A Different Approach to Understanding Power

Factor (First of Three Parts)

Written by:
Joe Evans, Ph.D. (Pump Tech Inc., P&S Editorial Advisory Board)
Published:
September 3, 2014

Power factor (PF) is an important component of an alternating current (AC) circuit, but understanding its actual
effect can be difficult. Why is PF mysterious to many of us? It has to do with the way it is explained.
PF is often defined as the ratio of the real load power to the apparent power in the circuit. Real power is the
power consumed by the circuit, and apparent power is the sum of the real power and reactive power. Reactive
power is often called imaginary, phantom or borrowed power. Real power is measured in watts, and reactive
power is measured in volt-amps.
Isnt a watt a volt-amp? Maybe not, if those amps are imaginary. Another explanation uses a vector triangle to
show the relationship of real, reactive and total power. This can be useful to some, but confuses others. Most
simply, PF can be defined as the cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and apparent power.
When I presented my AC Power and Motors seminar in the late 1990s, I used some of the information above
to explain power factor. The result was that some of the audience gained an understanding, but the majority
did not. In 2007, I changed how I presented the topic. Today, the majority say that they understand it, but a
small minority still do not.
Although the results were not perfect, they are better than they used to be. I will use my current approach in
this column. Although several inductive devices contribute to PF, this column will discuss AC motors. Rather
than power, the rise and fall of voltage and current during the AC cycle will be the focus. The illustrations are
from my current AC power and motors seminars.

What Is Power Factor?

PF indicates how effectively an AC motor uses current to perform work (torque) and ranges from 0 to 100 (0 to
1). For example, assume that a 1-horsepower, 230-volt, single-phase motor is 100 percent efficient. If the
motor power factor is 100 (1), which is impossible, the utility would have to supply just 3.24 amps (746 watts)
for the motor to run at full load. At a more realistic power factor of 75 (0.75), the utility would have to supply
4.32 amps (994 watts).
Although the additional amperage is not consumed by the motor, the utility still must provide it or the motor
could not operate at full load. Successful motor operation is a tale of two currents, in that two types of current
are required: the load current, which performs work; and the magnetizing current, which initiates a magnetic
field in the stator.

Charles Dickens might have summed it up this way: It was the best of currents, it was the worst of currents.
The motor uses load current to do work. The load current increases or decreases based on the actual load on
the motor. It is never zero, even when disconnected from the load, because of the friction and windage
associated with the rotor and bearings.
Figure 1 shows one complete AC cycle (360 degrees). The blue curve is voltage, and the other three curves
are the load currents at various motor loads. The current at all loads rises and falls synchronously (in phase)
with voltage and reaches its peak values at 90 and 270 degrees. At any point during the cycle, the power in
watts is equal to the product of volts and amps because it is a true resistive load.

Figure 1. Load current versus voltage (Graphics courtesy of the author)

Even during the negative portion of the cycle, the product of a negative volt (V) and a negative amp (A)
produces a positive watt (W). The load power (W = VA) is often referred to as real power and is measured by
the utility companys kilowatt-hour (kWh) meter.
The current required to initiate a magnetic field in the stator behaves differently. It does not flow synchronously
with voltage. Figure 2 shows the voltage and magnetizing current during one full cycle. The current lags
voltage by 90 degrees and peaks at 180 and 360 degrees.

Figure 2. Magnetizing current versus voltage

Magnetizing current uses no energy to build the magnetic field because it is returned to the circuit when the
field decays. The amount required depends on the motor design, but unlike load current, it remains relatively
constant regardless of the motor load. Magnetizing current is often referred to as reactive, imaginary or
borrowed power. A standard kWh meter does not measure this current because it is out of phase with voltage.
The next section will explain how the combination of varying load current and constant magnetizing current
causes PF to vary from its nameplate value.

How Is Power Factor Calculated?

Figures 1 and 2 illustrated how load and magnetizing currents rose and fell during one cycle of AC. Load
current was in phase with voltage, but magnetizing current lagged voltage by 90 degrees. Figure 3 shows the
effect of both during one cycle. The red curve is load current, and the green one is magnetizing current. In this
example, I chose to show both with the same current intensity to keep the results simple. In the case of a fully
loaded motor, the load current will be substantially higher than the magnetizing current.

