Professional Documents
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and Engineering
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A TEXTBOOK OF
B.Sc.
Environmental Science
MATHEMATICS
and Engineering
VOLUME - II
(THEORY & PRACTICAL)
AND
Key to the Textbook
As per latest ANNA UNIVERSITY Syllabus (2013 Regulation)
Solved Question Papers of
Major Universities of Andhra Pradesh & Telangana
N. KRISHNAMURTHY
M. Sc.
Former Vice Principal and
(Ph.D,
Head of the Department of Mathematics
Hindu College, GUNTUR
B.V.S.S. SARMA
M. Sc.
Former, Senior Lecturer in Mathematics
V.S.R. & N.V.R. College, TENALI
IIT
M. Sc.
Former Head of the Department of
Madras) Mathematics
V.V. College, HYDERABAD
S. ANJANEYA SASTRY
M. A.
Former Head of the Deptt. of Mathematics
V.S.R. & N.V.R. College, TENALI.
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PREFACE
As per the directions from The Supreme Court of India, UGC has made mandatory a course
of Environmental science for undergraduate students in Indian universities. This book has been
written to cater the needs of B.E./B.Tech students according to the new syllabus prescribed by
Anna Universtiy (Regulation 2013).
This book comprises of five units which covers the entire syllabus. Topics like ecosystems
and biodiversity, environmental pollution, natural resources, social issues and human population
and environment. This book has been written in a simple and lucid manner. Most of these topics are traditionally taught in environmental science and engineering in several universities and
institutes. Figures and tables are incorporated wherever necessary to make the concept clearer.
This book also contains short questions with answers, review questions and university question
paper. Author hopes that this book will be useful for both students and faculty alike.
Despite all precautions and care, some error or misprints might have been left inadvertently.
The author welcomes comments, suggestions and criticisms for the improvement of the book.
Kindly mail your comments to arunluizt@ssn.edu.in
Dr. Arun Luiz T
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author would like to extend special thanks to my father, my brother, my friends, students and
department colleagues for their constant encouragement. This book would have never been published without my mothers blessings. I dedicate this book in her memory. SSN Management is
acknowledged for the support. Author thanks Chand and Company Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi for fast
efficient publishing.
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SYLLABUS
GE6351 Environmental Science and Engineering
UNIT IEnvironment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Definition, scope and importance of Risk and hazards; Chemical hazards, Physical hazards,
Biological hazards in the environment concept of an ecosystem structure and function of an
ecosystem producers, consumers and decomposers-Oxygen cycle and Nitrogen cycle energy
flow in the ecosystem ecological succession processes Introduction, types, characteristic
features, structure and function of the (a) forest ecosystem (b) grassland ecosystem (c) desert
ecosystem (d) aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) Introduction
to biodiversity definition: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity biogeographical classification of India value of biodiversity: consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic
and option values Biodiversity at global, national and local levels India as a mega-diversity
nation hot-spots of biodiversity threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife,
man-wildlife conflicts endangered and endemic species of India conservation of biodiversity:
In-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity.
Field study of common plants, insects, birds
Field study of simple ecosystems pond, river, hill slopes, etc.
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Syllabus xi
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CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Author
Syllabus
v
vii
ix
x
1
1
2
6
6
7
15
22
22
22
24
25
26
27
28
30
31
34
2. Pollution
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Atmosphere
2.3 Oxygen and Ozone Chemistry
2.4 Air Pollution
2.5 Smog
2.6 Acid Rain
2.7 Particulate Pollution
2.8 Air Pollution Control Devices
2.9 Emission Control of NOx, CO, HC
2.10 Indoor Air Pollution
2.11 Air Pollution Case Study
2.12 Water Pollution
2.13 Waste Water Treatment
2.14 Water Pollution Case Studies
35
35
36
38
40
42
44
45
46
48
48
49
49
54
56
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xiv Contents
57
58
60
61
62
65
66
68
69
3. Natural Resources
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Forest Resources
3.2 Water Resources
3.3 Mineral Resources
3.4 Food Resources
3.5 Land Resources
3.6 Energy Resources
3.7 Equitable Use of Resources for Sustainable Lifestyles
3.8 Environmental Biochemistry
Anna University Questions
71
71
72
74
81
83
87
92
100
100
102
103
103
104
104
106
107
108
108
109
109
111
112
113
118
119
120
120
122
123
125
126
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Contents xv
4.21 Landslides
4.22 Public Awareness
Anna University Questions
128
128
129
131
131
132
134
137
138
139
140
142
144
145
146
146
149
Appendix 151
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Unit
ENVIRONMENT,
ECOSYSTEMS AND
BIODIVERSITY
SYLLABUS
Definition, scope and importance of Risk and hazards; Chemical hazards, Physical
hazards, Biological hazards in the environment concept of an ecosystem structure
and function of an ecosystem producers, consumers and decomposers-Oxygen
cycle and Nitrogen cycle energy flow in the ecosystem ecological succession
processes Introduction, types,
Characteristic features, structure and function of the (a) forest ecosystem (b) grassland
ecosystem (c) desert ecosystem (d) aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes,
rivers, oceans, estuaries) Introduction to biodiversity definition: genetic, species and
ecosystem diversity biogeographical classification of India value of biodiversity:
consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values
Biodiversity at global, national and local levels India as a mega-diversity nation
hot-spots of biodiversity threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife,
man-wildlife conflicts endangered and endemic species of India conservation of
biodiversity: In-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity.
Field study of common plants, insects, birds
Field study of simple ecosystems pond, river, hill slopes, etc.
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Date
March 22
Earth day
April 22
June 5
July 11
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Workplace Hazard
Example of Hazard
Thing
Knife
Cut
Substance
Benzene
Leukemia
Material
Asbestos
Mesothelioma
Source of Energy
Electricity
Shock, electrocution
Condition
Wet floor
Slips, falls
Process
Welding
Practice
Silicosis
A risk is chance or probability that a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health effects
if exposed to a hazard. Risk can be high or negligible.
Factors that influence the degree of risk include:
The amount of exposure of a person to a hazardous thing or condition,
The way person is exposed (e.g., breathing in a vapour, skin contact), and
The severity of the effects under the conditions of exposure.
Risk = hazard + exposure
Though, the terms Hazard and Risk are often used interchangeably, they are not essentially the
same. For example, water spill in a room can result in a slipping hazard to people who enters
the room. If access to that area is prevented by a physical barrier (or wet floor board) then the
hazard would remain though the risk would be minimised.
Types of hazards
Environmental hazards are of the following types
1. Chemical hazards
2. Physical hazards
3. Biological hazards or bio-hazards
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Sl No
Physical hazard
Health effect
1.
UV radiations
Can damage DNA and can cause skin cancer and cataract.
2.
Noise
Painful and irreparable damage to ear. Can cause elevation in blood pressure, heart beat etc.
3.
Temperature
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Physical
Chemical
Biological
Noise
Solvents
Lighting
Acids/bases
animals, pets)
Radiation
Bacteria
Vibration
Poisons
Viruses
Temperature
Spores/fungi
Electricity
Pesticides
Pests
Air pollutants/particulates
Insects
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1.3 |ECOSYSTEMS
The term Ecology is derived from the Greek words Oikos (home) + logos (study). Ecology deals
with the study of organisms in their natural habitat and their interactions with their surroundings.
The surroundings consists of other living organisms (biotic) and physical (abiotic) components.
Ecology: The study of plants and animals in their relation to each other and with their environment.
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a group of biotic communities or species interacting with one
another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
Types of Ecosystem:
a) Natural Ecosystems:
These ecosystems are capable of operating and maintaining themselves under natural conditions.
A classification based on their habitat can further be made:
Terrestrial ecosystems: This ecosystem is related to land and the type of vegetation. Eg:
forest, grassland and desert.
Aquatic ecosystems: This ecosystem is related to water. It is further classified into two
types based on salt content.
a) Fresh water ecosystem:
Running water ecosystem. Eg: River, streams.
Standing water ecosystem: Eg: Pond, lake.
b) Marine ecosystem:
Eg: ocean, sea or estuary.
b) Artificial Ecosystem:
These are maintained by man. These are manipulated by man for different purposes, e.g., croplands, artificial lakes and reservoirs, townships and cities.
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Certain microorganisms produce food by the oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of
sunlight. They are known as chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-autotrophs.
(b) Consumers
Consumers are organisms which cannot prepare their own food but depend on producers or other
organisms for food.
Primary consumers or Herbivores:They feed directly on green plants. They are also known
as plant eaters. Eg. rabbit, deer, sheep, insect
Secondary consumers or carnivores: They feed on herbivores, hence called secondary consumers.
Eg. small fish, frog.
Omnivores feed on both plants and animals. Eg. humans, rat, fox, many birds.
Tertiary consumers: They feed on secondary consumers Eg. big fish, snake.
Detritivores (Detritus feeders or Saprotrophs): They feed on dead organisms, plant or animal
matter. Eg. Earth worms, fungus, termites, ants etc
(c) Decomposers
Decomposers derive their nutrition by decaying dead plants and animals. They break down the
complex organic molecules to simpler molecules. Eg: Various bacteria and fungi
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FOOD WEBS
Many organisms will depend upon more than one source of food. Most consumers feed on more
than one type of organism and most organism are eaten by more than one type of consumer.
A network of food chains which are interconnected is called food web. This is also called the
web of life as it shows many interrelationships in nature.
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Food Chain
Food Web
1. Simple structure
2.Unidirectional
2. Multi directional
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of trophic levels and functions of an ecosystem.
Ecosystem characteristics such as number, energy and biomass show a regular decrease as it
moves to next trophic level and the figure obtained is a pyramid. Most ecological pyramids begin
at the bottomwith the producers and proceed through different trophic levels.
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i) Pyramid of numbers
Pyramids of numbers show the relationship between producers, herbivores and carnivores at
successive trophic levels in terms or their numbers. Shape of the pyramid varies from ecosystem
to ecosystem as the number of organisms at each level is variable.
Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three types of pyramid of numbers. An aquatic
ecosystem is an example of an upright pyramid where the number of organisms becomes lesser
and lesser higher up the pyramid. A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially upright pyramid,
as fewer producers support more primary consumers, but there are less secondary and tertiary
consumers. An inverted pyramid of numbers is one where the numbers of organisms are higher
on the top of the pyramid. Parasitic food chain shows inverted pyramid of number.
Pyramid of energy
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Pyramid of biomass
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is always unidirectional. This means that it flows from
the producer level to the consumer level and never in the reverse direction. This flow of energy
is governed by two laws of Thermodynamics.
Ist law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it
can be transformed from one form to another.
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IInd law of Thermodynamics states that a part of energy is lost when it is transferred from
one level to another.
Oxygen cycle
Atmospheric oxygen is the major source of oxygen (21% of air). Oxygen is taken up by plants
and animals from the air during respiration. The plants return oxygen to the atmosphere during
photosynthesis. So equilibrium is maintained. Oxygen Cycle and Carbon Cycle are related.
Oxygen removal:
Respiration by producers, consumers and decomposers remove oxygen from the atmosphere.
Oxygen gets removed from the atmosphere chemically by reacting with rocks and minerals
exposed by weathering.
Oxygen is also removed during the formation of ozone in the upper atmosphere.
3O2 2O3
Oxygen supply:
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
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Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 (78% volume) which acts as the reservoir of nitrogen.
Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be used by plants and animals directly. It has to converted to salts
like nitrates or ammonium for absorption. This is known as nitrogen fixation. This happens by
the physical process of lightening or biologically by some bacteria and/or cyanobacteria (blue
green algae). Nitrogen compounds are used for the biosynthesis of amino acids, proteins, vitamins etc. and passes through the food chain. When the organism dies, the organic nitrogen in
dead tissues are decomposed by ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria which convert them into
ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which are again used by plants. Certain bacteria convert nitrates
into molecular nitrogen.
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Secondary production
The amount of food stored by the consumers is known as secondary production. A part of this
energy stored is transmitted to the next trophic level.
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c) Decomposers
Decomposers break down complex organic compounds present in the dead organisms to simple
substances which are easily absorbed by green plants. Decomposers include earthworms, bacteria,
fungi etc.
A typical grassland food chain:
Grass (producer) Rabbit (herbivore) Jackal (carnivore)
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2. Limnetic zone: This is the zone next to littoral zone where moderate light penetration
takes place. Photosynthesis mainly occur in this zone.
3. Profundal zone: This is the zone where sunlight doesnt reach. It is dark and cold.
Photosynthesis does not occur here.
4. Benthic zone: The bottom most part of the lake is benthic zone. This zone provides many
nutrients to the plants because it has large volume of sediments and it contains many
nutrients. Here light penetration is negligible.
The functional components of a lake ecosystem
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1.7 |BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the diversity among various life forms. It is a measure of the variety in flora and
fauna present in various ecosystems. Biodiversity can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation,
or species variation. Thus, the variety and variability of life on earth is known as biodiversity.
1. Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes present within the species. Genes are responsible for both the similarities and differences between the organisms.
Example:
Dog: pug, bull dog, Dalmatian, Alsatian etc.
Tiger: Royal Bengal tiger, Siberian tiger, White tiger etc.
Elephant: Indian elephant and African elephant.
Mango: Malgova, Alphonso, Banganapalle
Rice: Basmathi, Jaya, IR8
2. Species diversity:
Species is a group or class of animals or plants which have some common characteristics which
distinguish it from other groups or species. Species diversity refers to the variation among species in a community.
Example:
Plant species: Apple, mango, orange, wheat, rice etc.
