

Low lift

flow coefficient (c f ) =

effective flow area (A f )

actual valve area (A v )
2

discharge coefficient (c d ) =

effective flow area (A f )

actual valve area (A v )
1

Flow Coefficient Measurement

Set: Av
Measure: mi, Ti, Pi
Calculate: cf
1
2

Flow coefficient (cf)

2
k +1

m 2 Pv k Pv k

cf =

o Av co k 1 Po Po

Nondimensional valve lift (l/d)

Valve Sizing
In order to avoid choked flow the intake valves are sized based on:
(U p )max
2
Av 1.3b
ci
where Av is the average valve area, b is the cylinder bore, U p is average
piston velocity at max engine speed, ci speed of sound of gas in intake port.
Exhaust valves can be smaller since the speed of sound of the exhaust
gas expelled is significantly larger.
Since there is only so much room available for valves it is common to
have multiple intake and exhaust valves per cylinder. This increases
valve area to piston area ratio permitting higher engine speeds.

Valve Sizing
Heads are often wedge-shaped or domed, this permits Av/Ap up to 0.5.

Permits more than two valves

per cylinder
Limited to two valves per cylinder
6

Valve Sizing
Double overhead cams per cylinder bank are used to accommodate
multiple valves, one cam for each pair of intake and exhaust valves

Valve Opening and Closing

In thermo cycles it is assumed the valves open and close instantaneously
In reality a cam is used to progressively open and close the valves, the
lobes are contoured so that the valve lands gently on the seat.

Valve displacement (l)

EVO
IVO
IVC
EVC
180o

Duration
Valve starts
to open

BC

TC

CA
Valve completely
closed
8

Valve Overlap
In real engines in order to ensure that the valve is fully open during a stroke,
for high volumetric efficiency, the valves are open for longer than 180o.
The exhaust valve opens before BC and closes after TC
The intake valve opens before TC and closes after BC.
At TC there is a period of time called valve overlap where both the intake
and exhaust valves are open.

EVO
4
IVO

IVC

5
1

EVC
180o
TC

BC

BC

TC

BC

CA

Valve overlap
When the intake valve opens bTC the cylinder pressure is at roughly Pe
Part throttle (Pi < Pe): residual gas flows into the intake port. During intake
stroke the residual gas is first returned to the cylinder then fresh gas is
introduced. Residual gas reduces part load performance.
WOT (Pi = Pe): some fresh gas can flow out the exhaust valve scavenging
residual (increases power but reduces fuel efficiency and increases emissions)
Supercharged (Pi > Pe): fresh gas can flow out the exhaust valve
Pe

Pi

Throttled
Pi < Pe

Pi

Pe

WOT
Pi = Pe

Pi

Pe

Supercharged
Pi > Pe

10

Engine Operating Conditions

Conventional engines operate at low rpms, with idle and part load fuel
economy being most important.
High performance engines operate at high rpms, with WOT torque (i.e.,
volumetric efficiency) being most important.

Engine load

WOT bmep

sfc

Engine speed:
Idle - 1000 rpm
Economy - 2500 rpm
Performance - 4000 rpm

11

Valve Timing

Conventional

Performance
EVO

EVO
IVO

IVO

e
i

IVC
EVC

TC

180o

BC

e
i
TC

IVC
EVC
180o

BC

@1000 rpm intake duration: 230o = 38.4 ms

@2500 rpm
230o = 15.4 ms
@5000 rpm
230o = 7.7 ms, 285o = 9.5 ms
12

Valve Overlap
Overlap
15o
65o

At high engine speeds less time available for fresh gas intake so need more
crank angles to get high volumetric efficiency large valve overlap
At low engine speed and part throttle want to minimized valve overlap
Variable Valve Timing (VVT) used to obtain optimum performance over
a wide range of engine speeds and load
Variable valve lift: high speed want high lift to increase air mass flow rate,
low speed want low lift to minimize overlap effects
13

Honda Variable valve Timing and lift Electronic Control (VTEC)

Intake valve pair has three cam lobes, two that operate the valves at
low-rpm, and a third that takes over at high rpm (4500 rpm).
Rocker

Camshaft
Follower

First introduced in N.A. 1991 Honda NSX model.

