Introduction

In order to get the location of a point in surveying on, above or below the surface of the earth, it is
necessary to know its distances from a point / station along a line whose direction is known.

Fundamental Concepts
The direction of a line is defined by a horizontal angle with respect to a reference line. Depending on
the type of reference, the direction of the line is termed as relative or absolute. In relative direction,
the reference line does not remain fixed over time.
Meridian
The reference line with respect to which horizontal angle of survey line are measured is known as
meridian. There are different types of meridians based on the type of reference.

True Meridian
Magnetic Meridian
Grid Meridian
Arbitrary Meridian

True Meridian
The true meridian passing through a station on surface of the earth is the (imaginary) line of
intersection of a (imaginary) plane passing through the geographical North and South poles of the
earth with its actual surface. The direction of true meridian at any station is constant and hence,
direction of a line with reference to this remains same over time. At any station, it can be
determined through Astronomical survey. For any engineering works of importance, the direction
of at least one line is determined with true meridian as reference.
Magnetic Meridian
The magnetic meridian at a station on surface of the earth is the (imaginary) line of intersection of a
(imaginary) plane passing through the magnetic North and South poles of the earth with its actual
surface. The direction of a freely suspended well balanced magnetic needle provides the magnetic
meridian at a station. As the magnetic poles of the earth changes with time and so the magnetic
meridian at any station. Thus, the direction of a line with reference to magnetic meridian varies with

time. Magnetic meridian is employed as a line of reference for rough surveys.

Grid Meridians
To eliminate the effect of convergence of meridian, a meridian through a station is adopted as a
reference meridian and all other meridians are considered parallel to the reference meridian.
Together, all of these are known as grid meridians and the reference meridian is known as central
meridian.
Convergence of meridian: Meridians on the surface of the earth converge towards each other as
the distance from the equator towards either of the poles increases.
Arbitrary Meridian
Any convenient direction from a survey station to some well defined permanent object is known as
arbitrary meridian. This is used for small area survey or to determine the relative directions of small
traverse.
Relative Direction
The direction of a line is expressed in different ways depending upon the type of survey. It is
depicted by bearing, included angle, deflection angle etc. These quantities may be observed directly
in the field or can be obtained indirectly by computation.
Bearing
The horizontal angle measured in clockwise or anticlockwise direction between the meridian and the
survey line is termed as bearing. Different types of bearings are defined based on different criteria.
Based on meridian
Azimuth
Magnetic Bearing
Grid Bearing
Arbitrary Bearing
Based on direction
Fore Bearing
Back Bearing
Based on designation
Whole circle bearing
Quadrantile bearing (or Reduced bearing)

Azimuth or True Bearing

The azimuth or true bearing of a line is its horizontal angle from the North direction of the true
meridian measured clockwise.
In Figure 19.2, azimuth of a line OA is given by NOA (= 52), measured from the North
(Geographical) and that of line OB is NOB (= 208).

Magnetic Bearing
The horizontal angle which a line makes with the magnetic meridian measured from Magnetic North
line is called magnetic bearing. It varies with time. Magnetic meridian of a line can be measured in
the field by using prismatic compass (Figure 19.3).

Grid Bearing
The horizontal angle between a line and a grid meridian is called grid bearing.
Arbitrary Bearing
The horizontal angle of a line measured with respect to an arbitrary meridian is called arbitrary
bearing.
Based on the Direction
Any straight line has two diametrically opposite directions. The direction in which a survey work
proceeds is known as forward direction and the opposite direction is known as backward direction.
Thus, there are two types of bearing depending upon the direction of the line for which it is being is
determined.
1. Fore Bearing
2. Back Bearing
Fore Bearing
The bearing of a line measured in the forwrard direction (i.e., along the progress of survey) is
known as fore bearing.
In Figure 19.4, fore bearing of the line AB is given by
Fore bearing = Back bearing 180

NOB.

Back Bearing
The bearing of a line measured in the backward direction (i.e., opposite to the direction of progress
of survey) is known as back bearing.
In Figure 19.5, the back bearing of the line AB is
the line BA. Thus,

NOA (= 223).

NOA is also called bearing of

Back Bearing = Fore Bearing 180

Designation of Bearing
The angle representing bearing is designated depending on the measurement of the angle either
in clockwise and anti-clockwise direction measured either from the North or from the South limb
whichever provides minimum angle.

