Atm Ran Transport

5 Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network
Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network
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WCDMA RAN Field Maintenance
Intentionally Blank
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CONTENT
CONTENT .......................................................................................................91
ATM..................................................................................................................92
THE DESIGN OF THE ATM CELL....................................................................92
THE PRINCIPLE OF ATM SWITCHING ...........................................................93
CLASSIFICATION OF SERVICES....................................................................94
ATM ADAPTATION LAYER (AAL)....................................................................96
ATM NETWORK INTERFACES......................................................................101
SIGNALING ..................................................................................................103
WCDMA RAN SIGNALING INTERFACES& PROTOCOL STACKS .............103
IP.....................................................................................................................107
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................107
CLASSLESS INTER DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR)..........................................122
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ATM
THE DESIGN OF THE ATM CELL
The cornerstone of ATM is the cell. The information flow, with
different and varying bit rates, is uniformly organised into cells
which consist of a cell header of five octets and a user part of 48
octets; 53 octets in all. ATM is a packet mode technique, but the
delay in the network can be kept to a minimum because the cells
have a fixed length. See Figure 5 -1.
Error control of the header

53 bytes
Address
Payload
Header
48 bytes
5 bytes
ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Figure 5 -1: The ATM Cell
The cell header is divided into different fields. The most important
field is the address field, which consists of a logical channel
number (the Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and the Virtual Channel
Identifier (VCI)). The address field identifies the circuit and
provides a unique link address between two network nodes. See
the figure below.
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Payload
Header Error
Control (HEC)
Cell Payload
loss type
VCI
prio. id.
Virtual Channel
Identifier (VCI)
Header
VCI
VPI
Virtual Path
Identifier (VPI)
Figure 5 - 2: The Contents of an ATM Cell Header
The PTI (Payload Type Identifier) specifies whether the cell

contains user information or information to be used by the network
itself, for example, Operation and Maintenance purposes.
CLP (Cell Loss Priority) specifies the priority level of the cell (out of
two possible levels) if there is not enough space for all cells. HEC
(Header Error Control) contains a check value, which is used by
nodes in the network and at the receiving end to detect any
distortion of the header (bit errors).
THE PRINCIPLE OF ATM SWITCHING

In an ATM switch, ATM cells are transported from an incoming
logical channel to one or more outgoing logical channels. A logical
channel is indicated by a combination of two identities:
1. The number of the physical link
2. The identity of the channel on the physical link, which is made
up of the Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and the Virtual Channel
Identifier (VCI)
The switching of cells through an ATM node requires a tie between
the identities of incoming and outgoing logical channels. Two
transport functions required in the ATM switch are described
below; they are also compared with the corresponding functions in
a circuit -mode switch. The first function can be compared to the
change of Time Slot (TS) numbers in circuit-mode switching. This
function transfers a voice sample from an incoming TS to an
outgoing TS.
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In an ATM network, the identities of the different logical channels

correspond to the TSs. The identity is composed of two values in
two different fields in the header of the cell, that is, the VPI and
VCI. They have the same task as the TS in a circuit-switched
system, that is, to identify each individual connection on each
physical link between two nodes.
CLASSIFICATION OF SERVICES
The ITU-T has standardised a protocol reference model, which
shows similarities with the OSI model. The three lowest layers in
the protocol reference model are as follows:
Layer 1 - the Physical Layer
Layer 2 - the ATM Layer
Layer 3 - the ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL).
To enable the transfer of both data and isochronous services, the

information must be adapted to the network in different ways. ATM
has been divided into four service classes (A, B, C and D) on the
basis of three parameters. Four protocols (AAL 1, AAL 2, AAL 3/4
and AAL 5) are defined for each one of the classes (See figure
below). Note that AAL is not part of the cell header.
Class A:
Synchronous
Constant
bitrate
ex. Telephony
Class B:
Synchronous
Variable bitrate
Compression
ex
Videoconference
Class C:
Data services
Connecion
Oriented
ex. X.25, FR
Class D:
Data services
Connecion
Less
ex. IPnetworks
Cell header
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
5 octets
(e.g voice)
(e.g video)
AAL-1-5
AAL-1
AAL-2
AAL-3/4
AAL-5
AAL-3/4
AAL-5
Isochronous services
Remaining
information
fields
44-47 octets
Constant
bit rate
Asynchronous services
Variable bit rate
Connection-oriented transfer
Connectionless transfer
Figure 5 -3: ATM Adaptation Layers and Classes
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The following three parameters are used for classification:
Isochronous or asynchronous services
Constant or variable bit rate
Connection-oriented or connectionless transfer.
Class A Constant Bit Rate (CBR) service: AAL1 supports a

connection-oriented service in which the bit rate is constant.
Examples of this type of service include 64 Kbit/sec voice, fixedrate uncompressed video and leased lines for private data
networks.
Class B Variable Bit (VBR) service: AAL 2 supports a
connection-oriented service in which the bit rate is variable but
requires a bounded delay for delivery. Examples of this type of
service include compressed packetized voice or video. The
requirement on bounded delay for delivery is necessary for the
receiver to reconstruct the original uncompressed voice or video.
Class C Connection-oriented data service: Examples of this type
of service include connection-oriented file transfer and in general,
data network applications where a connection is set up before data
is transferred. This service has a variable bit rate and does not
require bounded delay for delivery. The ITU originally
recommended two types of AAL protocols to support this service
class. However these two types have been merged into a single
type, called AAL3/4. Because of the high complexity of AAL3/4
protocols, the AAL5 protocol has been proposed and is often used
to support this class of service.
Class D Connectionless data service: Examples of this type of
service include Datagram traffic and in general, data network
applications where no connection is set up before data is
transferred. Either AAL3/4 or AAL5 can be used to support this
class of service.
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ATM ADAPTATION LAYER (AAL)

