MODERN PHYSICS

MODERN
PHYSICS
RELATIVITY
Problem Background: Physics theories of late 19th century postulated that just as water waves must have a medium to move
across water and available sound waves requires a medium to move through air, so that light wave require a medium the
luminiferous ether or the ethereal ether, because light travels through a vaccume and it was assume that the vaccume must
contain the medium of light.
This medium (eternal ether) prevails all space and penetrates all matter light waves travels through it with very high speed and
therefore it was also assumed that this medium has extremely low density and high modulus of elasticity. All bodies including
stellar objects like stars, planets, satellite moves through it.
In this situation if a ether remain stationary, then there must be relative motion between the two (earth & ether). The stationary
ether will provide an inertial frame of reference and thus the motion relative to a ether will be absolute motion of the body.
Since the earth is in motion (around the sun at a special of 30 km/sec over 1,08,000 km), it was expected that the flow of a
ether across the earth should produce a detectable a ether wind.
Although it would be possible in theory for the earths motion to match that the ether at one moment in time, it was not possible
for the earth to remains at rest w.r.t ether at all time, because of the variation in both the direction and speed of the motion.
At any given point on earths surface, the magnitude and direction of wind would vary with time of days season. By analyzing
the return speed of light in different direction at various different time, it was thought to be possible to measure the motion of
the earth relative to ether.
The expected difference in the measured speed of light was quite small, given that the velocity of earth in its orbit around the
sun was it about one hundredth of one percent of speed of light.
Principal used in the experiment: Michelson had a solution to the problem of how to construct a device sufficiently accurate
to detect ether flow choosing earth as the moving object in ether and tried to detect its motion relative to ether. It is will known
that earth goes round the sun. Once in a year with velocity 310 4 m/sec. The component of velocity parallel to earth surface
will be nearly of same order, if now a light signal is sent from a source to an observer on the earth in the same direction as the
earth motion, it should take longer time to complete journey than in opposite direction.
Aim: (1) The object of the experiment was to detect this time delay and from it obtain the relative velocity between ether and
earth.
(2) If the ether were stationary relative to the sun, then the earth motion would produce a fringe shift one twenty fifth the size
of a single fringe.
Experiment Arrangement: The device designed later known as an interferometer, since it depends upon the principle of
interference of light

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Here S = source of monochromatic light, a parallel beam from which falls upon a then parallel sided glass plate P, (thinly
silvered on black surface) and placed at 45 to the beam and the beam is divided into two beam 1 & 2. The beam 1 & 2
travelling at right angles to each other falls normally on mirror m1 and m2 which reflect them back to p1. The two beam returned
to p1 are directed towards a telescope T in which interference fringes are to be observed.
The two mirror m1 and m2 are heavily silvered on the front face to avoid multiple reflection , are arranged at right angles to each
at the same distance d from plate p1 their path in glass and air is made equal by a compensating plate p2 placed identically
parallel to it.
If light incident on p1 ways a slightly divergent one, rays reaching the telescope are in phase and some are out of that phase,
interference pattern of dark and bright fringe are obtained through a telescope.
If u = velocity of apparatus (i.e. of the earth) relative to ether from left to right then drift velocity of the earth = u.
i.e. in the opposite direction.
If c is the actual velocity of light, then relative velocity of light w.r.t. apparatus along AC = c u
Therefore time taken to covers the distance d from A to C.
d
c u
On return journey from C to A i.e. C to A, relative velocity of light = (c + u) and time taken to cover C to A

Says

d
cu
Therefore, total time taken by light to travel from A to C & back says

Say

t t1 t2

d
d

cu cu

2cd

c u2
2

2cd
2

u
c 2 1 2
c

2d
u2
c 1 2
c

Now time taken to cover the distance d from A to B, says

t1

d
2

c u2

On return from B to A
Say

t2

d
2

c u2

Total time taken by light to cover the distance from A to B and back to A
t t1 t2

2d
2

c u

2d

c 1

u2
c2

Difference in time
t t t

2d
2d

2
u2
c 1 2 c 1 u
2
c
c
1

1/ 2

2d u 2
2d u 2

1
c c 2
c c 2
Expanding by binomial theorem and taking u <<< c.

2d u 2
1
c c 2

u 2

2c 2

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2d u 2
c 2c 2

3
2
du

3
c

Therefore, phase difference,

t c

du 2
du 2

c3
c2

du 2
then the optical path AB.
c2
In actual experiment: The whole apparatus is reflected by 90 so that the optical path AB is now longer than the optical path
Above equation indicates that the optical path AC is longer by

AC by same amount

du 2
2du 2

thus
the
total
path
difference
between
the
two
beam
.
c2
c2

Since for a path difference

Its shift through n fringe n
Therefore, we have

2du 2
2du 2
where n 2
2
c
c
Observation: With orbital velocity u of the earth and hence that of the apparatus.
n

u 10.3 miles 30 km/sec 3 10 6 cm/sec

c 3 1010 cm/sec

6 10 5 cm
n 0.37 0.4
Or a shift of four tenth a fringe the actual shift of interference pattern observed, however, was too small, almost negligible,
indicating little or no relative velocity between that earth & ether.
Result: The null result suggest that the effect of the ether are in-detectable and therefore ether theory was discarded; which
was a blow to the ether hypothesis.
Significance:
(1) The Michelson & Morley (M M) one of the most important and famous experiment in the history of physics.
(2) It is generally considered to be the find strong evidence against the theory of a aluminiferous ether.
(3) Experiment has also been referred to as the kicking off point for the theoretical aspects of the second scientific revolution.
(4) Primarily for this work, Albert Michelson was awarded the Nobel prizes in 1907.
(5) After all this thought and preparation the experiment become what might be called the most famous failed experiment to
date.
(6) Instead of providing insight into the properties of ether, MM 1887 article in American journal of science reported the
measurement to be a small of 1/40th of expected displacement.
But since the displacement is directly proportional to velocity, they conducted that the measured velocity was approximately
1/6th of the expected velocity of earths motion in orbit and certainly less than 1/4 th.
Although this small velocity is measured it was considered for too small to be used an evidence of ether.
The experiment has since been repeated below the earths surface as well as at high attitude of different times of the year and
lately with highly monochromatic light from laser but in all cases result has been negative.
Explanation of negative result:
(1) Ether drag hypothesis: It was understood that there is no relative motion between earth and ether and that the earth while
moving completely drag ether.
(2) Fitzerald-Lorentz contraction-Fitzerald and Lorentz independently put an adhoc hypothesis that all material bodies moving
through the ether are contracted in the direction of the motion by a factor

u 2 , this could explain the negative result of the

c2

experiment.
(3) Einstein theory of relativity: He proposed that the motion through ether is meaningless concept, only motion relative to a
frame of reference has a physical significance. Thus it is impossible to perform any experiment for detecting earths motion
through ether. This idea was ultimately developed in the theory of relativity.

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Einstein special theory of relativity: The theory of relativity is based on two basic postulates.
(1) The law of physics has the same from in all inertial frame of reference moving with a constant velocity relative to one
another.
(2) The speed of light in free space is the same in all inertial frames of reference.
Lorentz Transformation
These are derived divided directly from the basic postulates of theory of relativity

Let S and S be be two frames of reference S moving along the positive x direction with a constant velocity v relative to S.
Let ( x, y, z , t ) be the space time cordinate of an event for an observer in frame S and ( x , y , z , t ) the coordinates of the same
event for an observer in the S frame. Let the time be counted from the instant when the origin O and O momentarily coincide
( x , y , z , t ) are related to ( x, y, z , t ) by Lorentz transform equation.
x x vt ,

y y, z z

vx
t t
c
Then the inverse Lorentz transformation is
x x vt ,
y y , z z
vx

t t ,
c

where

1
1

v2
c2

Physical significance of Lorentz transformation:

(a) Length contraction
(b) Time dilation
(c) Relative character of simultaneity
(d) Addition of velocities
(a) Lorentz Fitzerald Length Contraction: A body moving with a velocity v relative to an observer appears to the observer
to be contracted in length in the direction of motion by a factor

v2
c2

Proof: Let us consider a rod placed along the x -axis in its rest frame S which is moving with velocity v w.r.t some stationary
frames. Let x1 and x2 be the coordinate of the ends of the rod in the S frame.
The length of the rod in S frame (its rest frame)
L0 x2 x1

Now if an observer in stationary frame. S records the coordinates of the ends of the rod as x1 and x2 at a time t, the rod
appears to him as having a length.
L x2 x1
from Lorentz transformation for a given value of t, we have

x2 x2 vt ,

x1 x1 vt

L0 x2 x1 x2 x1 L

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L L0 1

v2
c2

Thus the rod placed in moving frame S appears to be contracted by factor

v2
to a stationary observer in S.
c2

Proper length ( L0 ): The length L0 measured in the frame in which the rod is at rest is called the proper length.
(b) Time dilation: The time interval in the laboratory frame is greater than that in the rest frame of the event; the moving clock
appears to run slow. This effect is known as time dilation.
Proof: Consider a clock at rest in frame S which is moving with velocity v w.r.t a stationary frame S. Now consider two
event 1 & 2 both. Occuring at same point x0 timed at t1 and t2 by the clock in rest frame.
The time interval to t0 t2 t1 is the interval between two events in rest frame and is called the proper time interval.
Now an observer in stationary frame. S clocks the same two events 1 & 2 in his clock as time t1 and t2 respectively, so the time
interval between two events as observed by the observer t t2 t1 .
From inverse Lorentz transformation for a fixed x0

vx

t2 t2 2
c

vx

t1 t1 2
c

t t2 t1 t2 t1
t t0

t0
1

v2
c2

The time interval appears to be lengthened by a factor

1
v2
1 2
c

to the stationary observer in S .

Proper time interval: The proper time interval between two events is the time interval measured by a clock in rest frame of the
events.
Experimental verification of time dilation ( -meson decay): The -meson has a life time to 2 106 sec. in its own frame
of reference. In the observers frame of reference (earth) however, the five time is lengthened owing to the relative motion to the
value t given by
t t0

The velocity of -meson w.r.t earth = 0.998c.

Hence

2 106
1 0.998 2

2 10 6
3.17 10 5 sec.
0.063

Now meson are created by fast cosmic rays at a height 10 km from the surface of the earth and reach the earth surface in
large numbers. This is possible only because of time dilation.
If there is no time dilation, meson can travel a distance
2.994 108 2 106 0.6 km
If there is time dilation, -meson can travel a distance
2.994 108 3.17 109 9.5 km
Thus it is due to time dilation that -meson are found in large numbers on the earth surface.
(c) Relative character of simultaneity : Two events which appear to take place simultaneously to one observer are in general,
not simultaneous to another observer in relative motion.

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Proof: Suppose two events occur at different places x1 and x2 but at the same time t0 to observer on the ground the situation
is different to a pilot of a spaceship moving with velocity v relative to ground.

xv
To him the event at x1 occurs at t1 t0 12 and that at x2 occur at t2 t0 x2 v
c

c2

Hence, the events that occur simultaneously to one observer are separated to another observer by a time interval of
t2 t1 x1 x2

v
c2

(d) Relativistic addition of velocities: Let there be two frames of reference S and S , the frame S moving with constant
velocity v relative to S along the x-axis. Let a body move a distance dx in a time interval at the frame S. Then the velocity of the
body in S frame in
dx
dt
To an observer in S both the distance and time interval will appear different say, dx and dt . So that to him the velocity of
the body will be
ux

dx
dt
Two Lorentz transformation, we have
u x

... ( 1 )

vx
t t 2
c
On differentiation of equation 2 we get,
x x vt ,

dx dx vdt ,

vdx

dt dt 2
c

dx
v
u v
dx dx vdt
dx
u x

dt
x
vu x , where u x
dt dt vdx 1 v dx
dt
1

c2
c 2 dt
c2

Similarly

uy

dy
dt

dx

dy dy , dt dt v 2
c

dy
uy
dy
dy
dt
uy

vdx
v dx
vu
dt
dt 2 1 2 1 2x
c

c dt
c

Similarly

uz

dz
dt

dz dz , dt dt v

dx

c2

dz
uz
dz
dz
dt
uz

vdx
v dx
vu x
dt

dt 2 1 2
1 2
c

c dt
c

Relativistic mass and momentum

Relativistic mass m

m0
1

v2
c2

... ( 2 )

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Relativistic momentum

p mv m0 v

Relativiatic force

m0 v
dp d

v2
dt dt 1 2

Einsteins Mass-Energy Equivalence

This law proposes that mass and energy are no longer independent entities. Mass itself is just one form of energy. It can not be
created or destroyed, provided an equivalent amount, of energy simultaneously vanishes or comes into being and vice-versa.
Hence separate consevation principles of mass and energy are no longer justified. They have infact melted together into single
principles which states that, The mass plus energy of the universe is conserved.
Derivation: Let us consider a particle of mass m acted upon by a force F in the same direction as its velocity v. The force is
defined as rate of change of momentum
d
dv
dm
mv m v
dt
dt
dt
The work done by the force F in a displacement ds of the body is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.
Thus
dk Fds
F

dv
dm
ds v
ds
dt
dt

ds
ds
dv v dm
dt
dt

vmdv v 2 dm

Now

m0

m m0

v2
c2

differentiating, we get
1
m0
vdv
mdv
2 2v dv m0
dm
2

2
3/ 2
2 3/ 2 c
2
c v
c v2
v
1 2
1 2
c
c

mvdv c 2 v 2 dm
dk c 2 v 2 dm v 2 dm c 2 dm

Suppose the body has a mass m0 when is at rest and a mass m when accelerated to a velocity v. The kinetic energy acquired is
then
m

k dk

c dm c m m
0

m0

The result shows that kinetic energy of a body is equal to the relativistic increase in mass of the body over the rest mass
multiplied by the square of the velocity of light. It can be interpreted to mean that even when the body is at rest, it possesses an
amount of energy m0 c 2 . Accordingly m0 c 2 is called the rest mass energy E0 of a body whose rest mass is m0 .
The total energy of a body is therefore the sum of kinetic energy and the rest energy.
Thus

E K E0 m m0 c 2 m0 c 2 mc 2

Thus shows that with the mass m of a system is associated with an amount of energy mc 2 or conversely a system with total
energy E has associated with an inertial mass

E
.
C2

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Verification:
(1) Compton effect: Compton treated x-ray scattering as an elastic collison between a photon and an electron after which the
scattered photon moves in a new direction and the e recoils with a velocity comparable to the velocity of light applying the
laws of conservation of energy and momentum in the light of mass energy relation compton calculated a value for the wavelength shift which agreed with experimental result.
(2) Nuclear phenomenon: The explanation of mass defect and release of tremendous amount of energy in nuclear fusion
which is entirely based on mass energy relation gives a strong support to the relation.
Relativistic kinetic energy

K E m0 c 2 m m0 c 2 .
Relativistic relation between energy & momentum
Total energy of the particle is given by E mc 2 m0 c 2 and the relativistic momentum is given by mv m0 v
Now

E 2 p2c2

m02 c 4
v2
1 2
c

m02 c 2 v 2
v2
1 2
c

v2
1 2
m02 c 4 c 2
v
1 2
c

E 2 p 2 c 2 m02 c 4

Density in relativistic frame

Let there be a cubical body of mass m0 and dimension x0 , y0 and z0 along x, y , z axis respectively when the body is at rest
w.r.t frame S. Now if the body starts moving with velocity along positive x-direction w.r.t. frame. S; then the mass m0 and
length x0 of the body will change as per relativistic mechanism dimension y0 and z0 will remain unchanged as there are
perpendicular to the direction of motion.