Figure 3. Total current versus voltage

The black curve in Figure 3 is the total currentor the sum of the load and magnetizing currents at any point in
the AC cycle. The product of total root mean square (RMS) current and voltage is often called apparent power.
In this example, the total current peaks at 135 degrees, or exactly halfway between the load and magnetizing
peaks. This places it 45 degrees to the right of the voltage and load current peaks.
The phase angle between total current and voltage is 45 degrees, and the cosine of this angle is the PF.
Therefore, PF equals cosine 45 = 0.707 (or 70.7). PF is simply the percentage of the total current that actually
performs work. From a power perspective, it is the percentage of the apparent power (kVA) that performs work.
Power factor is also the ratio of load power to apparent power (PF = kw / kVA).
If a motor nameplate shows a full-load amperage (FLA) of 22 amps and a power factor of 70.7, only 15.5 amps
is consumed by the motor. The remainder builds the magnetic field in the stator and is returned to the circuit
when the field decays. Even though the amperage is returned to the circuit, the utility still has to supply it, and
the wiring in the circuit must be sized to carry the nameplate FLA.
Earlier, I said that load current varies with the motor load, but magnetizing current remains relatively constant
regardless of the load. The PF on the motor nameplate is the measured PF at full load. When the motor load is
reduced, the total current will peak further to the right of the load current and voltage peaks. This increases the
phase angle and lowers PF below the value shown on the nameplate. As motor load increases, total current
will peak closer to the voltage peak and PF increases.
In my October column, I will discuss the major effects of low power factor and how it can be improved by
capacitive reactance.

Author Bio:
Joe Evans is responsible for customer and employee education at PumpTech Inc., a pump and packaged
system manufacturer and distributor with branches throughout the Pacific Northwest. He can be reached via
his website www.PumpEd101.com. If there are topics that you would like to see discussed in future columns,
drop him an email.
- See more at: http://www.pumpsandsystems.com/pumps-motors/september-2014-different-approachunderstanding-power-factor-first-three-parts#sthash.L0VZVdCs.dpuf

A Different Approach to Understanding Power

Factor (Second of Three Parts)
Written by:
Joe Evans, Ph.D. (Pump Tech Inc., P&S Editorial Advisory Board)
Published:
September 29, 2014

Resources

Pump Ed 101

Pump Repair

HI Pump FAQs

I hope that my last column (Pumps & Systems, September 2014) provided a clearer definition of power factor
and how it can be calculated. Power factor can also be explained using a vector triangle, but comparing the
voltage and current wave forms is more intuitive and can lead to a clearer understanding of what is actually
going on. In short, power factor is the percentage of the total current in the circuit that does work. From a
power perspective, it is the percentage of apparent power in kVA that actually performs work. It is also the ratio
of the load power measured in kilowatts (kW) to the apparent power measured in kilovolt-amps (kVA).
Why is power factor important? After all, the current required to initiate a magnetic field in the stator is returned
to the electrical grid when that field decays. However, power factor is important for several reasons.
Even though the current is returned, the utility still has to supply it during each alternating-current (AC) cycle.
Because it is not recorded by the kilowatt-hour meter, the utility does not get paid. Also, it is not available for
sale to other customers because it must be available to meet the power factor requirement of the motor.
Another reason is the increased wire and transformer size that is required to provide the additional current.
These factors affect both the utility and the customer.

Real-World Example
A 30-horsepower (HP), 460-volt (V) motor has a nameplate efficiency of 94 percent and a power factor of 85
(0.85). The nameplate also shows a full load amperage (FLA) of 35 amps (A). Based on the power factor, the
current used to drive the motor load is 29.75 A (35 A multiplied by 0.85). The additional 5.25 A are used to
initiate the magnetic field in the stator and are returned to the electrical grid when the field collapses.
A power factor of 0.85 is probably not a big deal when a single 30-HP motor is operating. The power company
likely would not notice the extra 5.25 A. If, however, this motor is in a plant and operating with many other
motors, power factor becomes important.
Suppose a plant operates 20 30-HP motors from a central motor control center (MCC). The load portion of the
current increases to 595 A, and the magnetic portion increases to 105 A (700 A total). Chances are that the
power company would get involved because the magnetizing current is now the equivalent of three additional
30-HP motors. Also, the wiring providing power to the MCC must be sized for 700 A. As HP and the number of
motors increase,
magnetizing current becomes a costly item for both the utility and the plant.
If the power factor for these motors could be increased to 95 (0.95), the total current used by the MCC would
be reduced to 626 A. At first glance, a reduction of 74 A may not seem significant. However, in a 460-volt,
three-phase circuit, a 74-A reduction equates to about 59 kW. That is the equivalent of removing about 74 HP
from the utilitys grid that would be available for sale to other customers. It would also increase the plants
transformer capacity and decrease the wire size for certain circuits. For example, conductor size typically
doubles when the power factor is reduced from 100 to 70. In addition, plant voltage will often increase by 1 to 2
percent.