Animal species: Lion, cow, deer, cat etc.
There are approximately 1.8 million different species classified on Earth. Of these nearly 1
million are insects. Every year, approximately 13,000 more species are being discovered.
1. Direct values
These are the uses that can be directly related to biodiversity. The two types of direct values are
a) Consumptive use values
b) Productive use values
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Animal product
Animal/Insect
Wool
Sheep
Musk
Musk deer
Honey
Honey bee
Silk
Silk worm
Plant product
Industry
Wood
Cotton
Textile industry
Fruits, vegetables
Food industry
2. Indirect values
Indirect values involve the functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any direct use.
It has many types like
a) Social values
c) Aesthetic values
e) Ecosystem service values
b) Ethical values
d) Optional values
f) Genetic value
a) Social values
Social values of biodiversity refer to the manner in which the bio-resources are used by the
society. Social value tends to vary from country to country as well as among cultures. These
are values associated with the social, religion, spiritual aspects of life. Some plants and animals
are considered holy.
Holy plants: Tulsi, lotus, Peepal, Neem etc
Holy animals: Cow, snake, peacock
Holy river: Ganga, Cauveri, Pamba
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b) Ethical values
Biodiversity lies in the understanding that humans are part of nature and one among the other
species. It involves ethical issues like All life must be preserved. Other animals must be allowed
to live on earth irrespective of whether a species may or may not be useful. The very existence
of different species in nature gives pleasure.
c) Aesthetic values
The beauty of the nature has aesthetic values. Most important aesthetic value of biodiversity
is eco-tourism. Eco-tourism facilitates the enjoyment of nature. It also generate many forms of
income and employment in the tourism sector.
d) Optional values
It is quite possible that many of the values of biodiversity are still unexplored. Optional values
include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be explored. These
could be useful in future. It is quite possible that we may have potential cure for many diseases
like cancer, ebola, AIDS in the depths of sea or in a tropical rain forest.
e) Ecosystem service value
Ecosystems serve all living things in variety of ways. These comes ecosystem service value. It
include,
Air Purification: Trees helps purifying air by absorbing greenhouse gases. During
photosynthesis, trees absorb CO2, releasing O2, thus purifying the air.
Protection of water: Trees regulates and stabilizes water flow. It helps to replenish water table
and helps to increase water yield and quality: Example: coastal wet lands and mangroves.
Soil formatting and protection: Trees helps in the maintenance of soil quality. It also
helps to prevent soil erosion.
Nutrient cycling: Cycling of nutrients in the ecosystem
Food production: Production of food for all life forms.
Climate control: Forest plays an important role in checking global warming and hence
regulating the climate
f) Genetic value
Some ecosystems like rain forests are abundant in variety of flora and fauna. It can act as genetic
reservoirs from which seed and other materials can be obtained. Biodiversity can be used as a
gene pool for producing disease resistant, high yielding varieties. Greater the diversity among
flora and fauna, greater is the diversity in gene pool.
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Species
Examples
Reptiles
Birds
Carnivorous mammals
Indian wolf, red fox, royal Bengal tiger, lion, red panda, leopard,
striped hyena, desert cat
Primates
Plants
Endemic species: Species which are restricted to a particular area is called as endemic species.
Example: Nilgiri Tahr, Lion tailed macque.
Endemic flora in India:Sapria himalayana, Uvaria lurida, Nepenthes Khasiana, Pedicularis
perroter etc
Endemic fauna: Lion-tailed macque, Nilgiri leaf monkey, Brown palm civet, Nilgiri Tahr
Keystone Species:Species or set of species whose impact on its community or ecosystem is
much larger and more influential are termed as keystone species. Extinction of keystone species
may lead to the extinction of many other forms of life. Keystone species help to support the
ecosystem (entire community of life) of which they are a part.
In the African savanna (grassland), elephants are the key stone species as they shape their
environment. They destroy trees, making room for the grass species. Without elephants, much of
the savannah would turn into woodland or forest. Beaver, starfish are other examples.
Indicator Species: Species that serve as early warnings of damage to a community or ecosystem.
They are very sensitive and quickly respond to environmental change and are considered as
biological indicators. They give early indications that a habitat is suffering. Indicator species
are first to react to external influences such as water pollution, air pollution, or climate change.
Example: Presence or absence of trout (a kind of fish) species in water indicates the quality of
water. Stoneflies indicate high dissolved oxygen in water.
Native species:Species that are normally seen in a particular ecosystem. Species, which are
native to particular area.
Exotic or alien Species: Species that migrate or accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by
human beings.
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Biodiversity:
Plants: Of the estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalaya hotspot, about 3,160 are
endemic. Many rare plant species are found even in the highest reaches of the Himalayan
mountains. Large number of rare orchids are found in this region.
Birds: Nearly 1000 birds are found in this region, but only 15 are endemic.
Mammals: Nearly a dozen mammals are found to be endemic. Endemic species include golden
langur, the Himalayan tahr and Namadapha flying squirrel.
Reptiles and amphibians: Of 175 reptiles recorded, only 50 are endemic. Among 105 amphibians
known, more than 40 of which are endemic.
Biodiversity:
Plants: Western Ghats covers about five percent of Indias land but nearly 30% of plant species
(4,000 of 15,000 species) are found here. Nearly 1,800 of these are endemic to the region. Major
part of the worlds spices such as black pepper and cardamom are found in the Western Ghats.
Birds: The Western Ghats has over 450 species of birds (35% endemic).
Mammals: The Western Ghats has over 140 species of mammals (around 20% endemic).
Reptiles: The Western Ghats has over 260 species of reptiles (over 60% endemic).
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Number
350
1,200
453
Plants
45,000
15
Ferns
1,022
Orchids
1,082
Insects
50,000
13,000
Birds
Reptiles
It is estimated that the number of unknown species could be several times higher. Out of a
total of 35 biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India possesses two, one in the north-east Himalaya
region and one in the western ghats.
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7. The Gangetic plain:In the north is the Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan
foothills. This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India named after the main river Ganga.
Plants: Teak, sal, Banyan etc.
Animals: Rhinoceros, Deer, Rabbit, Alligator
8. The coastal region: India has a coastline extending over 5,500km. Larger parts of the coastal
plains are covered by fertile soils on which different crops are grown.
Plants: Coconut trees, Banana, Bamboo etc.
Animals: Turtle, Dolphin, crabs etc
9. The north-east region: It comprises the contiguous Seven Sister States (Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), plus the Himalayan state of
Sikkim. North-east India has one of the richest flora in the country.
Plants: Bamboo, several species of orchids etc.
Animals: Elephant, Rhinoceros etc.
10. The Indian islands:The two groups of islands, i.e., Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea and
Andaman-Nicobar islands in Bay of Bengal differ significantly in origin and physical characteristics.
Plants: Coconut, Cashew nut
Animals: Dolphin, Alligator
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Habitat loss: Loss of habitat forces the animal to move out of forests
Human encroachment: Humans occupy animal habitat, leaving animals want of space.
Disease: Ill, weak and sick animals attack humans for self protection.
Shortage of food and water during summer: Severe summer may result in shortage of
water and food. So animals enter human settlements in search of food and water.
Electric fencing: Very often farmers put electric fencing around farm lands. Elephants
and other animals may get injured, suffer in pain and turn violent.
Protection: Females of many animals attack to secure their babies.
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National Parks
A national park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment.
It is also meant for enjoyment of tourism without harming environment. Activities such as cultivation, grazing, cutting etc are not allowed. Private ownership right and manipulation of habitat
not allowed. Each national park aims to conserve one or more special species along with others.
There are more than 150 national parks in India. Indias first national park was established in
1936, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand.
Some Important National Parks in India
National park
Animal preserved
Tiger
Lion
Bengal Tiger
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Animal preserved
Water birds
Water birds
Water birds
Elephant, Tiger
Biosphere reserves
A special category of protected areas where in people are an integrated part of the environment
for long-term conservation. Area is much larger when compared to national park and wild life
sanctuary. Protection is granted for flora, fauna and to the human communities who inhabit these
regions and their ways of life. Within biosphere we can have one or more national parks. There
are 18 biosphere reserves in India.
Some Important biosphere reserves in India
Name
States
Tamil Nadu
West Bengal
Uttarakhand
Nicobar Islands
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their natural habitat and kept in a place where they can be protected and given special care.
Example: Gene banks, Botanical Gardens, Zoos, Genetic resource centers,
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Unit
POLLUTION
SYLLABUS
Definition causes, effects and control measures of: (a) Air pollution (Atmospheric
chemistry- Chemical composition of the atmosphere; Chemical and photochemical
reactions in the atmosphere - formation of smog, PAN, acid rain, oxygen and ozone
chemistry;- Mitigation procedures- Control of particulate and gaseous emission, Control
of SO2, NOX, CO and HC) (b) Water pollution: Physical and chemical properties
of terrestrial and marine water and their environmental significance; Water quality
parameters physical, chemical and biological; absorption of heavy metals - Water
treatment processes. (c) Soil pollution - soil waste management: causes, effects and
control measures of municipal solid wastes (d) Marine pollution (e) Noise pollution
(f) Thermal pollution (g) Nuclear hazardsrole of an individual in prevention of pollution
pollution case studies
Field study of local polluted site Urban / Rural / Industrial / Agricultural.
2.1 |INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical
or biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can
cause harmful effects on various forms of life or property. The material that causes pollution is
called pollutant.
One has to distinguish between pollutant and a contaminant in this context. Contaminant is a
substance that is normally not present; but it need not cause harm to living beings. All pollutants
are contaminants but all contaminants need not be pollutants. For example CO2 is often classified
as a contaminant rather pollutant as it does not cause any adverse health effects. On the other
hand CO is termed as a pollutant as it can cause lot health complications.
From an ecological perspective pollutants can be classified as follows:
Biodegradable or non-persistent pollutants: These pollutants are biodegradable and can be easily
broken down by natural biological processes. Example: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc
Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which decompose very slowly by the natural
processes. Example: inorganic salts, metallic oxides, aluminium cans, DDT.
On the basis of the form in which they persist in the environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:
Primary pollutants: These are substances which are emitted directly from some identifiable
sources and remain in that form. Examples are
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2.2 |ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is a gaseous envelope surrounding the planet which is held together by Earths
gravity. Earths atmosphere is over 100 kilometers thick, but major part of it is within 16 km
from the surface. Pressure exerted by atmosphere is known as atmospheric pressure. At sea level,
atmospheric pressure is about 1 kilogram per square centimeter.
Functions of atmosphere
Blocking harmful rays: Harmful ultra violet radiation from the sun is blocked by ozone
layer, which is a part of our atmosphere.
Source of Oxygen and Carbondioxide: Atmosphere acts a source for both oxygen and
carbondioxide which is essential for respiration and photosynthesis.
Maintenance of earths temperature: Atmosphere cause heat retention and keep earth
surface warm. In the absence of atmosphere the temperature of earth would be sub zero
in the night.
Saving earth from meteors: Most meteoroids that enter the Earths atmosphere vaporize
completely due to high temperature and friction and never reach the planets surface.
Climate and weather: Earth gets heated non-uniformly by the sun resulting in different
weather patterns. Air sets in motion resulting in winds causing cyclones, monsoon, rainfall etc.
Average composition of the atmosphere up to an altitude of 25 km.
Gas Name
Chemical Formula
Percent Volume
Nitrogen
N2
78.08%
Oxygen
O2
20.95%
Argon
Ar
0.93%
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
Neon
Ne
0.0018%
Helium
He
0.0005%
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Pollution 37
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Exosphere
1. Troposphere
Troposphere is the bottom layer of the atmosphere which is closest to Earths surface. It extends
to an average height of 12 km (over the poles, 8 km; above the equator, 16 km). Temperature
decreases with height in this layer. The rate of decrease of temperature with height is called,
lapse rate. Average lapse rate in troposphere is 6.5 C/km. Troposphere ends at tropopause.
On reaching tropopause, temperature stops decreasing with height.
2. Stratosphere
Stratosphere is the second layer. It starts above the troposphere and extends to about 50 km
above ground. Ozone layer is found in stratosphere and it absorbs harmful radiation from the
sun. In this layer, temperature increases with height; just opposite to that in troposphere. The air
is about a thousand times thinner here than it is at sea level. Thin air, absence of vertical winds
and clouds helps smooth travel of jet planes. Stratospehere end at stratopause, where temperature
neither decreases nor increases with height up to some level.
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3. Mesosphere
Mesosphere starts at 50 km and extends to 85 km. In this layer, temperature decreases with
height as in troposphere. This layer plays crucial role in radio communication. Sunlight passing
through this layer causes molecules to ionize. These ionized particles reflects radio waves sent
from earth. The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause. At mesopause, the average temperature is about minus 90C.
4. Thermosphere
Thermosphere extends from about 90 km to 1,000 km. Temperatures can get up to 1,500C at
this altitude. The density of air is very low.
5. Exosphere
Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It is extremely thin and merges into outer
space. It is composed of very widely dispersed particles of hydrogen and helium. Satellites orbits
the earth in exosphere.
Ozone formation
Ozone in the stratosphere is produced by photochemical reactions involving O2. When molecular
oxygen in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths less than 240 nm, it
breaks apart into two oxygen atoms.
O2 + hn 2 O (light of l <240 nm)
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Pollution 39
These oxygen atoms formed combine with O2 molecules to form ozone in the presence of
a third body M.
O + O2 + M (N2 or O2) O3 + M
The third body M absorbs the excess energy liberated by the above reaction and there by
stabilizes the O3 molecule.
