AC Motors and Drives

Level 4

LO 2 Describe the construction

features and operation of AC
Induction motors

3-phase AC induction motors

For industrial and mining applications, 3-phase AC induction
motors are the prime movers for the vast majority of machines.
These motors can be operated either directly from the mains or
from adjustable variable frequency drives. In modern
industrialized countries, more than half the total electrical energy
used in those countries is converted to mechanical energy
through AC induction motors. The applications for these motors
cover almost every stage of manufacturing and processing.
Applications also extend to commercial buildings and the
domestic environment. They are used to drive pumps, fans,
compressors, mixers, agitators, mills, conveyors, crushers,
machine tools, cranes, etc.
4

2.1a Main constructional features of 3 phase A.C. squirrel cage

and wound rotor induction motors

Construction of 3-Phase AC induction motors

Although the basic design of induction motors has not changed
very much in the last 50 years, modern insulation materials,
computer based design optimization techniques and automated
manufacturing methods have resulted in motors of smaller
physical size and lower cost per kW. International standardization
of physical dimensions and frame sizes means that motors from
most manufacturers are physically interchangeable and they
have similar performance characteristics.

The reliability of squirrel cage AC induction motors, compared to

DC motors, is high. The only parts of the squirrel cage motor that
can wear are the bearings. Slip-rings and brushes are not
required for this type of construction. Improvements in modern
pre-lubricated bearing design have extended the life of these
motors
Although single-phase AC
induction motors are quite popular
and common for low power
applications up to approx. 2.2 kW,
these are seldom used in industrial
and mining applications. Singlephase motors are more often used
for domestic applications.
6

Basic construction
The AC induction motor comprises 2 electromagnetic parts:
Stationary part called the stator
Rotating part called the rotor, supported at each end on
bearings
The stator and the rotor are each made up of:
An electric circuit, usually made of insulated copper or
aluminium, to carry current
A magnetic circuit, usually made from laminated steel, to
carry magnetic flux

The stator
The stator is the outer stationary part of the motor, which consists
of:
The outer cylindrical frame of the motor, which is made either of
welded sheet steel, cast iron or cast aluminium alloy. This may
include feet or a flange for mounting.
The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel
laminations pressed into the cylindrical space inside the outer
frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents,
lower losses and lower heating.
A set of insulated electrical windings, which are placed inside the
slots of the laminated magnetic path. The cross-sectional area of
these windings must be large enough for the power rating of the
motor. For a 3-phase motor, 3 sets of windings are required, one
for each phase.
8

Stator and rotor laminations

The rotor

This is the rotating part of the motor. As with the stator above,
the rotor consists of a set of slotted steel laminations pressed
together in the form of a cylindrical magnetic path and the
electrical circuit. The electrical circuit of the rotor can be either:
Wound rotor type, which comprises 3 sets of insulated windings
with connections brought out to 3 slip-rings mounted on the
shaft. The external connections to the rotating part are made via
brushes onto the slip-rings. Consequently, this type of motor is
often referred to as a slip-ring motor.

10

Wound rotor

11

Squirrel cage rotor type, which comprises a set of copper or

aluminium bars installed into the slots, which are connected to
an end-ring at each end of the rotor. The construction of these
rotor windings resembles a squirrel cage. Aluminium rotor bars
are usually die-cast into the rotor slots, which results in a very
rugged construction.
Even though
the aluminium rotor
bars are in direct
contact with the steel
laminations, practically
all the rotor current
flows through the
aluminium bars and
not in the laminations.
12

13

Rotor bars are made from aluminium in a lamination stack

14

The other parts

The other parts, which are required to complete the induction
motor are:
Two end-bells to support the two bearings, one at the driveend (DE) and the other at the non drive-end (NDE)
Two bearings to support the rotating shaft, at DE and NDE
Steel shaft for transmitting the torque to the load
Cooling fan located at the NDE to provide forced cooling for
the stator and rotor
Terminal box on top or either side to receive the external
electrical connections
Name plate

15

Assembly details of a typical AC induction motor

16

Assembly details of a typical AC induction motor

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CBFE-Bt7RjY

17

2.2a Principle of operation and operational characteristics of

3 phase A.C. induction motors
What is the operating principle of a 3ph induction motor?
An electric motor converts electrical energy into a mechanical
energy which is then supplied to different types of loads. A.C.
motors operate on an a.c. supply, and they are classified into
synchronous, single phase and 3 phase induction, and special
purpose motors. Out of all types, 3 phase induction motors are
most widely used for industrial applications mainly because they
do not require a starting device.
A 3 phase induction motor derives its name from the fact that the
rotor current is induced by the rotating magnetic field, instead of
electrical connections.
The operating principle of a 3 phase induction motor is based on
the production of Rotating Magnetic Field.
18