AAL 0
AAL0 is an Ericsson internal protocol. An AAL0 connection
provides applications with a pure ATM cell transport service to
forward fixed size (48 octets) packets between devices. An AAL0
connection provides the bi-directional transportation of user data
end-to-end between two AAL0 Connection End Points (CEPs).
AAL 1
AAL 1 provides circuit-switched connections with constant bit rate
and minimal delay. In other words, AAL 1 supports class A
services (voice and video traffic). Since voice traffic is error
tolerant, no CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Checksum) error control is
required. However, what is important in the case of voice
transmission is that cells are received in the exact sequence in
which they were sent, and that they arrive at a constant rate. AAL1
implements sequence number generation and checking.
User information, delivered to AAL 1 at a constant bit rate, is
placed in a Segmentation and Reassemble Protocol Data Unit
(SAR-PDU) that is made up of 48 octets. The information is
subdivided into packets containing 47 octets and a one-octet SAR
header. The packets are then forwarded to the ATM layer, where
they will fill out the cells information field. See figure below.
Payload, 47 bytes (376 bits)
Header, 5 bytes
SNP
SN
SN, Sequence Number, 3 bits are used
to detect loss of cells
SNP, Sequence Number Protection
Figure 5 - 4: AAL1 Segmentation And Reassembly Sublayer Protocol Data Unit (SAR PDU)
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AAL 2
An ATM Adaptation Layer is present in an ATM system to enable
users of the ATM service to adapt the service to their specific
needs. The purpose of AAL 2 is the realization of isochronous
connections with variable bit rate and minimal delay. In other
words, AAL 2 supports class B services.
More than one AAL type 2, user information stream, can be
supported on a single ATM VC connection. AAL2 is used for voice
and data traffic in the UMTS network.
Only point-to-point bi-directional AAL2 connections are supported.
The supported type of connection is on-demand (switched). AAL2
connection points must be reserved before the connection is
established.
The interworking between a user and the ATM Adaptation Layer
type 2 (AAL2) service, consists the following functions:
AAL2 resource handling. Functions to reserve and release an

AAL2 termination connection point.
Data transfer of AAL2 SDUs between two AAL2 SAPs.
The ATM ports, supporting the AAL2 terminations that are

interconnected by AAL2, may reside in the same UTRAN node, or
in different nodes.
One important application of AAL 2 is the transfer of low-bit-ratecoded voice with silence removal. Low-bit-rate coding is frequently
used in corporate and cellular networks.
When 64 Kbit/s PCM coding and AAL 1 are employed, the cellassembly delay (the time it takes to fill a cell), is slightly more than
6 ms. In a ATM system conveying low-bit-rate-coded voice, each
cell must be used for many voice circuits in order to limit this delay
(which, without silence removal, would be about 48 ms for one 8
Kbit/s voice circuit). Figure 5 - 5 shows three voice circuits.
In order to distinguish between the separate voice circuits in a cell,
a three-byte packet header is used for each circuit.
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Payload
HEC UUI
Payload
Payload
Header, 5 bytes
LI
CID
STF
STF, Start Field
CID, Channel Identity

LI, Length Indicator
UUI, User-to-user Indicator
HEC, Header Error Control
Figure 5 - 5: AAL2 Segmentation and Reassemble Sublayer Protocol Data Unit
The receiving AAL 2 function contains an input buffer that

smoothes out delay variations caused by silence removal. It also
ensures that coded voice is sent to the decoder at an even pace.
The mixing of packets in a cell requires more overhead, but it also
offers the benefits of efficient statistical multiplexing, provided the
number of circuits is large preferably at least 50.
When only a few compressed voice circuits are available, data
circuits can be added to obtain the desired statistical multiplexing
and short cell-assembly delay.
Up to 256 voice circuits can be transferred in a T1 PCM system
(1.5 Mbit/s). This is ten times as efficient as the capacity achieved
by using 64 Kbit/s PCM coding and circuit-switched connections.
The ATM Adaptation Layer type 2 system function has two
categories of users, namely the node external users and users of
the internal system functions.
This interface is used to reserve and release AAL2 Termination
Connection Points (TCPs) and to transfer AAL2 Service Data Units
(SDUs) peer-to peer. Data transfer of AAL2 SDUs is only possible
after reservation of an AAL2 TCP and connection establishment
between that TCP and another AAL2 TCP.
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AAL 5
AAL 5 was specified when AAL 3/4 had been found to be too
complex for certain services. One disadvantage of the AAL 3/4
protocol is its relatively large overhead, resulting in low efficiency.
For this reason, designers developed AAL 5, which is less
complex, but provides more reliable bit-error checking. Its
simplicity and efficiency have led to AAL 5 being named the
Simple and Efficient Adaptation Layer (SEAL).
User Information
8 bytes
Payload (1-65535 bytes)
32
16
CRC
CPI UU
UU, User-to-user indicator
CPI, Common Part Indicator
L, Length
CRC, Cyclic Redundancy Check
Padding
Pay-load Type (PT) AAU=0 or 1
Figure 5 - 6: AAL5, Variable Bit Rate
AAL 5 is used for Frame Relay LAN emulation and signaling (See
figure 5-6 above). It is limited to the handling of message modes
without the use of any retransmission mechanisms. AAL 5 defines
a CS-PDU (Convergence Sublayer Protocol Data Unit), which
communicates with the SAR function. Like AAL 3/4, the CS-PDU
information field can consist of a maximum of 65,532 octets. The
CS-PDU has a trailer of eight octets (including information for error
detection and error handling) is filled by the padding (PAD) field
with up to 47 octets so that a multiple of 48 is achieved.
AAL2U
The AAL2U format is used within a Cello node. Each AAL2
connection is handled as a separate internal connection according
to the AAL2U format. The AAL2U format contains only one AAL2
packet within each ATM cell. See figure below.
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AAL2
Payload
Payload
Payload
Header, 5 bytes
AAL 2U
Payload
Payload
Payload
Figure 5 -7: AAL2 De-multiplexed to AAL2U
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ATM NETWORK INTERFACES