14

VTEC Intake Valve Operation

During low-rpm operation, the two rocker arms riding the low-rpm lobes open
the intake valves.

During high-rpm operation a pin locks the three rocker arms and the valves

are opened by the larger center cam lobe.

High rpm lobe has longer duration and higher lift raises max to 8000 rpm
giving higher peak power (good for racing) no benefit below 4500 rpm 15

Honda DOHC 3VTEC

16

Latest VTEC systems

no pin

pin 1
med-cam

low-lift
med-lift

med-lift

pin 2
high-cam
high-lift

Stage 1 (low speed): left valve left rocker arm driven by the low-lift left
cam. Right valve right rocker arm driven by the medium-lift right cam
Stage 2 (medium speed): left and right valve right rocker arm driven by
the medium-lift right cam
Stage 3 (high speed): left and right valve middle rocker arm driven by the
high-lift right cam
i-VTEC (2001): VTEC + continuously variable camshaft phasing for
benefit even at lower speeds

17

VVT - Cam Phasing

Shifts the phase angles of the camshaft, does not change the valve open
duration.

Most systems provide inlet, two-stage discrete phasing (0o and 30o), others
provide continuous phasing (0o - 30o)
At low speed, 0o phasing is used so as to minimize valve overlap to minimize
residual gas backup into intake (good idle performance)
At high speeds, max phasing so as to increase valve overlap high-speed
exhaust gas inertia pulls in fresh gas purging residual gas out of cylinder
(improves volumetric efficiency)
18

BMW Double VANOS and Valvetronic

Double VANOS system provides continuous phasing for both the intake
(max range 40o) and exhaust valves (max range 25o)

Cap moves towards or away from the cam based on engine speed and gas
pedal position by varying hydraulic pressure in the two chambers
Valvetronic also permits continuously variable intake valve lift, from ~0 to
10 mm, on the intake camshaft. This eliminates the need for a throttle valve
reducing pumping losses (10% improvement in power and fuel economy).
19

Delphi cam phasing system

LP

HP

20

Toyotas VVTL
VVTL uses cam phasing and two cam profiles for duration

At low rpm: long duration cam not engaged, short duration cam runs on
roller follower to reduce friction
At high rpm: long duration cam engaged by sliding pin and locking
follower height also increases the lift (for Honda VTEC, both the
duration and lift are implemented by the cam lobes)
21

Solenoid Activated Valves

Needs a large alternator to supply high current, also gently seating the
valve is difficult, needs sophisticated electronics

22

Intake and Exhaust Processes in 4-Stroke Cycle

EVO

P = cylinder pressure
Lv = valve displacement

P, Lv
1

Lv, exh

Exhaust

Lv, int

Ppoo

Intake

Po

WOT
Part throttle

e
i
TC

1st

crank shaft rev: 1 - 3 2

nd
2 crank shaft rev: 4

BC

TC

4
2

BC

23

Valve Float
The valve spring normally keeps the top of the valve stem in contact with
the cam lobe
At very high engine speeds, and thus high camshaft speeds, it is difficult to
maintain contact between the cam lobe and the top of the valve stem as a
result the valves stay open longer than desired and slam into valve seat.

Spring

24

Intake and Exhaust System for Single Cylinder Engine

P
Air cleaner

Po, To

Cylinder

Po
Muffler

25

Intake and Exhaust Manifold

The intake manifold is a system designed to deliver air to the engine from
a plenum to multiple cylinders through pipes called runners.

Velocity magnitude (m/s)

Exhaust manifold used to duct the exhaust gases from each cylinder to
a point of expulsion such as the tail pipe.
26

Manifold Pressure

3000 rpm

6000 rpm

27

Supercharger and Turbocharger

These devices are used to increase the power of an IC engine by raising
the intake pressure and thus allowing more fuel to be burned per cycle.
Allows the use of a 4 cylinder instead of 6 cylinder engines cost effective
and weight reduction
Superchargers are compressors that are mechanically driven by the engine
crankshaft and thus represents a parasitic load.
Compressor
Pint > Patm
Patm

Win

28

Positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors: piston, Roots, and screw
Most common is the Roots compressor pushes air forward without
pressurizing it internally.

