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struction of the pituitary or adrenal gland by autoimmune disorders, infection,
infarction, or by iatrogenic events such as surgery or hormonal suppression. Hor
mone excess is usually the result of neoplasia, leading to increased production
of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pituitary or neuroendocrine cells (
ectopic ACTH), or increased production of glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids
by adrenal nodules. Adrenal nodules are increasingly identified incidentally dur
ing abdominal imaging performed for other reasons.
ADRENAL ANATOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
However, the uncertainty principle tells us that we cannot know all the paramete
rs of the particle simultaneously. In the language of these operators, that mean
s that we can never choose one single wavefunction that will be unchanged after
operation of, for example, both the position and momentum operators. Instead, if
we find a wavefunction that is unchanged after operating on it with, say, a ^ a
s shown earlier, then when we operate on that same wavefunction with another ope
rator we may instead get a result,
^ ?=b?',
Other operators give the position, linear momentum, and angular momentum of a st
ate, and we can derive what these operators look like based on the nature and nu
mber of the particles in the system. We will see a couple of examples of that in
the rest of this section. How the operators extract these parameters from the w
avefunction depends on the operator, but as an example let s take a sine wave with
frequency ? :
?( x )=sin?( 2p?x ).
Lene Vestergaard Hau is the Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics and of Applied Phy
sics at Harvard University. Her group has been working on the interaction of lig
ht with cold matter. The constant c=2.998 10 8 m s ?-1 that we use throughout th
is book is the speed of light in a vacuum, but light travels slower than this wh
en it passes through matter. The Hau group has studied ways of slowing laser lig
ht as it propagates through a very cold gas known as a Bose Einstein Condensate, o
r BEC (See the companion volume of this text, Physical Chemistry: Statistical Me
chanics, Thermodynamics, and Kinetics, Chapter 4). In a sample of atomic sodium
gas cooled to roughly 10 ?-6 ?K , Hau and her coworkers slowed the photons to a
speed of only 17?m? s ?-1 . This braking of the light can be switched on and off
by a second laser called the pump. With the pump laser off, a burst of light fr
om the first laser (the probe) travels through the gas near its vacuum speed. Tu
rning on the pump laser mixes together two quantum states of the sodium atoms in
a cleverly planned interaction that prevents the light from the probe laser fro
m being absorbed but forces it to interact so strongly with the sample that the
light slows down to a ten-millionth of its typical speed. The effect is used to
study the nature of the BEC as well as the light that it affects so dramatically
.
Context
Quantum mechanics often involves solving a lot of integrals, and it s a big help i
f we can set up a problem so that we know in advance that a whole class of integ
rals over complicated functions evaluate to zero. We usually select the basis fu
nctions that we will use to write wavefunctions so that they are mutually orthog
onal. By clever planning along these lines, the daunting mathematics of quantum
mechanics became sufficiently tractable during the 1980s that we could start rel
iably predicting geometries of molecules based on only the fundamental physics.
Computational quantum mechanics is now a major tool in the development of new dr
ugs and new materials
First, let us consider the classical solution to our problem. In the region 0<x<
a , the potential energy is zero, so the kinetic energy is equal to the total en
ergy: E=m v 2 /2 , where v is the speed of the particle. Higher energies corresp
ond to higher speeds. The particle cannot be found outside the walls, in the reg
ions x=0 or x>a , because any place where the potential energy becomes greater t
han the total energy, the particle must turn around. Because the system has ener
gy E=K+U and the kinetic energy K=m v 2 /2 is always positive, a classical syste
m can never have an energy less than the potential energy at any given point
We have taken the trouble here to define ? dB as h/| p x | , to ensure that it i
s a positive number. This choice of phase defines the relationship between the m
omentum operator and the Cartesian axes for everything that follows.
(We neglect the trivial case n=0 , for which ?=0 .) We have our first genuinely
quantum-mechanical energy expression. Like the energies of Bohr s one-electron ato
m, only discrete values of the energy are possible.
Furthermore, unlike the free particle, no state exists for which E=0 . Even the
lowest energy quantum state, the ground state, has some kinetic energy. The diff
erence between the energy of the ground state and the minimum value of the poten
tial energy is called the zero-point energy,
E zero-point = E gnd - U min ,
(2.32)
and it is present in any quantum-mechanical system for which the potential energ
y limits the particle s domain.3 For the particle in a box, the zero-point energy
is E 1 = p 2 ? 2 /( 2m a 2 ) .
3 The particle s de Broglie wavelength requires this, because if the particle coul
d have zero kinetic energy, then ? dB would become infinite. The only way for th
e particle to be at rest is for it to occupy all space. We will see, however, in
Section 9.1 that, in the right coordinate system, this does not require the par
ticle itself to be infinitely large.
The free particle has the continuous energies of a classical system because the
flat potential energy function means that the domain of the particle is infinite
, larger than any de Broglie wavelength. To introduce the energetics of a quantu
m-mechanical system, we need a potential energy function that puts up walls, lim
iting the particle s domain and thus allowing ? dB to become comparable to the dom
ain. Our next consideration, therefore, is the solution to a Schrdinger equation
with a more interesting potential function.
Tot era el dios local de Hermopolis del Delta (Bajo Egitpo XV Nomno) donde se le
honraba bajo una de las formas antes dichas
la de ibis, que siurvio para escribir su nombre: Dhwf
De alli paso a Hemenopiolis Magna en el XV Nomo de Alto Egipto la actual -.--donde su culto se desarrollo y persistio hasta bien ebtrada la wra romana.
Aqui adquirio el carcter de dios primordial del que surge la Ogdoada. sobre la c
olina primige ia
de Hermenopolis. Y desde Hemnopilis paso a intregrarse aistema de vida mas diver
so
se le identoifica con la luna y como tal es el seor del tiempo
calculador del tiepo de la vioda, corazon y pensamiento de Ra.
The GRE is comprised of three sections:
Analytical Writing: Within the Analytical Writing section, you ll be asked to comp
lete two writing
tasks: an Analyze an Issue task and an Analyze an Argument task.
Verbal Reasoning: The Verbal Reasoning section includes critical-reading questio
ns, text completions,
and sentence equivalences.
Quantitative Reasoning: The Quantitative Reasoning questions may appear as multi
ple-choice,