The access interface is referred to as the User Network Interface
(UNI), and the interface between network nodes is referred to as
the Network Node Interface (NNI).
NNI
ATM
NT1
Private UNI
UNI
Public UNI
ATM
NT2
Private ATM network
Other Operator
UNI: User to Network Interface

NNI: Node to Network Interface
Figure 5 -8: ATM Network Interfaces
Figure 5 -9 shows the User to Network Interface (UNI). The VP

consists of 8 bits, which means that there can be 256 routes. The
VCI consists of 16 bits; therefore, each route can have 65535
channels. GFC is not used.
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Ch n
Information field, 48 bytes (384 bits)
HEC CLP PTI
16
VCI
Header, 5 bytes
VPI GFC
GFC, Generic Flow Control
VPI, Virtual Path Identifier
VCI, Virtual Channel Identifier
PTI, Payload Type Identifier
CLP, Cell Loss Priority
Figure 5 -9: The ATM-cell, User-Network Interface
Figure 5 -10 shows the NNI interface. The VP is extended to 12

bits for the NNI interface (8 in the UNI). This means that there can
be 4096 routes and each route can have 65535 channels (16 bit
VCI).
Ch n
Information field, 48 bytes (384 bits)
HEC CLP PTI
Header, 5 bytes
16
12
VCI
VPI
VPI, Virtual Path Identifier
VCI, Virtual Channel Identifier
PTI, Payload Type Identifier
CLP, Cell Loss Priority
Figure 5 -10: The ATM-cell, Network-Node Interface
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SIGNALING
In a WCDMA RAN network, call-control related signaling protocols
(for example NBAP) are completely separated from those used for
bearer control (Q2630.1). The WCDMA RAN signaling interfaces
and protocol stacks are described in this section.
WCDMA RAN SIGNALING INTERFACES& PROTOCOL STACKS

Different interfaces exist Inside the WCDMA Radio Access
Network. These are as follows:
Uu - the interface between the 3rd Generation mobile user and

the RBS.
Iub - the interface between the RBS and the RNC
Iu the interface between the RNC and the Core Network

Domain
Iur - the interface between RNCs.
See figure 5-11.
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Uu
Iub
Core Network
Packet Domain
RNC
Iup
Iur
Iub
RNC
MGW
Iuc
Core Network
Circuit Swiched
PSTN/ISDN
Domain
Figure 5 -11: WCDMA RAN Interface Reference
Protocol Stacks
Figure 5-12 shows the protocol stacks for all three Iu interfaces.
The call control protocols, RANAP and RNSAP, use SCCP layer
functions to transfer signaling protocol data units. The SCCP layer
complements MTP3-b, which offers signaling link layer
functionality (see bellow for details).
The bearer control protocol, QAAL2 (also called Q 2630.1), is used
with MTP3-b in the same way.
However, in the case of the Iub interface, QAAL2 (and NBAP) will
use a single UNI-SAAL signaling link, established between an
RBS and an RNC, as the data link layer.
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On the other hand, in the Iu and Iur interfaces, Cello uses NNISAAL to permanently establish signaling links as the transport
system for the signaling data units. NNI-SAAL is based on a
common part of an AAL5 common part and contains a service
specific part for the signaling. On the physical layer this will be
PDH or SDH.
C-plane radio C-plane radio

application
application
Signaling(Iu) Signaling (Iur)
RANAP
Control Plane
Access Link
Bearer Control
(Iu&Iur)
Control Plane
Access Link
Bearer Control
(Iub)
Control plane
radio application
Signaling (Iub)
RNSAP
SCCP
Q.2630.1
Q.2630.1
NBAP
MTP3b
UNI-SAAL
NNI-SAAL
AAL5
ATM/L1
Figure 5 -12: Signaling Protocol Stacks
MTP 3b Layer
The MTP level 3 broadband serves as a transport system, which
provides reliable transfer of connectionless signaling messages
between communicating nodes in a telecommunications
environment.
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The Message Transfer Part Layer 3 broadband (MTP-3b) provides

additional functions to a data link layer (MTP level 2), to cater for:
Signaling network management functions, to control

reconfiguration and other actions to preserve or restore the
normal message transfer capability.
Signaling message handling functions, for routing

messages to the appropriate physical data link and to
distribute received messages within the local SP to the correct
UP, that is, to provide connectionless transfer of data across
the signaling network.
Figure 5 -12 provides and overview of the SS7 protocols, including

the MTP 3b and the SCCP layer.
SCCP
The Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) provides additional
functions to the MTP-3b layer, to cater for:
Set-up of logical signaling connections
Release of logical signaling connections
Transfer of data with or without logical signaling connections.
The SCCP services are provided to application programs by