P1

P2

Pressurization occurs in the manifold when the air flow rate supplied
is larger than that ingested by the cylinders.
Produces constant flow rate independent of boost pressure (P2)
29

Performance of Positive Displacement Compressors

s/co = rotor tip Mach#

~ pump speed
Screw

Roots

c = compressor efficiency = ratio of isentropic work and actual work

Extra energy goes to heat up air leading to a reduction in density
30

Dynamic Compressors
Dynamic compressor has a rotating element that adds tangential
velocity to the flow which is converted to pressure in a diffuser.
Most common is the radial (or centrifugal) type

Produces a constant boost pressure independent of the mass flow rate

31

To the left of surge line the flow is

unstable (boundary layer separation
and flow reversal)

To the right of 65% line the compressor

becomes very inefficient:
a) air is heated excessively
b) takes excess power from the crank
shaft

Mass flow rate (Pounds of air per minute)

32

Turbochargers couple a compressor with a turbine driven by the exhaust

gas. The compressor pressure is proportional to the engine speed

Aftercooler

Compressor also raises the gas temperature, so after-coolers are used

after the compressor to drop the temperature and thus increase the air
density.
33

The peak pressure in the exhaust system is only slightly greater than
atmospheric small P across turbine
In order to produce enough power to run compressor the turbine speed
must be very fast (100k-200k rev/min) long term reliability an issue
Takes time for turbine to spool up to speed, so when the throttle is opened
suddenly there is a delay in achieving peak power - turbo lag

EXHAUST
FLOW

INTAKE
AIR

34

Waste gate valve used to bypass exhaust gas flow from the turbine
It is used as a full-load boost limiter and in new engines used to control
the boost level by controlling the amount of bypass using proportional
control to improve drivability
Engine

WASTE GATE
Proportional
valve

AIR
Patm

Exhaust
Patm
Turbine

WASTE GATE

Compressor

35

Turbo Lag Reduction: Twin Turbo

Two turbochargers:
Smaller turbo for low rpm low load and a larger one for high load
Smaller turbo gets up to speed faster so reduction in turbo lag
Supercharger/turbo:
Supercharger used at low speed to eliminate turbo lag
At higher rpm turbo charger used exclusively to eliminate parasitic load

2006 Volkswagen Golf GT 1.4 L GDI uses twin turbo:

0-2400 rpm roots blower
>3500 rpm turbocharger

36

BMW 2.0L I4 turbo diesel surpasses 100 hp/L (75 kW/L)

2008 BMW 4.4L V8 valley mounted twin turbo

37

Turbo Lag Reduction: Variable Geometry Turbo (VGT)

Variable guide vanes direct the flow of exhaust gas from the engine in
exactly the direction required on to the turbine wheel of the turbocharger.
Good response and high torque at low engine speeds as well as superior
output and high performance at high engine speeds
VGT used on diesel engines with exhaust temps (700-800 C) not
normally used in SI engine due to high exhaust temp (950 C)

Guide vane

38
2006 Porche 911 Variable Turbine Geometry uses temperature-resistant materials

Low engine rpm (low exhaust flow velocity):

Vanes are partially closed accelerating the exhaust
gas flow. The exhaust flow hits the turbine blades at
right angle. Both make the turbine spin faster

High engine rpm (high exhaust flow velocity):

The vanes are fully opened to take advantage of the
high exhaust flow. This also releases the exhaust
pressure in the turbocharger, saving the need for
waste gate.

39

Variable Geometry Turbo

Holset VGT

40

Volumetric Efficiency

a ,cylVd ,a
ma
=
Recall volumetric efficiency is defined as: v =
a ,oVd
a ,oVd

Pcyl
Tcyl
=
Po
To

Vd ,a

Vd

Volumetric efficiency is affected by :

i) Fuel evaporation
ii) Mixture temperature
iii) Pressure drop in the intake system
iv) Gasdynamic effects
v) Valve timing

Note: mean piston speed proportional

to air flow velocity
or engine speed

N = ( S / 2) U p
41

Factors affecting v
Fuel evaporation:
In naturally aspirated engines (no supercharging) the volumetric efficiency
will always be less than 100% because fuel is added and the fuel vapour
will displace incoming air.
The earlier the fuel is added in the intake system the lower the volumetric
efficiency because more of the fuel evaporates before entering the cylinder.
In Diesels and GDIs the fuel is added directly into the cylinder after the
intake stroke so get higher volumetric efficiency.