Capacitors
Motors can be designed for high power factor, but those design changes usually result in reduced efficiency.
Today, most motors are designed for high efficiency because lower power factor can be corrected on-site with
the help of a simple devicethe capacitor. The capacitor is also a reactive device, but it behaves differently
than the reactance caused by motors and other inductive loads. Fortunately, this behavior allows it to correct
the problems associated with low power factor.
A capacitor can be compared to a battery because both store and release a charge. A major difference is that
the capacitor can store and discharge all its stored energy in a fraction of a second, but a battery will take far
longer.
A fitting example of a battery and capacitor working together is the electronic flash on a camera or smartphone.
A battery charges the capacitor in several seconds, and the capacitor instantly dumps the full charge, causing
the bulb to flash.
Figure 1 shows one complete AC cycle for a circuit that contains a motor and capacitor. The blue curve
represents voltage. The red curve is the motor magnetizing current, and the green curve is the capacitive
current. The load current is not included to help keep Figure 1 visually simple.

Figure 1. A complete AC cycle for a circuit with a motor and capacitor (Graphic courtesy of the author)
The big difference in capacitive current is that it leads voltage by 90 degrees, while magnetizing current lags
voltage by 90 degrees. They are completely out of phase throughout the AC cycle. This is a plus because the
capacitor discharges current to the circuit as the magnetic field is building. When the field collapses, the
capacitor stores it as a charge. In the example shown in Figure 1, the capacitor is sized to store and provide
100 percent of the magnetizing current required by the motor, so the improved power factor is 100 (1).
Therefore, the utility would be required to provide the load current only during motor operation. This is an ideal
example because power factor correction is usually limited to 95 (0.95).
Utility companies react differently to their customers power factor. If the overall load is small, some will often
ignore it. Others offer incentives to increase power factor. However, the majority of utilities charge customers
an additional fee if the power factor is below 0.9. Some require a minimum of 0.95.
Power factor correction capacitors can be installed and controlled in several ways. One is static or fixed
correction, and the other is central or bulk correction.
In the next Pump Ed 101, I will discuss how capacitors are installed and the impact of their location in the
system. I will also provide references that offer detailed information on capacitor selection and installation.
Author Bio:
Joe Evans is responsible for customer and employee education at PumpTech Inc., a pump and packaged
system manufacturer and distributor with branches throughout the Pacific Northwest. He can be reached via

his website PumpEd101.com. If you would like to see certain topics discussed in future columns, drop him an
email.

A Different Approach to Understanding Power

Factor (Last of Three Parts)
Written by:
Joe Evans, Ph.D. (Pump Tech Inc., P&S Editorial Advisory Board)
Published:
November 6, 2014

Resources

Pump Ed 101

Pump Repair

HI Pump FAQs

In my last column (Pumps & Systems, October 2014), I explained that a capacitors current is totally out of
phase with that of a motors magnetizing current. This allows the capacitor to store current when the magnetic
field collapses and return it to the stator when the magnetic field is building. The net effect is a much improved
motor power factor (PF). Two methods can be used to improve PF with capacitors.
Static correction involves using capacitors to correct a single load. They can be installed at several locations.
Static correction can be the most effective method, but it can also be the most expensive. Bulk correction uses
a bank of capacitors that improve PF for different parts of a facility. These capacitors can be switched in and
out of the circuit depending on the monitored PF.

Capacitor Location Options

The location of a static capacitor or capacitor bank installation has a major effect on where PF is improved. For
example, capacitors provide only upstream correction and relieve all upstream wiring and components of the
current required to create a magnetic field in an inductive device. All wiring and electrical components that are
downstream of the installation still must be sized to carry both the load and magnetizing currents.