Decomposition of ozone
Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation with longer wavelengths (~290 nm and above). It causes the
ozone to decompose into O2 molecules and oxygen atoms.
O3 + hn O2 + O (light of l >290 nm)
There is a dynamic equilibrium between ozone formation and destruction. Ozone strongly
absorbs uv light in the region of 220-290 nm and protects the life on earth from severe radiation
damage. Only a strong fraction of uv light reaches the lower atmosphere and earth.
Process of ozone production and destruction, initiated by ultraviolet radiation, are often referred
to as Chapman Reactions. There is equilibrium between the formation and destruction of ozone.
This equilibrium is disturbed by reactive atoms of chlorine, bromine etc. which destroy ozone
molecules and result is thinning of ozone layer generally called ozone hole.
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Yield of certain crops like rice, wheat, soybean, cotton, bean, pea etc will decrease.
UV radiation result in increasing the rate of evaporation through leaf stomata and decreases
the moisture content of the soil. This can result in decreased crop production.
Other implications:
UV radiation can cause degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer materials.
It contributes to the Global Warming. If ozone depletion continues, the temperature around
the world may rise even up to 5 degrees.
Control of ozone layer depletion
Reduce/replace the usage of CFCs: One molecule of CFC destroys more than few thousands
of ozone molecules via chain reaction. So usage of CFCs has to be discouraged and kept
minimum. Use of other alternative coolants which are less damaging has to be promoted.
Reduce the use of methyl bromide: Methyl bromide is an insecticide used for fumigation.
It is a source for bromine atoms which can destroy ozone. Its use has to be controlled.
Control of deforestation: Check in deforestation will ensure slightly higher percentage
of oxygen in the atmosphere.
Proper maintenance: Air conditioning and refrigerating units should regularly be checked
for leaks and corrected if any.
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Pollution 41
HbO2 + CO
HbCO + O2
Oxyhemoglobin carboxyhemoglobin
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Effects on materials:
Air pollutants can cause damage to exposed surfaces. Presence of SO2 and moisture can accelerate
corrosion of metallic surfaces. SO2 can affect fabric, leather, paint, paper, marble and limestone.
Ozone in the atmosphere can cause cracking of rubber tyres. Oxides of nitrogen can also cause
fading of cotton and rayon fibres.
2.5 |SMOG
Smog is a kind of air pollution. The word Smog is derived from smoke and fog. When smoke
is combined with the fog present in the atmosphere the smog is formed.
Smog = Smoke + Fog
Types of Smog
i) London smog: London smog usually occurs during early morning hours. Coal containing
large amounts of sulfur, produce SO2 on burning which can result in smog. The main
constituent of London-type smog is soot, fly ash, sulfur dioxide, sodium chloride and calcium
sulfate particles. If concentrations are high enough, sulfur dioxide produces sulfuric acid.
Due to the presence of reducing impurities it is known as reducing smog.
Health problems: SO2 can severely affect respiratory system. Higher amounts of SO2 can
even lead to death. Great smog of London in 1952 caused death of more than 4000 people.
Smog -related deaths were primarily attributed to pneumonia, bronchitis, tuberculosis, and
heart failure.
ii) Los Angeles smog (Photochemical smog): Los Angeles smog usually happens in noon, as
the reactions forming smog are triggered by sunlight. It was first reported in the city of Los
Angeles and hence the name. It is mainly composed of ozone, volatile hydrocarbons (VOC),
Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN), nitrogen dioxide etc. Since it contains oxidizing impurities it
is also known as oxidizing fog.
NO2 + Sunlight NO +O.
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Pollution 43
O2 +O. O3
O3 +NO O2 + NO2
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can also react with oxygen, hydrocarbons (unburnt petrol) or radicals
produced from volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight to form toxic products
such as peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN) (CH3CO-OO-NO2):
PAN is relatively stable molecule and have long lifetimes in cooler air. Because of this, it
may travel long distances. In warmer climates, it may break down and release toxic NO2, which
produces additional ozone and hydroxyl radicals. In this way, PAN can be considered as a reservoir of NOx species.
Problems associated with PAN:
PAN is a highly potent oxidant that is both toxic and irritating. It causes eye irritations
at very low concentrations (even in ppb levels). It also irritates the respiratory system.
PAN can cause impaired breathing or lung lesions following inhalation exposure in animals.
PAN inhibits efficiency of photosynthesis in plants. PAN is more toxic to plants than ozone.
It causes discoloration of leaves.
PAN also reduces the plants ability to store food, grow and reproduce. These plants are
more vulnerable to attacks by pests and diseases.
Health problems caused by photochemical smog: Ozone has the ability to oxidize and destroy
lung tissue.Short term exposures to elevated levels of ozone (above 75 ppm) can lead to coughing,
wheezing, difficulty in breathing etc. Prolonged exposure to smog can cause a permanent reduction
in lung function, elevate the risk of developing asthma.
A comparison of London smog and photochemical smog
Name
London smog
(New York smog, grey smog)
Photochemical smog
(L.A. smog, Denver smog, brown smog)
Weather
Content
Sources
Burning coal.
Nature
Reducing in nature
Oxidizing in nature
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Pollution 45
Death of aquatic organisms: When the pH reaches 5.5, plankton, certain insects and
crustaceans begin to die. At a pH of around 5.0, the fish population begins to die. Below
pH 5.0, entire fish population may die.
Loss of fertility: It results in the fishs ability to maintain their calcium levels. This impairs
reproduction the ability of the fish, because the eggs become too weak or brittle. This can
result in killing of fish.
In humans
Respiratory problems: Acid rain can cause nose and eye irritation, headache, asthma and
dry coughs. Acid rain can aggravate asthma.
Buildings and monuments
Deterioration of buildings: It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble
Acid rain caused tarnishing of Taj Mahal. Dry acid deposition containing SO2 is primarily
from the exhaust of Mathura refineries. Oil refineries in Mathura emit nearly 25 tonnes of
SO2 per day despite using low sulphur content coal.
Deterioration of objects: Acid rain corrodes ceramic, textiles, paints, and metals. Rubber
and leather deteriorate if exposed to acid rain. It damages metals and car finishes.
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Aggravated asthma
Decreased lung function and
Increased respiratory symptoms such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty breathing.
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Pollution 47
v) Fabric filters
Fabric filters consists of fabrics that allow the passage of gas but retain and collect particulate
matter on the surfaces of filter bags. The bags can be made of cotton, synthetic, or glass-fiber
material in either a tube or envelope shape. Gas containing dust enter the bag house and pass
through fabric bags that act as filters.
Periodically, the fabric composing the filter is shaken to remove the particulate matter. They
are most efficient and cost effective types of dust collectors available. More than 99% for very
fine particulates can be collected and removed from the gas stream.
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In the first step, the catalytic converter uses a reduction catalyst composed of Rh to reduce
the NOx. As the nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) pass through the device, the catalyst converts
these to form oxygen gas (O2) and nitrogen gas (N2).
2NO N2 + O2
2NO2 N2 + 2O2
In the second step, an oxidative catalyst of Pt and Pd decreases emissions of carbon monoxide
(CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) by converting into CO2 and water.
2CO + O2 2CO2
C2H4 + 3O2 2CO2 + 2H2O
Reducing Pollution
Catalytic convertors are widely used in modern gasoline engines. They are reliable and efficient
in reducing pollution. Nearly 90% of the hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides
produced are converted into less harmful compounds. Catalytic converters are not so efficient in
diesel engines which runs at lower temperature than gasoline engines. Catalytic converters work
best at higher temperatures.
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Pollution 49
Many houses in the developing countries use fuels like coal, dung-cakes, wood and kerosene
as domestic fuel. Incomplete combustion produces the toxic gas carbon monoxide. Coal contains
varying amounts of sulphur which on burning produces sulphur dioxide
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rock crevices. Water is so essential part of plant and animal life that without which life cannot
survive. So it is important to save, preserve and reuse water.
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Pollution 51
Temperature
Many aquatic organisms are cold-blooded. Each species has its own
optimum (best) water temperature. If the water temperature shifts too far
from the optimum, the organism suffers.
Temperature of water is influenced by:
a) Color of the water.
b) Depth of water
c) Time of the year
d) Volume of water
e) Temperature of effluents dumped into water.
pH
Turbidity
Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)
Conductivity
Biochemical
Oxygen Demand,
BOD
Chemical Oxygen
Demand, COD
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Pollution 53
i) Water treatment: Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be treated before discharging
them into water bodies.
ii) Minimal use of pesticides and fertilizers: Use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers
should be done judiciously. Rapid biodegradable substitutes for pesticides should be employed.
iii) Afforestation and control of deforestation: Planting trees would reduce pollution by
sediments, silt and mud in the river banks.
iv) Cooling towers/ponds: These can be used to cool the hot water from industries before
discharging into the rivers. This can control thermal pollution.
v) Domestic methods: Separate ponds and tanks to be used for bathing cattle and animals.
In villages, septic tanks should be made in every house. Rivers and lakes should not be
used for bathing or washing as it contaminates water.
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the interference of chloride. Mercuric sulfate is also added to inhibit interferences of metals
on the oxidation of organic compounds. The COD observed in natural streams and rivers is
2 mg/L to 100 mg/L.
The advantages of the COD test as compared to the BOD test are:
COD results are available much faster.
The COD test oxidizes a wider range of chemical compounds.
It can be standardized more easily.
COD and BOD do not necessarily measure the same types of oxygen consumption. BOD is
only a measure of oxygen consumed by aquatic microorganisms to decompose or oxidize organic
matter. COD refers the requirement of dissolved oxygen for the oxidation of both organic and
inorganic constituents. Hence COD must be greater than BOD.
I. Primary treatment:
It is used to remove suspended and floating wastes from waste water by physical and chemical
methods. It involves the following steps.
i. Screening: Using bar screens and mesh screens floating, suspended and coarse particles
are removed by passing sewage water through it.
ii. Silt and grit removal: Sand, powdered glass etc called grit are removed by slowly passing
sewage water through grit chambers. Heavier sand and broken glass settles down by gravity.
iii. Removal of oil and grease: Sewage water is kept in a skimming tank and compressed air
is blown. Oil and grease form froath and float on the surface. It is skimmed off.
iv. Sedimentation process: In this process, the fine suspended particles which do not settle
down by gravity are coagulated by the addition of coagulating agents like alum, FeSO4
etc. Sedimented particles are filtered off.
Primary treatment can reduce the BOD of the incoming wastewater by 2030% and the total
suspended solids by some 5060%.
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Pollution 55
it to carbon dioxide, water, and energy for their own growth and reproduction. Most commonly
employed secondary treatment methods are activated sludge method and tricking filter method.
a) Activated sludge method:
Activated sludge is biologically active and has a large population of aerobic bacteria which
rapidly oxidize the organic matter. Activated sludge is obtained by the aeration of the sewage in
the earlier step of the treatment process. Wastewater after sedimentation is mixed with required
quantity of activated sludge (containing micro organisms like algae and aerobic bacteria) in an
aeration tank as shown in the figure.
The mixture is aerated by passing air through it for hours. Because of the aerobic conditions
the organic matter in the sewage gets fully oxidized.
After aeration, the sewage is finally passed through settling tanks to remove suspended impurities. Purified water plus sludge is sent to the tank where sludge settles down. A part of this
sludge is used for the purification of fresh batch of sewage while the rest is pumped into sludge
disposal tank. Purified water is pumped out and collected separately.
b) Tricking filter method
Trickling filter normally consists of a rock bed 1 to 3 meters in depth. The surfaces of these
rocks are covered with microbial slime consisting of bacteria, protozoa, molds, algae, insect
larvae etc. Sewage is sprinkled on it by means of slow rotating arms. As sewage trickles over,
microorganisms present in the sewage grow on the surface of filtering media using the organic
material of the sewage as food. On the completion of aerobic oxidation, the treated sewage is
taken to the settling tank and sludge is removed. The advantages of this method is the ease of
operation and low cost.
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Secondary
Primary
clarification
Aeration
Tertiary
Clarification
Disinfection
.. ..
Cl
.. Cl
..
Liquid
Effluent
..
..
..
Wastewater
Solids
sludge
Liquid
Sludge
Activated sludge
Coarse debris
screen
Chlorine-{cl }
or Ultraviolet
light-{uv}
Nutrient
removal
Sludge digesters
Solids disposal
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Pollution 57
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Sources of wastes:
Waste from homes (Domestic waste): These contains discarded materials like polyethylene bags,
metal cans, plastic bottles, waste paper, food waste etc.
Waste from shops: This consists mainly of waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottles, plastic
bags etc.
Biomedical waste: This include anatomical wastes, pathological wastes, infectious wastes etc.
Construction/demolition waste: This include rubbles, wood, concrete etc.
Industrial waste: This include packaging material, organic wastes, acids, alkalis and metals,
radioactive wastes, fly ash, scrap metal, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, tars,
dyes, batteries etc.
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Pollution 59
Classification:
Biodegradable wastes: These are solid waste materials that can be degraded by micro-organisms.
Example: vegetable wastes, stale food, tea leaves, egg shells etc.
Non-biodegradable wastes: These are wastes that cannot be degraded by micro-organisms.
Example: polyethylene bags, scrap metal, glass bottles etc.
Different steps in solid waste management are
Incineration: Incineration is the most common thermal treatment process. This method is often
used when waste contain hazardous material and organic content. It is the combustion of waste
in the presence of oxygen. After incineration, the wastes are converted to carbon dioxide, water
vapour and ash. Incineration significantly reduces the volume of the waste, rendering it harmless
and reducing transportation costs. During incineration high levels of toxic dioxins, furans, lead
and cadmium may be emitted.