Production of a rotating magnetic field

The stator of an induction motor consists of a number of

overlapping windings offset by an electrical angle of 120. When
the primary winding or stator is connected to a three phase
alternating current supply, it establishes a rotating magnetic field
which rotates at a synchronous speed.
The direction of rotation of the motor depends on the phase
sequence of supply lines, and the order in which these lines are
connected to the stator. Thus interchanging the connection of
any two primary terminals to the supply will reverse the direction
of rotation.

19

Rotating magnetic field animation

20

The number of poles and the frequency of the applied voltage

determine the synchronous speed of rotation in the motors
stator. Motors are commonly configured to have 2, 4, 6 or 8
poles. The synchronous speed, a term given to the speed at
which the field produced by primary currents will rotate, is
determined by the following expression. P 50 Hz
60Hz

= 120 ()

= synchronous speed of rotation

(rpm)
= supply frequency (Hz)
= number of poles on the stator

3000 rpm

3600 rpm

1500 rpm

1800 rpm

1000 rpm

1200 rpm

750 rpm

900 rpm

10 600 rpm

720 rpm

12 500 rpm

600 rpm

14 428.57 rpm 514.29 21

rpm

Production of magnetic flux

A rotating magnetic field in the stator is the first part of
operation. To produce a torque and thus rotate, the rotor bars
must be carrying some current. In induction motors, this current
comes from the rotor conductors. The revolving magnetic field
produced in the stator cuts across the conductive bars of the
rotor and induces an EMF.

22

The rotor windings in an induction motor are either closed

through an external resistance or directly shorted. Therefore, the
EMF induced in the rotor causes current to flow in a direction
opposite to that of the revolving magnetic field in the stator, and
leads to a twisting motion or torque in the rotor.(Interaction).
As a consequence, the rotor speed will not reach the synchronous
speed of the RMF in the stator. If the speeds match, there would
be no EMF. induced in the rotor, no current would be flowing, and
therefore no torque would be generated. The difference between
the stator (synchronous speed) and rotor speeds is called the slip.

23

Slip
The difference between the speed of the rotating stator field
and the rotor speed is called slip. The smaller the slip, the
closer the rotor speed approaches the stator field speed.
The slip varies with the load. An increase in load will cause the
rotor to slow down or increase slip. A decrease in load will cause
the rotor to speed up or decrease slip. The slip is expressed as a
percentage and can be determined with the following formula:
synchronous speed

rotor speed
rotor slip
torque on rotor

s (%) =

ns

- nr
ns

x100

where:
ns = the synchronous speed in rpm
nr = the rotor speed in rpm
24

Slip

25

The rotation of the magnetic field in an induction motor has the

advantage that no electrical connections need to be made to the
rotor.

What results is a motor that is:

Self-starting
Explosion proofed (because of the absence of slip rings or
commutators and brushes that may cause sparks)
Robust in construction
Inexpensive
Easier to maintain

26

27

Motor torque and power

Work is carried out whenever a force - any force - causes motion.
Work equals force times distance. For linear movement, power is
expressed as work at a given point in time.
= =
When it comes to rotation, power is expressed as torque (T) times
rotating speed ().

= (
= = )

28

Rotational speed

The speed of a rotating object is determined by measuring the

time it takes for a given point on the rotating object to make a
complete revolution from its starting point. This value is
generally expressed as revolutions per minute min-1 or RPM. If,
for example, an object makes 10 complete revolutions in one
minute, it has a speed of 10 min-1 which also is 10 RPM.
So, rotational speed is measured as revolutions
per minute, that is min-1.
1

= 1 = 2
60

29

Torque

=
=
= ( = )

If the speed is in rpm, then

60
=
=
()

2
If the speed is in rpm and power in kW, then
()
= 9549.3
= ()
()

30

Example of torque calculation

60 3000 60
=
=
= 20
2
2 1437
3
= 9549.3
= 20 Nm
1437

or

31

Torque speed characteristic

The turning force
applied to a pump is
torque, not power.
Power [kW or HP]
blends torque with
speed to determine
the total amount of
work to be carried
out within a given
time span.