42

Factors affecting v
Heat transfer:
All intake systems are hotter than ambient air, e.g., injection system and
throttle bodies are purposely heated to enhance fuel evaporation.
Therefore, the density of the air entering the cylinder is lower than
ambient air density.
Greatest problem at lower engine speeds more time for air to be heated.
Use cold air intake

Pcyl

m f
m a

43

Factors affecting v
Fluid friction:
The air flows through a duct fitted with an air filter, throttle and intake valve
Air moving through any flow passage or past a flow restriction undergoes a
pressure drop
The pressure at the cylinder is thus lower than atmospheric pressure
Greatest problem at higher engine speeds when the air flow velocity is high

44

Pressure losses over the length of the intake system

P

Po = atmospheric pressure

Pair = pressure losses in air cleaner

Pu = intake losses upstream of throttle

Air cleaner

Po

Pair

Pthr = loss across throttle

Pvalve = loss across intake valve

Pu

Pthrottle

Pvalve

WOT
Part throttle
Cylinder

Muffler

Extreme case of flow restriction is when the flow chokes at the intake valve
as engine speed increases flow velocity remains the same have less fill 45
time.

Factors affecting v
Residual gas:
Residual gas takes up cylinder volume that would otherwise contain air
1
( Pe / P4 )1 / k
=
f
Recall the residual fraction given by
r

As (Pe/P4 ~ Pe/Pi) increases, or r decreases the fraction of cylinder volume

occupied by residual gas increases and thus volumetric efficiency
decreases.
4

e
i
TC

1
BC

46

Factors affecting v
Opening intake valve before TC (valve overlap):
The longer the valve overlap, more exhaust gases rush into the
intake port.
Greatest problem at idle (part throttle and lower engine speeds) low
intake pressure and more time for exhaust gases to back up.

EO
IO

e
i
TC

IC
EC

BC

47

Factors affecting v
Closing the intake valve after BC (backflow):
P, Lv

When piston reaches BC still have P across the

intake valve, mixture continues to flow into cylinder,
close the intake valve after BC.

Lv, exh

Lv, int

P
po

As the piston changes direction the mixture is compressed, when the

pressure equals the intake manifold pressure the flow into the cylinder stops.
Best time to close the intake valve is when the manifold and cylinder
pressures are equal, close the valve too early and dont get full charge, too
late and air flows back into the intake port.
At high engine speeds larger P across intake valve because of higher
flow velocity, so ideally want to close valve later after BC (60o aBC).
At low engine speeds smaller P across the intake valve so ideally want
to close the intake valve earlier after BC (40o aBC).
48

Factors affecting v

RAM Effect:
As the intake valve closes at higher engine speeds, the inertia of the air in
the intake system increases the pressure in the intake port, P + u 2 = Ps
allowing more air to be injected
This effect becomes progressively more important at higher engine speeds.
To take advantage of ram effect close intake valve after BC.

Pcyl

49

Factors affecting v
Intake tuning:
When the intake valve opens the air suddenly rushes into the cylinder and
an expansion wave propagates back to the intake manifold at the local speed
of sound relative to the flow velocity.
When the expansion wave reaches the manifold it reflects back towards to
intake valve as a compression wave. The time it takes for the round trip
depends on the length of the runner (L) and the flow velocity.
If the timing is appropriate the compression wave arrives at the inlet at the
end of the intake process raising the pressure above the nominal inlet
pressure allowing more air to be injected.

twave =

2L
c

2 2
tvalve

3 N

c
N

For fixed runner length the intake is tuned for one engine speed.
50

Since L~1/N : high engine speed use short runners,

low engine speeds use long runners

Adjustable runner length

Audi V6

Similarly the exhaust system can be tuned to get a lower pressure at

the exhaust valve increasing the exhaust flow velocity.

51

Factors affecting v as a function of engine speeds

Fuel vapour pressure

52

In-Cylinder Fluid flow

Three parameters are used to characterize large-scale in-cylinder fluid
motion: swirl, squish, and tumble.
Swirl is the rotational flow about the cylinder axis.