Advantages:
It requires minimum land
It can be operated in any weather
The volume of wastes are reduced to about 25%
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Disadvantages:
It is expensive to build and operate
High energy requirement.
Cause significant air pollution due to burning of wastes. Foul smell is also produced.
Pyrolysis and Gasification: Pyrolysis and gasification are similar processes which decompose
organic waste by heating it to high temperatures. Gasification uses a low oxygen environment
while pyrolysis allows no oxygen.
Composting: Composting is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter by the action
of micro organisms and small invertebrates. Separated compostable wastes are dumped into earthen
trenches and then covered with earth. Organic matter such as dead and dry leaves and twigs are
decomposed by worms and insects, and is finally broken down by bacteria and fungi, to form
a dark rich soil-like material called compost. This soil can be used as a manure for farms and
gardens. Most widely used composting is vermicomposting-using earthworms.
Sanitary landfill: Sanitary Landfills are designed to greatly reduce or eliminate the risks that waste
disposal may pose to the public health and environmental quality. In a sanitary landfill, garbage is
spread out in thin layers. It is then covered with mud or clayor plastic and then compacted. Next
layer of wastes is spread on top of this, followed by another layer of soil. Suitable precautions
are taken so that underground water is not contaminated. When landfill is full it is covered with
clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water.
Landfill Advantages
Segregation not required.
Simple and economical.
When a landfill is complete, it can be reclaimed, built on or used as parks or farming land.
Landfill Disadvantages
Landfill can pollute the water, the air, and also the soil.
Landfill can result in decrease in soil fertility.
Improperly constructed landfill can pollute underground water.
Landfill can attract animals and insects like rats, mosquitoes, cockroaches etc.
Landfill can also cause sicknesses in communities.
Anaerobic decomposition produces methane, a dangerous greenhouse gas.
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Pollution 61
iv) Other man made pollutants: Plastics and other synthetic materials are light weight and
non biodegradable. Hence cause a serious threat to marine life.
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Physical and mental balance: Constant noise affects a man physically and mentally.
Physical effects include blood vessels to contract, skin to become pale, muscles to
constrict and rise in blood pressure leading to tension, insomnia (sleeplessness) and
nervousness. Lack of concentration anxiety, stress and mental fatigue are significant
health effects of noise.
Interferes with mans communication: In a noisy area communication is severely affected.
This may increase the rate of accidents especially in industries.
Affects efficiency and productivity: Noise pollution result in decreased work efficiency
and productivity. Sometimes, accidents can also happen.
Health effects: Loud and sudden noise affects the brain. Loud noise can affect health of
pregnant mothers and small infants.
Causes
i) Industries: Heat producing industries like thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, oil
refineries, steel mills etc uses water for various purposes. Waste water, often above ambient
temperature is discharged to nearby water body causing thermal pollution.
ii) Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants use water as coolant. After heat exchange
water having higher temperature is discharged to water body.
iii) Domestic homes: Hot water discharged from homes (geyser) and kitchen can also cause
thermal pollution.
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(i) Cooling ponds, (ii) Spray Ponds and (iii) Cooling towers
i) Cooling Ponds:
Cooling ponds constitute simplest method of controlling thermal pollution. The cooling pond
receives hot water from the thermal plants condensers and it is stored in ponds. Energy is dissipated mainly through evaporation (natural evaporation cools the water). Once the water has
cooled in the pond, it is reused by the plant or discharged in nearby water body. New water is
added to the system to replace the water lost through evaporation.
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ii) Spray Ponds: Hot water from condensers is received in spray ponds. Received water is
sprayed through nozzles where fine droplets are formed. Excess heat from these fine droplets is
dissipated to the atmosphere. Water gets cooled as it comes down. Cooled water is collected and
returned to the water body.
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(b) Dry cooling tower: In dry cooling tower, hot water is made to flow through a series of
coiled pipes. Cool air is passed over these hot pipes mechanically with the help of fans.
Unlike the previous method, there is no significant water loss. However, installation and
operation cost makes dry cooling tower much expensive than wet cooling tower.
Causes
i) Natural causes: Natural sources of radiation include cosmic rays coming from space,
Radioactive Radon-222 present in rocks, Uranium, Thorium and other species present in
rocks and minerals.
ii) Anthropogenic causes: These are some man made radiation sources.
a) Nuclear power plants: Every nuclear power plant produces few kilogram of highly
radioactive wastes. Many of these wastes have long half life period and will continue
to emit radiations for many years if not disposed properly.
b) Nuclear accidents: Accidents happening in a nuclear reactor may lead to the leakage
of radioactive materials which can cause serious health concerns. Example: Chernobyl
reactor meltdown in 1986, Fukushima Daiichi leakage in 2011.
c) Weapons of mass destruction: Many developed countries have the technology to prepare
nuclear weapons. Use of these weapons can pollute environment and can have devastating
effects. Eg: Atomic Bomb dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
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d) Laboratories: X-rays are widely used in hospitals. Radioactive materials are used in
cancer therapy and treatment. Leakage of these can cause various problems.
ii) General awareness: Public should be made aware about various hazards of nuclear
radiation and should be educated about the precautionary measures to be taken, in case of
a radioactive fall out.
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goes uncontrolled resulting in core melt down. Radioactive debris is spread all over resulting in
massive destruction to life and property.
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Unit
NATURAL RESOURCES
SYLLABUS
Forest resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies- timber
extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people Water resources:
Use and overutilization of surface and ground water, dams-benefits and problems
Mineral resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and using
mineral resources, case studies Food resources: World food problems, changes
caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide
problems, water logging, salinity, case studies Energy resources: Growing energy
needs, renewable and non renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources.
Energy Conversion processes Biogas production and uses, anaerobic digestion;
case studies Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced
landslides, soil erosion and desertification role of an individual in conservation of
natural resources Equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles. Introduction
to Environmental Biochemistry: Proteins Biochemical degradation of pollutants,
Bioconversion of pollutants. Field study of local area to document environmental
assets river / forest / grassland / hill / mountain.
3.1 |INTRODUCTION
A natural resource may be defined as any material obtained from nature which can be used
as such or transformed to something more valuable and useful. They include the air to breathe,
water to drink, land to live on, walk on and grow the food on etc.
The natural resources are of two kinds.
Renewable resources are resources that are naturally regenerated within a given span of time.
Most of them are continuous. However, some renewable resources may become non renewable
if over-exploited or not given enough time for regeneration. Example: Solar energy, forests,
wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc.
Non-renewable resources are resources that have limited supply. They exhaust after certain time
period. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be replenished. Example: Fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum, minerals etc.
The important natural resources are
1. Forest resources
2. Water resources
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3. Mineral resources
4. Food resources
5. Energy resources
6. Land resources
Productive functions
1. Supply of Raw Material: Forest is a source of raw material for various industries. Wood
is a major raw material which is widely used as fuel, raw material for pulp, paper, furniture
etc.
2. Commercial uses: Forests yields a large number of commercial goods like timber, firewood,
food items, gum, resins, fibers, lac, fodder, medicine, drugs etc.
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3.2.2 Deforestation:
Removal of earths forest is known as deforestation. It is the cutting of trees, transforming a f orest
into cleared land. This can result in serious environmental problems. The worlds rain forests
could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current rate of deforestation.
Causes
1. Agriculture: Conversion of forests to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of people.
Forests are cut down to plant cash crops like pepper, rubber etc.
2. Fuel requirements: Growing population result in increased fuel demands. In rural areas,
wood is still the major fuel. Tress are cut down for the demand of firewood.
3. Developmental projects: Constructing roads, railway tracks etc require clearing of forests
on a large scale.
4. Dams and reservoirs: Dams and Hydroelectric projects in forest area cause massive
deforestation. Over 60,000 hectares of forest area was cleared for the construction of
Narmada Dam. Several hectares of forest were submerged under water.
5. Raw materials for industrial use: Wood is an important raw material for many purposes.
For making furniture, boxes, plywood, pulp for paper trees are cut down.
6. Mining: Surface and sub-surface mining for the extraction of mineral resources cause
extensive deforestation. Digging a coal, diamond or gold mine requires the removal of all
forest cover. Forests are further cleared for the transport of trucks and other equipment.
7. Forest fires and volcanic eruption: Forest fires and volcanic eruption can cause deforestation.
Forest fire is common in tropical regions during summer.
8. Overgrazing: Overgrazing by cattles cause deforestation. They not only destroy the
vegetation but also pull out the roots of plants.
Consequences
1. Global warming: Increasing CO2 levels lead to rise in temperature of earth. Forests are
known as earths lungs as they play a great role in regulating the amount of greenhouse
gases like CO2.
2. Soil erosion: Roots of trees helps to hold soil together preventing soil erosion. Removal
of trees will lead to easy removal of top soil by water, wind etc.
3. Loss of habitat: Due to deforestation, forest animals and plants will lose their natural
habitat. This may cause migration of animals or man-animal conflicts.
4. Loss of soil fertility: Leaf litter is rich in organic matter which is converted into nutrients
by micro organisms present in the soil. Absence of leaf litter can reduce soil fertility.
5. Change in rainfall pattern: Forests play an important role in regulation of hydrological
cycle. Deforestation can cause decrease in rainfall or erratic rainfall pattern.
6. Lowering of water table: Deforestation results in less rainfall which may result in lowering
of water table.
7. Shifting of tribal people: Large scale deforestation may result in shifting of tribal population
to urban areas.
8. Loss of biodiversity, Genetic and species diversity: Deforestation will lead to the loss of
biodiversity. Deforestation will lead to loss of many varieties of flora and fauna. Endangered
plants and animals may become extinct.
9. Loss of forest products: Many forest products like honey, medicinal plants etc will become
costly.
10. Desertification: Large scale deforestation may lead to forest becoming arid, semi-arid or
desert.
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Step 2: Condensation
Water vapour formed by evaporation, rises up in the atmosphere. At high altitudes, where the
temperature is low, the water vapor changes into very tiny particles of ice /water droplets. This
process is called condensation. These water particles come close together and form clouds and
fogs in the sky.
Step 3: Precipitation
Due to wind or change in temperature, the water droplets in clouds combine to make bigger droplets and precipitates as rain. If the temperature is less than zero, the water droplets fall as snow.
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A part of rainwater does not runoff into the rivers, but moves deep into the soil through
different layers. This is called infiltration. This water which seeps down increases the level of
ground water table.
Causes
1. Agriculture: The main reason for the over exploitation of ground water is agriculture.
Extensive irrigation including for livestock requires lot of water.
2. Increase in population: Domestic and industrial needs of the growing population requires
water.
3. Inadequate rainfall/Drought: To meet severe weather conditions ground water is over
exploited.
Consequences
1. Lowering of water table: Large number of tube wells built can result in lowering of water
table.
2. Ground subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the clay
layers in the aquifer get compacted and settle. This result in the sinking of land called
ground subsidence. This can result in damage of buildings, fracture in pipelines etc.
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3. Water logging and salinity: Rapid removal of ground water can cause the intrusion of sea
water which results in increase in salinity. When excessive irrigation is done with brackish
water it raises the water table gradually leading to water-logging and salinity problems.
4. Water pollution/Chemical contamination: Removal of large volumes of ground water
can result in water pollution. Chemicals contamination can occur. Due to pollution, water
will become unfit or drinking and domestic uses.
5. Decline in agricultural production: Lowering of water table can bring about water scarcity
which can cause decrease in agricultural crop production. This can lead to drought or
famine. Salt water intrusion can also lead to destruction of crops.
6. Drying up of lakes, rivers and water bodies: Indiscriminate use of ground water at a
rapid rate can cause drying up of many surface water bodies.
7. Desertification: Loss of underground water may convert semi-arid places into desert.
8. Waste of energy: Lowering of water table result in wastage of energy due to pumping. It
increases the cost of pumping ground water.
3.2.3 Dams
Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley to store water.
Dams have been referred to as Temples of modern India by the countrys first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru.
Benefits
1. Generation of electricity: Water stored in dams can be used for the generation of electricity
in hydro-electric power stations.
2. Floods and famine control: Dams help to control or mitigate floods. It can act as a
reservoir of water during famine.
3. Water for irrigation: Dams provide water for irrigation. This is particularly useful during
summer.
4. Source of drinking water: Dams can also act as reservoir of fresh water for domestic
uses.
5. Promoting navigation and fishery: Big dams also promote navigation and fishery.
6. Promote tourism: Dams also promote tourism. Constructing a dam presents a beautiful
view of a lake. Recreational activities like boating, swimming, fishing etc can promote eco
tourism.
7. Economic growth: Dams directly or indirectly provide employment to many and raising
the standard and quality of life.
Problems
Impacts at the upstream level
1. Displacement of tribal people: Constructing large dams causes large scale displacement
of tribal people. Settlement and rehabilitation of these people is a major concern.
2. Loss of forest, flora and fauna: Construction of dams include massive deforestation and
submergence of land under water. This can result in the loss of flora and fauna. Sometimes,
plants and animals may become endangered or even extinct.
3. Changes in aquatic habitat: Construction of dams result in the variation of natural flow
of the river which may result in changes in aquatic ecosystem.
4. Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs: Dams block the sediment load normally found
in a river flow. This result in siltation and sedimentation.
5. Loss of non-forest land: Non forest land may be submerged under water during the
construction of large dams.
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6. Stagnation and water logging: Stagnation and water logging can happen near the reservoir.
7. Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases: Dams, reservoirs in tropical
areas are breeding grounds for mosquitoes, snails, and flies, the vectors that carry malaria
and other diseases.
8. Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS): Large dams carry enormous volume of water and it
can cause significant impact on the strength of soil and rock strata beneath the surface. It
can result in generating seismic waves which result in earthquake.
9. Growth of aquatic weeds: Dams may result in the rapid growth of aquatic weeds.
10. Microclimatic change: Large dams may result in the climatic change around the reservoir.
Impacts at the downstream
1. Water logging and salinity: Over irrigation in the downstream region may result in water
logging and increased soil salinity.
2. Micro-climatic changes: Large dams may result in the climatic change around the reservoir.
3. Silt deposition: Soil erosion may lead to silt deposition on river mouths.
4. Flash floods: Opening of reservoir shutter may result in flash floods.
5. Salt water intrusion: Salt water intrusion can happen at the river mouths.
6. Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases: Dam reservoirs in tropical
areas are breeding grounds for mosquitoes, snails, and flies, the vectors that carry malaria
and other diseases.
3.2.6 Floods
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry. This happens when
river carries water much beyond its normal capacity.
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Floods have been regular features of some parts of India, China and Bangladesh causing
huge economic loss as well as loss of life. Bhrahmaputra and its tributaries cause heavy floods
every year.
Causes
1. Excessive rainfall: High rainfall/heavy monsoon may result in floods. During north west
monsoon many of the Indian rivers are flooded which results in large scale destruction of
life and property.
2. Global warming: Increase in temperature may result in melting of snow which may result
in floods. Many rivers which originate from the Himalayas are flooded during summer.
3. Dams: When carrying capacity of dams exceeds, water is released by opening shutters of
the dam. This can result in flash floods.
4. Change in direction of river: Any change (natural or man made) in the direction of river
can lead to floods.
5. Deforestation: Removal of trees result in rapid stream flow which result in floods.
Consequences
1. Destruction of life and property: Floods can cause severe damage to life and property.
2. Decline in agricultural production: Floods can lead to submergence of fields under water.
This can result in decreased harvest.
3. Water logging: Flooding can result in stagnation of water or water logging over a long
period. This can result in the spread of water borne diseases.
4. Scarcity of drinking water: Flood results in water pollution and may lead to scarcity of
drinking water.
5. Outbreak of epidemic: Contaminated water and low quality food can result in the outbreak
of various epidemics.
6. Rehabilitation: People affected by floods have to be given temporary accommodation, food
etc.
7. Increased soil fertility (Good): Downstream soil quality will be better due deposition of
top soil.
8. Increased fish output (Good): Can result in increased fish production
3.2.7 Droughts
Scarcity of water which occurs due to inadequate rains, late arrivals of rains and excessive withdrawal of ground water is called drought. Any lack of water for normal needs of agriculture,
livestock, industry or human population may termed as drought.
Droughts occur in all of the worlds continents. It can produce serious hydrological
imbalance.
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Causes
1. Less rainfall/ Failure of monsoon: Less rainfall/ monsoon failure may result in severe
water scarcity cause drought.
2. Deforestation: Unscientific cutting down of trees can result in change in hydrological cycle
which can lead to drought.
3. Overgrazing: Cattles may eat away the vegetation converting the land into dry, arid or
semi-desert lands which may cause drought.
4. Unscientific agricultural practices: Erroneous, intensive agricultural methods, unscientific
practices may lead to water scarcity leading to drought.
5. Mining: Mining practices can cause severe irrecoverable damage (pollution, acid drainage)
to many ecosystem. This may result in desertification and drought.
Consequences
1. Malnutrition: Lack or shortage of food can result in malnutrition.
2. Decline in agricultural production: Droughts results in heavy decline in agricultural
production.
3. Famine/ Stravation / Death: Severe drought can result in famine and death.
4. Increased food prices: Food commodities can become expensive due to high demand and
severe shortage in supply.
5. Outbreak of epidemic: Contaminated water and low quality food can result in the outbreak
of various epidemics.
6. Migration: People and animals may migrate to another place for want of better resources.
7. Severe damage to ecosystem: Prolonged drought can result in changes in biotic components
of the eco-system.
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National conflict
Cauvery Water dispute
River: Cauvery
Origin: Talakaveri, Karnataka
Length: 765 KM
States Involved: Karnataka, Tamilnadu (Major)
Kerala, Pondicherry (Minor)
Upstream: Karnataka
Downstream: Tamilnadu
Dam: Mettur dam, Krishna Raja Sagara Dam
History: The history of this conflict is due to signing of two controversial agreements (1892 and
1924) between the erstwhile Madras Presidency and Princely State of Mysore.
Karnatakas claim: Karnataka claims that agreements were written heavily in favor of the Madras
Presidency, and demanded new agreement based on equal sharing of water.
Tamilnadus cliam: Tamilnadu claims that it has already developed almost three million acres
of land for cultivation. According to Tamilnadu, any change (decrease) in amount of water will
adversely affect the livelihood of millions of farmers in the state.
The crisis of 19951996
In 1995, the monsoons failed badly and Karnataka had to give water to Tamilnadu. Farmers of
Karnataka protested against this and formed human barricade infront of the dam to stop release
of water. Tamilnadu protested against this and the condition was taken up by various political
parties and became a burning issue.
Result and verdict
A tribunal was set up by The Government of India in 1990 to solve the crisis. After hearing
arguments of all the parties involved, the tribunal delivered its final verdict on 5 February 2007.
In its verdict, the tribunal allocated 419 billion ft (12 km) of water annually to Tamil Nadu and
270 billion ft (7.6 km) to Karnataka; 30 billion ft (0.8 km) of Cauvery river water to Kerala
and 7 billion ft (0.2 km) to Pondicherry.
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International conflicts
River: Nile (Worlds longest river)
Origin: White Nile
Length: 6,650 Km
Countries involved: Nine countries
Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda
and Egypt.
Control and conflict: Of the four major tributaries to the Nile, three originate from Ethiopia - the
Blue Nile, Sobat and Atbara (85% of water in Nile). Ethiopia is planning to control more water.
Sudan is also planning to divert more water. This could badly affect Egypt. The population of
Egypt is expected to double in next 20 years and will require more water. Almost all countries
want more water from nile.
Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)
The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) was formed by Nile conflict countries to develop the river in a
cooperative manner, share socioeconomic benefits, and promote regional peace and security. It
was formally launched in February 1999 by the water ministers of 9 countries that share the river.
Do not waste water. Dont keep water tap open while brushing, shaving, washing etc.
Check and repair leaking taps and pipes.
Collect rain water. Build rain water harvesting system in your house.
Recycled water can be used for watering garden plants.
Install water-saving toilets that use not more than 6 liters per flush.
Water the plants early morning or evening when evaporation losses are minimum.
Use drip irrigation and sprinkling irrigation to improve irrigation efficiency and reduce
evaporation.
Uses of minerals
The main uses of minerals are as follows:
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3.3.1 Mining
Minerals and their ores have to be extracted from the earths interior. This process of extraction
is known as mining. Mining operations follow four phases.
Prospecting: Searching for minerals.
Exploration: Assessing the size, shape, location, and economic value of the deposit.
Development: Work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be extracted
from it.
Exploitation: Extracting the minerals from the mines.
Two types of procedures are used for mining- Open pit mining and Deep mining. Depending
on the location, safety, environmental impact, maximum yield at low cost an appropriate mining
method is chosen.
Impacts of mining
Impacts of mining can be due to the mine itself, disposal of mine wastes, transport of the material
and processing of the ore.
1. Deforestation: Large area of forest is usually cleared for various mining (surface and
subsurface) activities. This can result in
Loss of biodiversity
Loss of genetic and species diversity
Loss of habitat for plants and animals
Species may become extinct
2. Land subsidence: Underground mining may cause land subsidence. This may cause cracking
of roads, bending of railway tracks etc.
3. Groundwater and surface water contamination: Mining activities can result in acid mine
drainage, heavy metal contamination etc.
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4. Air pollution: Mining process and processing (smelting, roasting etc) can introduce lot of
pollutants and particulate matter into air. Suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOx, soot,
arsenic particles, cadmium, lead etc. released into the atmosphere can cause several health
problems.
5. Soil erosion: Mining leads to erosion of the fertile top soil. This may be carried as sediment
into streams, rivers and lakes.
6. Occupational health hazards: Many miners suffer from various respiratory and skin
diseases due to constant exposure to chemicals and toxic substances. Diseases like asbestosis,
silicosis, black lung disease etc are quite common among miners.
1. Overgrazing
The rapid consumption of grass and other small plants by cattle stock (cows, goat, buffalo, sheep)
without giving enough time to regenerate is known as overgrazing.
Impacts of overgrazing
Land degradation and desertification: Overgrazing may result in the removal of vegetation
which leads to land degradation and desertification. In many cases even the roots are eaten
away by the cattle.
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Soil erosion: Removal of vegetation by cattle stock exposes the topsoil which can removed
by water, air etc. The grass roots strongly bind top soil. On the removal of grass, the soil
becomes loose and can be easily removed by wind and water.
Loss of useful species: Overgrazing can result in change in the composition of plant
population and its regeneration capacity. Useful plants may be slowly replaced by thorny
bushes, weeds etc.
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Consquences of eutrophication
Increased biomass of phytoplankton
Increased water turbidity
Decrease in Dissolved oxygen content
Loss of fish and other aquatic organisms
Decreases in aesthetic value of the water body
Difficulty in transport
d) Can induce cancer: Many of the pesticides are known to be carcinogens. Pesticides like
endosulfan cause severe genetic and health disorders.
Pest control methods
Use of biological predators
Provide homes for the pest enemies
Integrated crop management
Bring in natural enemies
Use pheromones to lure pests into traps
Use hormones to disrupt life cycles
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4. Water logging
Waterlogging is saturation of the soil by groundwater sufficient to prevent or hinder agriculture.
Flooding and over-irrigation brings under groundwater to the surface.
Causes
Over irrigation: Over irrigation of croplands by farmers can result in water logging.
Excessive rainfall and floods: Excessive rainfall and floods may result in water logging
if there is no proper drainage system.
Lack of proper drainage: Lack of proper drainage facility can result in water logging.
In poorly drained soils, water cant penetrate deeply, so it is left stagnant on the surface.
Raised water table: Raised water table results in the soils becoming waterlogged.
Incorrect method of cultivation: If the agricultural land is not levelled properly before
cultivation, it can result in waterlogging.
Nature of the soil: Some soil like black cotton soil have low permeability and does not
allow water to percolate through it. Over irrigation or flooding in such soil may result in
water logging.
Consequences
Increase in soil salinity: Water logging increases the soil salinity. When water evaporates,
the salts are deposited there. This can result in the reduction of crop yield.
Destruction of crops: When soils are water logged, air spaces in the soil are filled with
water and cause decay of roots and plant destruction.
Damage of soil structure: Water logging may result in damage of soil structure.
Destruction of micro organisms in soil: Water logging may result in death of useful
micro organisms in soil.
Reduce nitrogen fixation: Waterlogging reduces nitrogen fixation by the nodules of legume
plants. Nitrogen is lost from waterlogged soils by denitrification.
Fall of soil temperature: Due to water logging the soil temperature is lowered. At lower
temperature, the activity of soil bacteria becomes slow.
Growth of weeds and aquatic plants: Continuous water logging may convert agricultural
land to marshy land. Weeds and aquatic plants may grow plenty.
Control measures
Preventing excessive irrigation: Adequate irrigation and not over irrigation can check
water logging.
Improving drainage facilities: Water logging can be reduced considerably by improving
drainage facilities.
Choice of crops: Some species of cropare more tolerant to water logging than others. Crops
having high rate of evapotranspiration should be recommended for the areas susceptible
to water logging.
Biodrainage trees: Planting biodrainage trees like eucalyptus can reduce water logging.
5. Salinity
Soil salinity is the salt content present in the soil. The process of increasing the salt content is
known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salt content of soil increases
mainly by weathering of rocks. Very salty soils may have a white layer of dry salt on the soil
surface. Most crops do not grow well on highly saline soils. Where the concentration of sodium
salts is high relative to other types of salt, the soil is called sodic soil.
Causes
Over irrigation: Over irrigation of croplands by farmers can result in salinity. During day
time water evaporates leaving behind salts in the top soil.
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Saltwater intrusion: Intrusion of sea water to farmlands can also result in the increase
in salt content of the soil.
Consequences
Low productivity: Most crops do not grow well on salty soil. Highly saline soil is harmful
for the plants as the water uptake is reduced.
Varying pH of soil: Salts present in soil will vary the pH of the soil. Soil is made acidic
or alkaline depending on the major salts present. Sodic soils are basic in nature.
Death of useful micro organisms: Increase in soil salt content varies the pH of the soil.
Variation in pH may result in the death of useful bacteria present in the soil.
Control measures
Flushing with fresh water: Excess salt can be washed away by flushing with water.
Plants tolerant to salinity: Certain plants are more tolerant to a high salt concentration than
others. Example: Barley, Sugar beet, cotton etc. Cultivating such plants can reduce salinity.
Integrated crop management
Integrated crop management is a system of crop production which uses sustainable methods
conserving the natural resources and with very low environmental impact.
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Control measures
1. Adopt farming practices that conserve soil fertility
a. No till farming: No-tillage or zero tillage causes minimum disturbance to the top soil.
Here, the seeds are directly inserted into untilled soil. Special tillers are used to break up
and loosen the subsurface soil without turning over the topsoil. Small slits are made by
tilling machines in the unploughed soil. Seeds, fertilizers, herbicides and water are placed
in the slit, so that the seed germinates.
b. Contour farming: In contour farming slope is tilled along the lines of consistent elevation.
