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It would be convenient to manipulate this expression into a more useful form. Consider the
general reaction equation for the carbon monoxide and oxygen reaction (eqn (12.27)):
1
CO + - 0,-(12
a
a)CO, + a C O + - 0,
2
then
nco, p
Prco, = -- =-nP
Po
1-a
1 + a / 2 Po
(12.71)
Hence, the value of K , can be related to the degree of dissociation, a , through the
following equation
l+a/2
(12.72a)
and
(12.72b)
The relationship between Kh and a allows the degree of dissociation, a , to be evaluated
if K , is known. Equations (12.72) shows that, for this reaction, the value of K , is a
function of the degree of dissociation and also the pressure of the mixture. This is because
the amount of substance of products is not equal to the amount of substance of reactants.
12.7.2
EXAMPLE 2
(12.73)
(12.74)
In this reaction the amount of substance in the products is equal to the amount of
substance in the reactants, and there is no effect of pressure in the dissociation equation.
Comparing the results for the carbon monoxide, (eqn (12.1)) and the water gas reactions
(eqn (12.73)), it can be seen that if a mixture of products of the reaction in eqn (12.1) was
A spark ignition engine operates on a 10% rich mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and air.
The conditions at the end of compression are 8.5 bar and 600 K, and it can be assumed
that the combustion is adiabatic and at constant volume. Calculate the maximum pressure
and temperature achieved if dissociation occurs.
[There are two different approaches for solving this type of problem; both of these will
be outlined below. The first approach, which develops the chemical equations from the
degrees of dissociation is often the easier method for hand calculations because it is
usually possible to estimate the degree of dissociation with reasonable accuracy, and it
can also be assumed that the degree of dissociation of the water vapour is less than
that of the carbon dioxide. The second approach is more appropriate for computer
programs because it enables a set of simultaneous (usually non-linear) equations to be
defined. ]
General considerations
The products of combustion with dissociation have to obey all of the laws which define the
conditions of the products of combustion without dissociation, described in Chapter 10,
plus the ratios of constituents defined by the equilibrium constant, K,. This means that the
problem becomes one with two iterative loops: it is necessary to evaluate the degree of
dissociation from the chemical equation and the equilibrium constant, and to then ensure
that this obeys the energy equation (i.e. the First Law of Thermodynamics). The following
examples show how this can be achieved. At this stage the value of K , at different
temperatures will simply be stated. The method of calculation K, is described in section
12.8, and K, values are listed in Table 12.3.
Solution
Note that there is only one reaction involved in this problem, and that the carbon monoxide
converts to carbon dioxide in a single step. Most combustion processes have more than one
chemical reaction.
Stoichiometric combustion equation:
1
CO + - (Q + 3.76N2)
CO,
+ 1.88 N2
(12.75)
n p = 2.88
n R = 3.38
C 0 2 + 0.1CO + l.88N2
3
n p = 2.98
(12.76)
a
a C 0 2 a a C 0 + - 0,
2
1.88N2
np = 2.98 + a12
nR = 3.48
(12.77)
The equilibrium constant, K,, is given by eqn (12.70):
(P/Po)co2
KP, =
(P/Po)co<P/Po)bI:
Pro2
-
- 9
PCO
P2
0.1-a -.