The mass of the body w.r.t. S will a

m0
1

v2
c2

The length of the body along x-axis

when observed from frame S is
x x0 1

v2
c2

Now the initial volume of the body when at rest is v0 x0 y0 z0

The volume of the bodes when in motion is v xy0 z0
m0
Hence the initial density of the body is given by 0 v
0

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Now the density of a body moving with velocity v w.r.t. frame S is

1
2

m0
x0 y0 z0

m0

v
v2
x0 1 2 y0 z0
2
c
c

0
1

2
v
v2
1 2 1 2
c
c

0
v2
1 2 .
c

Aberration and doppler effect

Aberration: The phenomenon of aberration results the speed of light is independent of the medium of transmission but the
direction of light rays depends on the motion of the source emitting light relative to the observer.
Deviation: Here we compare the direction of a light ray emitted from a star relative to inertial frames of reference S and S
. S is moving with uniform velocites v relative to S along the positive direction of x-axis.

At any instant time t, the observer at O & O notice that the direction of this ray make angle x and x with x-axis respectively,,
u x c cos ,
u y c sin ,
uz 0
thus
u x c cos ,
by Lorentz transformation

x x vt ,

u y c sin ,

u z 0

vu
y y, z z, t t 2x
c

From which
dx dx vdt , dy dy, dz dz

dt dt 2 dx
c

dx
dx vdt

,
v
dt
dt 2 dx
c

dy
dy

v
dt
dt 2 dx
c

uy
ux v
; u y
v
v
1 2 ux
1 2 u x
c
c

From (1) and (2) we get

u x

v
1 2 ux
uy
c sin
c

v ux v
u x
c cos

1 2 u x
c

u y

... (2)

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10

tan

uy

ux v

tan

c sin

c cos v

c tan
v
c 1

c cos

tan
v
1 sec
c

tan
v

1 sec
c

This is the relativistic formula for aberration.

This phenomenon of light is very useful to determine the velocity of earth. Assuming S to be sun and S to be earth, then if
and is known the velocity of earth w.r.t. sun v can be calcualted.
tan

Relastivistic Doppler Effect

1
Let a light source flesh with a period t0 v in its rest frame. The source is moving towards an observer with velocity v. Due
0
to time dilation, the period in the observers rest frame is t0 .
Since the speed of light is universal constant, the pulses arrive at the observer with speed c (It is for this reason that the
relativity velocity alone plays a role in the doppler effect for light.

The frequency of the pulse as observed by the observor is vd

c
, where L is the separation in observers frame. Since the
L

source is moving towards the observer.

L c v c v
vd

c
c

L c v

v2
v
1
2
1
c
c

v0
v0
v
v t
v
1
1 0
1
c
c
c
v is positive when source and observer are approaching each other.
1

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11

v is negative when source and observer and receding from each other and v is relative velocity between the observer and the
source.
(2) Doppler effect for an observer off the line of motion

Let the period of the light source in its rest frame be 0 1 . The source is moving with a velocity v, when the observer is at
v0
an angle from the line of motion. The period of flashes in the observers rest frame is 0 .
The frequency seen by the observer is c /L . Since the source moves distance v between flashes. It is appeared from figure
below.

L c v cos c v cos
Hence the frequency observed by the observer
vd

c
c
1
1

L c v cos v

1 cos
c

vd v0

v2
c2

1 cos
c

Note: (a) At 0 , we get previous result.

(b) At 90 the relative velocity between the source and observer is zero. However, even in this case. There is a shift in
frquency vd differs from v0 by the factor

v2
. This transverse doppler effect is due to time dilation.
c2

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Photoelectric Effect
When a beam of suitable frequency falls on the surface of metal, slow moving electron are emitted from the surface. These
emitted electrons are known as photoelectron and this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect.
(a) Intensity effect: For a given metal, rate of emission of photoelectrons, i.e., photo current is directly proportional to the
intensity * of incident radiation for a given light.

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12

(b) Frequency effect: For a given metal, maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation and is independent of its intensity.
(c) Effect of nature of metal: For a given matter, there exists a certain minimum frequency below which no emission of
photoelectron takes place. This frequency is known as Threshold frequency of the matter.

1
h w mv 2
2
max

.... (1)

where w work function of metal h 0 .

This above equation is known as Einsteins photoelectric equation.

(d) Time-delay effect: Within the limits of experimental accuracy (about 109 s), there is no time-lag between incidence of
radiation and emission of photo electrons, i.e., as soon as light is incident on the metal, photoelectrons are emitted.
(B) Failure of Classical Wave Theory
When wave-theory of light, which explains interference, diffraction and polarisation satisfactorily, is applied to explain photoelectric effect it seems that it will also explain photoelectric effect successfully as waves carry energy and electrons may come
out of metal by absorbing energy from the wave. However, critical analysis reveals that:
(1) It states that energy of light is increased by intensity of the radiation.
(2) It assumed that light of any frequency. However low will produce the photoelectric effect which is not the case. For a
microwave energy is very low to eject photo electron.
(3) There exists a time gap between the incident radiation and emission of photoelectron e.g. The photon are absorbed in the
photoelectric process (in some cases), before the electrons are ejected out from the surface.
Explantion from quantum theory:
According to plank quantum theory: A light wave is consists of large number of tiny particles, carries energy h . These tiny
particles are known as photon.
(1) When a radiation is incident upon the metal, a part of it is used in liberating the electron from the metal surface, which is
equal to the work function w0 of the metal.
(2) The rest of energy is used to impart the kinetic energy to the ejected photo electron.

1
h hv0 mv 2
2

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13

Explanation of photo electric effect:

(1) Since one photon ejects one photoelectron from the surface. Therefore the number of photoelectron emitted from the surface
directly depends upon the number of photon incident on it. If the number of photon doubles, which means the incident light is
increased, then there will be an increase in the emission of photoelectron.
(2) K.E h 0
If the frequency of incident light is less than the work function of metal, i.e. 0 . The kinetic energy of the electron will be
negative, which is not possible and thus photoelectron emission does not take place below threshold frequency.
(3) 0 , the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electron is directly proportional to the frequency of incident light.
(4) The photoelectric emission is possible only if the incident light is in the form of wave packets of energy each having a
definite value more than work function of the metal. This shows that light is not of wave nature but of particle nature. It is due
to this reasion photoelectric effect was accounted by quantum theory of light.
(5) As energy of photon is localised, the electron will be knocked out from the metal as soon as it interacts with it. So there will
be no detectable time lag between incidence of radiation and emission of electron.
(6) Einsteins photoelectric equation K max hv is similar to that of a straight line y mx c; so if we plot a graph between
K max and v the graph will be a straight line with slope h as shown in Fig. Millikan, using this, experimentally determined the
value of Plancks constant h which agrees to within better than 0.5% with the value derived from Plancks radiation formula.
This is turn verifies Einsteins theory of photoelectric effect experimentally.

HYDROGEN ATOM
Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
Based on Rutherfords experiment it was generally considered that the atom consisted of a small, massive, positively charged
nucleus, 1015 or 1014 m in diameter, surrounded by moving electrons in a region about 1010 m in diameter. Rutherfords atom
was similar to the solar system with sun at the centre and planets orbiting it. If this model is studied under classical mechanics,
the atom must be unstable because accelerating electrons must continuously radiate energy and there may only be continuous
spectrum, no spectral lines. Since atom is stable, it emits a line spectrum originating from the structure and properties of the
atoms electronic configuration.
Many atomic theories were proposed, but Bohrs theory got most recognization as it provided a link between the three knonw
concepts at that time.
(1) Balmer and Rydberg empirical formula for the line spectrum of the hydrogen atom: Balmer while studying emission
spectrum of hydrogen had found a formula that correctly predicted the four visible lines of hydrogen, viz., H , H , H and
H . Balmer formula had the form

cm 3645.6 108

n2
; where n 3, 4, 5, .....
n 2 22

n 3 for H , n 4 for H and so on.

Rydberg proposed a formula for line spectrum of hydrogen atom,
1
1
1
R 2 2

n
2

Where R is called Rydberg constant R 10973730 m -1 .

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14

(2) Rutherfords nuclear model which could not be explained on the basis of classical mechanics.
(3) Quantum nature of the emission and absorpotion of light.
Bohr used the Einsteins photon concept and Rutherfords concept of nucleus, to derive the Balmer formula and thereby explain
the hydrogen spectrum.
Bohrs model was based on certain assumptions.
(A) Bohrs general assumptions
Bohr assumed that electrons moves around a massive, positively charged nucleus, in circular rather than elliptical orbits and that
the nuclear mass is so much greater than the electrons mass that it may be taken to be infinite. The electron has charge e and
mass m and revolved around a nucleus of charge +e (Hydrogen atom) in a circle of radius a. The size of the nucleus is small
compared to the radius a.
(1) Electrons move in circular orbits about proton under the influence of Coulomb force of attraction. Electrons orbit in certain
stationary states in which the orbiting electrons do not continuously radiate electromagnetic energy. The stationary states have
definite total energy.
(2) The emission or absorpotion of electromagnetic radiation occurs only when there is a transition of electron between two
stationary states. When an electron changes its position from a high energy orbit to a lower energy orbit, the excess energy is
emitted as a photon. The frequency v of the emitted or absorbed radiation is proportional to the difference in energy of the two
stationary states,
E Ei E f hv
..... (1)
where h is Plancks constant, Ei and E f are the energies of initial and final states.
The frequency of the photon is independent of the frequency of the electrons orbital motion.
Angular Momentum of system is quantised i.e. it is an integral multiple of .
L n
For circular motion, the magnitude of the angular momentum L of the electron is

..... (2)
L r p mvr
Bohrs quantisation of angular momentum is
nh
n ; where n 1, 2, 3, ...
..... (3)
2
Here the integer n is called principal quantum number.
Each of the assumptions stated above were necessary because atoms are stable and do not continuously radiate energy and due
to the experimental fact that excited atoms do emit electromagnetic radiation. In order to complete his derivation of Balmer
formula and explain hydrogen spectrum Bohr made arbitrary assumption of angular momentum quantisation
Let us consider the atom, hydrogen, assuming that electron are revolving in a circular orbits. The force of attraction on the
electron due to the nucleus (charge = +e) is
L mvr

1 e2

..... (4)
4 0 r 2
where the negative sign indicates that the force is attractive. This electrostatic force provides the centripetal force needed for the
Fe

electron to move in a circular orbit at constant speed. Its centripetal acceleration is ac

v2
, where v is the tangential velocity
r

of the electron. From Newtons second law,

Fc mac

mv 2
r

..... (5)

Fc Fe
1 e 2 mv 2

4 0 r 2
r

and

e
4 0 mr

..... (6)

2
e
The kinetic energy of the system is due to the electron K mv . The potential energy V is
; so the total mechanical
4 0 r
2
energy is

MODERN PHYSICS

15

1 2
e2
mv
2
4 0 r
On substituting for V from Eq. (6), we have
E K V

..... (7)

e2
e2
e2

..... (8)
8 0 r 4 0 r
8 0 r
(1) The total energy is negative which indicates that the system is a bound and hence this amount of energy is supply to this
system in order to remove and electron format.
(2) The size of an atom was thought to be about 1010 m; so by letting r = 0.5 1010 m, we can use Eq. (6) to estimate the
electrons velocity.
E

1/ 2

1.6 1019 C 9 109 Nm 2 /C 2

1/ 2

1/ 2

9.111031 kg 0.5 1010 m

2.2 106 m/s 0.01 c

Hence non-relativistic treatment of electron is justified.
(B) Radius of nth Bohrs orbit
From Eq. (3) for the velocity, we obtain
n
..... (9)
mr
Eq. (3) yields a relation between v and r. By equating v2 from from Eqs. (3) and (5) and setting them equal, we find
v

v2

e2
n2 2
2 2
4 0 mr m r

..... (10)

4 0 n 2 2
n 2 a0
..... (11)
me 2
From Eq. (11) we see that only certain values of r are allowed, where the Bohrs radius a0 is given by
rn

1.055 10 34
4 0 2
a0

me 2
8.99 109 9.111031 1.6 10 19 2
0.53 10 10 m
Eq. (11) suggests that the atomic radius is quantised (i.e., it is dependent on principal quantum number).

(C)
Velocity of Electron
Electrons velocity can be determined from Eqs. (3) and (11).
vn

n
n
1

mrn mn 2 a0 n ma0

or

vn

1 e2
n 4 0

The value of v1

2.2 106 m/s, which is less than 1% of the speed of light. We define the dimensionless quantity ratio of
ma0

...... (12)

v1 to c by
v1

e2
1

c ma0 c 4 0 c 137
This ratio is called the fine structure constant.

..... (13)

(D) Energy of electron in nth orbit

The energies of the stationary states can be determined by combining Eqs. (8) and (11).
En

E
e2
e2

20
8 0 rn
8 0 a0 n 2
n

...... (14)

MODERN PHYSICS

16
The lowest-energy state (n = 1) is E1 = E0 where
E0

e2
e2
me 2
me 4

13.6 eV
4 0 a0 8 0 8 0 2 2 2 4 0 2

..... (15)

(E) Frequency, Wavelength, Wave Number of Transitions

According to assumption 2, we have
hv Eu El

where v is the frequency of the emitted light quantum (photon). Because v c, we have
1 v Eu El

c
hc

where

E0 1
1 E 1
1
2 0 2 2

2
hc nu nl hc nl nu

E0
me 4

R
hc 4 c3 4 0 2

..... (16)

..... (17)

constant R is called the Rydberg constant (here nucleus has been assumed to be of infinite mass). Eq. (16) becomes
1
1
1
R 2 2

nl nu

..... (18)

The value of R is 1.097373 107 m -1

(G) Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom
(a) Lyman Series: Lines corresponding to transition from outer energy levels n2 2, 3, 4, ....., to first orbit ( n1 1) constitute Lyman series. The wave numbers of different lines are given by,
v

1
1 1
R 2 2

1 n2

(i) Line corresponding to transition from n2 2 to n1 1 is first line; its wavelength is maximum.
1

max

1 1
1 1
R 2 2 1.1 107
1 2
1 4

max 1212

Similarly transition from n2 to n1 1 gives line of minimum wavelength.

1
1 1
R 2 2 1.1 107
min
1

min 912
(ii) Lyman series lies in ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum.
(iii) Lyman series is obtained in emission as well as in absorption spectrum.

(b) Balmer Series: Lines corresponding to n2 3, 4, 5, .... , to n1 2 constitute Balmer series. The wave numbers of differ-ent lines are given by,
1
1
v R 2 2
2
n

(i) Line corresponding to transition n2 3 to n1 2 first line, wavelength corresponding to this transition is maximum. Line
corresponding to transition n2 to n1 2 is last line; wavelength of last line is minimum.

MODERN PHYSICS

17

1
1 1
R 2 2
max
2 3
1 1
1.1 107
4 9

max 6563
1
1
1
R 2 2
min
2
1

1.1 107 0
4

min 3636
(ii) Balmer series lies in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum.
(iii) This series is obtained only in emission spectrum. Absorption lines corresponding to Balmer series do not exist, except
extremely weakly, because very few electrons are normally in the state n = 2 and only a very few atoms are capable of having an
electron knocked from the state n = 2 to higher states. Hence photons that correspond to these energies will not be strongly
absorbed. In highly excited hydrogen gas there is possibility for detecting absorption at Balmer-line wavelengths.

