Power System Protection

1. Principle of Protection Practice

1.1. Protection Equipment
1.2. Zones of Protection
1.3. Reliability, Selectivity, Stability
1.4. Sensitivity
1.5. Relay Output Devices
1.6. Tripping Circuits

2. Fault Calculations
2.1. Three-phase Fault Calculations
2.2. Symmetrical Component Analysis of A Three-Phase Network
2.3. Equations and Network Connections for Various Types of Faults
2.4. Current and Voltage Distribution in a System due to a Fault
2.5. Effect of System Earthing on Zero Sequence Quantities

3. Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

3.1. Synchronous Machines
3.2. Armature Reaction
3.3. Steady State Theory
3.4. Machine Reactances
3.5. Effect of Saturation on Machine Reactances
3.6. Transformers
3.7. Transformer Equivalent Circuits
3.8. Auto-Transformers
3.9. Transformer Impedances
3.10.
Overhead Lines and Cables
3.11.
Overhead Line Circuits With or Without Earth Wires
3.12.
OHL Equivalent Circuits
3.13.
Cable Circuits

4. Current and Voltage Transformers

4.1. Electromagnetic Voltage Transfomers
4.2. Capacitor Voltage Transfomers
4.3. Current Transfomers
4.4. Non-Conventional Instrument Transformers

5. Relay Technology
5.1. Electromechanical Relays
5.2. Static Relays
5.3. Digital Relays
5.4. Numerical Relays
5.5. Additional Features of Numerical Relays
5.6. Numerical Relay Considerations

6. Protection: Signaling and Intertripping

6.1. Unit Protection Schemes
6.2. Tele-protection Commands
6.3. Performance Requirements
6.4. Transmission Media, Interference and Noise
6.5. Signaling Methods

7. Overcurrent Protection for Phase and Earth Faults

7.1. Co-ordination Procedure
7.2. Principles of Time/Current Grading
7.3. Standard IDMT Overcurrent Relays
7.4. Combined IDMT and High Set Instantaneous
7.5. Overcurrent Relays
7.6. Very Inverse (VI) Overcurrent Relays
7.7. Extremely Inverse (EI) Overcurrent Relays
7.8. Other Relay Characteristics
7.9. Independent (definite) Time Overcurrent Relays
7.10.
Relay Current Setting
7.11.
Relay Time Grading Margin
7.12.
Recommended Grading Margins
7.13.
Calculation of Phase Fault Overcurrent Relay Settings
7.14.
Directional Phase Fault Overcurrent Relays
7.15.
Ring Mains
7.16.
Earth Fault Protection
7.17.
Directional Earth Fault Overcurrent Protection
7.18.
Earth Fault Protection on Insulated Networks
7.19.
Earth Fault Protection on Petersen Coil Earthed Networks
7.20.
Examples of Time and Current Grading

8. Unit Protection of Feeders

8.1. Convention of Direction
8.2. Conditions for Direction Comparison
8.3. Circulating Current System
8.4. Balanced Voltage System
8.5. Summation Arrangements
8.6. Examples of Electromechanical and Static Unit Protection Systems
8.7. Digital/Numerical Current Differential Protection Systems
8.8. Carrier Unit Protection Schemes
8.9. Current Differential Scheme Analogue Techniques
8.10.
Phase Comparison Protection Scheme Considerations

9. Distance Protection
9.1. Principles of Distance Relays
9.2. Relay Performance
9.3. Relationship Between Relay Voltage and Zs/Zl Ratio
9.4. Voltage Limit for Accurate Reach Point Measurement
9.5. Zones of Protection
9.6. Distance Relay Characteristics

9.7. Distance Relay Implementation

9.8. Effect of Source Impedance and Earthing Methods
9.9. Distance Relay Application Problems
9.10. Other Distance Relay Features
9.11. Distance Relay Application Example

10.

Protection of Complex Transmission Circuits

10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
10.5.

11.

Auto-Reclosing
11.1.
11.2.
11.3.
11.4.
11.5.

12.