P2
= xco =-
Po
nP
Po
Po
Po,
P2
a P2
=xo2 - = --
(12.78)
2nP Po
Po
Po
(12.79)
npn, T,
_
_-=-
(12.80)
Thus
P2
PI
245.65
7-2
7-2
KPr= (0.1 + a )
(-
-) a K:r =
2nP Po
a p2
(1 - a)
(0.1 + a)
2 x 245.65
aT2
(12.81)
X(O.l
+ a)aT2 = ( 1 - a)x
(12.83)
2800
2900
3000
TP
2800
2900
3000
0.090625
0.1218125
0.171875
These values of a all obey the chemical, i.e. dissociation, equation but they do not all
obey the energy equation. It is necessary to consider the energy equation now to check
which value of T, balances an equation of the form
-(e,>,+
UP(',)=
[ U R ( T R ) - ~ R ( T ,f) IUP(T,)
This energy equation, based on the internal energy of reaction at T = 0, may be rewritten
0 = -Avo - Up(Tp)+ U,(TR)
(12.84)
co
0 2
12 626.2
1.1
12 939.6
0.5
NZ
12 571.7
1.88
UR(TR) = 43 993.4 kJ
Hence,
(12.85)
It can be seen that the value of Up is a function of a; the reason for this is because the
combustion of the fuel (CO) is not complete when dissociation occurs. In a simple, single
degree of freedom reaction like this, the reduction in energy released is directly related to
the progress of the reaction:
TP
2800 0.090625
2900 0.1218125
3000 0.171875
UPVP)
295 853
287 216
273 351
Evaluating the energy which is contained in the products at 2900 K and 3000 K,
allowing for the variation in a as the temperature changes, gives
236
Tp = 2900 K
Constituent
co
C02
N*
0 2
u2900
n
Tp= 3000 K
Constituent
C02
CO
N2
0 2
u3wo
These values are plotted in Fig 12.3, and it can be seen that, if the variation of the
energy terms was linear with temperature, the temperature of the products after
dissociation would be 2949 K. The calculation will be repeated to show how well this
result satisfies both the energy and dissociation equations.
288000
286000
az.
*
v)
284000
282000
e,
98
'-
280000
278000
276000
274000
LlLVYY
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
3000
Temperature / (K)
Fig. 12.3 Energy contained in products based on eqn (12.80) and the tables of energies
First, it is necessary to evaluate the degree of dissociation that will occur at this product
temperature. At Tp= 2950 K, Kpr= 3.62613 (see Table 12.3), and this can be substituted
into eqn (12.78) to give a = 0.1494.
Hence, the chemical equation, taking account of dissociation, is
1
1.1CO + - ( 0 2
2
+ 3.76 N2)
0.8506 CO,
Applying the energy equation: the energy released by the combustion process gives a
CO,
CO
0,
N2
2949
Alternative method
In this approach the degree of dissociation, a , will not be introduced explicitly. The
chemical equation which was written in terms of a in eqn (12.77) can be written as
1
1.1CO + A (Q + 3.76N2)-aCO,
2
+ bCO + c 0 2 + d N 2
(12.86)
n p = a+ b+ c + d
n R = 3.48
l.l=a+b
2.1 = 2 a + b + 2c
1.88 = d
giving b = 1.1 - a
giving c = 0.5(1 - a )
(12.87a)
(12.87b)
(12.87~)
n p =a + b + c + d
(12.88)
The ratios of the amounts of substance in the equilibrium products are defined by the
equilibrium constant
(12.89)
Hence
b2c pp
K;r=a2
Po nP
(12.90)
(12.91)
The previous calculations showed that the temperature of the products which satisfies the
governing equations is Tp= 2950 K, which gives a value of KZr= 13.1488. These values
238
13.1488
=a
(12.92)
It is possible to evaluate the ratio pp/pon,from the perfect gas relationship, giving
p p - -p-P T P- 8 5 x 2 9 5 0
= 12.009
ponP nRTR 3 . 4 8 ~ 6 0 0
--
(12.93)
The solution to this equation is a = 0.8506, and hence the chemical equation becomes
1
1.lCO + - (02 + 3.76N,)-+0.8506CO2 + 0.2494CO + 0.074702 + 1.88N2
2
(12.94)
which is the same as that obtained previously. The advantage of this approach is that it is
possible to derive a set of simultaneous equations which define the equilibrium state, and
these can be easily solved by a computer program. The disadvantage is that it is not possible
to use the intuition that most engineers can adopt to simplify the solution technique. It must
be recognised that the full range of iteration was not used in this demonstration, and the
solutions obtained from the original method were simply used for the first 'iteration'.
(12.96)
Consider the definition of p0,
p0 = ho + h(T) - T {so + s(T)]
= h,
+ h(T) - T s , - T I
dh
(12.97)
(12.98)
Let
v = h(T), dv = dg
u=-
1
T'
dT
d u = -T2
(12.100)
Although C has been used as a shorthand form it does include both +ve and -ve signs;
these must be taken into account when evaluating the significance of the term.