Whole circle bearing

Quadrantal bearing (or Reduced bearing)

Whole Circle Bearing

The whole circle bearing (W.C.B) of a line is the horizontal angle measured clockwise from the
North limb of the meridian. It varies from 0 to 360.
In Figure 19.6, The whole circle bearing (W.C.B) of the line OA is 52 and that of line OB is 208.

Quadrantal Bearing (or Reduced Bearing)

The quadrantal bearing (Q.B.) also known as reduced bearing (RB) of a line is defined by the
acute angle which the line makes with the meridian. Thus, it depends on the quadrant in which
the line presents. It is measured in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction either from the North or
from the South limb of the meridian whichever is nearer and thus provides minimum
angle. Figure 19.7 represents different types quadrantal bearings of lines. The bearings of OP,
OQ, OR and OS are respectively, N 40E, S49 E, S72 W, and N31 W. In all cases, values of
bearing of angles lie between 0 and 90.
Thus, reduced bearing of a line is designated by the direction from which it is measured (i.e.,
either N for North or S for South) followed by the value of the angle at the end, the direction to
which it is measured (i.e., either E for East or W for West).

Conversion of reduced bearing (RB) to whole circle bearing (WCB) and vice versa
The RB of any line can be converted to its equivalent RB as shown in Table 19.1.
Table 19.1 Conversion of RB to WCB (Figure 19.8)

Quadrant

Line

QB or RB

WCB

OA

N1 E

II

OB

S2 E

180 - 1

III

OC

S3 W

180 + 3

IV

OD

N4 W.

360 -4

Similarly the WCB of a line can be converted to its equivalent RB as shown in Table 19.2.
Table 19.2 Conversion of WCB to RB (Figure 19.9)
Quadrant

Line

WCB

RB

OA

0 90

N1 E

II

OB

90 2 180

S (180 -2) E

III

OC

180 3 270

S (3 -180) W

IV

OD

270 4 360

N (360 -4) W

Interior Angle
In any closed polygon, the direction of any side can be depicted by the angle it makes with its
adjacent side. This angle measured clockwise or anti-clockwise is known as interior
angle. Figure 19.10 shows interior angles at the stations A, B, C, D and E of a closed polygon.
The direction of the side AB can be obtained either of the included angles at vertices such as A,
B etc.

Deflection Angle
The angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line is called a deflection angle.
Deflection angle can also be used to note the direction of a line. It is recorded as right or left
depending on whether the line to which measurement is taken lies to the right (clockwise) or left
(counterclockwise) of the prolongation of the preceding line. Figure 19.11 shows deflection angles.
In this, the line BC is having a right deflection angle CD does have left deflestion angle. Deflection
angles may have values between 0 and 180, but usually they are not employed for angles greater
than 90. In any closed polygon the algebraic sum of the deflection angles (considering right
deflections as of sign opposite to left deflections) is 360.

Angles to Right
Angles are also depicted by clockwise measurement from the preceding to the following line, as
shown in Figure 19.12. Such angles are called angles to right.

Declination
The horizontal angle which a magnetic meridian makes with the true or astronomic meridian is
called the magnetic declination, or magnetic variation. If the north end of the compass needle
deflects right of the true meridian, the declination is said to be east (Figure 19.13(a)) and if it
deflects to the left of the true meridian, the declination is said to be west (Figure 19.13(b)).
Declination varies from place to place and at any station time to time.

Correction for Declination

When magnetic directions are used to obtain estimates for azimuth or an old survey is required to
be retraced, it is necessary to reduce the magnetic directions to true bearings or azimuths by
making use of declination for necessary corrections.
Ex19-1 The magnetic bearing of a line was recorded as N3400'E on an old survey plan dated
August 15, 1947. It is required to re-establish this direction on the site in 1997. In 1970 isogonic
chart shows a declination 9 W for the area, with an annual change of l' eastward. Determine the
(i) Azimuth of the line;
(ii) magnetic bearing that must be used to relocate the direction of the line in the field.
Solution :
Declination in 1970 = 9 W
change in (1970 - 1947) = 23 yrs (23 x 1') = 23' Eastwards
Therefore
Declination in 1947 was 9 + 23' = 9 23' W
Magnetic Bearing of the line on 1947 = N 34 E
(i) True bearing of the line = 34 - 9 23' = 24 37'
= N 24 37' E