(c) Paschen Series: Lines corresponding to n2 = 4, 5, 6, ..... to n1 = 3 constitute Paschen series. The wave number of different
lines are given by,
1 1
v R 2 2
3 n2
(i) Line corresponding to transition n2 = 4 to n1 = 3 is first line, having maximum wavelength. Line corresponding to transition

n2 to n1 3 is last line, having minimum wavelength

1

max

1 1
R 2 2
3 4
1 1
1.1 10 7
9 16

max 18747
1
1 1
1
R 2 1.1 107 0
min
9
3

MODERN PHYSICS

18

min 8202
(ii) Paschen series lies in the infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.
(iii) This series is obtained only in the emission spectrum.

(d) Bracket Series: The series corresponds to transitions from n2 5, 6, 7, ..., to n1 4 . The wave numbers of different line
are given by
1
1
v R 2 2
4
n

(i) Line corresponding to transition from n2 5 to n1 4 has maximum wavelength and n2 to n1 4 has minimum
wavelength.
1
1 1
R 2 2
max
4 5
1
1
1.1 107
16 25

max 40477
1
1
1
R 2 2
min
4

min 14572
(ii) This series lies in the infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.

(e) Pfund Series: This series corresponds to transitions from n2 6, 7,8, ...., to n1 5 . The wave numbers are given by,,

1 1
v R 2 2
5 n2
(i) Line corresponding to transition from n2 6 to n1 5 has maximum wavelength and n2 to n1 4 has minimum
wavelength.
1

max

1 1
R 2 2
5 6

max 74563
1

max

1
1
R 2 2
5

min 22768
(ii) This series lies in infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.

(I) Successes and failures of the Bohr model

(a) Wavelength measurements for the atomic spectrum of hydrogen are very precise and show a very small deviation with the
Bohr model results. The assumption by Bohr that the nucleus is fixed is equivalent to the assumption that it has infinite mass. If

p2
1 2
, where Mv is its momentum. If we assume that momentum
the nucleus has mass M, its kinetic energy will be Mv
2
2M
of atom is zero, conservation of momentum requires that the momenta of nucleus and electron be equal in magnitude. The total
kinetic energy is
Ek

where

p2
p2 M m 2 p2

p
2M 2m 2mM
2

mM
is called reduced mass.
mM

MODERN PHYSICS

19

The electron and hydrogen nucleus actually revolve about their common centre of mass as shown in Fig. The only change
required in the results is to replace the electron mass me by its reduced mass e where

me M

me M

me
m
1 e
M

..... (23)

and M is the mass of the nucleus. The correction for the hydrogen atom is e 0.999456 me ; only 5 parts in 10,000, but this
difference can easily be measured experimentally. The Rydberg constant for infinite nuclear mass, R , defined in Eq. (17),
should be replaced by R, where

e
R
me

e e 4
1
R
m
4 c3 (4 0 ) 2
1 e
M

..... (24)

The Rydberg constant for hydrogen is R H 1.097373 107 m 1 .

(b) The Bohr model was successfully applied to all single-electron atom (hydrogen-like atom in group-I) with nuclear charge
+Ze, e.g., He+ and Li2+. In calculation of the Coulomb force e2 is replaced by Ze2 to account for the nuclear charge of +Ze. Bohr
applied his model to the case of singly ionised helium, He+. The Rydberg Eq. (18) now becomes,
1
1
1
Z 2R 2 2
..... (25)

n
n
u
1
where the Rydberg constant is given by Eq. (18). It is to be emphasized that Eq. (25) is only valid for single-electron systems
(e.g., H, He+, Li2+ etc.) and does not apply to any other systems (e.g., He, Li, Li+).
(c) Application of external magnetic fields (Zeeman effect) and external electric fields (Stark effect) to the radiating atoms
affecting the spectral lines, splitting and broadening them. Although classical electro-magnetic theory could quantitatively
explain the (normal) Zeeman effect, it was unable to account for the anomalous Zeeman effect; for this the vector atom model
was necessary.
Although the Bohr model was a great help in understanding the atom, but it had its limitations:
1. It could be successfully applied only to single-electron atoms (e.g., H, He+, Li2+ etc.)
2. It was not able to account for the intensities or the fine structure of the spectral lines.
3. Bohrs model could not explain the binding of atoms into molecules.
4. No justification was given for the principle of quantisation of angular momentum.
5. Bohr model could not explain the reason why atoms should combine to form chemical bonds. Why do the molecules become
more stable on such combinations.
6. Bohr had assumed that an electron in the atom is located at definite distance from the nucleus and is revolving with a definite
velocity around it. This is against the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. With the advancements in quantum mechanics, it become clear that there are no well defined orbits; rather there are clouds of negative charge.

Formulas to be remembered:
(1) Radius of nth Bohr orbit,

rn

n2 h2
4 2 kZe2 m

r0 n 2
Z
Where r0 = radius of first orbit of Bohrs hydrogen atom
n = principal quantum number
Z = atomic number
rn

where, k 4
0

MODERN PHYSICS

20
(2) Velocity of electron in nth orbit,

2 kZe2
c Z 2.2 106 Z

m/s
nh
137 n
n
where, c is velocity of light.
Vn

(3) Angular frequency of electron in nth orbit (n )

8 2 k 2 Z 2 e 4 m 0 Z 2
3
n3 h 3
n

8 3 k 2 e 4 m
where, 0

h3

where 0 is angular frequency of electron in first Bohrs orbit of hydrogen atom

4.459 1016 Z 2
rad/sec.
n3
(4) Frequency of electron in nth orbit (vn)

vn

n 4 2 k 2 Z 2 e 4 m v0 Z 2 6.62 1015 Z 2

3
2
n3 h3
n
n3

4 2 k 2 e 4 m
where, v0

h3

(5) Period of revolution of electron in nth orbit (Tn):

Tn

2 r
Vn

Tn

n3 h 3
4 me4 k 2 Z 2
2

Tn T0
Tn

n3
Z2

h3
where, T0 2 4 2
4 me k

1.5 10 16 n3
sec.
Z2

X-RAY
As you have learned in the photoelectric effect, a photon gives up all of its energy to an electron which then escape from the
material to which it was bound. Can the reverse process occur? Can an electron (or any charged particle) gives up its energy and
create a photon? The answer is yes, but the process must be in accordance with other laws of physics. Photons are quantised;
they must be created or absorbed as whole units. A photon must give up all its energy. If in some physical process only part of the
photons energy were required then a new photon would be created to carry away the remaining energy. An electron behaves in
a different manner in this regard. It may give up part or all of its kinetic energy and still be the same electron.

(A) Continuous and characteristic X-rays

When an electron strikes a target, before stopping it makes several collisions with the atoms in the target. It may interact with the

MODERN PHYSICS

21

atoms in two ways:

(i) When an electron interacts with the strong electric field of the atomic nucleus, consequently it is decelerated. According to
classical electromagnetic theory, it would radiate electromagnetic energy continuously. The process can be thought as if the
electron is emitting a series of photons with varying energies. An energetic electron passing through matter will radiate photons
and loose kinetic energy.
The process by which photons are emitted by an electron slowing down is called bremsstrahlung (German word for braking
radiation). As we know, a photon is an electromagnetic radiation. These emitted photons are X-rays. The X-rays produced in
this process are called bremsstrahlung X rays or continuous X-rays. Where an electron (energy Ei passing through the electric
field of a nucleus slows down and produces a photon (E = hv). The final energy of the electron is then
E f Ei hv

(from the conservation of energy)

..... (1)
The nucleus absorbs very little energy in order to conserve linear momentum.
(ii) When a high-energy electron in an X-ray tube collides with one of the K shell electrons in a target atom, if enough energy can
be transferred to the K electron, the atom may be ionised. It will be left with a vacancy in its K shell. The atom is most stable in
its lowest energy state or ground state; so an electron from one of the higher shells will change its state and fill the inner-shell
vacancy at lower energy, emitting radiation in accordance with Bohrs hypothesis. When this occurs in a heavy atom, we call the
electromagnetic radiation emitted an X-ray and it has the energy
E( X ray ) Eu El
..... (2)
Photons emitted in such a manner are called characteristic X-rays.
(B) X-ray production
The X-rays are produced by the bremsstrahlung effect in apparatus shown schematically in the Fig. Current passing through a
filament produces large number of electrons by thermionic emission. The cathode structure is such that the electrons are focussed as a beam on to anode. The electron beam is accelerated by voltage of thousands of volt until

they impinge on a metal anode surface, producing X-rays by bremsstrahlung (and other processes, characteristic X-rays) as they
stop in the anode material. Much of the electrons kinetic energy is lost in heating the anode and not by bremsstrahlung. The Xray tube is evacuated because the air molecules present between the filament and anode will scatter the electrons.
X-rays from a standard tube include photons of many wavelengths. By scattering X ray from crystals we can produce strongly
collimated monochromatic (single wave length) X-ray beams. As shown in the Fig. the smooth continuous X-ray spectra are
those produced by bremsstrahlung and the sharp characteristic X-rays are produced by atomic excitations.

MODERN PHYSICS

22

X-ray wavelengths typically range from 0.01 to 1 nm. However, high-energy accelerations can produce X-rays with wavelength
as short as 106 nm.
Fig. shows that the minimum wavelength min , for all three targets is the same. If the electrons are accelerated through a voltage
V0 then their kinetic energy is eV0. The maximum photon energy occurs when the electron gives up all of its kinetic energy and
creates one photon. This process is the inverse photoelectric effect.

(C) Duane-Hunt Rule

From conservation of energy the electron kinetic energy equals the maximum photon energy (we neglect the work function
because it is normally so small compared to eV0.
eV0 hvmax

or

hc
min

min .

hc 1
e V0
1.24 106
m
V0 (in eV)

..... (1)

12400

V0 (in eV)

The relation expressed by equation (1) is known as the Duane-Hunt rule. The value min depends only on the accelerating
voltage and is the same for all targets.
Explanation of continuous X-rays by the quantum theory is now considered further evidence of Einsteins photon concept.
Tungsten anodes are often used in X-ray machines mainly due to two reasons:
(1) Tungsten has a very high melting temperature and can withstand high electron beam currents.
(2) Since the heavier elements have stronger nuclear electric fields on bombarding electron, they are more effective in decelerating electrons and making them radiate. The intensity of the X-rays increases with the square of the atomic number of the target.
High voltages are used in X-ray machines because the intensity is approximately proportional to the square of the voltage used
to accelerate the electrons.

MODERN PHYSICS

23

(D) Characteristic X-ray Spectra

Fig. shows a continuous spectrum of bremsstrahlung X-rays upon which are superimposed several peaks whose frequencies are
characteristic to that element of which the anode is made.
(E) Explanation of Characteristic X-rays
Explanation of Characteristic X-ray wavelengths can be given on the basis of Bohrs electron shell hypothesis which suggests
that an electron shell can be associated with principal quantum number n. Electrons with lower values of n are more tightly
bound to the nucleus than those with higher values. Energy is associated with each value of n. When electrons are added to a
fully ionised many-electron atom, the inner shells (low values of n) are filled before the outer shells, because the former have
lower energies.
When the bombarding electron knocks an electron from orbit n = 1, photons are emitted corresponding to transitions of electrons in outer orbits n = 2, 3, 4,... to fill the vacancy in the n = 1 orbit.

Conventionally the shells were given letter names: the n = 1 shell was called the K shell, n =2 was the L shell, n = 3 was M shell
and so on. The shell structure of an atom is indicated in Fig. In heavy atoms with many electrons, electrons are distributed in
several shells.
The photon produced when the electron falls from the L shell into the K shell is called a K X-ray; when it falls from the M shell
into the K shell, the photon is called a K X-ray..
For different elements the relative positions of the energy levels of the various shells are different; so the characteristic X-ray
energies of the elements are simply the energy differences between the shells. The two strong peaks in the molybdenum spectrum are the K and K X-rays.
(F) Moseleys Law
H.G.J. Moseley tabulated the characteristic K and L shell X-ray spectra of a series of elements. He compared the frequencies of
the characteristic X-rays with then-supposed atomic number of the elements. When plotted the atomic number Z versus the
square root of the measured frequency as shown in Fig., he found empirically a linear result. The empirical relation that can fit
these curves was

MODERN PHYSICS

24

..... (2)
v1/ 2 An Z b
where An and b are constant. For K series b =1 and for L series b = 7.4.
Using Bohr relation for a one-electron atom with nl = 1and using Z1 in place of Z, we obtain for the frequencies of the K series,

mk 2 e 4
2
Z 1
3
4

1 1
12 n 2
u

1
2 1
cR Z 1 2 2
1
n
u

vK

3cR
2
Z 1
4

..... (3)

..... (4)

This result holds for the K X-rays, and a similar result was found for the L shell. The data shown in Fig. are known as a Moseley
plot.
Compton Effect
Classical theory predicts that when a photon interacts with one of the atomic electrons, the electrons will oscillate at the photon
frequency because of the interaction of the electron with the electric and magnetic fields of the photon, and will re-radiate
electromagnetic radiation (photons) at this same frequency. This is called Thomson scattering.
In the early 1920s Arthur Compton experimentally confirmed that X-rays scattered from an electron suffer a simple shift in
wavelength with scattering angle.

Conservation of momentum
hv
hv
0
cos mv cos
c
c

hv hv cos pc cos
0 hv sin pc sin
0 hv sin pc sin
hv 'sin pc sin
Squaring and adding

p 2 c 2 hv hv 'cos 2 hv 'sin 2
p 2 c 2 h 2 v 2 h 2 v '2 2h 2 vv 'cos
E 2 p 2 c 2 m02 c 4

E K .E. m0 c 2
2 2

K .E m c
0

p02 c 2 m02 c 4

K .E 2 m02 c 4 2 K .E.m0 c 2 p02 c 2 m02 c 4

K .E 2 2 K .E m0 c 2 p02 c 2
K .E. h v v '

MODERN PHYSICS

25

h v v '

2h v v ' m0 c 2 h 2 v 2 h 2 v 2 2h 2 vv cos

2h 2 vv 2h v v ' m0 c 2 2h 2 vv 'cos

2h 2 vv '
1 cos
2hm0 c 2

v v'

hvv '
1 cos
m0 c 2

v v'

1 1
h

1 cos
v ' v m0 c 2

'
h

1 cos
c c m0 c 2
'

h
1 cos
m0 c

'

h
1 cos , where is known as compton shift.
m0 c

1 1
h

1 cos
v ' v m0 c 2
v'

v'

v
hv
,
2
hv
m
0c
1

2 1 cos
m0 c

v
1 1 cos

v
1 2 sin 2

The energy of the recoil e , is obtained as follows

tan

hv 'sin
v 'sin

hv hv 'cos v v 'cos

v'

But

1 2 sin 2

sin

1 2 sin 2
1 2 sin 2
sin
2 sin
2

v cos

v
1 2 sin 2 cos 1 2 sin 2 cos

2
2
1 2 sin 2

2
1 2 sin
2
v

cos
1
2
2

2
2 1 sin
1 tan
2
2
2sin

tan

1 tan

varies from 0 180

varies from 0 90

MODERN PHYSICS

26
Recoil energy is given by
w hv hv '

1
2 sin 2

2
hv
hv
1 2 sin 2

1 2 sin

2
2
tan

2 1 tan

cot 2

1 2 tan 2
2

2
2
2 1
1 tan 1
2
sin
2

cos 2

sin 2
2

1 2 tan 2 1

1
1 2 tan 2 1

2
1
1 tan 2 1
hv 2

hv 2
1 2 tan 2 2 1
Maximum energy of recoil e

hv 2
2 1
Presence of unmodified radiation.
When photon strikes on tightly bound electron of an atom in that case the whole atom recoils and gives a negligible compton
shift due to its much larger mass when a photon strikes on free on loosely bound electron, its wavelength gets modified.
Compton is experimentally not observable for visible light
wmax

0.0243 1 cos
Maximum wavelength would be

0.0243 2 0.0486
Compton effect is observed only when the wavelength of incident photon is in few (). If, for visible light 5000 .
Maximum

0.05 , is only about 0.01% of initial wavelength, which is undetactable.