Thus
d
1
- ( h K p r )= - -(y, h, + Vb hb - yc h, - vdhd)
dT
%T2
(12.101)
(12.102)
d ( InKpr)= QP
dT
%T2
( 12.103)
Equation (12.103) is known as the Van't Hoff equation. It is useful for evaluating the
heat of reaction for any particular reaction because
The value of d(ln Kp)/d(l/T) may be obtained by plotting a graph of In Kp against 1/T.
The values of Kphave been calculated using eqn (12.95), and are listed in Table 12.3, at
the end of the chapter, for four reactions. (The values have also been depicted as a graph in
Fig 12.6, and it can be seen that over a small range of temperature, In Kp= A - b/T, where
T is the temperature in K: this is to be expected from eqn (12.95)).
240
This can be interpreted in the following way. If v, + v d - v, - vb = 0 then the mole fractions of the products will not be a function of pressure. However, if v, + v d - v, - v b > 0
then the species on the left-hand side of the chemical equation (i.e. the reactants) increase,
whereas if Y,+ v d - v, - v,,< 0 then the species on the right-hand side of the equation (i.e.
the products) increase. The basic rule is that the effect of increasing the pressure is to shift
the equilibrium to reduce the total amount of substance.
Considering the two reactions introduced previously. The equation for the carbon
monoxide reaction (12.27) was
1
CO + - Q - ( 1 2
a)CO,
+ aCO + - 0,
2
_1 - a _1
1+a/2
+ _
a / 2 /~
y l & a
1 ; a ~/ y ;
This means that v, + v d - v, - v b < 0, and this would result in the constituents on the
products side of the equation increasing. This is in agreement with the previous statement
because the total amounts of reactants in eqn (12.27) is 1.5, whilst the total amounts of
products is 1 + a / 2 , where a is less than 1.0.
A similar calculation for the combustion and dissociation of a stoichiometric methane
( C h ) and air mixture, performed using a computer program entitled EQUIL2 gave the
results in Table 12.1. The chemical equation for this reaction is
where a , is the degree of dissociation of the CO, reaction and a2 is the degree of
dissociation of the H,O reaction. It can be seen that dissociation tends to increase the
Table 12.1 Amount of products for constant pressure combustion of methane
in air. Initial temperature = 1000 K; equivalence ratio = 1.00
_______
Pressure (bar)
Amount of C 0 2
Amount of CO
Amount of H,O
Amount of H,
Amount of 0,
Amount of N,
Total amount of substance
No
dissociation
1
0
2
0
0
7.52
10.52
10
100
0.6823
0.3170
1.8654
0.1343
0.2258
7.52
10.7448
0.7829
0.2170
1.920
0.0801
0.1485
7.52
10.6685
0.8665
0.1335
1.9558
0.0444
0.0889
7.52
10.6091
241
amount of substance of products, and hence the effect of an increase in pressure should be
to reduce the degree of dissociation. This effect can be seen quite clearly in Table 12.1,
where the amount of substance of products is compared under four sets of conditions: no
dissociation, dissociation at p = 1 bar, dissociation at p = 10 bar, and dissociation at
p = 100 bar. The minimum total amount of substance occurs when there is no dissociation,
while the maximum amount of substance occurs at the lowest pressure. Figure 12.4 shows
how the degrees of dissociation for the carbon dioxide and water reactions vary with
pressure.
12.9.2
The effect of temperature can be considered in a similar way to the effect of pressure.
Basically it should be remembered that the changes in composition that take place during
dissociation do so to achieve the minimum value of Gibbs energy for the mixture. The Gibbs
energy of each constituent is made up of three components, the Gibbs energy at absolute zero
(gn), the Gibbs energy as a function of temperature ( g ( T ) ) , and that related to partial
pressure (see Fig 12.2). The equilibrium point is achieved when the sum of these values for
all the constituents is a minimum. This means that, as the temperature rises, the constituents
with the most positive heats of formation are favoured. These constituents include 0,
(go= 0), H2 (go = 0), and CO (go = - 113 MJ/kmol). Both water and carbon dioxide have
larger (negative) values of g,. This effect can be seen from the results in Table 12.2, whch
have been calculated for the combustion of methane in air. Another way of considering this
effect is simply to study eqn (12.55), and to realise that for gases with negative heats of
formation an increase in temperature leads to a decrease in the value of K , . This means that
the numerator of eqn (12.55) must get smaller relative to the denominator, which pushes the
reaction backwards towards the reactants. This is borne out in Table 12.2: the degree of
dissociation for this reaction increases with temperature, and this is shown in Fig 12.5.