Declination in 1997 = (9 - 27 x 1' ) W = 8 33' W

Therefore Magnetic bearing in 1997 = 24 37' + 8 33' W
= N 33 10' E

Local Attraction
In presence of magnetic materials, the magnetic needle deviates from the magnetic meridian and
thus provides wrong direction of a line. The deviation arising from such local sources is called local
attraction. If the fore bearing and back bearing of a line does not differ by 180, then there is a
possibility of local attraction during the observation of the line. Otherwise, if the sum of the interior
angles of a closed traverse does not provide (2n - 4) right angles [where n is the number of sides in
the traverse], then there is a possibility of local attraction during the observation of the traverse
Determination of Angles/ Directions
Direction and thus angles can be determined by means of a tape, plane-table, alidade, sextant, or
compass etc but normally these are measured with a transit theodolite. In this module,
measurement of angles using theodolite has been considered.
Ex19-2 Following are the observed magnetic bearings of the traverse legs:
Line
FB (RB)
BB (WCB)

AB
S 59 30' E
300 30'

BC
N 78 15' E
256 00'

CD
N 59 30' W
125 15'

DA
S 30 15' W
12 45'

At what stations local attraction is suspected? Determine the correct bearings of the traverse legs

and also calculate the included angles.

Solution :

. The FB of the lines are given in reduced bearing. Their equivalent WCB are
Line
AB
BC
CD
DA

FB
RB
S 59 30' E
N 78 15' E
N 59 30' W
S 30 15' W

WCB
120 30' W
78 15'
300 30'
207 45'

RB
300 30'
256 00'
125 15'
27 45'

The FB and BB of any line differs exactly by 180, if the stations are free from local attraction. In the
given observation, the FB and BB of the line AB differs by 180 and thus stations A and B are free
from local attraction. The bearing of the lines observed at stations A and B may be considered to be
correct.
Given, FB of BC = 78 15'
Therefore Correct, BB of BC = 78 15' + 180 = 258 15'
But, observed BB of BC = 256 00'
Therefore Error at C = 258 15' - 256 00' = - 215'
Correction at C = 2 15'

Observed FB of CD = 300 30'

Correction at C = + 2 15'
Therefore corrected FB of CD = 302 45' - 180 = 122 45'
and corrected BB of CD = 125 15'
Error at D = + 2 30'
or Correction at D = - 2 30'
observed FB of DA = 210 15'
Therefore corrected FB of DA = 210 15' - 2 30' = 207 45'
and corrected BB of DA = 207 45' - 180 = 27 45' (Checked)
Line

Corrected FB

Corrected RB

AB
BC
CD
DA

120 30'
78 15'
302 45'
207 45'

300 30'
258 15'
122 45'
27 45'

Included angle
As the traverse is running anti-clockwise the included angle will be the interior angles.
Angle at A = F.B. of AB - B.B. of DA = 120 30' -27 45' = 92 45'
B = F.B of BC - B.B of AB = 78 15' - 300 30' = - 222 15' + 360 = 137 45'
C = F.B of CD - B.B of BC = 300 30' - 256 00' = 44 30'
D = F.B of DA - B.B of CD = 210 15' - 125 15' = 85 00'
Calculation of Bearing (2nd method)
Bearing of the line AB = 120 30' (correct)
B = 137 45'
----------------------Bearing of the line BC = 258 15' - 180 = 78 15' (since traverse is anti-clockwise)
C = + 44 30'

-------------------------122 45'
Bearing of the line CD = 122 45' + 180 = 302 45'
D = + 85 00'
--------------------------387 45'
Bearing of CD = 387 45' - 180 = 207 45'
A = + 92 45'
-----------------------300 30'
Bearing of AB = 300 30' - 180 = 120 30' (checked)
Line

FB

BB

AB
BC
CD
DA

120 30'
78 15'
302 45'
207 45'

300 30'
258 15'
122 45'
27 45'

Angle
A = 92 45'
B =137 45'
C = 44 30'
D = 85

[Note : In any traverse, running anti-clockwise, included angle at any stations = F.B. of the forward
line - B.B. of the backward line].