32

Starting torque (ST) / Locked-rotor torque (LRT)

The torque produced when power is applied to a motor at rest,
i.e. when the motor is energised at full voltage and the shaft is
locked in place. This is the torque used to start accelerating the
load.
Pull-up torque (PUT)
This term is used for the lowest point on the torque speed curve
for a motor which is accelerating a load up to full speed. Most
motors do not have a separate pull-up torque value, as
the lowest point is found at the locked-rotor point. As a result,
pull-up torque is the same as starting torque/locked-rotor torque
for the majority of all motors.
33

Breakdown torque (BT)

The maximum torque that an AC motor develops with rated
voltage applied at rated frequency without causing sudden drops
in speed. This is also known as pull-out torque or maximum
torque.
Full-load torque (FLT)
The torque required to produce rated power at full-load speed.

34

Torque speed characteristics of wound (slip rings) motor

The effect of varying rotor resistance on the torquespeed
characteristic of a wound-rotor induction motor.
It is possible to insert resistance
into the rotor circuit of a
wound rotor because the rotor
circuit is brought out to the
stator through slip rings. As the
rotor resistance is increased,
the pullout speed of the motor
decreases, but the maximum
torque remains constant.
35

It is possible to take advantage of this characteristic of woundrotor induction motors to start very heavy loads. If a resistance is
inserted into the rotor circuit, the maximum torque can be
adjusted to occur at starting conditions. Therefore, the maximum
possible torque would be available to start heavy loads. On the
other hand, once the load is turning, the extra resistance can be
removed from the circuit, and the maximum torque will move up
to near-synchronous speed for regular operation.

36

Briefly outline of the three main load types

Constant power
The term "constant
power" is used for certain
types of loads where you
need less torque as the
speed is increased and
vice versa. Constant
power loads are usually
found within metalprocessing applications,
e.g. drilling, milling, and
similar processes.
37

Constant torque
As the name suggests,
"constant torque"
means that the
amount of torque
necessary to drive a
machine is constant
regardless of the
speed involved. One
example would be
conveyors.

38

Variable torque and power

"Variable torque" is one of the most relevant category and is
found in loads where low torque is required at low speeds and
greater torque is needed as the speed increases. Centrifugal
pumps and blowers are a typical examples.
Having established that centrifugal pumps feature variable
torque, we should sum up some of the characteristics of the
centrifugal pump. The use of variable speed drives is determined
by specific physical laws. In this case, these laws are known as
affinity laws and describe the relationship between pressure
differences and flows.

39

Firstly, the rate of flow in a system is directly proportional to the

speed. This is to say that if the pump runs 25% faster, the rate of
flow will be 25% greater.
Secondly, the head of the
pump will vary as the
square of the change in
speed. If the speed
increases by 25%, the head
increases by 56%.
Thirdly, and interestingly,
power is proportional to
the change in speed
cubed. This means that if
the required speed is
reduced by 50%, this
equals an 87.5% decrease
in power consumption.

40

When a motor accelerates from zero to full speed, the torque

produced can vary considerably. The amount of torque required
by a given load also varies with speed.
To match the motor
to the relevant load,
you need to ensure
that the amount of
torque available
from the motor
exceeds the torque
required by the load
at all times.

41

Example of a centrifugal pump

In the example of a centrifugal pump has a full-load torque of 70
Nm, which corresponds to 22 kW at a nominal speed of 3000
min-1.
In this particular case,
the pump requires
20% of the full-load
torque when starting,
i.e. approximately 14
Nm. After start-up, the
torque drops slightly,
and then increases to
full-load value as the
pump picks up speed.
42

Matching motors and loads

When you need to establish whether the torque capability of a

particular motor meets the requirements of a given load, you can
compare the motor's
speed-torque curve with
the speed-torque
curve of the load. The
torque produced by the
motor must exceed the
torque requirements of
the load at all times,
including during
acceleration and full
speed.
43

Starting current
As the motor accelerates, it starts by drawing a line current which
corresponds to (550-800)% of the rated current. As the motor
draws nearer to its
rated speed, the
line current
diminishes. As one
might expect, the
motor loss is high
during this initial
start-up phase, so it
should never be too
long to avoid
overheating.
44

Run-up time
When we want to identify the correct motor size for pump loads,
as is the case for centrifugal pumps, we should only concern
ourselves with providing
adequate torque and
power at the nominal
operation point, because
the starting torque for
centrifugal pumps is
rather low. The run-up
time, however, is short
because the torque
available for the
acceleration is rather
45
high.