Temperature (K)
Amount of CO,
Amount of CO
Amount of H,O
Amount of H,
Amount of 0,
Amount of N,
Total amount of substance
.-*0E
.-m
4
.Q
07
06
05
04
2
0
0
7.52
10.52
T=1000K
T=1500K
T=2000K
0.6823
0.3170
1.8654
0.1343
0.2258
7.52
10.7448
0.48 14
0.5186
1.7320
0.2679
0.3933
7.52
10.9132
0.3031
0.6969
1.5258
0.4741
0.5855
7.52
11.1055
-+--
v)
03
02
01
Carbon dioxide
Water
0 +
1000
I100
1200
1300
1400
1500
I600
1700
1800
1900
2000
Temperature / (K)
Finally, it should be noted that in all the cases shown the degree of dissociation in the
hydrogen reaction is much less than that for the carbon reaction. This supports the assumption
made in previous work that the hydrogen will be favoured in the oxidation process.
+ 0, =2 N 0
This chain of reactions has to include the formation of atomic oxygen and nitrogen, and
[11 H20,
171 N,
E21 H2,
[81 CO2,
[31 OH,
E91 COS
[41 H,
[lo1 0 2 ,
E51 N2,
E11 1 0 ,
[61 NO,
E121 Ar.
( 12.1 06)
where b = xi/.,.
106
1os
io4
1 o3
102
101
100
10-1
10-2
1o
- ~
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Temperature / (K)
Fig. 12.6 Variation of equilibrium constant, Kh,at a standard pressure, p o = 1 bar, with temperature
for the reactions CO + 0,e CO,, H2 + f 0,w HzO, CO, + H2w CO + H,O, f N, + 10, NO.
Mol fraction
0,
Mol fraction
Mol fraction
A numerical method for solving these equations is given in Horlock and Winterbone
(1986), based on the original paper by Lavoie et al. (1970).
Figure 12.7 shows the results of performing such calculations using a simple computer
program. The coefficients in the program were evaluated using the data presented in
Table 9.3, but with the addition of data for OH and N. The three diagrams are based on
combustion of octane in air at a constant pressure of 30 bar, and show the effect of
varying equivalence ratio, I $ , at different temperatures. The conditions are the same as
quoted in Heywood (1988). Figure 12.7(a) shows the results for the lowest temperature
of 1750 K, and it can be seen that the graph contains no atomic nitrogen (N) or atomic
oxygen (0)because these are at very low concentrations
When the mixture is
weak some OH is produced. It is apparent from this diagram that there is not much
dissociation of the carbon dioxide or water because the concentration of oxygen drops to
very low values above I$ = 1. Some nitric oxide is formed in the weak region
(xNo= 3 x
at the weakest mixture), but this rapidly reduces to a very low value at
stoichiometric simply because there is no oxygen available to combine with the nitrogen.
Figure 12.7(b) shows similar graphs for a temperature of 2250 K, and it can be seen that
the NO level has increased by almost a factor of 10. There is also some NO formed by
combustion with rich mixtures; this is because, by this temperature, the carbon dioxide
and water are dissociating, as is indicated by the increase in the CO and the OH radical in
the weak mixture region. By the time 2750 K is reached, shown in Fig 12.7(c), there is a
further tripling of the NO production, and CO is prevalent throughout the weak mixture
zone. There are also significant amounts of OH and oxygen over the whole range of
equivalence ratio.
The diagrams shown in Fig 12.7 are relatively contrived because they do not depict real
combustion situations. However, they do allow the parameters which control the
production of the products of combustion to be decoupled, to show the effects of changing
the parameters independently of each other. The equilibrium concentrations depicted in
Fig 12.7 are the values which drive the formation of the exhaust constituents through the
chemical kinetics equations, which will be discussed in Chapter 14.
12.11.1
A weak mixture of octane (C,H,,) and air, with an equivalence ratio of 0.9, is ignited at
10 bar and 500 K and bums at constant volume. Assuming the combustion is adiabatic,
calculate the conditions at the end of combustion allowing for dissociation of the carbon
dioxide and water, but neglecting any formation of NO.