accessing SCCP Service Access Points (SAPs). Two basic
categories of addresses are distinguished by SCCP routing, a
Global Title (an address such as dialed numbers), which invokes
the translation function of the SCCP; or a Destination Point Code
(DPC) and Subsystem Number (SSN), which allow direct routing
by the SCCP and Network Layers.
Q.2630.1 (QAAL2)
This is the network connection control signaling used to set-up and
release network-wide AAL2 connections. It is based upon the
recommendation of the ITU-T Q2630.1.
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IP
INTRODUCTION
TCP/IP was initially designed to meet the data communication
needs of the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD).
In the late 1960s, the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA, now called DARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense
began a partnership with U.S. universities and the corporate
research community to design open, standard protocols and build
multi-vendor networks.
The result was ARPANET, the first packet switching network. The
first experimental four-node version of ARPANET went into
operation in 1969. These four nodes at three different sites were
connected together via 56 Kbit/s circuits, using the Network
Control Protocol (NCP). The experiment was a success, and the
trial network ultimately evolved into a useful operational network,
the "ARPA Internet".
In 1974, the design for a new set of core protocols, for the
ARPANET was proposed in a paper by Vinton G. Cerf and Robert
E. Kahn. The official name for the set of protocols was TCP/IP
Internet Protocol Suite, commonly referred to as TCP/IP, which is
taken from the name of the network layer protocol (Internet
protocol [IP]) and one of the transport layer protocols
(Transmission Control Protocol [TCP]).
TCP/IP is a set of network standards specifying how computers
should communicate and contain a set of conventions for
interconnecting networks and routing traffic. The initial
specification went through four early versions, culminating in
version 4 in 1979.
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The OSI Layer model

The Physical Layer defines the type of medium, the transmission
method, and the transmission rates available for the network.
The Data Link Layer defines how the network medium is
accessed: the protocols used, the packet/framing methods, and
the virtual circuit/ connection services.
The Network Layer standardizes the way in which addressing is
accomplished between linked networks.
The Transport Layer handles the task of reliable message delivery
and flow control between applications on different devices.
The Session Layer establishes two-way communication between
applications running on different devices on the network.
The Presentation layer translates data formats so that devices with
different "languages" can communicate.
The Application Layer interfaces directly with the application
programs running on the devices. It provides services such as file
access and transfer peer-to-peer communication among
applications, and resource sharing.
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OSI 7-Layer Model
APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
SESSION
TRANSPORT
Interfaces directly with application programs running

on the devices.
Converts code and reformats data.
Co-ordinates interaction between end
-to-end
application processes.
Provides end-to-end data integrity and quality of
service.
NETWORK
Switches and routes information to the appropriate

network device.
DATA LINK
Transfers units of information to the other end of the

physical link.
PHYSICAL
Transmits and receives on the network medium.
Figure 5 -13: OSI 7-Layer Model
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is not a
single protocol; it refers to a family or suite of protocols. The suite
consists of a four-layer model.
Network Interface Layer

The Network Interface Layer is equivalent to the combination of
the Physical and Data Link Layers in the OSI model. It is
responsible for formatting packets and placing them onto the
underlying network. All common Data Link protocols support
TCP/IP.
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Internet Layer
The Internet Layer is equivalent to the Network Layer in the OSI
model. It is responsible for network addressing. The main
protocols in this layer are as follows:
Internet Protocol (IP), Address Resolution Protocol (ARP),
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP), Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), and Internet Group Management
Protocol (IGMP).
The Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is equivalent to the Transport Layer in the
OSI model. The Internet Transport Layer is implemented by TCP
and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP provides reliable
data transport, while UDP provides unreliable data transport.
The Application Layer

The Application Layer is equivalent to the top three layers,
(Application, Presentation and Session Layers), in the OSI model.
The Application Layer is responsible for providing the interface
between user applications and the Transport Layer. Commonly
used applications include: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet,
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), Domain Name
system (DNS) and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
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APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
SESSION
TRANSPORT
APPLICATION
(FTP, TELNET, SNMP,
DNS, SMTP )
TRANSPORT
(TCP or UDP)
ICMP, IGMP
NETWORK
INTERNET PROTOCOL
(IP) ARP, RARP
DATA LINK
NETWORK INTERFACE
PHYSICAL
(LAN - ETH, TR, FDDI)

(WAN - Serial lines, FR, ATM)
Figure 5 -14: IP and OSI Reference Model
Network and Host-ID

The concept of Network and Host ID can be easily compared with
telephone numbers. The Network ID can be compared with the
network prefix and the Host ID can be compared with the actual
phone number. The network prefix gives us information about the
city and the phone number gives us information about the
subscriber. Compare this with TCP/IP where the Network ID gives
identification of a network and the Host ID gives information about
one address in the identified network.
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Network 1
Network 2
Network-ID:160.57.0.0
Network-ID: 197.5.99.0
Host ID
.2.10
20
Host ID
Host ID
PC 1
PC 4
IP Address
160.52.2.10
PC 3
IP Address
160.52.2.11
IP Address
197.5.99.20
PC 2
PC 6
IP Address
160.52.2.12
IP Address
197.5.99.22
PC 5
IP Address
197.5.99.21
Figure 5 -15: The Concept: Network and Host-ID
The IP address
Every network interface on a TCP/IP device is identified by a
globally unique IP address. Host devices, for example, PCs,
typically have a single IP address. Routers typically have two or
more IP addresses, depending on the number of interfaces they
have. Each IP address is 32 bits long and is composed of four 8bit fields called octets. The address is normally represented in
dotted decimal notation by grouping the four octets and
representing each one in decimal form. Each octet represents a
decimal number in the range 0-255.
For example, 11000001 10100000 00000001 00000101, is known
as 193.160.1.5.
Each IP address consists of a Network ID and a Host ID. The
Network ID identifies the systems that are located on the same
network. The Network ID must be unique to the internetwork. The
Host ID identifies a TCP/IP network device (or host) within a
network. The address for each host must be unique to the Network
ID. In the example above, the PC is connected to network
193.160.1.0 and has a unique Host ID of .5.
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EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
Note that a central authority assigns all Internet addresses. The