In many cases, sophisticated motor protective systems and

monitoring systems require a run-up time to be able to take the
locked-rotor current into consideration. The run-up time for a
motor and pump is estimated by means of the following formula:

tstart = the time it will take a pump motor to reach full-load speed
n = motor full-load speed
Itotal = Inertia that need to be accelerated that is motor shaft,
rotor, pump shaft, and impellers
Tacc = Acceleration torque. The real acceleration torque is the
motor torque minus the torque of the pump at different
speeds
46

Tacc can be estimated by the following formula:

47

Number of starts per hour

Sophisticated motor monitoring systems can monitor the number
of starts per hour for a given pump and motor. The reason why it
is necessary to monitor the number of starts is that every time
the motor starts and accelerates, the motor consumes a high
starting current. The starting current heats up the motor. If the
motor does not cool down, the continuous load from the starting
current will heat up the motors stator winding considerably.
Consequently, either the motor breaks down or the lifespan of
the insulation system is reduced. Normally, the motor supplier is
responsible for how many starts per hour the motor can handle.
As regards the motor, the number of starts per hour can be
calculated.
48

Starting time
Motor data:
Full-load speed (n) = 3000 min-1
Full-load torque = 11 Nm
Locked-rotor torque (240% of full-load torque) = 26 Nm
Breakdown (340% of full-load torque) = 37 Nm
Inertia of motor shaft, rotor and fan (Imotor) = 0.0075 kgm2
Pump data:

Inertia of pump shaft and impellers (Ipump) = 0.0014 kgm2

49

 = + = 0.0075 + 0.0014 = 0.0089 2

+ 26 + 37 11
=
=
= 26
2
2

3000 2 0.0089
=
= 0.11
60 26

50

Power and efficiency h (eta)

There is a direct link
between the power drawn
from the electricity supply
net, the power which the
motor can supply to the
pump via the shaft end,
and the power delivered
to the pump which
creates flow and pressure.
This is often described
in terms of electric power
input, shaft power, and
hydraulic power output.
51

Three-phase motors windings

The windings are connected in star(Y)-connection or in delta()connection according to IEC 60034-8. This is done by wiring the
terminal board as shown in the wiring diagram below. The
marking of the terminal board is also defined in IEC 60034-8.

52

Star(Y)-connection
By short-circuiting the terminals W2, U2 and V2 and connecting
the mains to the W1, U1 and V1 you get a star(Y)-connection.
Current: Iphase = Iline
Voltage: Vphase = Vline / 3

53

Delta()-connection
When connecting the end of a phase to the start of another
phase you get a delta()-connection
Current: Iphase = Iline / 3
Voltage: Vphase = Vphase

54

The direction of rotation for the motor shaft is defined in IEC

60034-8 as either CW (clockwise) or CCW (counter-clockwise),
when looking into the shaft.
The direction of rotation can also be changed at the terminal
board. When dealing with a three-phase motor, this is done by
interchanging two of the line cables, e.g.: switch L1 and L2.
When dealing with a single-phase motor always check the wiring
diagram, before attempting to change direction of rotation.

55

IEC 62114 Electrical insulation systems

- Thermal classification Insulation classes (temperature classes)
and temperature rise (T) are defined in IEC 62114. As a
standard, EFF 2 motors are made to operate in ambient
temperatures up to 40C, and EFF 1 motors are normally made to
operate in ambient temperatures up to 60C. The maximum
acceptable temperature rise at rated load and voltage is
according to class B. This implies that the motors are considered
to be cold because their maximum temperature rise is 80K.

56

The limit temperatures

only apply for operation
at the installation and for
nameplate data for
continuous operation.
During operation in
different operating
conditions and with
different supply voltages,
limits for temperature
increase or temperature
limits at rated duty point
can be exceeded.
57

CE marking
The CE mark is the manufacturers/importers proof that the
product meets the requirements stated in the relevant EU
Directives and EN standards
All products included in EU
Directives and which are sold
within EEA countries (EU member
states, Norway, Iceland and
Liechtenstein) have to carry
the CE mark. The objective of the
CE marking is to ensure and
harmonise the safety level as to
mechanical and electrical risks in
connection with machines or
electric devices in the EU. Once the
product carries the CE mark, no
country within the EEA can prohibit
or prevent the product from being
sold or installed.