Swirl is used to:

i) promote rapid combustion in SI engines
ii) rapidly mix fuel and air in gasoline direct injection engines
iii) rapidly mix fuel and air in CI engines
The swirl is generated during air induction into the cylinder by either:
i) tangentially directing the flow into the cylinder, or
ii) pre-swirling the incoming flow by the use of helical ports.

53

Cylinder Swirl and its Generation

Swirl motion

Helical port

Tangential injection

Contoured valve
54

Swirl Theory
Swirl can be simply modelled as solid body rotation, i.e., cylinder of gas
rotating at angular velocity, .
Tangential flow velocity is v = r
The swirl ratio, Rs, is defined as the ratio of the gas angular velocity and
the crank shaft angular velocity, i.e.,

Rs =
2N
where N is the engine speed (revolutions per second)
is the air solid-body angular velocity (rad/s)
Most production engines have Rs in the range of 0.5 -1.0
55

Swirl Theory
The angular momentum, , and moment of inertia, I, of a rotating
volume of gas is:
= I

I = rdm

MB 2
for a cylinder I =
8

where M is the total gas mass

B is the cylinder bore
During the cycle some swirl decays due to friction, but most of it persists
through the compression, combustion and expansion processes.
Neglecting friction, angular momentum I is conserved,
I decreases increases

56

Engine Swirl
Many engines have a wedge shape cylinder head cavity or a bowl in the
piston where the gas ends up at TC.

During the compression process as the piston approaches TC more of the

air enters the cavity and the air cylinder moment of inertia decreases and
the angular velocity (and thus the swirl) increases.

57

Squish and Tumble

Squish is the radial flow occurring at the end of the compression stroke in
which the compressed gases flow into the piston or cylinder head cavity.

As the piston reaches TC the squish motion generates a secondary flow

called tumble, where rotation occurs about a circumferential axis near the
outer edge of the cavity.

58

Intake Flow
The intake process governs many important aspects of the flow within the
cylinder. The gas issues from the valve opening as a conical jet with radial
and axial velocities that are about ten times the mean piston velocity.
The jet separates from the valve producing shear layers with large velocity
gradients which generate turbulence.
The jet is deflected by the cylinder wall down towards the piston and up
towards the cylinder head producing recirculation zones.
Additional turbulence is generated by the velocity gradient at the wall
in the boundary layer.
Shear layers
Large vortices become unstable
and eventually break down into
turbulent motion

59

Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is characterized by its transient and random nature that is
superimposed on a steady mean flow.

Steady flow

Turbulent flows are always dissipative, viscous shear stresses result in an

increase in the internal energy at the expense of its kinetic energy.
So energy is required to generate turbulence, if no energy is supplied
turbulence decays.
The source of energy for turbulent velocity fluctuations is shear in the mean
flow, e.g., jets and boundary layers.
60

Statistical Approach to Turbulence

The fluid velocity measured at a point in a specific direction:
Ux(t)
Ux mean velocity (steady)
Ux(t1)

u(t2)
t1

t2

Reynolds decomposition for statistically steady flow:

U (t ) = U + u ' (t )
1
where U = tt U(t)dt mean velocity
t
u' is the fluctuating component
2

It is common practice to define the turbulent fluctuation intensity, ut, in

terms of the root-mean-square of the fluctuations:
ut = u 'rms = u '2

where u '2 =

1 t
2
t (u ' (t ) ) dt
t
2

61

Turbulence Measurements in Engines

The following shows the velocity measurement at a point in the cylinder
over time for a two-stroke engine (cycle has 360 CA)
Cycle i
TC

Instantaneous

BC
Measurement
point

BC

TC

BC

TC

BC

CA
Individual cycle mean

In engines the flow is statistically periodic (the flow pattern changes with
crank angle) not steady.
The instantaneous velocity measured at a specific crank angle in a
particular cycle i is:
U ( , i ) = U ( ) + u ' ( , i )
62

Turbulence Measurements in Engines

There are both cycle-by-cycle variations in the mean flow at any point in the
cycle as well as turbulent fluctuations about that specific cycles mean flow.
u

Individual cycle
mean

Instantaneous

UEA

Ensemble average

CA

Flows that are statistically periodic are treated using ensemble average:
1n
U EA ( ) = U ( , i )
n i

where n is the number of cycles averaged.