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has ultimate control
over Network IDs assigned and sets the assignment policy. The
IANA has delegated this responsibility of allocating Network Ids to
the following regional Internet registries:
ARIN (American Registry for Internet Numbers)
RIPE (Reseaux IP European)
APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information Center)
Internet service providers (ISPs) apply to their regional Internet

registry to get blocks of IP addresses, which is referred to as
address space. The ISPs assign addresses from those address
spaces to their customers, for example, companies that want to
connect to the Internet.
193.160.1.0
193.160.1.1
193.160.2.0
193.160.2.1
193.160.1.5
193.160.2.83
Binary Format
11000001 10100000 00000001 00000101
Dotted Decimal Notation
193.160.1.5
Figure 5 -16: The Format of an IP-Address
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Converting from Binary to Decimal

Each bit position in an octet has an assigned decimal value. A bit
set to zero always has a zero value. The lowest order bit has a
decimal value of 1. The highest order bit has a decimal value of
128. The highest decimal value of an octet is 255, that is, when all
bits are set to one. In the example below, the binary value
10011000 is converted to a decimal value of 152.
The binary value 10011000 is 152; this is 128+16+8=152. Note

that occasionally IP addresses are written in hexadecimal notation.
In order to convert from binary to hexadecimal, take each block of
four bits and change to the hexadecimal equivalent, for example,
1001 1000 is equal to 98 in hex.
Example:
163.33.232.166 = 10100011 00100001 11101000 10100110 =
A3.21.E8.A6
Binary Value
1
27
Decimal Value 128
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
64
32
16
If all bits are set to 1 then the decimal value is 255, that is,
1+2+4+8+16+32+64+128=255
Figure 5 -17: Converting from Binary to Decimal
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Traditional IP Address Classes

The first part of an Internet address identifies the network, on
which a host resides, while the second part identifies the particular
host on a given network. The Network ID field can also be referred
to as the network-number or the network-prefix. All hosts on a
given network share the same network-prefix but must have a
unique host number.
There are five different address classes supported by IP
addressing. The class of an IP address can be determined from
the high-order (left-most) bits. Only class A to C is described here,
since class D is very specialized and class E is for future use.
Class A (/8 Prefixes)

Class A addresses were assigned to networks with a very large
number of hosts. The high-order bit in a class A address is always
set to zero. The next seven bits (completing the first octet)
represent the Network ID and provide 126 possible networks. The
remaining 24 bits (the last three octets) represent the Host ID.
Each network can have up to 16777214 hosts.
Class B (/16 Prefixes)

Class B addresses were assigned to medium to large sized
networks. The two high-order bits in a class B address are always
set to binary 1 0. The next 14 bits (completing the first two octets)
represent the Network ID. The remaining 16 bits (last two octets)
represent the Host ID. Therefore, there can be 16382 networks
and up to 65534 hosts per network.
Class C (/24 Prefixes)

Class C addresses were used for small networks. The three highorder bits in a class C address are always set to binary 1 1 0. The
next 21 bits (completing the first three octets) represent the
Network ID. The remaining 8 bits (last octet) represent the Host ID.
Therefore, there can be 2097150 networks and 254 hosts per
network.
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
- 115 -
CLASS A
NET ID
HOST ID
10
NET ID
CLASS C
HOST ID
110
Classes
Network-ID
A
B
C
1 to 126
128 to 191
192 to 223
Network -ID
Host-ID
w
w.x
w.x.y
x.y.z
y.z
z
Figure 5 -18: IP Address Classes
Subnet Mask
A subnet mask is a 32-bit address that is used to do the following:
To block out a portion of the IP address to distinguish the

Network ID from the Host ID.
To specify whether the destination host IP address is located

on a local network or on a remote network.
For example, an IP device with the configuration below knows that

its Network ID is 160.30.20 and its Host ID is .10
Address 160.30.20.10
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0
The subnet mask can be written in prefix length notation for
convenience. The prefix-length is equal to the number of
contiguous one-bits in the subnet mask. Therefore, the network
address 160.30.20.10 with a subnet mask 255.255.255.0 can also
be expressed as 160.30.20.10/24.
- 116 -
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
Default subnet masks or prefix lengths exist for class A, B and C

addresses:
Class A default mask 255.0.0.0 (/8)
Class B default mask 255.255.0.0 (/16)
Class C default mask 255.255.255.0 (/24).
Blocks out a portion of the IP address to distinguish the Network ID

from the host ID.
Specifies whether the destinations host IP address is located on a
local network or on a remote network.
The sources IP address is ANDed with its subnet mask. The
destinations IP address is ANDed with the same subnet mask.
If the result of both ANDing operations match, the destination is
local to the source, that is, it is on the same subnet.
Figure 5 -19: Subnet Mask
Subnet Mask Example

ANDing is an internal process that TCP/IP uses to determine
whether a packet is destined for a host on a local network, or a
host on a remote network. When TCP/IP is initialized, the hosts IP
address is ANDed with its subnet mask. Before a packet is sent,
the destination IP address is ANDed with the same subnet mask. If
both results match, IP knows that the packet belongs to a host on
the local network. If the results do not match then the packet is
sent to the IP address of an IP router.
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
- 117 -
To AND the IP address to a subnet mask, TCP/IP compares each

bit in the IP address to the corresponding bit in the subnet mask. If
both bits are 1s, the resulting bit is 1. If there is any other
combination, the resulting bit is 0.
The four possible variations are as follows:
1 AND 1 = 1
1 AND 0 = 0
0 AND 0 = 0
0 AND 1 = 0
160.30.20.10 is on the same subnet as 160.30.20.100 if the mask is