Figure 1 is a simplified sketch of a plants electrical system that illustrates the effect of capacitor location. On
the far left is the utility entrance and its kilowatt-hour (kWh) meter. Next is a transformer that provides the
plants supply voltage. To the right of the transformer is a motor control center (MCC) that is used to operate
the plants alternating-current (AC), motor-driven equipment.
On the far right is a single AC motor. The red capacitor symbols (1 through 4) show the possible locations for
capacitor installation. In a real plant, this diagram would be much more complex. It could include multiple
transformers and branch circuits feeding various portions of the plant, several MCCs and dozens of AC motors.
Figure 1. Sample sketch of a plant electrical system (Graphic courtesy of the author)

Location 1
The plant could install a capacitor bank at Location 1 if the utility is charging a penalty. This would relieve the
utility of supplying the magnetizing current to the plant and make it available for sale to other customers.
Typically, the bank would be operated by a PF controller that would switch individual capacitors on and off
based on the measured PF of the entire plant. This would eliminate the penalty but will not change the PF
downstream of the bank.

Location 2
The capacitor bank could also be installed at Location 2, which is the secondary side of the plants transformer.
This location will still relieve the utility and increase the transformers capacity.
For example, an 800-kilowatt (kW) transformer can provide 640 kW of usable power at a PF of 80. If PF is
increased to 95, it could provide 760 kW, about 19 percent more. This bank would be operated with a controller
that switches capacitors on and off as needed.

Location 3
The capacitor bank from Location 2 could also be installed at Location 3, just before the MCC. This would
reduce the load on the wiring from the transformer to the MCC.
Individual (static) capacitors can also be installed at the input or output of each motor controller at the MCC.
Either location will eliminate the need for a capacitor bank and its associated controls while reducing the load
from the transformer to the MCC.
If the capacitors are installed on the input side of the controller, a separate contactor is often required to
automatically remove them from the circuit when the motor is off. If the capacitors are installed on the output
side of the controller, several control panel components can potentially be downsized on new installations.

Location 4
Static installation at the motorLocation 4is the most efficient location. All upstream wiring and electrical
components are relieved of the magnetizing current portion of the load required by that motor.
If the installation is for a previously installed motor, it can also be more costly because the panel overload
device will usually require replacement.

Never connect a capacitor downstream of a variable frequency drive or solid state soft starter. When installed
upstream, the manufacturer should be contacted for the required distance.

Other Concerns
PF changes when the line voltage varies from the nameplate voltage. PF increases by about 3 percent when a
460 volt (V) motor operates at 440 V. When operated at 480 V, PF decreases by about 5 percent. The
decrease is nearly directly proportional to the voltage increase.
Lightly loaded motors also decrease PF. At three-fourths load, PF is reduced by about 5 percent. At one-half
load, it is reduced by as much as 12 percent.
Induction motors are not the only source of low PF in the industrial sector. Fluorescent and mercury vapor
lighting systems exhibit a very low PF, in the range of 0.4 to 0.6.
Arc and resistance welding machines also have a PF in the same range.
On average, a typical industrial plant will have an uncorrected PF of 0.75 to 0.8. Increasing the PF to 0.95 can
eliminate utility penalties and increase the efficiency of a plants electrical grid.
Other sectors also contribute to low PF. Large commercial facilities, such as hotels and malls, can have
significant inductive loads.
In the residential sector, homes have many small motors that power washers, dryers, refrigerators, air
conditioners, heating systems and other devices. Although most are fractional horsepower, they typically have
a very low PF (0.6 to 0.7).
When all the small motors run together, they may produce between 1 and 2 horsepower.
Multiply that by several thousand homes, and PF becomes a significant problem for the utility. That is why
utilities have their own PF correction facilities spread throughout their distribution systems.

Resources
Several resources can provide more information on PF correction.
The first two cover larger installations, and the third covers correction for a single motor. They will also help you
determine if PF correction is worth the investment.

Power Factor in Electrical Energy Management pdhonline.org/courses/e144/e144content.pdf

Power Factor Correction: A Guide for the Plant Engineer

eaton.com/ecm/groups/public/@pub/@electrical/documents/content/sa02607001e.pdf

The Cowern Papers pumped101.com/index.html#cowern

Author Bio:

Joe Evans is responsible for customer and employee education at PumpTech Inc., a pump and packaged
system manufacturer and distributor with branches throughout the Pacific Northwest. He may be reached via
his website PumpEd101.com
- See more at: http://www.pumpsandsystems.com/pumps/november-2014-different-approach-understandingpower-factor-last-three-parts?page=2#sthash.uxgVi7vk.dpuf