Raman scattering vs Compton scattering

(1) In Raman scattering: all the molecules inside the substance takes part in the interaction. No electron is emitted from the
substance. However in compton scattering only the e under consideration takes part in interaction and also an electron is
emitted from the substance.
(2) In Raman scattering of scattered photon may greater, lesser or same as that of incident light whereas in case of compton
scattering, of scattered photon is always greater than that of incident light.
(3) Compton effect is observed when the wavelength of incident light is of the order of few , on the otherhand Raman scattering is observed with visible or UV-rays (range).
Comparision of photoelectric and compton effect: Consider compton collision between a photon and free electron at rest,
such that electron absorbs all the energy now
By conservation of energy and momentum

MODERN PHYSICS

27

hv

1
me v 2
2

hv
me v
c

v 2c, which is imposible. Hence free electron can not absorb all the energy, however, in photoelectric
effect, electron absorbs the incident photon completely. Hence this effect is not possible with free electron i.e. electron must be
bound in order to observe the photoelectric effect.
Compton effect is observed with free electron.
De Broglie Wave
A moving particle some times acts as particle and sometime acts as wave, or a wave is associated with moving material particle
which controls the particle in every result. The wave associated with moving particle is called matter wave or de-Broglie wave
whose wavelength is known as de-Broglie wavelength
h
mv
A photon of light of frequency v has the momentum.

hv h

E hv mc 2

hv
c2
p mass velocity

hv
hv
h
h
c

c2
c c

v

h
p
Taking the analogy of light, the de-Broglie wavelength associated with a moving material is given by

h
h

p mv

Davission and Germer Experiment

AIM: This experiment was performed to test the waves nature of x-rays.

Experiment:
Electron from a heated filament are accelerated through a potential difference V and emerge from the electron gun with the
kinetic energy eV. The electron beam falls at normal incidence on a single crystal of a nickel at c. The detector D is set at a
particular angle and readings of the intensity of the scatered electron beam are taken at various values of accelerated potential
V.

MODERN PHYSICS

28

For e.g. at 50 for V 54V a strong scattered electron beam is detected. The existence of this electron scattering pattern
demonstrates qualitatively the validity of de-Broglies postulates because it can only be explained as a constructive interference
of waves scattered by the periodic arrangement atoms into planes of the crystal.

Braggs reflection
n 2d sin

90
Assuming

50
= 65.
2

n=1

2d sin 65 1.65
From de-Broglie wavelength
K.E = 54 eV
1 2
mv 54eV
2
mv 2 me 54eV
p 4 10 24

h
1.66
p

Thus, de-Broglie wavelength verifies the experimental result.

Result: The Davisson-Germer experiment. Thus directly verifies de-Broglies hypothesis.

Describing the de-Broglie wave

MODERN PHYSICS

29

Phase velocity is given by

k
Group velocity is given by
vp

vg

d
dk

vg

d
kv p
dk

vd k

dv p
dk

vp

dv p
2
d

dv p
2
v dv p
vg v p
2
p

2 d
d

Heisenbergs Undertainity Principle

Position and momentum statement: The duality of particle and wave properties implies that it is impossible to know both the
precise position and precise momentum of the particle simultaneously.
x p x

h
4

Product of uncertainity in position and corresponding uncertainity in momentum is greater than or equal to
Different form heisenberg uncertainity principle
(1)

h
E t
4

(2)

h
4

p2
2p
mvp
E
p
2m
2m
m

x
h
p E t x p
t
4

E t

h
4

(2) If r is the length or radius vector of a. Particle at any instant with reference t0 as origin

h
.
4

MODERN PHYSICS

30

= Angular position.
L = Angular momentum
x r
x r
p mv
p

mvr L

r
r

L
r

x p

L
.r
r

h
4

(2) Wave approach

Since the particle is now replaced by a group of waves which represents the probability of finding the particle at a point, the
narrower the wave group, the more precise will be location. But to make the wave group narrower, there must be superposition
of a longer number of waves with a greater range of wavelength. The greater range of wavelengthsmeans a large uncertainity in
h
. it the momentum is made more precise by decreasing the range of wavelength, the wave group

becomes wider introducing a large uncertainty in the position.

its momentum since p

Bohr orbit and the uncertainty principle: In Bohrs hydrogen atom, an electron, revolves around an atom in one 0 to ith
quantised energy state, which means, uncertinity in energy, E 0 . This implies uncertainity in time t . Signifying that
all energy states of atom must have infinite lifetime. But we know that the excited state of an atom starts long for a definite time
period i.e., 108 sec. Thus the Bohr concepts violates uncertainty principle.
This contradiction is removed by understanding the fact the energy of excited state is not precisely measurable because only a
finite time is available to metre measurement i.e. the atom does not stay in an excited state for an indefinite time but decays to
its lowest energy state, emitting a photon in the process. The spread in energy of the photon equals the spread in energy of the
excited state of the atom in accordance with the conservation principle. t equals to means life time of excited state.

h
4
E
t
The energy spread of an excited state is called the width of the state, which can never be infinitely sharp but must have natural
width i.e. broadening of spectral line experiment to illustrate the uncertainty principle

MODERN PHYSICS

31

A beam of particle (electrons) of momentum p is incident of a screen with a slit of width q . Associated with the particles are
h
matter wave, each of wavelength p . Since the electron have to pass through the slit, the width of slit q determines the degree

of precision with which the position of the electron in known diffraction occurs at the slit, the pattern correspondign to that due
to d, rectangular aperature. The curve shows the intensity variation on the screen the angular width of central maxima is given by
sin

The difracted electron may move any where width the angle . This means that there is an uncertainty in the mometum p,

p p tan but = small sin

sin

p q

p q p h

Since

x p

1
2

x p x

h
.
4

Particle approach: In order to get the information about a substance, we must physical touch it. When a photon communicates
with an electron, then the momentum of electron will be changed. However, the exact value of momentum can not be measured,
but from de-Broglie wavelength, its magnitude is of the order of
h
... (1)

Longer the wavelength of the observing photon, the smaller the uncertainty in the electrons momentum.
... (2)
x
Shorter the wavelengths, smaller the uncertainity is position but larger the uncertainty in momentum.
On combining equation (1) and (2)
p

p x h

with

p x

It is consistent

h
4

Through YDSE: Superposition of range of wave is mathematically expressed as fourier integral. If x is the wave function
representing a wave group at a certain instant of time t.

( x) g (k ) cos kx dk
0

Here g (k ) is a function of the wave number k

2
.

MODERN PHYSICS

32

The minimum value of the product x k occur when the envelope of the wave group has the form at of guassian function.
x k
k

1
2

p x
2
2

p x

h t
2

Proof for non existance of electron in nucleus size of nucleus 5 10 15 m .

In partial emitted from the nucleus has at most energy 1meV.
Uncertainty in position of electron
x 5 10 15 m
Uncertainty in momentum

h
4 x

6.63 1034
1020 Kg m/s
4 5 1013

Hence the order of magnitude of electron momentum p 10 20 Kg m/s

Total energy

E
pc

p 2 c 2 m02 c 4
1020 3 108
eV= 20 MeV
1.6 1019

m0 c 2 0.51 meV
The rest mass energy is negligible to total energy
K.E = 20 MeV.

Hence for emitted particle, energy must be of the order of 20 MeV, but it was never more than 1 MeV. Hence we conclude that
electron is not present in nucleus.
Estimation of mass of -meson.
-meson are transferred between nucleus which is responsible for strong nuclear forces.

Energy equivalent to -meson E m c 2

Nuclear force have range 1.7 Fm
1.7 10 15 m, hence time required to travel this distance

1.7 1015
c
From Heisenberg uncertainity principle.
t

E t

h
4

MODERN PHYSICS

33

1.7 10 15
h

c
4

m c 2
m

h
4 rc

2.1 10 28 Hg

Schroedinger Equation
Classical mechanics is based on the fact that is the position q and momentum p of a particle are precisely known at a time t, they
can be predicted at some other time by an equation at motion.
In the sub atomic region, this is not possible because of the uncertainity principle. We have now to describe a moving particles
in terms of the probability amplitude x, y, z , t which may be called the wave function. The position q and mometum p which
are called the observables are now replaced by operators which operate on the wave function.
In non-relativistic case the momentum p is replaced by the operator - i v

t
From the conservation of energy
E i

p2
p2

V
V H
2m
2m

2 2

V
t
2m

2m
E V 0
2

Schrodinger equation
2nd method: Let us consider a group of wave associated with a moving particle then by classical wave equation.
The solution of above equation

1 d 2
; r , t r eit
v 2 dt 2

v2

2 k 2 2

h
by putting it in above equation
mv

But

4 2

4 2 2 2
m v 0
2

mv 2m E V

2m
E V 0
2
(a) Time independent schrodinger equation
2

x, t x e i t x e
2 2 x e
i

iEt

iEt

x iE
x e
t

iEt

MODERN PHYSICS

34

2 2

V i
2m
t

iEt
iEt
iEt

2 2
x e V x e E x e
2m

2m
E V 0
2
Solution of the time dependent schroedinger equation.
The schroedinger time dependence wave equation is
2 x

x, t
2 2
x, t V x x, t i
2m
t
Using separation of variable method,

x, t x t

2 2

t V x x t i x
2m
t

1 2 2
1 i
x u t x
x 2m
t t

LHS is function of x while RHS is a function of t only which is possible, when they are separately equal to constant E
1 2 2

x u x x E

x 2m

i
E
t t
2 x

2m
E V 0
2

d Edt

iEt
t exp

n t Ae
Hence general solution

iEnt

x, t an n x, t
it

ann (x)e
Physical significance of (interpretation of )
The wave function associated with a physical system contain all relevant information about the system and its future behaviour
and thus describes it completely. Thus it is natural to assume that the wave function be large where the particle is most litely to
be and small elsewhere.
According to Max Born, the absolute square of x, t ,

gives the probability per unit volume of finding the particle at

some position r at any given moment t.

The probability of finding the particle in a volume element dv is
p r , t dv

r , t

dv

The function x, t is called the probability amplitude of the particle at positon r at time t. The total probability of findings the
particle in the region is unity i.e.

MODERN PHYSICS

35

dv 1

Limitation on

For a wave function to be acceptable.

1.

must be finite for all values of x, y, z of the region.

2.
3.
4.
5.

must be single valued i.e. for each set of values x, y , z i.e, must have are value only..
must be continuous in all region except where potential energy is infinite.
is analytical i.e. it possesses continuous first order derivative.
vanishes at the boundaries (at ).

Probability Current Density

The wave function must be normalised to unity which means that particle will certainly be found at some where. There are total
probability p must be conserved i.e. * must independent of time.
*

t
t
Time dependent schroedinger wave equation

2 2
d
V i
2m
dt
Its complex conjugate

2 2 *
d *
u * i
2m
dt
Multiply equation 1st by and (2) by and substract 1st from (2)nd

.... (1)

... (2)

2 2 * i *
2m

*

*
t
2mi
This is analogus to

j 0
t
j

* *
2mi

* 2

* * 2

2 2 *
Free particle: A particle is said to be free when there is no force acting on it. In this case, the potential energy V(x) is a constant
and may be taken equal to zero without loss of generally

2 2
V E
2m

V 0

2 2
E
2m

d 2 2mE
2 0
dx 2

2mE
2

MODERN PHYSICS

36

d 2
2 0
dx 2
Its general solution
A sin x cos x .

Particle in a 1-D box:

Let us consider a particle whose motion is restricted by one dimension wall at distance x a and x a .

Walls are assumed to be impenetrable and infinitely high

Potential u x varies as

u x 0
a x a

x a
The Schreodinger wave equation, in regions
d 2 2m

E V 0
dx 2 2

V 0

... (1)

d 2 2mE
2 0
dx 2

d 2
2mE
2 0 where 2 2
2
dx

Its general solution is given by

A sin x B cos x
Now using boundary condition
0
xa
0
x a

B cos a A sin a 0

...(2)
...(3)

(4a and 4b)

B cos a A sin a 0
afteraddition and subtraction of equation (4a and 4b)
2 B cos a 0
2 A sin a 0
This means either A 0 or cos a 0
B 0 or cos a 0
A and B will not be zero simultaneously, as it will give physically unaccepted solution further cos a and sin a will not
become zero for same value of , thus following case, may occur:
A 0 cos a 0
1.
2.
For 1st case:

B0

sin a 0

cos a 0
3
n
a ,
, ....
2 2
2
where n is an odd integer.
For 2nd case:
sin a 0 a n

where n even integer..

2

MODERN PHYSICS

Thus

37

A sin

n x
, n even
2a

B cos

n x
, n odd
2a

2mEn
2

n2 2 2
8ma 2
The integer introduced above is called quantum number. The E values are called energy eigen value.
The lowest state n = 1 is called the ground state, whereas state n = 2, 3, 4, ... are said to be excited state wave function

En

n B cos

n x
2a

n 1, 3, 5, ...

n x
2a
On normalising the above equation

n 2, 4, 6, ...

A sin

cos 2

a
a

n n
dx 1
2a

A2
2n x
1 cos
dx 1
2
2a

A2

1
A
a

1
a

Similarly
B 1/ a
normalized wave-function will have the form

1
a

1
a

cos

n x
, n 1,3, 5, .....
2a

sin

n x
, n 2, 4, 6
2a

From fig. it is observe that successive energy differs in having an additonla half wave length more.

The point between a x a at which wave function vanishes is called node.

MODERN PHYSICS

38

There exists n 1 nodes for n states excluding extremities.

If l or m is large, then quantisation or energy vanishes, small length and negligible gives well shaped energy lines.
Energy level for one dimensional square well potential of finite depth.
Let us consider a particle is confimed in a one dimensional box with height v walls of box are assumed to be impenetrable.

The variation of potential is given by

V 0

x a

V
x a
The schreoendinger wave equation is region 2.
Region 2nd:

d 2 2m

E V 0
dx2 2
But u 0

d 2 2m

E 0
dx 2 2

2me d 2
,
2 0
2

dx

A sin x B cos x
In region 1st and 3rd
d 2 2m

E V 0
dx2 2
d 2 2m

E V 0
dx2 2
d 2
2m
2 0 where 2 2 E V
dx 2

Ce x De x
In region 1st wave function must finite when x , D 0

i Ce x
In region IIIrd x , C 0

III De x
Using boundary condition

I x a II x a
II x a III x a
A sin a B cos a Ce a
A sin a B cos a De a

On addition
2 B cos a C D e a

( 1a )

MODERN PHYSICS

39

2 A sin a D C e a

... ( 1b )

d I
d II
x a
x a
dn
dx
d III
d II
x a
x a
dn
dx
A cos a sin a Ce Ba
A cos a sin a De Ba

2 A cos a C D Ce Ba
2 A sin a C D Ce

Ba

( 2a )
( 2b )

Dividing equation (2b) by (a) and 2(a) by 1(b)

a tan a a

cot a
a cot a a

a
a ,
tan a

tan

cot
Solving above two equation asympotically
a 2 2 a 2 R 2

R2

2m 2 2
aV
2

The solution of the above equation are given by the points where circle intersects with the function cot and tan . The
solution form a discrete set. The no. of solution depends on the size R, which in turn depends on the depth V0 and width a.
There is always one bound state , no matter how small V0 is when R
there are two bound state, when R as u
tan a

2n 1
a
, n 0, 1, 2, ...
2

there is only one bound state and when R ,

2
2

MODERN PHYSICS

40
cot a
n
, n 1, 2, 3, ...
a
The characteristic energy values are

2n 12 2 2
, n 0, 1, 2, 3
8ma 2
The characteristic energy value for 2nd case.
En

En

2n 2 2
, n 1, 2, 3,...
8ma 2

The fig. shows that

is non zero in outer region which is not expected is the classical theory as particle passes negative

energy in the region.