255.255.255.0.
Note: 1 AND 1 = 1. Other combinations = 0.
IP Address
160.30.20.10
10100000 00011110 00010100 00001010
Subnet Mask
255.255.255.0
11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
Result
160.30.20.0
10100000 00011110 00010100 00000000
IP Address
160.30.20.100
10100000 00011110 00010100 01100100
Subnet Mask
255.255.255.0
11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
Result
160.30.20.0
10100000 00011110 00010100 00000000
Figure 5 -20: Subnet Mask Example
Subnetting
Subnetting was initially introduced to overcome some of the
problems that parts of the Internet were beginning to experience:
- 118 -
Internet routing tables were becoming too large to manage.
Local administrators had to request another network number from

the Internet before a new network could be installed at their site.
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
Subnetting attacked the expanding routing table problem by

ensuring that the subnet structure of a network is never visible
outside of the organizations private network. The route from the
Internet to any subnet of a given IP address is the same,
regardless of which subnet the destination host is on. This is
because all subnets of a given Network ID use the same network
prefix, but different subnet numbers. The routers within the private
organization need to differentiate between the individual subnets,
but as far as the Internet routers are concerned all of the subnets
in the organization are collected into a single routing table entry.
Subnetting helps to overcome the registered number issue by
assigning each organization one (or in some cases a few) network
number(s) from the IPv4 address space. The organization is then
free to assign a distinct subnetwork number to each of its internal
networks. This allows the organization to deploy additional subnets
without needing to obtain a new network number from the Internet.
For example, a site with several logical networks uses subnet
addressing to cover them with a single class B network address.
The router accepts all traffic from the Internet addresses to
network 160.30.0.0, and forwards traffic to the internal
subnetworks based on the third octet of the clasful address. The
deployment of subnetting within the private network provides
several benefits:
The size of the global Internet routing table does not grow because
the site administrator does not need to obtain additional address
space, and the routing advertisements for all of the subnets are
combined into a single routing table entry.
The local administrator has the flexibility to deploy additional

subnets without obtaining a new network number from the
Internet.
Rapid changing of routes within the private network does not

affect the Internet routing table, since Internet routers do not
know if the individual subnets can be reached. They just know
that the parent network number can be reached.
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
- 119 -
Routing Advertisement
PRIVATE
NETWORK
160.30.0.0/16
160.30.0.0/24
160.30.1.0/24
160.30.2.0/24
.
.
160.30.254.0/24
160.30.255.0/24
INTERNET
Before subnetting : 1 network with approx. 65 thousand hosts

After subnetting : 256 networks with 254 hosts per subnet
Figure 5 -21: Subnetting
A subnetting example
In the example shown in the Figure 5 -22, a small company has
been assigned the IP address space 200.200.200.0/24.
Without subnetting, up to a maximum of 254 hosts can share this
network. In this configuration, if one device sends out an IP
broadcast (for example, DHCP Discover message) then every
device on the network receives the broadcast.
To improve performance, the network administrator may reduce
the number of devices that receive the broadcast by splitting the
network into smaller subnets separated by a router.
In the example, the network has been split into four smaller
subnets with a maximum of 62 hosts on each subnet.
- 120 -
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
Network Address
200.200.200.0
Subnet Mask
255.255.255.0
Allocated IP address
space 200.200.200.0/24
200.200.200.64
62 hosts per network

200.200.200.0
200.200.200.128
200.200.200.192
Note: Subnet mask for each subnet = 255.255.255.192
Figure 5 -22: A Subnetting Example
Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM)

Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM) support more efficient use
of an organizations assigned IP address space. One of the major
problems with the earlier limitation of supporting only a single
subnet mask across a given network-prefix was that once the
mask was selected, it locked the organization into a set number of
fixed size subnets.
For example, assume that a network administrator decided to
configure the 200.200.200.0/24 with a /26 extended-network-prefix
(subnet mask). This permits four subnets, each of which supports
a maximum of 62 devices. Alternatively, if we configure with a /28
extended-network-prefix then this permits 16 subnets with 14
hosts each.
Neither of these is suitable if we want 2 subnets with 50 hosts and
8 subnets with 10 hosts. If the /26 mask is used throughout the
network then there are not enough subnets. If the /28 mask is
used throughout the network then there are not enough hosts
addresses for two of the subnets.
The solution to this problem is VLSM, which allows a subnetted
network to be assigned more than one subnet mask. In this
example, VLSM allows us to use both a /26 mask and a /28 mask.
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
- 121 -
We use the /26 mask to produce two subnets with a maximum of

62 devices each. We use the /28 mask to produce eight subnets
with a maximum of 14 host each. This is suitable for our stated
requirements.
Allocated IP address space 200.200.200.0/24

Required: 2 subnets with 50 hosts and 8 subnets with 10 hosts
200.200.200.0 /26
(max. of 62 hosts)
Note: Subnet masks

/26 = 255.255.255.192
/28 = 255.255.255.240
200.200.200.64 /26
(max. of 62 hosts)
200.200.200.128 /28 (max. of 14 hosts)
200.200.200.144 /28
200.200.200.160 /28
200.200.200.176 /28
200.200.200.0
200.200.200.192 /28 (max. of 14 hosts)
200.200.200.208 /28
200.200.200.224 /28
200.200.200.240 /28
Figure 5 -23: Example Network with VLSM
CLASSLESS INTER DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR)

CIDR Route Aggregation
CIDR supports route aggregation, where a single routing table
entry can represent the address space of perhaps thousands of
traditional clasful routes. This allows a single routing table entry to
specify how to route traffic to many individual network addresses.
Route aggregation helps control the amount of routing information
in the Internets backbone routers, reduces route flapping (rapid
changes in route availability) and eases the local administrative
burden of updating external routing information.
- 122 -
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
In the example shown in the diagram below, assume that an