58

Speed control of induction motor

120

=
() so the only ways in which the synchronous
speed of the machine can be varied are
by changing the electrical frequency
by changing the number of poles on the machine.
Slip control may be accomplished by varying either the rotor
resistance or the terminal voltage of the motor.
A properly designed variable-frequency induction motor drive
can be very flexible. It can control the speed of an induction
motor over a range from as little as 5 percent of base speed up to
about twice base speed. However, it is important to maintain
certain voltage and torque limits on the motor as the frequency
is varied, to ensure safe operation.
59

Speed control by changing the line frequency

When a motor is running at speeds below its base speed, it is
necessary to reduce the terminal voltage applied to the stator for
proper operation. The terminal voltage applied to the stator
should be decreased linearly with decreasing stator frequency.
This process is called de-rating. If it is not done, the steel in the
core of the induction motor will saturate and excessive
magnetisation currents will flow in the machine.
According Faradays law: =

60

To avoid excessive magnetisation currents, it is customary to

decrease the applied stator voltage in direct proportion to the
decrease in frequency whenever the frequency falls below the
rated frequency of the motor. When the voltage applied to an
induction motor is varied linearly with frequency below the base
speed, the flux in the motor will remain approximately constant.
Therefore, the maximum torque that the motor can supply
remains fairly high. However, the maximum power rating of the
motor must be decreased linearly with decreases in frequency to
protect the stator circuit from overheating.
The power supplied to a three-phase induction motor is given by

= 3
If the voltage VL is decreased, then the
maximum power P must also be decreased, or else the current
flowing in the motor will become excessive, and the motor will
61
overheat.

Variable frequency speed control in an induction motor

The family of torquespeed

characteristic curves for
speeds below base speed,
assuming that the line voltage
is de-rated linearly with
frequency.

The family of torquespeed

characteristic curves for speeds
above base speed, assuming
that the line voltage is held
constant.
62

Speed control by changing the line voltage

The torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to
the square of the applied voltage. If a load has a torquespeed
characteristic, then the
Speed of the motor may be
controlled over a limited
range by varying the line
voltage. This method
of speed control is
Sometimes used on small
motors driving fans.

63

2.1 b & 2.2b Main constructional features, principle of operation

and operational characteristics of single phase A.C. induction
motors
Electric Motor Classifications by Electrical Type

64

Single-phase AC motors are as ever-present as they are useful -serving as the prime power sources for a seemingly limitless array
of small-horsepower applications in industry and in the home.
Where three-phase power is unavailable or impractical, it's singlephase motors to come in.
A squirrel-cage motor connected to a single-phase line develops
no starting torque, but having been started by some external
means, it runs approximately like a poly-phase motor.

The many types of single-phase motors are distinguished by the

means by which they are started.

65

Construction of the single phase motor

The fundamental single-phase AC induction motor consists
of two basic parts:
1. Stator. The stator is constructed of a set of stacked laminated
discs which are surrounded by a stator winding. This winding is
connected to the power supply (voltage, phase and frequency)
and produces a magnetic field that revolves around the
motor at a speed designated synchronous.
2. Rotor. The rotor is connected to the output shaft and consists
of a shorted aluminium winding which is cast into slots and
stacked and joined at both ends of the stack with end rings. The
rotor acts as a conductor which when placed in the magnetic
field of the stator winding creates a magnetic field of its own and
interacts with the magnetic field of the stator, producing
torque.
66

The first principle applies to the magnetic field created by the

stator and the second applies to the rotor as it rotates within the
stator field.

Flux Patterns Produced in Stator

67

The interaction of these two magnetic fields produces a

mechanical force on the wire which is the basis for the production
of torque.

68

Principle of operation of single phase motor

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=awrUxv7B-a8

69

A standard single-phase stator has two windings placed at an

angle of 90 to each other. One of these windings is known as the
main winding, while the other is called the auxiliary winding or
starting winding. Depending
on the number of poles,
each winding may be
distributed across several
sub-coils.

An example of a 2-pole, singlephase winding with four sub-coils

in the main winding and two subcoils in the auxiliary winding.

70

Basic types of single-phase induction motors

Theoretically, a single-phase motor could be started by spinning

the motor mechanically and applying power immediately. In
actual practice, however, all motors use automatic starting of
some sort.
Single-phase induction motors are often known by the names of
the starting method used.

71

Split-Phase Motors (SP) or Resistance start/Induction run motors

A split-phase motors components are a main winding, start

winding and a centrifugal switch.
The main (run) winding is designed for operation from 75%
synchronous speed and above. The main winding design is such
that the current lags behind the line
voltage because the coils embedded
in the steel stator naturally build up
a strong magnetic field which slows
the build up of current in the winding.