Harmonic oscillator
Let us consider a particle is executing in SHM under the action of restoring force i.e. F kx
V Fdx

1
V kx 2 where V = potential energy
2

From Schroedinger equation

H E

MODERN PHYSICS

41

2 d 2
V E
2m dx2

d 2 2m
1 2

E kx 0
dx 2 2
2

k m 2

d 2 2m
1
2 E m 2 x 2 0
2
dx

2

d 2 2mE m 2 2

x 0
dx2 2
Changing variable
x
2
d 2 d 2mE m 2 2

2 0
d 2 dx 2

d 2 2mE m 2 2

d 2 2 2 4

Making the coefficient of 2 equal to 1 i.e.,

2

1/ 2

m 1 1 m

2m
2 2 2 m
E

2 2
2m

2m

2
By putting these values in above equation,
E

d 2
2 0
d 2

F e

... (a)

/2

d
2
2
F ' e / 2 F e / 2
d
2
2
2
d 2
2
2 / 2
F e / 2 F ' e / 2 2 F e / 2 ... (b)
F " e / 2 F ' e '/ 2 F e
2
d

Putting (b) in equation (a),

F 2 F F 2 2 1 e
either

/2

/2

0 or

F 2 F F 2 2 1 0

/2

2
0 because e / 2 0 will give us physically unacceptable solution.

F ar r s

F ar r s r s 1
F ar r s r s 1 r s 2

MODERN PHYSICS

42
Putting above value in equation (b), we get
ar r s r s 1 r s 2 2 ar r s r s 1 ar 1 r s 0

ar r s r s 1 r s 2 ar 2 r s 1 r s
Equating the power of on both side.

ar 2 r s 1 r s 2 ar 2 r s 1
ar 2
2r s 1

ar
r s 1 r s 2

For

a0 s s 1 0 s 0, 1
a1 s s 1 0 s 0, 1

If a0 0 only odd power appear and

If a1 0 only even power appear and
For arbitrary , the series contain infinite term which does not give satisfactory solution the convergence of series,
ar 2
2
, so that series converges series expansion
r a
r
r

lim
2

e 1 2

4 6
r
r 2

....

2! 3!
r / 2 ! r / 2 1!

1
br 2 r / 2 1 !
2
2

1
br
2r r
r / 2 !

This shows that F approximately diverges as e 2 and the product F e

making it unacceptable.

/2

will behave like e 2 / 2 in this region thus

This situation is avoided by choosing in such a way that the power series F cut off at some term making F a
polynomial.
ar 2
2r s 1
0
ar
r s 2 r s 1
2r s 1
Where s can still be 0 or 1. Corresponding to these wave
2r 1
or
2r 3
both of them can be represented by
2n 1 where n 0, 1, 2, ....
Putting this value in equation (1)
E

2n 1
2
2

1
E n

2
The energy level are discrete and have equal spacing when n 0, the finite value of ground state energy is
This is known as zero point energy.
2n 1
By putting

F 2 F 1 F 0

F 2 F 2nF 0

1
.
2

MODERN PHYSICS

43

Thus F is nothing but the Hermite polynomial.

F H n where H n Hermite polynomial.

e s

2 s

H n s n
n!

n0

H 0 1,

H 2 4 2 2

H1 2 ,

H 3 8 3 12
H 4 16 4 48 2 12
Wave function

n N n H n e
Using normalization condition

/2

2
n

d 1

1/ 2

Nn n

2 n!

1/ 2

n n

2 n!
1st four eigen function

H n e 1/ 2

1/ 2

0 x

1 x

2 2

x /2

1/ 2

2 x

2 x e

2 2

x /2

1/ 2

3 x

48

2 2

4 2 x 2 2 e x / 2
1/ 2
2 2

8 3 x3 12 x e x / 2

MODERN PHYSICS

44

Acording to classical theory, for a given energy there is a limit beyond which the oscillator cannot go and the classifical
probability density approaches infinity at this limit. Quantum mechanically, on the otherhand, there is a small probability outside of it. At the end points of the classicaly permitted region the kinetic energy of the classical oscillator reduces to zero and
potential energy equals the total energy outside energy outside this region potential energy is higher than the total energy and
particle would have negative kinetic energy which is never possible in classical mechanics. This surprising result is closely
connected with the Hiesenberg uncertainity principle. The argument between classifical and quantum mechanical probability
densities improves rapidly with increasing n.

Probability inside or outside the classical region

1/ 2

x n

2 n!
In the ground state

H n x e

2 2

x /2

1/ 2

1
0

/2

Let a0 be the amplitude of harmonic oscillator in ground state. Then the probability is given by
a0

a0

a0

0 x dx 2
0

1 2
ka0
2
2

a02

m 2 m

2 x2
e
dx

The quantum mechanically x varies from

quantum mechanics probability is given by

1
1
to . The classical and quantum mechanic limits are shown in Fig. Hence

MODERN PHYSICS

45
1/

P 2
0

2 x
e
dx,

xt

t2 t4 t6
1 .... dt
0 1! 2! 3!

2
t3
t5
t7

....
t
3 1 ! 5 2 ! 7 3! 0

0.83 83%
The probability of oscillator inside classical limit is 83%.
Single step potential barrier
If the force field acting on a particle is zero or nearly zero, every where except in limited region it is said to be a potential barrier.
Single step potential barrier. At x 0, the force field acting on particle is V0 . V0 is called the height of potential.
Classical concept: classically a particle is region (1) can move freely as the force field is zero but at x 0 discontinuity occurs
and we have to consider the two cases.
(a) E V0 If the energy of the particle is less than the height of potential barrier and it is in the left region, it will reman in left
region forever. If sometimes the particle is moving towards the positive x direction it will be reflected fact at x 0 .
(b) E V0 If the energy of the particle is greater than the height of the potential barrier, classically we should expect that the
particle would not be reflected at x 0 . This is due to the fact that the particle has enough energy to enter the region x 0 .
Quantum theory for a single step potential barrier: Consider an incident wave packet representing the particles coming
from left. When this packet reaches the barrier, a part is reflected and a part is transmitted. The reflected part of the wave packet
would yield the probability that the particles were reflected, while the transmitted part would yield the probability that the
particles were transmitted,

Case 1st:
E V0
Schroedinger equation in equation 1st

d 2 2mE
2 0
dx 2

d 2
2 0,
2
dx
Similarly in region 2nd

2mE
2

2m
E V
2

d 2 2m

E V 0
dx 2 2

d 2
2 0,
dx 2
Solution of the above equation are

I Aei x Be i x
II Cei x De i x

MODERN PHYSICS

46
Since there will not be any reflection of partice after x 0 , therefore D 0

II Cei x
Using boundary condition
I x 0 II x 0
d I
dx

x 0

d II
dx

x 0

A B C
A B

2 A 1

C

2 A

2B

2A

2B

Reflection coefficeint

J reflection
J incident

2

R B2

J transmitted
J incident

Inc Aei x ,
J Inc

JT

Ref Be i x , Trans Cei x

h 2 i x
A e
i ei x ei x i e i x
2mi
h
2
2 i
A
2mi
m

h 2 i x
C e i ei x ei x i e x
2mi
h
BC2
m

2
C
4 2
m
T

2 2
A
m

R T 1

MODERN PHYSICS

47

The potential barrier can reflect particles that have sufficient energy to ensure transmission classically. In otherword - according
to quantum mechanics, the incident particle has certain probability of being reflected and certain probability of being transmitted.
Case B: E V0 In region 1st
x0

d 2 2mE
2 0,
dx 2

2mE
2

d 2
2 0
dx 2

I Ae i x Be i x
x0

d 2 2m

V E 0,
dx 2 2

2m
V E
2

d 2
2 0
dx 2

II D e x Ce x
The wave function must be finite at x
C0
II De x
Using boundary condition

I x 0 II x 0
d I
dx

x 0

d II
dx

x 0

A B D
A B

D
i

i 2 A
i

2B

2B

i
i

i 2i A
i
i

i
A
i

Ji

2
A
m

JR

2
B
m

(as in above derivation)

De x , * D*e x (as in above derivation)

JT

2
D e x e x e x e x 0
2mi

MODERN PHYSICS

48

JT
0

0
J I 2
A
m

2
2
2
B
i
JR
B
R
m
2
2
JI
i
A
A
m

R 1
Hence all the particles are reflected at the barrier which is a classical result,
However,

2
D

4 2
2
2
2 A

This D is not zero unless (consequently V0 ) is infinite. If D is not zero, then is not zero for x 0 and there is probability
of finding the particles when it does not have enough energy to be.
Rectangular barrier:
Consider the case of potential barrier which extends from x 0 to x a of the region. Its height is V0 which is constant in this
region else where potential is zero. A stream of particle is incident from left on the barrier.
1. If the energy E of the particle is greater than the barrier height i.e, if E classical mechanics particles that the particles will
always be transmitted and hence no reflection is possible. But quantum mechanically, we will see that there is always some
probability of reflection of the boundaries situated at x 0 and x a .
2. On the other hand in case E V0 classically the particles will always be reflected as the kinetic energy of the particle is
negative in the barrier region and hence the motion is forbidden classically. However the wave mechanics predicts that the
particles have some probability of penetration into barrier and therefore appear in region x 0 ; this probability increases with
(V0 E ) becoming smaller. Thus parricles have some probability of transmission through the barrier and this effect is termed
the Tunnel effect.

Case-I: E V0
The Schroedinger equation for the region I

d 2 2m
2 E 0
dx 2

d 2
2mE
2 0, 2 2
2
dx

General solution

I Aei x Be i x
In region 2nd

d 2 II 2m
2 E V II 0
dx 2

d 2 II
B 2 II 0,
dx 2
Solution

II Cei x De i x

2m
E V
2

MODERN PHYSICS

49

In region 3rd

d 2 III 2m
2 E III 0
dx 2

III Ee i x Fei x
Since there is no reflection of the particle after x a, which implies E 0

III Fei x
Using boundary condition
I x 0 II x 0

II x a III x a
d I
dx
d II
dx

x 0

xa

d II
dx
d III
dx

x 0

xa

A B C D
A B C D

2 A 1

C 1

C D
A 1 1
2 2

B 1

C
1
2

.... (a)

.... (b)

Cei a De a Fei a

Cei a De a

i a
Fe

F
C 1 ei a e i a
2

... (2a)

F
D 1 ei a ei a
2
Putting the value of equation 2 inequation (1a)

F
A 1 ei a e i a 1
4

... (2b)

1 F i a i a

e e
4

F i a


e 2 e i a 2 e i a

F i a ei a e i a ei a e i a
e 2

2
2
2

F i a
2 2 sin a
e 2 cos a

F
2 e i a

A 2 cos a 2 2 sin a

MODERN PHYSICS

50
2
F
4 2 2
T m

2 4 2 2 cos 2 a 2 2 sin 2 a
A
m
1

T
1

2 2

sin 2 a
4 2 2
2

2
0

V
sin 2 a
4 E E V0

Transmission coefficient is unity when

a 0,

n
a
2

2 2
2

sin a
*
4 2 2
BB

R
2
A A

2 2
1
sin a
4 2

Case-2: E V0
It a particle in impinging on the barrier with energy certainly less than the height of potential barrier, it will not necesarily be
reflected by the barrier but there is always probability that it may cross the barrier and continue in toward motion.
In region 1st

d 2 I
2 I 0
dx 2

I Aei x Be i x
In region 2nd

d 2 II 2m
2 V E 0
dx 2

d 2 II
2 0
dx 2

II Ce x Be x
In region 3rd

d 2 III 2m
2 0
dx 2

d 2 III
2 0,
dx 2
Since there is no reflection after x a
So Gei x is discarded.

F .ei x Gei a

III Fe i x
Now using boundary condition

I x 0 II x 0
d I
d II
x 0
x 0
dx
dx

II x a III x a
d II
dx

x a

d III
dx

x a

MODERN PHYSICS

51

A B C D
A B

C D
i

C D

A 1 1
i 2 i 2

... (a)

C
D

B 1 1
i 2 i 2

... (b)

Ce a De a Fei a

Ce a De a

i i a
Fe

i F
C 1 e ' a e a
2

i F
D 1 ei a e a
2

Putting equation 2 in equation 1(a)

A 1 1

F i a a
i
4 e e 1 1
i

F i a a
4e e

F i a e a e a e a e a
e 2
i

2
2
2

F i a

e 2 cosh a i sinh a

A
F

2e i a

2 cosh a i

sinh a

F
F
T m

2
A
A
m
1

1
cos 2 a sinh 2 a
4

1
2 2
2
1 2 2
4

2
sinh a

.... (a)

1
V02
1
sinh 2 a
4 E V0 E

2 2
*

BB
R
A A

4 2 2

2 2
1
4 2 2

sinh 2 a
2

sinh 2 a

MODERN PHYSICS

52
V02
sinh 2 a
4 E V0 E

V02
sinh 2 a
4 E V0 E
2

e2 a
e a e a
sinh 2 a
1

4

We get

16e 2 a

16 2 2

2 2

Putting this value in equation (a)

2 2

e 2 a

Above equation shows that there is small probablities than an object can penerate a potential barrier, which could not even enter
according to classical theory.
This probability decreses as barrier gets thicker.
2

Particle is a 3-D box

Consider a particle is enclosed inside a rectangular box, with edges a, b and c in length. The potential function V ( x, y, z ) has a
constant value zero in the following regions
V ( x, y , z ) 0

0 xa

V ( x, y , z ) 0

0 yb

V ( x, y , z ) 0

0 zc

The potential at the faces and outside the box is infinite.