63

Turbulence Measurements in Engines

The difference between the mean velocity in a particular cycle and the
ensemble average is defined as the cycle-by-cycle variation in mean velocity:
U ( , i ) = U ( , i ) U EA ( )

If the cycle-by-cycle variations are small then the cycle mean is equal to
the ensemble average.
Thus, the instantaneous velocity can be split into three components:
U ( , i ) = U EA ( ) + U ( , i ) + u ' ( , i )

The turbulent intensity is determined by ensemble averaging:

1 n 2

ut ( ) = u ' ( , i )
n i =1

64

Turbulence Measurements in Engines

At the end of compression when the piston is at TC, the turbulence
fluctuating intensity is about one-half the mean piston speed:
1
ut = U P
2

The two data sets shown with red

lines are for individual cycle
turbulence intensity.
The rest of the points are for
ensemble averaged, which means
they include cycle-by-cycle
variations in the mean velocity,
making it larger by up to 2 times.

65

Turbulence Length-Scales
Turbulent flow is comprised of unsteady eddies (vortices) with a multitude
of length-scales and time-scales (turnover time).
The largest eddies in the flow are limited in size by the enclosure with
characteristic length-scale of L (e.g., large eddy associated with swirl).
The integral scale l represents the largest turbulent eddy, determined
by the fluctuating velocity frequency.
Most of the turbulent KE is contained in the large eddies that breakdown
into smaller size eddies via inviscid mechanisms.
The turbulent KE cascades from the larger structures to the smaller
structures where it is converted to thermal energy via viscous effects.
What scale eddy is required to dissipate energy?

66

Length-Scales of Turbulence
Reynolds number (Re) of an eddy with circulation velocity u' and size L is:

u '2 L2

3
inertia force per unit volume
u ' L
L
Re =
=

u ' L
viscous force per unit volume

Viscous forces are only important in the smallest scale where the Re 1
The eddy size at which the flow KE is dissipated by viscous effects is
known as the Kolmogorov scale, and the eddy dimension is .
There is one more length-scale between the integral and Kolmogorov scales
known as the Taylor microscale which represents the distance over which
viscous effects can be felt, or the mean spacing between dissipative eddies.

67

Length-Scales of Turbulence
The scales are: Integral (l), Taylor micro (l), Kolmogorov ()

Gas flow through

intake valve

68

The Length-Scales of Turbulence

Dimensional analysis leads to the following relationships between the scales:
l = C1 L
12

15
= Re t1 2
l C

= (C )

1 4

Re t3 4

where C1, C, and C are numbers unique to the flow.

The turbulent Reynolds number is based on the integral scale and the
turbulent fluctuation intensity
ul
Re t = t

If the integral scale can be determined, so can all the other scales.
As the engine speed increases the Re increases, so the smaller scales
of turbulence decrease in size.

69

Two-Stroke Engine In-Cylinder Flow

Most common two-stroke engines are crankcase-scavenged
Another class of two-stroke engine uses a separate compressor to deliver
air into the cylinder to scavenge the combustion products, fuel is
injected directly into the cylinder.

AIR
PROD
AIR

70

Scavanging Performance

Dr =

Delivery ratio, Dr

mass of delivered air per cycle

displaced volume ambient density
mass of delivered air retained
mass of delivered air

Trapping efficiency,

Scavenging efficiency, es

mass of delivered air retained

es =
mass of trapped cylinder charge

If the cylinder volume is completely filled with air the delivery ratio is
given by:

Dr =

a Vbc Vbc
r
>1
=
=
a Vd Vd r 1

71

Scavenging Models
A. Perfect scavanging no mixing, air displaces the products out the exhaust
if extra air is delivered (Dr > r/(r-1) ) it is not retained
B. Short circuiting the air initially displaces all the products within the path
of the short circuit and then flows into and out of the cylinder

Trapping efficiency

Scavenging efficiency

C. Perfect mixing the air that enters the cylinder mixes instantaneously
with the products, so immediately the gas leaving includes
both air and products

Delivery ratio

Delivery ratio

72