Each row planted horizontally along the slope of the land acts as a small dam to help hold
soil and thus preventing soil erosion. This technique also permits increased infiltration of
water into the soil.
c. Terracing: This method is used to farm on a hilly or mountainous terrain. Small step like
terraces are built on the hilly terrain. This decreases erosion and surface water run off.
Rice is cultivated by terracing in many asian countries.
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d. Strip Cropping: In strip cropping, different crops are grown on alternates strips close by.
For example, wheat, or other small grains are grown along with strips of crops, such as
corn, soybeans, cotton etc. Strip cropping is very efficient in checking erosion.
e. Alley Cropping: In alley cropping, crops are cultivated between the rows of trees or shrubs.
This is also called Agro forestry. Even when the crop is harvested, no soil erosion happens
as trees and shrubs still hold on to the top soil. Trees like walnut, oak etc are used.
f. Shelter Belt/ Wind breakers: Wind breakers are used in the areas where wind is the
major agent of erosion. One or more rows of trees or shrubs planted in such a way that it
blocks the wind. The wind speed is thus substantially reduced which helps in preventing
wind erosion of soil.
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Causes:
Overgrazing, deforestation, soil erosion, water-logging, salinization improper agricultural practices
and contamination of the soil with heavy metals, fly-ash etc causes degradation of land.
Consequences:
Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region is converted
into a desert. Over a period land becomes drier, losing water bodies, vegetation and wildlife.
Due to drought and desertification each year 12 million hectares are lost (23 hectares/minute!).
Causes:
Both natural and anthropogenic (man-made) may lead to desertification.
Deforestation: Cutting down of trees result in soil erosion, loss of fertility and loss of water.
These all may lead to desertification gradually.
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Natural Resources 91
Overgrazing: Overgrazing of cattle lead to the loss of herbs, shrubs in grasslands. Land may
become barren and prone to erosion.
Over utilization of ground water: Over utilization of ground water may result in lowering of
water table which can lead to desertification.
Mining and quarrying: Mining and quarrying lead to the loss of vegetation. Denudation of
extensive land areas leads to desertification.
Consequences:
Loss of productive capacity of land
Loss of biodiversity
Lowering of water table.
Causes of landslide:
Deforestation: Removal of vegetation, trees can destabilize soil structure. It can lead to soil
erosion and land slides.
Underground mining: Underground mining causes land subsidence.
Heavy Rainfall: When sloped areas become completely saturated by heavy rainfall many times
landslides can occur.
Ground water level: Over exploitation of ground water can lead to landslides.
Earthquakes: Seismic waves (small or big) can trigger landslides.
Consequences of landslide:
Loss of life and property: Landslides cause large scale destruction of life and property. Severe
economic loss may result from landslides.
Loss of transportation and communication: Destruction of roads and railway tracks cuts may
leave people stranded. Destruction of telephone lines can affect communication.
Increase in turbidity in lakes: Due to falling of land masses in the near by lakes, turbidity
can increase.
Avalanche: Landslides in snow clad mountain ranges can lead to avalanche.
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Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water, as it would wash off the soil. Use
sprinkling irrigation.
Grow grass in the open areas which will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.
Do not over irrigate agricultural fields. It may result in soil erosion, water logging and
salinisation.
Energy Input
Battery
Chemical energy
Electricity
Electric motor
Electricity
Mechanical energy
Fluorescent lamp
Electricity
Light
Solar energy
Electricity
Electric heater
Electricity
Thermal energy
Fuel cell
Chemical energy
Electricity
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Natural Resources 93
+ 0n1
94
36Kr
139
56Ba
+ 30n1 + Energy
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission reaction is carried out in a controlled
rate so that the liberated energy can be utilized for constructive purposes like generation of
electricity, heat and mechanical power etc. There are many nuclear reactors in India located at
Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rana Pratap Sagar near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam, Koodankulam
(Tamil Nadu) and Narora (U.P.).
Advantages of nuclear power generation:
Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of CO2 and other greenhouse
gases.
It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant.
Disadvantages of nuclear power generation:
The wastes from nuclear reactors are extremely dangerous (highly radicactive) and their
disposal is a huge concern.
Despite very high security, accidents can still happen. The consequences of an accident
would be absolutely devastating.
Nuclear power plants could be preferred targets for terrorist attacks.
The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource, its supply
is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years.
Due to rapidly growing population, the demand for energy is also increasing. Conventional
energy sources like firewood, coal, petroleum are unable to meet the growing energy requirements. Hence, in the past few decades there is a constant search for new non-conventional energy
resources. Nuclear energy, solar energy, wind energy etc are some examples of non-conventional
energy resources.
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Natural Resources 95
Solar cooker
In solar cooker, solar energy is used to cook, boil water etc.
Construction and working
A box type solar cooker consisted of an insulated box with a glass cover and a top lid, which
has a mirror on its inner side. Mirror reflects sunlight into the box when the lid is kept open.
The inner part of the box is painted black. Cooking vessels are placed inside the box. The glass
top allows infrared radiations emitted by the sun into the box but reflected radiations of longer
wavelength are trapped inside the cooker. Thus temperature inside the box slowly increases. The
cooking time is about 1 to 3 hrs depending upon the items being cooked and the intensity of
solar radiation.
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When sunlight strikes the surface of a photovoltaic cell, electron-hole pair is produced. Electrons are drifted and collected at the n-type end and the holes are drifted to and collected at the
p-type end. When these two ends are electrically connected through a conductor, there is a flow
of current between the two ends through the external circuit.
A typical silicon PV cell produces about 0.5-0.6 V dc under open circuit, no load conditions.
The current (and power) output of a photovoltaic cell depends on its efficiency and size (surface
area), and is proportional to the intensity of sunlight striking the surface of the cell. The electron
flow provides the current.
Applications
Solar cells are used to provide power supply for space satellites.
Solar cells are used in calculators, watches etc.
Solar cells can provide electricity for street lighting in remote areas, and to run water
pumps, radio, TV etc.
Solar cell provide electric power to light houses
Advantages of solar energy harvesting devices
Renewable and continuous: Doesnt exhaust in another million years.
No green house gases: solar energy devices create no pollution.
Long life time for photovoltaic cells: Photovoltaic cells last for more than 10 years
Quick installation: Solar powered panels and products are easy to install.
Low environmental impact: The environmental impact made is positive
Can be moved easily: Solar energy based devices are very convenient to handle.
Low maintenance: The maintenance expenditure is very less.
Government incentive: Tax incentives, various credits and rebates encourage people to
go green.
Can be used for many purposes: Solar devices include solar panel, solar water heater,
solar cooker, solar powered vehicles.
Disadvantages
Expensive: The Solar Cells/ Solar Panels tend to be very expensive when you first purchase
them.
Cannot be used all the time: Solar power cannot be harnessed during a storm, on a
cloudy day or at night.
Large area: A solar energy installation requires a large area for the system to be efficient
in providing a source of electricity.
Affected by pollution: Pollution can degrade the efficiency of photovoltaic cells
Low efficiency: Solar cells have less efficiency (~ 25%).
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Natural Resources 97
Wind turbines are used to produce electricity. The blades of wind turbines will keep on rotating
continuously due to the force of the striking wind. The rotation of the blade spins a shaft which
is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
Merits
Wind energy is renewable and readily available.
It does not create any kind of pollution.
Relatively easy installation.
Area beneath the farm can be used for cultivation, grazing etc.
Limitations
Minimum speed of the wind should be 15 km/hr.
Direction of wind is not predictable.
Seasonal variation occurs in the velocity of wind.
Wind farms can disturb radio and TV signals.
Wind farms cause noise pollution.
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Natural Resources 99
Advantages
Geothermal energy generally involves low running costs.
Geothermal energy reduce the reliance on fossil fuels.
Geothermal energy does not create any pollution and help in creating clean environment.
Since ancient times, people having been using geothermal energy for taking bath, heating
homes, preparing food etc. Today this is also used for direct heating of homes and offices.
Disadvantages
Chapter 03.indd 99
Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
Use pressure cooker for cooking. This makes cooking faster and saves fuel.
Use fluorescent lamps and LEDs instead of incandescent lamps. This save a lot of power.
Always cook in closed containers so that energy wastage is minimum.
Check your vehicle for oil leakages and maintain it in a good condition.
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Swtich off electrical equipment completely when not in use. For example switching off
the television just with the remote still consume power.
Dry the clothes in sun instead of drier.
Use solar cooker for cooking your food and solar water heater will cut down on your
energy expenses.
Use solar lanterns.
Grow trees near the houses and get a cool breeze and shade. This will cut off your electricity
charges on A/C and coolers.
Drive less and use mass public transportations whenever possible. Use bicycles to commute.
Join a car-pool to office and return. Use metro rail service for easy hassle free travel.
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Protein can be easily hydrolyzed by acids and bases. Proteins on hydrolysis give individual
amino acids from which it is formed. Aminoacids are futher decomposed to ammonia. Some
bacteria like Nitrosomonas species convert ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2). While species like
nitrobacter converts nitrites (NO2) to nitrates(NO3-) which are readily absorbed by plants.
Amino acid Ammonia Nitrites Nitrates
The complete bioconversion of a substance into inorganic species such as CO2, H2O, NH3,
phosphate etc is called mineralization.
Certain bacteria convert phenol, toluene into CO2 and water.
Biodegradable plastics are plastics that are capable of being decomposed by bacteria or other
living organisms.
Biodegradation of pesticides
Many pesticide residues (organochlorines, organophosphates and carbamates) are degraded by
micorganisms like fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoa etc. Extend of pesticide degradation depends
on the physico-chemical properties of the pesticide, characteristics of the soil, environmental
conditions and management practices.
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Pesticide Structure
Pesticides having polar groups such as OH, COOH and NH2 are relatively easily attacked by
micro organisms. Halogen or alkyl substituents are more resistant to biodegradation.
Pesticide concentration
Generally, the rate of degradation decreases with increase in the residual pesticide concentration.
Pesticide Solubility
Pesticides with low water solubility tend to be more resistant to microbial degradation than
compounds of higher water solubility.
Biodegradation of DDT
Many soil bacteria which belong to genera Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Arthrobacter and Micrococcus
are involved in organochlorine degradation.
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Unit
SYLLABUS
From unsustainable to sustainable development urban problems related to energy
water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management resettlement
and rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns, case studies role of
non-governmental organization- environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions
12 Principles of green chemistry- nuclear accidents and holocaust, case studies.
wasteland reclamation consumerism and waste products environment production
act Air act Water act Wildlife protection act Forest conservation act The
Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules; 1998 and amendments- scheme
of labeling of environmentally friendly products (Ecomark). enforcement machinery
involved in environmental legislation- central and state pollution control boards- disaster
management: floods, earthquake, cyclone and landslides. Public awareness.
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Prudent use of renewable resources: Natural resources must be used such that the
consumption should not exceed regeneration capacity. This means that enough time should
be given for the resource to replenish naturally. That is, over exploitation should be avoided.
Conservation of non renewable resources: Non renewable resources should be conserved
by recycling and reusing.
Population control: Population explosion is the root cause of many the environmental
problems. By controlling or slowing down population growth, sustainability can be achieved.
Government Policies: Strict policies and laws must be enforced regarding the use of natural
resources. Coordinated efforts are required across all government and non-government sectors.
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Objectives:
Rainwater harvesting has the following objectives:
to
to
to
to
to
There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings a) Storage of rainwater on surface
for future use b)Recharge to ground water.
a) Storage of rainwater on surface for future use
In this method rain water collected from the roof of the building and then sent to a storage tank.
Storage tank is designed according to the water requirements and amount of rainfall. Drainpipe have
a mesh filter at mouth and is filtered before connecting to the storage tank. Water from storage
tank can be used for secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most
cost effective way of rainwater harvesting. It also saves transportation and distribution expenses.
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the soil together and prevents it from being washed away during rain. Modern agricultural
practices such as no-till farming, terracing, contour cropping, strip cropping are also practiced
to reduce erosion.
Rain water harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is done to replenish the water table. It also helps
in moderation of floods.
Afforestation and Agroforestry: Afforestation and agroforestry help to prevent soil erosion and
retention of moisture. Woody trees are grown in high rainfall areas in between crops to reduce
the surface runoff and loss of top soil.
Scientific mining and quarrying: Unscientific mining may result in lose of stability of hilly
terrain. This can result in landslides, rapid erosion etc.
Public participation: Public participation only makes a watershed management program success.
Government and NGO have a big role to play. Awareness and environment education or paying
certain incentives to them can help in effective public participation.
Rehabilitation problem
Some problems associated with rehabilitation are
Poverty: Tribals are usually the most affected amongst the displaced as they are already poor.
Displacement and rehabilitation only increases their poverty due to loss of land, home, jobs, food
insecurity etc. They often find it difficult to adjust with the new living conditions.
Loss of cultural values: Most of the cultural activities are very closely associated to their habitat.
Marriages, social and cultural functions, their folk-songs, dances and activities suffer with their
displacement.
Loss of heritage: Culture and indigenous knowledge inherited from forefathers are lost. Tribals
have great knowledge about local medicinal plants and know how to cure many diseases.
Ignorant of market trends: Tribals are not familiar with the current market policies and trends.
They are illiterate and are exploited and fooled easily.
Conflicts: Resettlement also affects the people who have been living in that area which was
selected for resettlement. Cultural diversity, religious practices, food habits etc can result in
conflicts. Both communities can fight over natural resources.