The Schroedinger time independent wave equation for the particle inside the box is given by
H E
2

2m
E V 0
h2

2 2 2 2mE

2 0
x 2 y 2 z 2

Using the method of separation of variable

X xY y Z z
Putting equation (2) in equation (1) and divide by equation (2)
1 2 X 1 2Y 1 2 Z 2mE

2 0
X x 2 Y y 2 Z z 2

... (1)

... (2)

MODERN PHYSICS

53

The 1st term is independent of y, z and similarly 2nd term is independent at x, z and 3rd term is also independent of x, y. Each
term must be a constant let

1 2 X
2 X
2

2X 0
x
X x 2
x 2
1 2Y
2Y
2

y2Y 0
y
Y y 2
y 2

1 2 Z
2Z
2

z2 Z 0
z
Z z 2
z 2
Where x2 , y2 and z2 are constant and given by

x2 y2 z2

2mE
2

Solution of above equation

X x A sin x X B cos x X

Y y C sin yY D cos yY
Z z E sin z Z F cos z Z
Now using the boundary condition
0 when x 0 , y 0, z 0
x a , y b, z c
Using the 1st set of boundary condition
BDF 0

Further

Hence

A0
sin x a 0

x a nx

sin y b 0

y b ny

sin z c 0

z c nz

Y C sin
Z E sin

nx x
a

X A sin

n y y
b
nz z
c

x, y, z ACE sin
x, y, z A sin

ny y
nx x
n z
sin
sin z
a
b
c

ny y
nx x
n z
sin
sin z
a
b
c

Using normalization condition

c b a

dxdydz 1

0 0 0
a

A2 sin 2
0

b
c
n y y
nx x
n z
dx sin 2
dy sin 2 z
dz 1
d
b
c
0
0

ab c
A2
1 A
2 2 2

8
abc

MODERN PHYSICS

54

x, y , z
Further,

ny y
n x
n z
8
sin x
sin
sin z
abc
a
b
c

x2 y2 z2

2mE
2

2 2 nx2 n y2 nz2

2m a 2 b 2 c 2
This is the energy for particle in 3-D box
Figure shows the energy level, degree of degeneracy p, and quantum number for a particle in cubical box.
E

Density of state
In this case, we have to calculate the number of allowed energy lying between energy E and E dE .
To solve the above problem, we set up a three dimensional lattice in which the sides of side of unit cells are

1 1
1
, and .
a b
c

The energy is given by

8mE nx2 n y2 nz2

h2
a 2 b2 c2

8mE
, then all energy state would lie in the sphere. Hence the number of eigen values
h2
lying in this energy interval is equal to the number of brick lying between the positive octant of the sphere of radius r corresponding to energy E and the positive octant of the sphere of radius r dr corresponding to energy E dE

Now let us consider a sphere of radius

3/ 2

1 4 8mE

8 3 h2

4 V
2mE 3/ 2 , where V abc volume of one brick.
3 h3

1
111
abc

The number of energy state between E and E dE .

g E dE

d 4 V
3/ 2

2mE dE
dE 3 h3

4
3
2m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE
2
3h3

MODERN PHYSICS

55
3/ 2

2m
2 2 E1/ 2 dE
h
Total angular momentum and spherical haromics
The angular momentum of a particle, relative to the origin of a certain given by the equation

Lrp
It means that the vector L is perpendicular to the place formed by vector r and p.
In cartesian (co-ordinate) component of L are
Lx yp z zp y

Ly zp x xp z
Lz xp y yp z

Where x, y, z are the component of r ; p x , p y and pz are the component of p. Replace the p x , p y and pz by their equivalent
operator in quantum mechanics.

L x i y z
y
z

L y i z x
z
x

L z i x y
x
y

We shall transform there component into spherical coordinates r , and .

We know that

x r sin cos
y r sin cos

z r cos
r 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 tan

y
z
cos
x
r

x r x x x

y r y y y

z r z z z
2r

r
2x
x

r
sin cos
x

MODERN PHYSICS

56

cos

sin

z
z

2
2
r x y z 2 1/ 2

1
2 zx

2
x
2 x y 2 z 2 3/ 2

r 2 cos sin cos

x
r 3 sin
1
cos cos
x r
tan

sec 2

y
x

y
r sin sin
2 3 2
x
x
r sin cos 2

1 sin

x
r sin
Substituting these values in equation (1)

1
1 sin
sin cos cos cos

x
r r
r sin z

1
1 cos
sin sin cos sin

y
r r
r sin z

cos
sin
z
r r

then

L x i y z

cot cos
L x i sin

Similarly,

cot sin
L y i cos

L z i

L2 L2x L2y L2z

After rearranging and solving

We get

L2 2 2 cot
cosec 2

1 2
2
sin
2

sin 2
sin
Expectation values of the component of L and of the square of its magnitude for an electron in the eigen state n, l, m of one
electron atom
*
Lx nlm
Lx nlm r 2 dr sin d d
*
Ly nlm
Ly nlm r 2 dr sin d d

*
Lz nlm
Lz nlm r 2 dr sin d d
*
2
2
L2 nlm L nlm r dr sin d d

MODERN PHYSICS

57

L z i

Average value of L z : It is calculated by using operator method.

Lz n l m i n l m

n l m Rn l r l m m

L z n l m i n l m

Rn l r l m

Rn l r l m i

im
e imeim im m
m

m Rn l r l m
L z n l m m n l m
L z m

i.e. the allowed value of z-component of the orbital angular momentum are given by Lz m , where m 0, 1, 2, ...
Average value of L2 : It is calculated through operator methods.
l m l m 2

L2 n l m Rn l r 2 m
sin

m
2
2

sin
sin

2
m m 2 m
2
l m
1

m2
L2 n l m Rn l r m 2
sin
2 l m

sin
sin

m2

l m 2 l m l l 1 l m
sin

sin

sin

L2 n l m l l 1 2 Rn l r l m m

2 l l 1 n l m
L2 l l 1

The spherical harmonics Yl m , are simultaneous eigen functions of the operator Lz and L2 belonging to the eigen value
ml and l l 1 2 respectively..

Lz and L2 are a complete ste of commuting operator for this class of function
L Lx iLy

and

2
L2 commute with L i.e., L , L 0

L Lx iLy

MODERN PHYSICS

58
L , L 2L z ; L z , L L z

L L Y l l 1 L Y
Lz LYl m m 1 LYl m
2

lm

lm

LYl m Cl m Yl m 1


i cot
L ei




i cot
L e i

1/ 2
LYl m , l l 1 m m 1 Yl m 1 ,

1
L x Yl m Lx Yl m Yl m L L Yl m
2
1
1
1/ 2
1/ 2
Lx l l 1 m m 1 Yl m | Yl m 1 l l 1 m m 1 Yl m | Yl m 1
2
2
L 0 0 0
x

Similarly L y 0
Hence expectation value of L2x and L2y will be obtained as follows
1
1
2
2
L2x L y L2 L2z l l 1 ml 2
2
2

When m l or l i.e. when L is along +z and -z direction Lx and L y are not zero, although L x and L y
means that orbital angular momentum vector L or length equal to its eigen value

are zero. This

l l 1 precesses about the z-axis so that

MODERN PHYSICS

59

its projection on x-y plane always exists but the values of projection L x and L y average out to zero because of precession
of L . The orientation L about z-axis possess discrete values such that the projection of L on z-axis always yields value ml .
Where ml l , l 1, ...0, 1, ... l i.e., total 2l 1 values of Lz . Hence the vector L traces out a cone about z-axis. This
phenomenon is called spatial quantisation and gives rise to vector atom model.
Spherically Symmetric Potential
These are those potential which depends on the magnitude of the distance from a fixed point.
V r V r
Such a potential is referred to as spherically symmetric potential.
The 2 is spherical polar co-ordinates is given by

Because

1 2 1 1

1 2

sin

r 2 r r r 2 sin
sin 2 2

1 2 L2
r

r 2 r r 2 r 2

1 2
sin
2
L2 2
2
sin
sin
2

2
E V r r , , 0
2

1 2 2
L2
r
2 E V r r , , 2 2
2
r r r
r
We will solve above equation by using the methods of separation of variable.

Put

r , , R r Y ,

.... (1)
2

L Y ,
Y ( , ) 2 R r 2
r
2 E V r R r Y , R r
2
r
r
2 r 2
r
Now divide above equation by equation (1)
L2Y ,
1 2 R r 2

r
r

R r r
2Y ,
r 2

So

L2Y , 2Y ,
1

1 2

2
Y , 2Y ,
Y ,
sin
2

sin
sin

Now put Y , and divide by it

1

1
sin
2
sin

sin

1 2

1
1

m2
sin
2
sin

sin

m2
sin
2
sin

sin

Azimuthal Equation: equation for

Now

2
1
ml 2
2

0 this is equation for .( Angular Equation)

MODERN PHYSICS

60
2
ml 2 0
2

Solution of above equation is Aeiml

The value of normalization constant A is given by
2
*

d 1 A
0

1
2

From boundary value condition

e 2 mi 1 ml 0, 1, 2, ... l

Solution for equation for angular equation of

m2
sin
2
sin

sin

Assume

F and cos and replace in above equation.

1
d

m2
sin
F 2
sin
d
sin

F 0

m2
2
F

F 0

sin 2

1 2
Case-I

m2
F 2
F 2
2

sin

F 0

when m 0

1 2

F 2
F F 0
2

F ar r s
r 0

F ar r s r s 1
r 0

F ar r s r s 1 r s 2
r 0

Putting these values in above equation

1 a
2

r 0

r 0

r 0

r 0

r s r s 1 r s 2 2 ar r s r s r s 1 ar r s 0
r 0

r 0

r 0

r 0

r 0

r s r s 1 r s 2 ar r s r s r s 1 2 ar r s r s ar r s 0

a
r 0

r s 2
2 ar r s 1 r s ar r s 0
r r s r s 1

r s r s 1 r s 2 ar r s r s r s 1 0

On equating power on both side

r 0

r 0

MODERN PHYSICS

We get

61

ar 2 r s r s 1

ar
r s 1 r s 2

ar 2
In order to have finite solution this series must be terminate i.e., a 0
r

and
r s r s 1
in comparing the lower power of it in equation (1) to zero we have
s s 1 0 either s 0, s 1

recurrence relation for s 0

ar 2

r
r 1
r 1 r 2
ar
ar 2
1
ar

lim
r

r r 1 taking r l
l l 1 ; l 0, 1, 2, ....
For wave function

m2
1 2 l l 1
0

1 2

Comparision with associated legendre equation

m2 m
1 2 Pl m l l 1
Pl 0

1 2

BPl m
BPl m cos
Normalisation constant is given by

sin d 1

Pl m Pl m d 1

0
1

2l 1 l m !
2
l m !

2l 1 l m ! m
Pl cos
2 l m !

Solution for Hydrogen atom

Putting the value of in equation (A), we get
2
1 2 R r 2 r 2
1 L Y ,

r
2 E V r 2
R r r

Y ,
r

2 R r 2 r 2

E V r l l 1 R r 0
r

r
r 2

we now introduce a dimensional independent variable r

MODERN PHYSICS

62

ze2 l l 1 2
1 2 R r 2
E

R0

2 2 2 40
2

1 2 R r 2 E 2 Ze 2
l l 1 2

2 2 2

R 0

2


4 0
2

Choosing value of such that

2 E
1

2 2
4
and

i.e

8 E
2

1/ 2
2 z e2
e2
1

zc

where
2

4 0
4 0 c 137
2 E

1 2 R 1 l l 1

R0
2
4
2

R r F e / 2
F /2
R
F ' e / 2
e

R
1
2 F e / 2 2 F e / 2

2 R
1

F 2 e / 2 2 F e / 2 2 F e / 2

2
2

1 2
1
F e / 2 F e / 2 2 F e / 2
4
2

2 R
1

F 2 2 F 2 F e / 2

4

1
2

F 2 2 F 2 F
l l 1 F 0
4

F 2 2 F 1 l l 1 F 0
Using

F ar r s
r 0

F ar r s r s 1
r 0

F ar r s r s 1 r s 2
r 0

Putting these values in above equation

We get

r 0

r s r s 1 r s 2 2 2 ar r s r s 1 ar 1 l l 1 r s 0
r 0

r 0

a r s r s 1 l l 1

rs

r 0

On equating the power of on both side we get

ar 1
1 r s

ar
r s 1 r s 2 l l 1

ar 1 r s r s 1
r 0

MODERN PHYSICS

63

e 1

... ar r
2!
r 0

ar 1
1
1

ar
r 1 r

F will behave like e , R e / 2 e e / 2 , R r , but R ,

This series should be terminated after finite term
lim
r

ar 1
1
ar

ar 1
1 r s

0
ar
r s 1 r s 2 l l 1

1 r s
On putting the lowest power equal to zero.

s s 1 l l 1 0
s l , l 1

1 r l
1 nr l n where n = known as principal quantum number..
En En z 2 c 2 2

a0

, n 1, 2, ....
2n 2
2

0.52 1010 m

2z
na0 with

2z
2
z
r where r
na0
n
a0

En E H

e2

4 0

1
, n 1, 2, ....
n2

Tn

En Z 2
2 R
hc
n

c 2
, R 1.09 107 m -1
2h

Eigen function Rnl r

If we take

F sL
and then put in

F 2 2 F 1 l l 1 F 0

2 L 2 s 2 2 L s s 1 2s s 1 l l 1 L
Putting s l and replacing n

L 2l 1 1 L n l 1 L 0
Comparing it with associated lagurre equation

Lqp p 1 Lpq q p Lqp 0

MODERN PHYSICS

64
Where
we get solution

p 2l 1, q n l

R r Ce / 2 l L2nll1
where, C is Normalization coefficient, which we evaluate as

r R r r 2 dr 1

C 3

n l 1 !
3

2n n l !

n nr l 1

This equation is satisfied by several value of nr and l for given value of n implying that there are several possible wavefunction
for a given energy value [n fixed]. Then this state is non as degenerate state.
Thus for each value of n, l can vary from 0 to n 1 and for each of these value m can vary from l to l.
The total degeneracy
n 1

2n n 1
n n2
2

2l 1
l 0

Hydrogen like wave function

1/ 2

2 z 3 n l 1 !
n l m r , ,

3
na0 2n n l !

1st few wave function

1

100
200

a0

211

300

e / 2

1
4 2 a03/ 2

211
210

3/ 2

2 e / 2

1
e / 2 sin ei
3/ 2
a
8 0
2

1
e / 2 cos
3/ 2
4 2 a0
1

1
e / 2 sin e i
3/ 2
8 a0

a03/ 2 27 18 2 2 e / 2

81 3
The normal ground state of hydrogen

100

a03

e r / a0

Probability of finding electron in a small volume V r 2 sin drd d

*
100 100
r 2 sin dr d d

1 2 r / a0
e
dr sin d d
a03

For spherical shell between radii r and r dr , this value is

1 2 r / a0 2
e
r dr sin d
a03
0

d
0

1/ 2

2l 1 l m !
e / 2 2 L2nll1

4 l m !

Pl m cos eim

MODERN PHYSICS

65

P r dr

P r

4
2r
exp r 2 dr
3
a0
a0

4
2r
exp r 2
a03
a0

dp
0
dr

4
a03

2 2 2 r / a0

2re 2 r / a0 0
r a e
0

4 2 r / a0
e
a03

2r

2r 2
2
r

0
a0

2r 2
0
a0

r a0

Nuclear Physics
In the early decades of the twentieth century many physicists (including Becquerel, Rutherford, M. Curie and Pierre Curie)
found that radioactive emissions from atoms were comprised of three types of radiations, called (alpha), (beta) and
(gamma). They were classified, according to their ability to penetrate matter and to ionize air: radiation penetrates the least
and produces the most ionization, radiation penetrates the most with the least ionization and radiation is intermediate
between them.
Basic nuclear properties:
1. Nuclear size: Majority of atomic nuclei have spherical shape, only very few show departure from spherical symmetry.
In spherically symmetrical nuclei nuclear radius is given by

R R0 A1/3
Classical radius 1013 cm
Scattering experiment 102 cm

R0 varies slightly from one nucleus to another but is roughly constant for A > 30 where A = Mass no. (Proton + Neutron).
Que. Why electron can not reside inside the nucleus?
Solution: Early scattering experiments showed that nuclear size is of the order of femtometre (1 fm = 1015 m).