Internet Service Provider (ISP) owns the address block
200.25.0.0/16. This block represents 65536 (2 16) IP addresses (or
256 /24s). From the 200.25.0.0/16 block the ISP wants to allocate
the 200.25.16.0/20 address block. This smaller block represents
4,096 (212) IP addresses (or 16 /24s).
In a clasful environment the ISP is forced to cut up the /20 address
block into 16 equal size pieces. However, in a classless
environment the ISP is free to cut up the address space any way it
wants. It could slice up the address space into two equal pieces
and assign one portion to company A, then cut the other half into 2
pieces (each 1/4 of the address space) and assign one piece to
company B, and finally slice the remaining fourth into 2 pieces
(each 1/8 of the address space) and assign one piece each to
company C and company D. Each of the individual companies is
free to allocate the address space within its Intranetwork as it
sees fit. A prerequisite for aggregating networks addresses is that
they must be consecutive and fall on the correct boundaries. For
example, we cannot aggregate 200.25.24.0/24, 200.25.26.0/24,
200.25.27.0/24 without including the address space
200.25.25.0/24.
CIDR plays an important role in controlling the growth of the
Internets routing tables. The reduction of routing information
requires that the Internet be divided into addressing domains.
Within a domain, detailed information is available about all the
networks that reside in the domain. Outside an addressing
domain, only the common network prefix is advertised. This allows
a single routing table entry to specify a route to many individual
network addresses. The diagram illustrates how the allocation
described above helps reduce the size of the Internet routing
tables.
Company A aggregates 8 /24s into single advertisement

(200.25.16.0/21).
Company B aggregates 4 /24s into single advertisement

(200.25.24.0/22).
Company C aggregates 2 /24s into single advertisement

(200.25.28.0/23).
Company D aggregates 2 /24s into single advertisement

(200.25.30.0/23).
Finally the ISP is able to inject the 256 /24s in its allocation into the
Internet with a single advertisement - 200.25.0.0/16.
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
- 123 -
The INTERNET
200.25.0.0/16
ISP
200.25.16.0/20
200.25.16.0/21
200.25.16.0/24
200.25.17.0/24
200.25.18.0/24
200.25.19.0/24
200.25.20.0/24
200.25.21.0/24
200.25.22.0/24
200.25.23.0/24
200.25.28.0/23
200.25.24.0/22
200.25.24.0/24
200.25.25.0/24
200.25.26.0/24
200.25.27.0/24
Company A
200.25.30.0/23
200.25.28.0/24
200.25.29.0/24
200.25.30.0/24
200.25.31.0/24
Company C
Company D
Figure 5 -24: CIDR Route Aggregation
Variable Length Subnets from 1 to 16

The table in the Figure 5 -25 lists the variable length subnets from
1 to 16, the Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) representation
and the dotted decimal equivalents.
Network addresses and subnet masks are no longer used,
although the language used to describe them remains in current
use. These have been replaced by the more manageable network
prefix, in a system known as CIDR. A network prefix is, by
definition, a contiguous set of bits at the more significant end of the
address that defines a set of systems. Host numbers select among
those systems.
The classical IP addressing architecture used addresses and
subnet masks to discriminate the host number from the network
address. With network prefixes, it is sufficient to indicate the
number of bits in the prefix. Both classical IP addressing and
network prefixes are in common use. Architecturally correct subnet
masks are capable of being represented using the prefix length
description. Routers always treat a route as a network prefix, and
reject configuration and routing information inconsistent with that
model.
- 124 -
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
Referring to the table, we can see that a /15 allocation can also be
specified using the traditional dotted-decimal mask notation of
255.254.0.0. Also a /15 allocation contains a bit-wise contiguous
block of 131,070 IP addresses, which can be interpreted in a
clasful way as two class B networks or 512 class B networks.
CIDR
Prefix-length
/1
128.0.0.0
# Individual
Addresses
2048 M
# Classful
Networks
128 A
/2
192.0.0.0
1024 M
64 A
/3
224.0.0.0
512 M
32 A
/4
240.0.0.0
256 M
16 A
/5
248.0.0.0
128 M
8A
/6
252.0.0.0
64 M
4A
/7
254.0.0.0
32 M
2A
/8
255.0.0.0
16 M
1 A or 256 Bs
/9
255.128.0.0
8M
128 B
/10
255.192.0.0
4M
64 B
/11
255.224.0.0
2M
32 B
/12
255.240.0.0
1M
16 B
/13
255.248.0.0
524,286
8B
/14
255.252.0.0
262,142
4B
/15
255.254.0.0
131,070
2B
/16
255.255.0.0
65,534
1 B or 256 Cs
Subnet Mask
Figure 5 -25: Variable Length Subnets from 1 to 16
Variable Length Subnets from 17 to 30

The table in the diagram above lists the variable length subnets
from 17 to 30, the CIDR representation and the dotted decimal
equivalents.
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
- 125 -
In the CIDR model, each piece of routing information is advertised