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Objectives of NGOs
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Nature doesnt exist primarily for human use but for all living species.
Humans are not above other living things and have no right to drive other living things
to extinction.
Man should be grateful to the plants and animals as they nourish you by giving food.
Natural resources should not be over exploited as it is for the use of future generations as
well. Future generations have their right to live in a clean and safe planet.
Mahatma Gandhi has aptly summarized ethics as There is enough for everybodys need,
but not for anybodys greed.
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warmed, on average, 0.3 to 0.6 C over last century. Change in rainfall pattern, hot or cold spells
of temperature, or cyclones and floods was observed in many countries.
The concentration of CO2 in the Earths atmosphere was about 280 parts per million by
volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial revolution began. In 2014, it is 397 ppmv and
rising by about 1.5 ppmv per year. If emissions continue at current rate, the concentration will
be around 500 ppmv by the end of this century. Deforestation, use of fossil fuels, use of CFCs
are responsible for increase in green house gases. In the past few decades, earths temperature
has increased by 2-3 degrees. This effect is known as global warming. Greenhouse effect leads
to global warming.
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Wasteland can be classified into three forms: a) Easily reclaimable b) reclaimable with some
difficulty and c) reclaimable with extreme difficulty. Easily reclaimable wastelands can be modified and used for agricultural purposes. Those which can be reclaimed with some difficulty can
be utilized for agroforestry. Wastelands that are reclaimed with extreme difficulty can be used
for forestry or to recreate natural ecosystems. National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB)
aims at the reclamation and use of waste lands.
In LDC.s - No. of people is very high, but per capita use of resources and waste generated
are less.
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In MDC.s - No. of people is low, but per capita use of resources and wastes generated are
very high.
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Penalties
A person who breaks any of the conditions of any license or permit granted under this Act shall
be treated guilty. The offence is punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
three years or with a fine of R25,000 or with both. An offence committed in relation to any animal specified in Schedule I, or Part II of Schedule II, like the use of meat of any such animal,
or animal articles like a trophy, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term not less than
one year and may extend to six years and a fine of R25,000.
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Waste Category
Category No. 1
Category No. 2
Animal Waste
(animal tissues, organs, body parts etc)
Category No 3
Category No 4
Waste sharps
(needles, syringes, blades, glass, etc. that
may cause puncture and cuts)
Category No 5
Category No 6
Solid Waste
(Items contaminated with blood, and body
fluids including cotton dressings, other
material contaminated with blood)
Category No. 7
Liquid Waste
(waste generated from laboratory and
washing, cleaning, house-keeping and
disinfecting activities)
Disinfection by chemical
treatment and discharge into
drains.
Category No. 8
Incineration Ash
(ash from incineration of any bio-medical
waste)
Category No. 9
Chemical Waste
(chemicals used in production of
biologicals, chemicals used in disinfection,
as insecticides, etc.)
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Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigation and research relating to problems of water and air pollution, and for their
prevention, control or abatement.
Co-ordinate the activities of the State Board and resolve disputes among them;
Organise through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programme on the prevention,
control or abatement of water and air pollution;
Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air pollution
and the measures devised for their effective prevention, control or abatement;
Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and
trade effluents.
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4. Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), based on the terms of reference
and public participation.
5. Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what conditions; and
6. Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing. If the proposal is
sanctioned, one has to monitor whether the predicted impacts and proposed mitigation
measures occur. It has to be ensured that unpredicted impacts or failed mitigation measures
are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.
4.15 |ECOMARK
In order to increase the consumer awareness about environmental issues, the Government of
India have intiated a eco-labelling scheme called Ecomark in 1991 for the identification of
eco friendly products. It is a certification mark issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
to products that are manufactured with least impact on the eco system.
Scope of Eco-Mark:
The Eco-Mark scheme covers about 17 product categories which include
a wide range of products. Criteria for evaluating the products under these
categories are initially identified and analyzed. Every step starting from the
procurement of raw materials to manufacturing, usage and disposal are analyzed
and evaluated (cradle to grave approach, ie, from raw material extraction to
manufacture and disposal).
An earthern pot (matka) has been chosen as the logo for the Ecomark
scheme in India. Renewable resource earth is used in the making of pot. It
does not produce hazardous waste and consumes little energy in making.
Earthen pot has been used by our forefathers for carrying and storing water.
It is able to put across a strong environmental message to the public.
Ecomark logo
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4.17 |FLOODS
Floods happen when rivers and streams carry more water than its carrying capacity. Excess water
overflows leading to the inundation of low land areas surrounding the riverbed. Floods arise from
abnormally heavy rains, dam failures, snow melts, river blockages.
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Types of Floods
Floods can be classified into three categories as under:
River floods: Rivers carry water above its carrying capacity due to heavy rains or by melting
of snow or sometimes both especially in the mountainous tracts.
Coastal floods: Coastal flooding happens due to tropical cyclones arising at the ocean surface.
Prolonged and indefinite rains in the rainy or monsoon season result in floods in coastal river
basins.
Flash floods: Flash floods happen within few hours of beginning of rainfall due to runoff from
heavy rain. They are also caused by sudden release of water from dams, dam breakage etc.
Effects of Floods
Floods results in extensive damage to life and property. It destroys everything which is
lying on its path. Humans and animals die by drowning.
Fresh water sources are destroyed or contaminated. Water borne diseases like dysentery,
cholera etc can spread.
Farmlands and crops are destroyed which can result in acute food shortage.
Floods result in soil erosion. Top soil is carried away by running water which make soil
infertile.
Flood Control
Increasing the storage capacity of dams and reservoirs to store more water during rainy
season.
Networking of rivers within the country. Excess water can be diverted to some other river
within the same country.
Water carrying capacity of the river can be increased by increasing the depth and width
of the riverbed. This will help the river to carry larger loads and thus reduce the damage
caused by floods.
Prevention of over-bank spilling by the construction of embankments and floodwalls.
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Flood Mitigation
D
ont return home until
authorities express it is safe
to do so
U
se extreme caution when
entering buildings
I nspect foundations for
cracks or other damage
and examine walls, floors,
doors, and windows to make
sure that the building is not
in danger of collapsing
W
atch out for animals,
especially poisonous snakes,
that may have come into
your home with flood waters
T
ake pictures of damage for
insurance claims
L
ook for fire hazards
T
hrow away all food came
in contact with flood waters
S
ervice damaged septic
tanks as it can cause water
contamination.
Severity of earthquake
Less than 4
Insignificant
4.04.9
Minor
5.05.9
Damaging
6.06.9
Destructive
7.07.9
Major
Great
The science that studies the behavior and patterns of seismic waves is called seismology.
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Plate Tectonic Theory suggests that the earth is composed of solid and moving plates having
continental crust or oceanic crust. The earths crust consists of 6 major plates (Eurasian plate,
American plate, African plate, Indian plate, Pacific plate and Antarctic plate) and 20 minor
plates. These plates are constantly moving in relation to each other. Collision of plates can cause
earthquakes.
Causes of Earthquakes
Major reasons for earthquakes are
Volcanic activity
Volcanic activity can result in earthquakes. Volcanic activity and earthquakes are so related that,
earthquakes may follow each volcanic eruption and many of the severe earthquakes cause volcanic eruptions. Example: The famous eruption of Cracatoa on August 26, 1883 is one of the
most disastrous volcanic eruptions. It sent up debris 26 kilometers high and 6,000 kilometers
wide, and the explosion could be heard thousands of miles away. The huge tidal waves created
by the explosion destroyed 165 villages in Sumatra and Java, killing more than 36,000 people.
Anthropogenic Causes
Certain human activities like over exploitation of ground water and oil, deep underground mining,
blasting of rocks by dynamites for constructional purposes etc. also cause earthquakes. Construction of large dams and enormous volume of water in big reservoirs can result in loss of rock
stability below. Under ground nuclear testing can result in earthquakes.
Effects of Earthquake
Damage to Life and property
Structures such as buildings, roads, rails, factories, dams, bridges can be completely or partially destroyed by earthquakes
Landslides and avalanche
Earthquakes can cause landslides. It can also trigger avalanche.
Damages to Government Infrastructure
Earth quakes can result in cutting of water supply, telecommunication cables etc. Thus, there is
total disruption of power and communication. Contamined water can cause spread of epidemics.
Fire Hazard
Strong oscillations of earthquakes can cause severe fires in houses and factories because of
bursting of cooking gas cylinders, contact of live electric wires etc.
Flash Floods
Strong seismic events result in the damages of dams and cause severe flash floods. Dams may
crack or break. This can result in flow of huge volumes of water.
Tsunamis
Earth quakes which originate beneath the ocean floor can result in the formation of gigantic sea waves
which approach the sea shore and cause great loss of life and property. These are called tsunami.
Earthquake Mitigation
If indoors: Take cover under Be prepared for after shocks
a piece of heavy furniture or Help injured or trapped
against an inside wall and
persons and give first aid
stay inside
where appropriate
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4.19 |CYCLONES
Cyclones are the centers of low pressure characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. They
range in shape from circular, elliptical to V shape. Temperate cyclones occur in mid latitudes
i.e. 400 to 600 N & S. These are formed due to convergence of the warm (tropical) and Cold
(Polar) air masses.
Tropical cyclones are those which occur in lower latitudes, normally 100 to 300 N & S latitudes and are caused due to the convergence of warm dry and warm moist air masses. Tropical
cyclones are called hurricanes in the Atlantic, Caribbean and north eastern Pacific, typhoons in
the western Pacific and cyclones in the Indian Ocean and willy willies in the sea around Australia.
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Develop an emergency
communication plan in case
of separation
Teach family members
when and how to turn off
gas and electricity
Trim back dead or weak
branches from trees
Teach children when and
how to call emergency
numbers
Make arrangements for
family pets because some
emergency shelters may not
allow pets
Leave the neighbourhood on
hearing hurricane warning.
Stay in another city and
come back after hurricane.
Charge your mobile phones
and emergency lamps.
4.20 |TSUNAMI
A tsunami is a giant wave (or series of waves) created by an undersea earthquake, volcanic eruption or landslide. Tsunami in Japanese means harbor wave. Tsunamis are not tidal waves
Causes of Tsunami
Earthquakes: These are the most destructive and common cause for tsunamis. When
earthquake is massive, at least 7.5 in magnitude, it displaces enough water vertically to
case a huge wave.
Volcanic eruption: A massive volcanic eruption can disturb the ocean floor which can
lead to the formation of tsunami. The explosive eruption of Krakatau in 1883 created a
tsunami that claimed more than 36,000 lives.
Landslides: Enormous submarine landslides can occur on the flanks of ocean islands
which can lead to tsunami. Landslides can be triggered by earthquake or volcanic activity.
Meterorites: Asteriods falling into the ocean can lead to tsunami.
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Effects of Tsunami
Large scale destruction to life and property.
Tsunami cause fire, disrupt communication and transportation.
Tsunami Mitigation
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4.21 |LANDSLIDES
The sliding down of a mass of earth or rock from a mountain or cliff is called landslide.
Causes of landslides:
Geological causes: Earthquakes, Weathered materials, Sheared materials, Ground water changes,
Rainfall and snow fall etc
Morphological causes: Erosion, Vegetation change etc
Human causes: Over exploitation of ground water, mining, quarrying, deforestation
Landslides Mitigation
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Among the Masses through mass-media: Mass-Media plays an important role to educate
the people on environmental issues through articles, rallies, campaigns, street plays etc.
Serials, documentaries etc can help promoting environmental awareness.
By leaders, most influential people: Influential people, film stars, sports person can
promote environmental activities by their partymen, fan club etc.
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Unit
HUMAN POPULATION
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SYLLABUS
Population growth, variation among nations population explosion family welfare
programme environment and human health human rights value education
HIV / AIDS women and child welfare Environmental impact analysis (EIA)
GIS-remote sensing-role of information technology in environment and human
health Case studies.
5.1 |POPULATION
Population is defined as the number of individuals of same species in a given area at a given
time. Population dynamics refers to change of population with time.
Demography is the statistical study of human population. It deals with (i) Changes in
population size (growth or decline) (ii) Composition of the population (age groups, sex ratio)
(iii) Distribution of population.
Current World population is 7.4 billion (May 2015). World population exceeded 7 billion in
March 2012. World population was around 1 billion in 1810. It became 7 times in past 200 years.
DEMOGRAPHICS OF INDIA
Current Indian population:
Birth rate:
Death rate:
Life expectancy:
69.89 years
male:
67.46 years
female:
72.61 years
Fertility rate:
Population of Chennai:
One out of every seven person in the world is an Indian. 75% of the population of India
lives in the villages.
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2. Population Dispersion
It describes how individuals are distributed themselves in their habitats. Three types of dispersion
are seen
a) Uniform Dispersion: Species are evenly distributed about their habitat.
Species has the ability to survive anywhere in the habitat.
This kind of distribution is more seen in plants so that there is less competition for water
and nutrients as they are widely spaced. Animals like penguins show territorial behaviour.
Eg. Arrangement of shrubs in deserts.
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6. Mortality rate
Mortality rate is the number of deaths per thousand of individuals in a year. Decrease in mortality
rate will increase population. Due to technological advancements, better medical facilities and
better literacy rate, the mortality rate has gone down in many countries.
Number of deaths
11000
Estimated midyear population of that year
9. Replacement level
Replacement level is number of offsprings replacing two parents. For a developing nation this is
always greater than 2, while for a developed country it is mostly under 2.