MODERN PHYSICS

66
From Heisenbergs uncertainty principle,

2 x
We assume a typical nuclear radius of 6 1015 m.
p

x r 6 10 15 m

6.58 1016

2x 1.2 1014

5.48 102

3 108
c

1.64 10 eV/c
Lets now assume that the momentum p is at least as large as the uncertainty in p.
p p 1.64 107 eV/c
Electrons relativistic energy,

E 2 ( pc ) 2 E02
2

eV
2
E 1.64 107
c (0.511 MeV)
c

(16.4 MeV) 2 (0.511 MeV) 2

KE E E0

16.41 0.51 15.90 MeV

From this we can conclude that electron can not reside inside the nucleus and they are form only during their emission.
2. Nuclear density:
By assuming spherical symmetry
4
v R3
3

3
4
v R0 A1/3
3

4
v R03 A
3

Mass of one proton 1.67 10 27 Kg

Nuclear mass A 1.67 10 27 Kg
Nuclear mass density

A 1.67 1027 Kg
4
R03 A
3

Nuclear mass density 1017 Kg/m 3

Nuclear particle density =

Nuclear Mass Density

Nuclear Mass

1017 Kg/m 3
1.67 1027 Kg/nucleon

10 44 Nucleon/m 3
3. Nuclear spin: Nuclear spin measurements prove that electrons do not exist in nucleus. Consider the case of the simplest
nuclei, deuteron (mass number A = 2 and atomic number Z = 1) consists of protons and electrons. The deuteron must contain 2

MODERN PHYSICS

67

proton and 1 electron, in order to have A = 2 and Z = 1. Since protons and electrons have spin , the three fermions must have
a half integral spin, whereas the nuclear spin of the deuteron has been measured to be 1.
Constituents of Nucleus
All nuclei are composed of two types of particles: protons and neutrons.
Mass of proton = 1836 Me and Mass of neutron = 1840 Me.
Further nuclear force inside the nucleus is not zero.
In describing the atomic nucleus, we must use the following quantities:
(a) The atomic number, Z (sometimes called charge number), which equals the number of protons in the nucleus.
(b) The neutron number, N, which equals the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
(c) The mass number, A, which equals the number of nucleons (neutrons plus protons) in the nucleus.
An atomic nucleus is designated by the symbol ZA X N
Where
Z = atomic number (number of protons)
N = neutron number (number of neutrons)
A = mass number (Z + N)
X = chemical element symbol
Isotopes: The varieties of an element that differ in the number of neutrons their nuclei contain are called isotopes. The isotopes
of an element have the same Z value but different N and A values.
e.g.,

11
6

C , 126 C , 136 C and 146 C are four isotopes of carbon.

Isotones: Nuclides with same neutron number are called isotones.

e.g.,

14
6

C , 157 N , 168 O and 179 F

Isobars: Nuclides with the same value of A are called isobars.

e.g.,

16
6

C , 167 N , 168 O and 169 F

Nuclear Forces
Nuclear forces are responsible for keeping nucleons together. Repulsive forces between protons inside nucleus would tear
nucleus apart. Since nucleus is stable, there must be a force, i.e., nuclear force which keeps nucleons together.
(i) The nuclear force is of short range and is of the order of 1015 m.
(ii) Nuclear force is charge independent i.e. nuclear force between two nucleon (proton and neutron) remains same.
(iii) Nuclear force is spin dependent.
(iv) Nuclear force is not a central force.
Radioactive Decay
Many unstable nuclei can decay spontaneously to a nucleus of lower mass but different combinations of nucleons. This process
of spontaneous emission of radiation is called Radioactivity. Here the term refers to particles as well as electromagnetic radiation.
Three types of radiations are emitted by radioactive substances: the simplest is gamma rays, which are photons emitted when
nucleus changes from an excited state to a lower energy state (without change in N or Z); alpha ( ) in which emitted particles
are 42 He nuclei; beta ( ) in which the emitted particles are electrons or positrons. A positron is a particle like electron in all
respects except that the positron has charge (+e). The symbol e is used to designate an electron and e+ designates a positron.
Expression for rate equation:
The rate, at which a particular decay process occurs in a radioactive sample, is proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei
present (i.e., those nuclei that have not decayed). If N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at some instant, the rate of
change of N is
dN
N
dt

where is called decay constant, the minus sign indicates that

....(1)
dN
is negative, i.e., N is decreasing with time. We can also
dt

express Eqn. (1) in another form:

dN
dt
N

.... (2)

MODERN PHYSICS

68

dN
expresses the fraction of nuclei decayed in time dt, or the probability that out of N nuclei dN number of nuclei will decay
N
in time dt.
We can integrate Eqn. (2) to get
N

N0

dN
dt
N
0

N
t
ln
t or N N 0 e
..... (3)
N
0
where theconstant N0 represents the number of nuclei or radioactive nuclei at t = 0. Equation (3) shows that the number of nuclei
in a sample decays exponentially with time.
The number of decays per unit time or decay rate is called activity. If N is the number of nuclei present in the sample at a certain
time, its activity R is given by differentiating Eq. (3) with respect to time:
R

dN
N 0 e t R0 e t
dt

where R0 N 0 is the decay rate at t = 0 and R N ; the SI unit of activity is named after Becquerel.
1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay/s
Traditionally curie (Ci) has been used as unit of activity.
1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.70 1010 decay/s
The other unit of radioactivity is rutherford (Rd) and is defined as,
1 rutherford = 106 disintegrations/s
Important point to remember is that both R and N decrease exponentially with time. The plot of N versus t shown in the Fig.
illustrates the exponential decay law.
6. Half life: Half life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes half of a given number of radioactive nuclei to decay.
Setting N N 0 / 2 and t T1/ 2 in Eq. (3), we get
N0
N 0 e T1/2
2

Writing the above equation in the form eT1/2 2 and taking natural logarithm of both sides, we get
ln 2 0.693

..... (4)

In numerical problems, instead of specifying decay constant, usually half life of a nucleus is specified. The equation (4) is a
convenient expression for relating half life to the decay constant.
T1/ 2

MODERN PHYSICS

69

Note that after one half life, N0/2 radio active nuclei remain; after two half lives N0/4 radioactive nuclei are left; after three half
lives, N0/8 are left; and so on. In general, the number of nuclei remaining after n half lives is N0/2n. The decay of a radioactive
nucleus is a statistical process. If we take a radioactive sample of 1 mg with a half life of 1 h, about 50% of the 1 mg sample will
decay in 1 h; during the second hour probability of decay is still 50%, for each remaining nucleus. The total probability that a
given nucleus did not decay in 2h is 0.5 0.5 = 0.25 or 25%. The probability of decay is 75%, which is a fraction of the original
nucleus expected to be disintegrated in 2h.
7. The mean life time: Mean life (average life) is defined as the average time the nucleus survives before it decays. Mean life
can be determined by calculating total life time of all the nuclei initially present (N0) and dividing it by total number of nuclei.
Let the number of nuclei decaying in time intervals t and t + dt be dN, and the life time of these nuclei be t. Then the total life time
of these nuclei is t dN.
N

The total life time of all the nuclei

t dN

N N0

From Eq. (3),

dN N 0 e t dt ,

Now recognizing the fact that N = 0 for t and N N 0 for t 0, total life time of all the nuclei is

N N0

t dN t N 0 e t dt N 0 te t dt
0

N0

(We can carry out integration by parts to get the result). Thus,

T
1
1/ 2
0.693

10. Successive Disintegration and Radioactive Equilibrium: Consider radioactive decay of

ferred as B) which further decay to

234
91

238
92

U (referred as A) to

234
90

Th (re-

Pa (referred as C); such decays are called successive disintegrations. Here A will be called

parent nucleus, and B daughter nucleus of A. Any two adjacent nuclei may be considered as parent and daughter nuclei.
Suppose N1 and N2 are the numbers of two nuclei A and B at time t, which undergo decay, with decay constants 1 and 2
respectively, according to the following reaction,
1
2
A
B
C

Rate disintegration of A

dN1
1 N1 , which is also rate of formation of B.
dt

Rate disintegration of B

dN 2
2 N 2
dt

dN 2
1 N1 2 N 2
dt
The rate of increase of the (stable) nuclei C is equal to the rate of decay of nuclei B

Net rate of formation of B

Thus,

dN 3
2 N 2
dt

Number of nuclei of A at time t, N1 N 0 e 1t

Where N0 is the initial number of nuclei of A at t =0.
Substituting N1 in Eq. (2), we get
dN 2
N 2 2 1 N 0 e 1t
dt

Multiplying both sides by e2t , we get

dN 2

N 2 2 e2t 1 N 0 e ( 1 2 )t

dt

..... (1)
..... (2)

..... (3)
..... (4)

MODERN PHYSICS

70

or

dN 2 2t
e N 2 2 e 2t 1 N 0 e ( 1 2 ) t
dt

or

d
( N 2 e 2 t ) 1 N 0 e ( 1 2 )t
dt

Integrating above equation, we get

N 2 e2t

1 N 0 ( 1 2 )t
e
C
2 1

where C is constant of integration; at t 0, N 2 0 hence C

Hence

N2

1 N 0
1 2

1 N 0 1t 2 t *
e e
2 1

..... (5)

This gives number of daughter atoms at any instant t, thus N2 depends not only on its own decay constant 2 but also on parentss
decay constant 1 .
On substituting the value of N2 in Eqn. (3) and using condition that at t 0, N 3 0
we get

1
2

N3 N 0 1
e 2t
e 1t
2 1
2 1

..... (6)

After time t, the ratio of activities is

2 N 2
2

1 e 2t 1t
1 N1 1 2

..... (7)

Secular and Transient Radioactive Equilibrium:

(a) In a successive disintegration when the parent has a very long half life, a state is reached when daughter products are formed
at the same rate as they decay. At this stage the proportions of the different radioactive atoms in the mixture is constant, i.e., do
not change with time. In this situation the parent is said to be in secular radioactive equilibrium with its daughter products.
Suppose that the parent atom 1 has a much longer half life than any of the decay product (T1 >>T2). Then

1 0, and 1 2 ,

1 3

Substituting 1 0 in Eq. (4) we get

N1 N 0

[as e 1t 1 when 1 0 ]

MODERN PHYSICS

71

Substituting 1 2 in Eq. (5); we get

N2

Hence

1
N 0 1 e 2t
2

1
N1 1 e 2t
2

N2

1
N1
2

1
1

as

2
1
2

N1 N 0

(t , e t 0)

or
1 N1 2 N 2
Thus after a sufficient time, the activities of parent and daughter become equal. This condition is known as secular equilibrium.
For a series disintegration 1 N1 2 N 2 3 N 3 ... in term of half lives T log e 2 ,

N1 N 2 N 3

...
T1
T2
T3

(b) The parent is longer-lived than the daughter (1 2 ) , but the half life of the parent is not very long (T1 T2 ) .
After t becomes sufficiently large, e 2t becomes negligible compared with e 1t so that the number of the daughter atoms is
given by the equation [ Eq. (5)]
N2

2
N 0 e 1t
2 1

Comparing it with Eq. (4) and noting that 1 2 , we find that the daughter eventually decay with the same half life as the
parent.
Since

N 0 e 1t N1 , we have

N2

or

2
N1
2 1

N1
1

N 2 2 1

After a sufficient time the ratio of parent nuclei to daughter nuclei becomes constant, and both eventually decay. This condition
is called transient equilibrium.
(c) When the parent has a shorter half life time than the daughter (T1 T2 or 1 2 ) no state of equilibrium is attained. If
initially we have only the parent atoms, then as the parent atoms decay, the daughter atoms increase in number, pass through a
maximum, and eventually decay with their own half life.
Nuclear Stability
If we plot the neutron number N versus the proton number Z for the stable nuclies and the known unstable nuclei that are long
lived enough to be observed a the straight line is N = Z. This curve, is understood from paulis exclusion principle and the
electrostatic energy of the protons.
Point related to nuclear stability
1. For A 40, the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus to be about the same.
2. For A 40, In this case for N > Z. Nuclear force is charge independent, i.e., we consider that neutron-neutron, neutron-proton
or proton-proton nuclear force is same. As the number of protons increases, the coulombic repulsive force increases, so that
excess of neutrons which produce only attractive forces is required for stability, hence N vs Z curve departs from N = Z line.
Even in light nuclei N may exceed Z but except in (1 H1 and 32 He) is never smaller; e.g.,

11
5

B is stable but

11
6

C is not.

MODERN PHYSICS

72

3. Nucleons (Proton and Neutron) are field in Nuclear energy level (Shell Model) similar to that of electron atomic model.

4. Nucleons, which have 1/2 spin, follows paulis exclusion principle which means a nucliar energy level can occupy at most two
nuclions of opposite spin. It must be remembered that neutron and proton shell be filled up separately in nuclear energy level.
The nuclie 5 B12 whcih posses higher energy than carbon isotope. 6 C12 is less stable as its one nutron lies is higher energy level
and hence becomes stable after the emission of particle. Therefore the partially field nuclie has greater tendency to participate
is a nucliar reaction in comparision to those which have filled nuclear energy level.
5. Nuclear forces are short range, spin dependent and have saturation behaviour. The coulombs rebulsion among protons are
uniformely distributed through out the nucleus and are countered by attractive force of neutrons to prevent the disruption of
nucleius, upto a certain limit, which practically ceases at 83 Bi 209 . Therefore all the nuclie with Z > 83, N > 209, decay to stable
nuclie through successive emission of -decay. However if the ratio of neutron to proton in resulting doughter nuclie, is either
too large or small then it will transform toa stable nuclie afteremittng a particle.
There are reaction in whcih proton causes the nucleus to change its from are known as photo nuclear reaction, e.g. scattering of
gamma rays from deutrium gas.
6. Sixty per cent of stable nuclides have both even Z and even N; these are called even-even nuclides.

n p
which shows scattering of gamma rays from deuterium gas. The mass-energy relation corresponding to this reaction is,
hv ma c 2 mn c 2 m p c 2 K n K p
where hv is the incident photon energy and Kn and Kp are the neutron and proton kinetic energies respectively. For Kp = Kn = 0;
we can find

hvmin mn c 2 m p c 2 md c 2 Bd

(Binding energy of deuteron)

The above relation is approximate because momentum must also be conserved in the reaction.
The precise relation is

Bd

hvmin Bd 1
2
2md c
This value of hvmin is almost equal to Bd .

MODERN PHYSICS

73

Nuclear Binding Energy

When nuclear masses are measured, it was bound that they areless then the sum of masses of the neutron and proton of which
they are composed.
This was in agrument with Einstien therory of relativity, According to whcih the mass of system bound by an energy B is less
than themass of its constitutent.
The Binding Energy B of nucleus is defined as the difference betweenthe energy of the constituent particle and the whole
nuclions.
B.E = [zMp + nMn zMA] c2
Where Mp = Mass of free proton
Mn = Mass of free nutron
MA = Mass of free nucleus
z
z = Number of proton
n = Nubmer of neutron
Physically
Binding energy of a nucleus is recognised as the energy required to break it up into free neutron and proton.
On an average Binding energy per nucleon is found to be approximately

B
~ 8 MeV , here
A

A = z + n = mass number
B.E = [zMp + nMn zMA] c2
However inthe case of [H2] atom, B = 13.6 eV where the mass of H2 atom is 1 10 9 eV , we see that the change in mass is only
about 1 part in 109 which is extremely small.
Above figure indicates that the way in which B.E per nucleon (B/A) varies as a function of the mass number.
NOTE:
1. It reaches a peak (maximum) for A = 60 than gradually decreases.
2. This gradual decrease in B/A implies that it approximately remains constant.
Discussion : 1. Approximately B/A ~ constant i.e. B/A appears to be approximately independent ofthe overall size of nucleus,
B/A does not depend on A.
2. B/A falls off at small values of A, This is because very light nuclie have a larger fraction of their nucleon residing on the
surface rather than inside. This reduces B/A values because as a surface nucleon is surrounded by fewere nucleon compared to
a nucleon residing in the interior and consequently is not so bound strongly.
The situation described here is similar to what one finds for a liquid drop.
In the case of liquid drop too, the surface moelcule are bound loosely compared to the molecules whcih are in the interior of the
drop.
Medium Nuclies and small nuclies

Surface Nucleons 12
6

0.63; 0.86
Total Nucleons
14
7

3. B/A against A plot is peaked around 60, two extremely remarkable conclusion can be drawn, B.E can be increased by either
breaking a heavy nucleus into parts or fusion of light nuclie together.