Application of Auto-Reclosing
Auto-Reclosing on HV Distribution Networks
Factors Influencing HV Auto-Reclose Schemes
Auto-Reclosing on EHV Transmission Lines
High Speed Auto-Reclosing on EHV Systems

Busbar Protection
12.1.
12.2.
12.3.
12.4.
12.5.
12.6.
12.7.
12.8.

13.

Parallel Feeders
Multi-Ended Feeders Unit Protection Schemes
Multi-Ended Feeders - Distance Relays
Multi-Ended Feeders Application of Distance Protection Schemes
Protection of Series Compensated Lines

Busbar Faults
Protection Requirements
Types of Protection System
System Protection Schemes
Frame-Earth Protection (Howard Protection)
Differential Protection Principles
Numerical Busbar Protection Schemes
Interlocked Overcurrent Busbar Schemes

Transformer and Transformer-Feeder Protection

13.1.
13.2.
13.3.
13.4.
13.5.
13.6.
13.7.
13.8.
13.9.
13.10.
13.11.
13.12.
13.13.
13.14.
13.15.

Winding Faults
Magnetising Inrush
Transformer Overheating
Transformer Protection Overview
Transformer Overcurrent Protection
Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Differential Protection
Differential Protection Stabilisation During Magnetising Inrush Conditions
Combined Differential and Restricted Earth Fault Schemes
Earthing Transformer Protection
Autotransformer Protection
Overfluxing Protection
Transformer-Feeder Protection
Condition Monitoring of Transformers
Transformer Asset Management

14.

Generator and Generator-Transformer Protection

14.1.
14.2.
14.3.
14.4.
14.5.
14.6.
14.7.
14.8.
14.9.
14.10.
14.11.
14.12.
14.13.
14.14.
14.15.
14.16.
14.17.
14.18.

15.

Industrial and Commercial Power System Protection

15.1.
15.2.
15.3.
15.4.
15.5.
15.6.
15.7.
15.8.
15.9.

16.

Busbar Arrangement
Discrimination
HRC Fuses
Industrial Circuit Breakers
Protection Relays
Co-ordination Problems
Fault Current Contribution from Induction Motors
Automatic Changeover Systems
Power Factor Correction and Protection of Capacitors

A.C. Motor Protection

16.1.
16.2.
16.3.
16.4.
16.5.
16.6.
16.7.
16.8.
16.9.
16.10.
16.11.

17.

Generator Earthing
Stator Winding Faults
Stator Winding Protection
Differential Protection of Direct Connected Generators
Differential Protection of Generator- Transformers
Overcurrent Protection
Stator Earth Fault Protection
Overvoltage Protection
Undervoltage Protection
Unbalanced Loading
Under/Overfrequency/ Overfluxing Protection
Rotor Faults
Loss of Excitation Protection
Pole Slipping Protection
Stator Overheating
Mechanical Faults
Complete Generator Protection Schemes
Embedded Generation

Modern Relay Design

Thermal (Overload) Protection
Start/Stall Protection
Short-Circuit Protection
Earth Fault Protection
Negative Phase Sequence Protection
Faults in Rotor Windings
RTD Temperature Detection
Bearing Failures
Under voltage Protection
Loss-of-load Protection

System Integrity Protection Schemes

17.1.
17.2.
17.3.

Summary of System Integrity Protection Schemes

Time-Synchronized System Integrity Protection Schemes
Non-Synchronized System Integrity Protection Schemes

18.

Relay Testing and Commissioning

21.1 Introduction
21.2 Electrical Type Tests
21.3 Electromagnetic Compatibility Tests
21.4 Product Safety Type Tests
21.5 Environmental Type Tests
21.6 Software Type Tests
21.7 Dynamic Validation Type Testing
21.8 Production Testing
21.9 Commissioning Tests
21.10 Secondary Injection Test Equipment
21.11 Secondary Injection Testing
21.12 Primary Injection Tests
21.13 Testing of Protection Scheme Logic
21.14 Tripping and Alarm Annunciation Tests
21.15 Periodic Maintenance Tests
21.16 Protection Scheme Design for Maintenance

19.

Substation Control and Automation