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10. Migration
Migration is the movement of individuals into (immigration) or out of place (emigration) or
country. People migrate from one place to another for better economic and social life.
Population pyramid
Variation in population can be easily represented with the help of a population pyramid. A population pyramid represents the age and sex structure of a population. The shape of the pyramid
reflects the characteristics of a population.
Graphs are on their sides with the axis in the middle. Population plotted on the X-axis
and age on the Y-axis. The number of males is shown on the left, females on the right in
five-year age groups.
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Different age classes are pre-productive (0-14 yrs) reproductive (1544 yrs) and postproductive (45yr and above)
Based on the shape of the population pyramid there are three types of population pyramids
1. Pyramid Shaped
2. Bell shaped
3. Urn shaped
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i) Infectious diseases
Unhygienic conditions of environment forms the breeding grounds for various deadly
diseases causing organism like virus, bacteria, vectors etc. This scenario is more common
in the developing countries. Infectious organisms cause food poisoning, respiratory diseases
and gastrointestinal diseases.
v) Noise
Sound levels beyond the permissible level of human ear may damage ears. Prolonged exposure to noise can cause hearing impairment, hypertension, heart diseases etc. It can affect
pregnant mothers and their foetus.
vi) Radiation
Cosmic and ultraviolet rays cause harmful effects on human health which may include cancer.
vii) Diet
Contamination of food can cause indigestion, food poisoning and other various ill effects.
Undernutrition or malnutrition makes humans prone to other diseases.
viii) Settlement
Improper settlement and poor hygiene around settlement can cause various psychological
problems.
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Mechanical method
Condom (For males use): The condom is a thin sheath of rubber, which is put over the
erect penis. Condom prevents sperms reaching the vagina during ejaculation. It is a cheap
and effective method for family planning. It also protects from many sexually transmitted
diseases by avoiding direct skin to skin contact.
Diaphragm (For females use): The diaphragm is a rubber cup stretched over collapsible
metal spring coil. It is designed to fit over the cervix (the mouth of uterus).
Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUD): It is a small metal or plastic device, which is
designed to fit inside the uterus mouth. A doctor must fit and remove IUD. Eg: Copper T
Chemical Method
Jellies, creams and foam: Jellies, creams, and foams are used as contraceptive agents.
These jellies, creams or foams have germicidal power and kill sperms. They are applied
on to vagina five to fifteen minutes before copulation to take place.
Oral contraceptive: These are popularly known as birth control pills or simply pills.
It contains hormones (estrogens and progesterone) which suppress the production of ovum.
E.g. mala D.
Sterilization: It is surgical technique by which the passage of sperms or ovum is disconnected.
Both men and women can be sterilized without loosing their ability to function sexually.
Vasectomy: In man, the sterilization procedure is called a vasectomy. In this procedure the vasa
deferentia, the tubes that lead from the testes to the ejaculatory ducts, are cut so that the sperm
produced in the testis cannot reach the ejaculatory ducts to ejaculate.
Tubectomy: In females, tubectomy is done. In this procedure, the fallopian tubes, which transport
the egg from the ovaries to the uterus are cut and tied off.
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Securing all citizens, men and women, equally, the right to means of livelihood
Equal pay for equal work
Humane conditions of work and maternity relief.
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5.8 | HIV/AIDS
HIV: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). AIDS is a health condition in which a person is easily vulnerable and
affected by a series of diseases due to poor immunity.
HIV by itself is not an illness and does not instantly lead to AIDS.
AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome is a health condition that results from the deficiency
in the bodys immunity following HIV infection. It is a break down the bodys immune system
leaving the patient to a number of life threatening infections
Origin of HIV/AIDS
AIDS was discovered in 1983. Though definite source of this virus is not known, some theories
have been suggested. It is generally believed that HIV has been transferred to humans from
African monkeys.
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Transmission of HIV
Contaminated Fluids: Contamination of blood stream with HIV infected body fluids,
particularly blood, semen, breast milk and vaginal fluid.
Sharing of needles: Sharing of HIV contaminated needles in blood transfusion.
Unprotected sex: By sexual contact with affected person
Maternal-fetal transmission: Infected mother give birth to infected baby. Breast milk can
also act as a transmission-medium.
Improperly sterilized hospital tools: If surgical devices like syringes and scalpels, or
even certain instruments, used on an infected person, are used on another person without
proper sterilization. Contaminated needles or syringes used drugs. can cause infection.
Development of HIV:
Incubation period is longer- an average of eight years
During the incubation period, the virus will be multiplying, infecting, and killing cells of
the immune system
Lack of energy
Rapid weight loss.
Frequent fevers and sweats
Fatigue combined with headaches and dizziness
Long-lasting bouts of diarrhoea
Swelling or hardening of glands located in the throat, armpit, or groin
Increasing shortness of breath
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Prevention of AIDS
Human
Human
Human
Human
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5. Cultural and Educational rights: It preserves the right of citizens to conserve their
culture, language or script. The right of minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions of their choice are also preserved.
6. Right to constitutional remedies: This right advocates for the enforcement of Fundamental
Rights.
7. Right to life: This gives the right to live with human dignity. This includes rights such as
right to education, health, shelter and basic amnesties that the state shall provide.
Value-based Education
Value based education teaches about
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6) Spiritual values
To develop principles of self control, contentment, reduction of desires and freedom from
greed. These values will help to attain sustainable development and environmental conservation.
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APPENDIX
ANNA UNIVERSITY TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS
UNIT I
Environment, Ecosystems and Biodiversity
1. Define environment.
Environment is the sum total of air, water and land, inter relationships among themselves and
also with human beings, other living organisms and property. The word Environment is derived
from the French word Environ which means surrounding.
3. What is hazard?
A Hazard is a potential source of harm or adverse health effect on a person or persons. Or it is
the way in which an object or a situation may cause harm.
A hazard exists where an object (or substance) or situation has a built-in ability to cause an
adverse effect. Such hazards include uneven pavements, unguarded machinery, an icy road, a fire,
an explosion and a sudden escape of toxic gas.
4. What is a risk?
A risk is chance or probability that a person may be harmed or suffers adverse health effects if
exposed to a hazard. Risk can be high or negligible.
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8. What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life. It is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species
variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or planet. The variety and variability of life
on earth is known as biodiversity.
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Appendix 153
UNIT II
Pollution
1. Define pollution.
Environmental pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can cause harmful
effects on various forms of life or property. The material that causes pollution is called pollutant.
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HbCO + O2
Oxyhemoglobin carboxyhemoglobin
Haemoglobin is, therefore, unable to transport oxygen to various parts of the body. This causes
the reduction in oxygen levels in the tissues. Prolonged exposure leads to dizziness, reduced vision
and even death. People who survive severe CO poisoning may suffer long-term health problems.
7. What is smog?
Smog is a kind of air pollution, originally named for the mixture of smoke and fog in the air
Smog = Smoke + Fog
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Appendix 155
i) Industrial Wastes
ii) Urban Wastes
iii) Agricultural practices
iv) Radioactive pollutants
v) Biological wastes
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Personal precaution: Industrial workers should be provided with ear plugs or cotton plugs.
People should not cause nuisance to public by playing music, television very loud
Law enforcement: Strict legislation can ensure that sound production is minimized at
various festivals and social functions. Fire crackers shall not be used at any time in silence
zones, as defined by the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
UNIT III
Natural Resources
1. Distinguish between renewable and non renewable resources.
Renewable resources are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of time.
Example: Forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro power etc.
Non-renewable resources are resources which cannot be regenerated. Example: Fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum, minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be
replenished.
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Appendix 157
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Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
Use pressure cooker for cooking. This makes cooking faster and saves fuel.
Use fluorescent lamps and LEDs instead of incandescent lamps. This save a lot of power.
Always cook in closed containers so that energy wastage is minimum.
Switch off electrical equipment completely when not in use.
Dry the clothes in sun instead of drier if it is a sunny day.
Use solar lanterns.
Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever possible. Use bicycles
to commute.
UNIT IV
Social Issues and the Environment
1. What is sustainable development?
Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development
means improving the life of the people. It refers that the progress in well being of humans and
other living beings should be extended or prolonged over many generations than just few years.
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Appendix 159
5. What is ecomark?
In order to increase the consumer awareness about environmental issues, the Government of
India have intiated a eco-labelling scheme called Ecomark in 1991 for the identification of
eco friendly products. It is a certification mark issued by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
to products that are manufactured with least impact on the eco system.
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Causes of Tsunami
Earthquakes: These are the most destructive and common cause for tsunamis. When
earthquake is massive, at least 7.5 in magnitude, it displaces enough water vertically to
case a huge wave.
Volcanic eruption: A massive volcanic eruption can disturb the ocean floor which can
lead to the formation of tsunami. The explosive eruption of Krakatau in 1883 created a
tsunami that claimed more than 36,000 lives.
Landslides: Enormous submarine landslides can occur on the flanks of ocean islands
which can lead to tsunami. Landslides can be triggered by earthquake or volcanic activity.
Meterorites: Asteriods falling into the ocean can lead to tsunami.
UNIT V
Human Population and the Environment
1. Define population and population dynamics.
Population is defined as the number of individuals of same species in a given area at a given
time. Population dynamics refers to change of population with time.
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Appendix 161
Emergence of new epidemics and diseases: Malnutrition along with unhygienic living conditions
and lack of good healthcare facility can result in the emergence of epidemics
Climate change: Growing population can result in the increase of greenhouse gases which can
result in global warming.
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Appendix.indd 162
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PART B (5 X 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Define ecosystem. Give an account of structure and features of grassland
ecosystem.(8)
Refer 1.6.2, Page 16
(ii) What is biodiversity? Discuss the values and significance of biodiversity.
(8)
Refer 1.7, 1.9, Page 22
Or
(b) (i) With a neat sketch discuss Nitrogen cycle.
(8)
Refer 1.5.3, Page 13
(ii) What do you mean by conservation of biodiversity? State and explain the basic
approaches to wildlife conservation.
(8)
Refer 1.16, Page 31
12. (a) (i) Describe the various chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. (8)
Refer page 38
(ii) Explain the sources, measures and control measures of noise pollution.
(8)
Refer 2.18, Page 61
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Or
(b) (i) Write informative notes on water treatment process.
(8)
Refer 2.13, Page 54
(ii) Describe the role of an individual in the prevention of pollution.
(8)
Refer 2.22, Page 68
13. (a) (i) Describe the causes and effects of deforestation.
(8)
Refer 3.2.2; Page 73
(ii) What is land degradation? Discuss the factors responsible for land degradation. (8)
Refer 3.5.2; Page 90
Or
(b) (i) What are the changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing?
(8)
Refer 3.4.2; Page 83
(ii) Discuss the production of biogas. Mention its uses
(8)
Refer 3.6.6; Page 97
14. (a) (i) What are the objectives of water conservation? How is it carried out?
(8)
Refer 4.3, Page 104
(ii) What is an earthquake? Ennumerate its effects. What are the measures to be taken
to mitigate this disaster.
(8)
Refer 4.18, Page 123
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the resettlement and rehabilitation of people, its problem and concerns.(8)
Refer 4.5, Page 107
(ii) Briefly discuss the salient features of wildlife protection act.
(8)
Refer 4.12.4, Page 116
15. (a) (i) Discuss the variation of population among nations
(8)
Refer 5.3, Page 134
(ii) Write the methods and strategies of imparting value education.
(8)
Refer 5.10, Page 145
Or
(b) (i) Write explanatory notes on women and child welfare.
(8)
Refer 5.7, Page 140
(ii) Explain the role of information technology in environment and human health. (8)
Refer 5.12, Page 146
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PART B (5 X 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Discuss the major mineral resources in India
(8)
Refer 3.3, Page 81
(ii) Explain nuclear reactions with respect to nuclear fission and fusion reactions. (8)
Refer 3.6.2, Page 93
Or
(b) (i) Describe how geological erosion differ from accelerated erosion?
(8)
Refer 3.5.1, Page 87
(ii) Explain the role of individual in conservation of natural resources
(8)
Refer 3.2.9, 3.4.3, 3.5.4, 3.6.9, Page 74
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12. (a) (i) Compare the ecological pyramids of grassland and forest ecosystem.
(16)
Refer 1.5.1, Page 10
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the hot-spots of biodiversity in India
(8)
Refer 1.11, Page 25
(ii) Explain the energy flow in the ecosystem with suitable diagram.
(8)
Refer 1.5.2, Page 11
13. (a) (i) Write short note on minamatha disease and blue baby syndrome
(8)
Refer 2.14.1; Page 56, 84
(ii) Explain the different types of disaster managements
Refer 4.16, Page 121
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the effects and control measures of soil pollution
(8)
Refer 2.15; Page 57
(ii) As an individual, how will you prevent the pollution load in the environment (8)
Refer 2.22; Page 68
14. (a) (i) Explain the urban problems associated to watershed management.
(8)
Refer 4.4, Page 106
(ii) List out the salient features of forest conservation act in detail.
(8)
Refer 4.12.5, Page 116
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the environment ethics to be practiced towards issues and possible
solution.(8)
Refer 4.7, Page 108
(ii) Explain the climatic changes due to global warming and acid rain.
(8)
Refer 4.9.1, Page 110
15. (a) (i) Explain the family welfare programmes practiced by Government of India.
(8)
Refer 5.7, Page 140
(ii) Explain the role of information technology in environment and human health. (8)
Refer 5.12, Page 146
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the highlights of human rights and value based education
(8)
Refer 5.9, 5.10, Page 144, 145
(ii) Give a detailed account on the women and child welfare
(8)
Refer 5.7, Page 140
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