MODERN PHYSICS

74
From equation

B.E = [zMp + nMn zMA] c2

It is easy to see that when the BE is increased, energy in other form can be released, since a decrease in M corresponds to
conversion of mass into energy.
(a) If some how a heavy nucleus can be split into medium sized ones each of the new nuclie will have more binding energy per
nucleon than the original nuclie did. The extra energy will be given off and it can be lot.
For instance, if the uranium nucleus

92

U 235 is broken into two smaller nuclie, the B.E difference per nucleon is about 0.8 MeV..

Therefore the total energy released by the nucleus will be

MeV
238 nucleon = 188 MeV..
necleon
This is truely an enormous amount of energy to be produced in a single atomic enven nuclie. Thus splitting a heavy nucleus is
called nuclear fission.
(b) Joining two light nuclie together to give a single nucleus of medium size also means more B.E/nucleon in the nucleus.
= 0.8

e.g. It two 1 H2 deutrium nuclie combine to from a 2 He4 helium nuclie, over 23 MeV energy is released such a process is called
as nuclear fusion.
1

H 2 1 H 2
2 He 4 23 MeV

4. The peak of this plot corresponds to be this explains for thelarge abundance of Fe in nature.
5. The plot indicate that binding energy becomes strong fora grouping of 4 particles. This unit is the -particles (2 proton + 2
neutron) peak in figure at 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24..... (at mass number) are clearly evidence of this effect. this effect isdue to a pairing
force which exists between pairsof neutrons and pairs of proton.
6. On high inspection; Discontinuity of (B/A) against A at 2, 4, 8, 20, 50..... (at nucleon or proton number values). At there
values, the Binding Energyis found to be unuseually large. Large B.E means high stability.
This high stability is reflected in high abundance of isotopes with there proton number and isotone with these neutron number.
Basic Nuclear Properties
Angular Momentum of Nucleons : A nucleon in a more complex nucleus may have orbital angular momentum due to motion
inside the nucleus as well as spin angualr momentum.
Total angular momentum of nuclie
= Spin angular momentum + Orbital angular momentum
Each nucleon hasa total angular momentum about a given direction

j l s

Where l = Orbital angualar momentum

s = Spin angular momentum

For a nuclie, containing more than one nucleon,

j l s
j ( j 1)

| J |

Magnetic Moment
Magnetic moment of a nucleus is given by

e
j
2m

For a proton

p g

Now

e
s
s g n
2mp

| S | s ( s 1)

Experimentally observed value

p 2.79 n

s 1/ 2

MODERN PHYSICS

75

where

e
2m p

B
5.05 10 27 j / weber / m 2
1836

n = nuclear Bohr magneton.

For neutron
Since e = 0, magnetic momentum is expected to be zero but nucleon = 1.913 n .
This indicates that neutron hasnon uniform charge distribution.
Further magnetic moment is opposite to be head of its intrinsic spin angular momentum.
Parity Parity to the symmetryof the wave function that represents the system, when the co-ordinates are replaced by
(x, y, z) and the wave function is unchanged, then the system has a parity of +1. If the wave function have its sign changed,
when the co-ordinates are reversed, than the system has a parity of 1.
If we write (x, y, z) P (x, y, z)
P can be regarded as a quantum number characterising whose possible values are + 1 and 1.
It has been observed that the spatial part of does not change its sign on reflection, if the angular momentum quantum number
l is given.
As a general rule,
parity = ( 1)l
parity even if l = even
parity odd if l = odd
Summary

(x, y, z) (x, y, z) even parity

(x, y, z) (x, y, z) odd parity
(x, y, z) (x, y, z)
P (x, y, z) (x, y, z)

Therefore eigen value of parity operator = 1 .

4. Electric quadropole moment : It is found that nuclie do not have electric dipole moment but electric quadropole moment
have been observed.
The electric quadropole moment of a nuclear charge distribution which is symmetric about z axis is given by

1
(3z 2 r 2 ) ( x, y, z ) dV

where ( x, y, z ) = charge density

r 2 x2 y 2 z 2
For uniformely charged ellipsoid of revolution defined by the equation

x2 y 2 z 2
2 1
a2
b
on calculating from equation 1
2
z (b 2 a 2 )
5
Concept In nuclear physics only three type of numerical can be formed and there can be divided into three categaries.
Q

1. Calculation of Bnding energy, Binding energy per nucleon, and the number of number of , particle emitted to reach the
stable state.
(a) Binding energy is calculated by using the
B = [zMp + NMn zMA] 931 MeV
B.E/nucleon =

B
A

MODERN PHYSICS

76
Q. 1 Calculate Binding Energ per nucleon for

28

Ni64 ( 28 Ni 64 = 63.928 amu)

Ans. We know that

M N 1.008665 amu
m p 1.007825 amu

NM n ZM H 36 1.008665 28 1.007825
= 64.531
=
64.531
63.928 amu
M
= 561.4 MeV.
Binding energy per nucleon

Thus

561.4
8.8 MeV
64
2. Atomic mass number of an element is 232 and its atomicnubmer is 90. The end product of this radioactive element is an
isotope of lead (Atomic mass 208 and atomic number is 82). Calculate the number of alpha and beta particle emitted.
Ans. The required equation becomes
=

90

X 232
82 Y 208 a(2 He4 ) b( 1 0 )

If a and b are the number of and particle emitted.

Now applying the conservation of low for A and Z
Conservation of A
232 = 208 + 4a
a=6
From conservation of z
90 = 82 + 2a b b = 4
(c)The problem can be asked related calculation of kinetic energ of decay, and when decay takes place?
Solution : (a) K.E of particle in -decay is given by

A4
K .E
Q
A
Where Q = free energy given in the question
(b) Condition for decay,,
When z M A z 1M A , -decay takes place.
(2) This categary includes the numerical related to half life, age of wood and successive disintegration, and also very important
from the perspective of IIT-JAM.
(a) Problem related half life, etc which you had studied in class 12th remain same, so just see solved example.
(b) The problem related to successive disintegration are solved by understanding this concept.
Q. Nuclie ofa Radioactive element A arebeing produced at constant rate.
the element has a decay constant
at time t = 0, there are no nuclie of element
(a) Calculate the number N of nuclie of A at time t
(b) If 2 N 0 , calculate the number of nuclie of A, after one half life of A and also the limitng value of N as t .
Solution: (a) It we compare this problem to my algorithim explain above.
dN1
1 N1
dt
dN 2
1 N1 2 N 2
dt
dN 3
2 N 2
dt

(a)

(b)

(c )

Here 1 N1 which is decaying rate of A isacting producing rate of B, and givne by , So now equation (b) reduces to

MODERN PHYSICS

77

dN
N
dt
dN
dt
N
Integrating, we get
N

dN
N N 0 dt
0

1
| ln e ( N ) |NN0 t

( N ) ( N 0 )e t

1
[ ( N 0 )e t ]

[b] For 2 N 0 , the above relation becomes

N 2 N 0 N 0 e t

To obtain the number of nuclie after one half life A, t T1/ 2

N 2N0 N0 e

N 2N0

0.693
, in the above relation, thus

0.693

N0 3
N0
2
2

and in limiting case t

N 2 N 0 N 0 e ( )

2N 0 as t
3. The last category of numerical includes; mass conversion to energyor power to mass or calculating volume of blood if
activities are given.
Explanation: These types of problem are based on the algorithim, given below,
(a) Conversion of mass into energy.
Let m is mass and M is atomic number, then
No of atom produced by fission of mass number is calculated by this relation
N

N Am
M

If efficiency of reaction is % then

N Am

M 100
Total energy = N (energy produced by per fission)
Energy produced by per fission normally given in the equation and three values are 200 MeV or 180 MeV
N

and average power =

total energy
mean time

mean time is also given in the questions

(b) Now if power is given, mass has to be calculated then
Total energy = Power time
N energy produced per fission = E
Number of nuclie required N =

E
energy produced per fission

MODERN PHYSICS

78
if the efficiency is % then

mN A N
100
M

M N
100
Na

(c) Similarly if age of wood and volume of blood has to be calculated use this mechanism.
R R0 e t
Now your task is first to calclate the initial and final activities, which are given by

R0 0 N 0
R 0 N
If you want to calculate, volume of blood, then

Total volume of blood =

Total activity
Final activity

Alpha, Beta and Gamma Decay

When a nucleus decays, all the conservation laws must be observed: mass-energy, linear momentum, angular momentum and
electric charge.
Law of conservation of nucleons states that the total number of nucleons (A, the mass number) must be conserved in a low
energy reaction (say, less than 100 MeV) or decay. Neutrons may be converted into protons, and vice-versa, but the total number
of nucleons must remain constant. At higher energies enough rest energy may be available to create nucleons, but other conservation laws still apply.
Consider a nucleus of A nucleons, If some other combination of the A nucleons has lower mass, radioactive decay may occur.
Let the radioactive nucleus ZA X be called the parent and have mass M ( ZA X ) In the case of two products (there can be more than
two products) let the mass of the lighter one be MY and the mass of heavier one (normally called daughter) be MD. The conservation of energy gives
Q
c2
where Q is the energy released and is equal to the total kinetic energy of the reaction products.
M ( ZA X ) M D M Y

Q M ( ZA X ) M D M Y c 2

(A) Alpha Decay

For alpha decay, decay equation is
A
Z

A 4
Z 2

MODERN PHYSICS

79

Parent nucleus
Daughter nucleus + Alpha particle
An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons; an alpha decay reduces the Z and the N of the original nucleus by
two each.
The nucleus 42 He is particularly stable, Its binding energy is 28.3 MeV. The combination of two neutrons and two protons is
particularly strong because of pairing effects. If the last two protons and two neutrons in a nucleus are bound by less than 28.3
MeV, then the emission of an alpha particle is energetically possible.
For alpha decay
A
Z

A 4
Z 2

Q M ( ZA X ) M ( ZA 42 D ) M ( 24 He) c 2

If Q > 0 then alpha decay is possible.

The disintegration energy Q appears in the form of kinetic energy of the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle.
The fraction of the disintegration energy carried off by the alpha particle can be calculated by applying conservation of energy
and momentum.
Q K D K
Pd p
Parent nucleus has been assumed to be at rest initially. Hence the total momentum is zero initially.
where subscript D stands for daughter nucleus.
K

MD
A4
Q
Q
M D M
A

(B) Beta Decay

Problem ossociated with -decay
(a) Like decay decay is also a transistion from higher energ state to a lower energy state. Therefore we must observe a line
spectrum however a continuous spectrum of energy was observed.
(b) The energy possessed by the nuclie is also found less n daughter nuclie along with Q value associated with it, leading to
violations of conservation energy
3. Further, Initially atom is fermion but the product formed was boson, leading to violation of conservation of spin angular
momentum.
These discrepancies were resolved by paulis by considering a new particle called neutrino and was assigned following properties.
It has following properties:
(i) It has zero electric charge, hence shows no electromagnetic interaction.
(ii) Its rest mass is much smaller than that of electron and is possibly zero. Recent experiments suggest that the mass of neutrino
is less than 7 eV/c2.
(iii) A spin of 1/2, which satisfies the law of conservation of angular momentum when applied to beta decay.
(iv) Very weak interaction with matter, which makes it very difficult to detect.
When a radioactive nucleus undergoes a beta decay, the daughter nucleus has the same number of nucleons as the parent
nucleus, but the atomic number is changed by 1.

Consider beta decay of

14
6

C to form

14
7

MODERN PHYSICS

80

14

7 N
In order to account for these abnormalities, the great physicist Pauli proposed existence of a third particle later named neutrino.
We can now write the general form of beta decays:
14
6

p e v

( decay)

p e v

( decay)

A
Z

A
Z 1

Y e v

( decay)

A
Z

A
Z 1

Y e v

( decay)

where symbol v represents neutrino and v represents the antineutrino, the antiparticle to the neutrino.
(C) Electron Capture
This occurs when a parent nucleus captures one of its own orbital atomic electrons and emits a neutrino. The final product after
decay is a nucleus whose charge is (Z- 1).
A
Z

X e

A
Z 1

X v

In most cases it is an inner K-shell electron that is captured, and this is referred to as K-capture, e.g., 74 B captures an electron to
become 37 Li :
7
4

Be e
37 Li v

The Q values for e decay and electron capture are

Q ( M x M y )c 2
The Q values for e decay are given by

Q ( M x M y 2me )c 2

e decay, e decay and electron capture are possible if Q values are positive.
Gamma decay
As explained earlier, A nucleus get excited after the or decay, it thus relased its extra energy through decay. for e.g.
5

B12
6 C12 e v

C12
6 C12

So in gamma decay, mass number and atomic number does not change only energy is released.
Natural Activity
Spontaneous decay of naturally occurring unstable nuclei is termed Natural activity; Artificial radioactivity refers to the radioactivity induced in the normally stable nuclii through nuclear reactions.
Regarding natural activity and artificial radioactivity it is worth noting that:
(1) Heavy nuclides can change their mass number only by alpha decay and atomic number by alpha or beta decay. The heavy
naturally occurring nuclides can decay to their stable end products only through four paths. The four paths have mass numbers
expressed by either 4n, 4n + 1, 4n + 2 or 4n + 3 where n is an integer because only -decay can change mass number. These
four series have been shown in the table below.
The Four Radioactive Series

Series
Uranium
Actinium (natural)
Thorium
Neptunium

Starting isotope Half life (years) Stable end product

238
92
235
92
232
90
237
93

4.47 109

Th

Np

7.04 10

10

1.4110

2.14 10

206
82
207
82
208
82
209
83

Pb
Pb
Pb
Bi

MODERN PHYSICS

81

(2) All the radioactivity series occur in nature except the neptunium series because even the member of neptunium series with
longest half life, 237 Np (T1/ 2 2.14 106 year) , has a half life less than the age of our solar system. Hence virtually all the
members of neptunium series have already decayed.
Nuclear Reactions and Applications
(1) When a nucleus is bombarded with various particles it may lead to scattering of the incident particle and various kinds of
nuclear reactions. The structure of nuclei can be changed by bombardment of particles. Collision in which identity of nuclei is
changed is called a nuclear reaction. Initially radiations from naturally occurring sources, mainly -particles, were used for
bombardment.
In 1932, Cockcroft and Walton succeeded in producing the reaction
p 7 Li 8 Be 4 He 4 He
using artificially accelerated protons. Most important nuclear reactions that have been investigated are: fission and fusion.
Through both the processes nuclear mass is converted into other forms of energy, such as thermal and electrical energy. However, the important role of fusion is in the production of energy in stars.
The radiations emitted by radioisotopes are used in Medical diagnosis and treatment such as Computer Assisted Tomography
(CAT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), etc.

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MODERN PHYSICS