with a bit mask (or prefix-length). The prefix-length is a way of
specifying the number of the leftmost contiguous bits in the
network-portion of each routing table entry. For example, a
network with 20 bits of network-number and 12 bits of host-number
is advertised with a 20-bit prefix length (a /20). The clever thing is
that the IP address advertised with the /20 prefix could be a former
class A, B or C address. Routers that support CIDR do not make
assumptions based on the first 3-bits of the address. Instead, they
rely on prefix-length information provided with the route.
In a classless environment, prefixes are viewed as a bit-wise
contiguous block of the IP address space. For example, all
prefixes with a /20 prefix represent the same amount of address
space (212 or 4,094 host addresses). Furthermore a /20 prefix can
be assigned to a traditional class A, B or C network number.
For example, each of the following /20 blocks represent 4094 host
addresses:
10.23.64.0/20, 130.5.0.0/20, 200.7.128.0/20.
Note that the number of individual addresses, in the diagram, does
not include the all-zeros address and the all-ones address. For
example, if we use the /30 prefix (255.255.255.252 mask) then we
have only two possible addresses in the subnet (and not four).
- 126 -
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
CIDR
Prefix-length
Subnet Mask
# Individual
Addresses
# Classful
Networks
/17
255.255.128.0
32,766
128 Cs
/18
255.255.192.0
16,382
64 Cs
/19
255.255.224.0
8,190
32 Cs
/20
255.255.240.0
4,094
16 Cs
/21
255.255.248.0
2,046
8 Cs
/22
255.255.252.0
1,022
4 Cs
/23
255.255.254.0
510
2 Cs
/24
255.255.255.0
254
1C
/25
255.255.255.128
126
1/2 C
/26
255.255.255.192
62
1/4 C
/27
255.255.255.224
30
1/8 C
/28
255.255.255.240
14
1/16 C
/29
255.255.255.248
1/32 C
/30
255.255.255.252
1/64 C
Figure 5 -26: Variable Length Subnets from 17 to 30
Subnet ID Tables
The Subnet ID table shows the most common Subnet IDs. Take,
as an example, an allocation of the address block 160.30.0.0/16
by the IANA. Assume that we require large subnets with
approximately 1500 devices per subnet. We first consult the
variable length subnet table to decide on the subnet mask. The
mask of 255.255.248.0 is suitable as it gives subnets each
containing 2046 devices. Then by consulting the subnet ID table
we can see that the different subnet IDs for this mask are:
160.30.0.0, 160.30.8.0, 160.30.16.0, 160.30.24.0
and so on until 160.30.240.0, 160.30.248.0.
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A
- 127 -
Alternatively, assume that we wanted small subnets with

approximately 50 devices per subnet. This time, from the subnet
conversion table, we can see that the mask 255.255.255.192 is
suitable because it gives subnets with 62 devices each (64
addresses including the all-zeros and all-ones addresses).
Then by consulting the subnet ID table we can see that the
different subnet Ids for this mask are:
160.30.0.0, 160.30.0.64, 160.30.0.128, 160.30.0.192,
160.30.1.0, 160.30.1.64, 160.30.1.128, 160.30.1.192,
and so on until
160.30.255.0, 160.30.255.64, 160.30.255.128, 160.30.255.192.
No. of Bits
in Mask
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Subnet Mask
255.255.0.0
255.255.128.0
255.255.192.0
255.255.224.0
255.255.240.0
255.255.248.0
255.255.252.0
255.255.254.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.128
255.255.255.192
255.255.255.224
255.255.255.240
255.255.255.248
255.255.255.252
Subnet IDs
0
0, 128
0, 64, 128, 192
0,32,64,96,128,160,192,224
0,16,32,48,64,80,96,112,128,144,160,176,192,208,224,240
0,8,16,24,32,40,48,56,64.,216,224,232,240,248
3rd
Octet
0,4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,.236,240,244,248,252
0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,.246,248,250,252,254
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,.251,252,253,254,255
0, 128
0, 64, 128, 192
4th
0,32,64,96,128,160,192,224
0,16,32,48,64,80,96,112,128,144,160,176,192,208,224,240
Octet
0,8,16,24,32,40,48,56,64.,216,224,232,240,248
0,4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,.236,240,244,248,252
Figure 5 -27: Subnet ID Tables
- 128 -
EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

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5 Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network

Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

WCDMA RAN Field Maintenance

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

5 Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

WCDMA RAN Field Maintenance

Error control of the header

ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

5 Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network

Figure 5 - 2: The Contents of an ATM Cell Header

The PTI (Payload Type Identifier) specifies whether the cell

THE PRINCIPLE OF ATM SWITCHING

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

WCDMA RAN Field Maintenance

In an ATM network, the identities of the different logical channels

Layer 1 - the Physical Layer

Layer 2 - the ATM Layer

Layer 3 - the ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL).

To enable the transfer of both data and isochronous services, the

Variable bit rate

Figure 5 -3: ATM Adaptation Layers and Classes

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

5 Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network

The following three parameters are used for classification:

Isochronous or asynchronous services

Constant or variable bit rate

Connection-oriented or connectionless transfer.

Class A Constant Bit Rate (CBR) service: AAL1 supports a

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

WCDMA RAN Field Maintenance

ATM ADAPTATION LAYER (AAL)

Payload, 47 bytes (376 bits)

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

5 Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network

AAL2 resource handling. Functions to reserve and release an

Data transfer of AAL2 SDUs between two AAL2 SAPs.

The ATM ports, supporting the AAL2 terminations that are

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

WCDMA RAN Field Maintenance

CID, Channel Identity

Figure 5 - 5: AAL2 Segmentation and Reassemble Sublayer Protocol Data Unit

The receiving AAL 2 function contains an input buffer that

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

5 Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network

Pay-load Type (PT) AAU=0 or 1

Figure 5 - 6: AAL5, Variable Bit Rate

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

WCDMA RAN Field Maintenance

Figure 5 -7: AAL2 De-multiplexed to AAL2U

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

5 Appendix: WCDMA RAN Transport Network

ATM NETWORK INTERFACES

Private ATM network

UNI: User to Network Interface

Figure 5 -8: ATM Network Interfaces

Figure 5 -9 shows the User to Network Interface (UNI). The VP

EN/LZT 123 7296 R2A

WCDMA RAN Field Maintenance

Information field, 48 bytes (384 bits)

HEC CLP PTI

Figure 5 -9: The ATM-cell, User-Network Interface