72

The start winding is not wound identically to the main, but

contains fewer turns of much smaller diameter wire than that of
the main winding coils. This is required to reduce the amount the
start current lags the voltage.
When both windings are
connected in parallel across the
line, the main and start winding
currents will be out of time phase
by about 30 degrees. This forms a
sort of imitation of a weak rotating
flux field which is sufficient to
provide a moderate amount of
torque at standstill and start the
motor.
73

The total current that this motor draws while starting is the vector
sum of the main and start winding currents. Because of the small
angle between these two, the line current during starting (inrush
current) of split-phase motors is quite high. Also the small
diameter wire in the start winding carries a high current density,
so that it heats up very rapidly. A centrifugal switch mechanism
(or relay) must be provided to disconnect the start winding from
the circuit once the motor has reached an adequate speed to
allow running on the main winding only.

74

General Performance Characteristic (SP Motor)

SP motors are well suited

for small grinders, fans,
and other applications with
low starting torque and
power needs from 60 W to
250 W. They are not
suitable for applications
which require high torques
or high cycle rates.

75

Steel Housing Single-Phase Split-Phase Start Fractional

Horsepower Induction Motor

Model
YUG-7112

Output
HP
1/3

Voltage
V
220

Frequency
Hz
50

Speed
rpm
2800

Current
A
3
76

Capacitor-Start Induction Run Motors (CSIR)

This is the largest group of single-phase motors. It should be
noted that the capacitor-start motor utilizes the same winding
arrangement as the split-phase motor, but adds a capacitor in
series with the start winding. The main (run) winding current
remains the same as in the split-phase case, but the start winding
current is very much different. With the capacitor in the circuit,
the starting current now leads the line voltage, rather than
lagging as does the main winding. The start winding is also
different, containing slightly
more turns in its coils than
the main winding and utilizing
wire diameters only slightly
smaller than those of the main.
77

The new result is a time

phase shift closer to 90
degrees than with the
split-phase motor.
A stronger rotating field is
therefore created and
starting torque is higher
than with the split-phase
design. Also the vector
Sum of the main and
Start Winding currents is
lower, resulting in a
reduction in the inrush
current as compared to
the split-phase design.

78

General Performance Characteristic (CSIR Motor)

Again, a centrifugal switch and mechanism (or relay) must be
used to protect the start
winding and capacitor
from overheating.
When the capacitor-start
motor is running near full
load RPM, its performance
is identical to that of the
split-phase motor.

79

CSIR motors have a relatively high starting torque, between 50 to

250 per cent of the full-load torque. This makes them a good
single-phase motor choice for loads that are difficult to start, e.g.
for conveyors, air compressors, and refrigeration compressors.

AC Electric Motors 1 Phase Capacitor Start - Induction Run Type

110Volt 50HZ for High Starting Torque Applications
80

Permanently Split Capacitor Motors (PSC)

The windings of the PSC motor are arranged like those of the
split-phase and capacitor-start designs, but a capacitor capable
of running continuously replaces the intermittent duty
capacitor of the capacitor-start motor and the centrifugal
switch of both the split-phase and capacitor-start motors. The
main winding remains similar to the previous designs, current
lags the line voltage.

81

The design of PSC motors means that they cannot provide the
same initial boost as motors with separate capacitors. Their
starting torques are quite low, between 30 to 80% of rated load,
so they cannot be used for applications
which are hard to start. This is offset
by their low starting currents
- usually less than 200% of
rated load current
which makes them the perfect
choice for applications with high
cycle rates.

82

However, the real strength of the permanently split capacitor

design is derived from the fact that the start winding and
capacitor remain in the circuit at all times and produce an
approximation of two-phase operation at the rated load point.
This results in better efficiency, better power factor than in
equivalent capacitor-start and split-phase designs.

83

General Performance Characteristic (PSC Motor)

Different starting and running characteristics can be achieved by
varying the rotor resistance.

Permanent-split capacitor
motors can be used for
many different
applications, depending on
their design. Low-inertia
loads such as fans and
pumps would be a
common example.

84

US Motors PSC, Direct Drive Fan, 1/5 HP, 1-Phase, 1050 RPM
Motor
Permanent Split Capacitor
Direct Drive Fan & Blower
5.6 Diameter
Open Air Over (OAO)
Without capacitor

85

Capacitor Start-Capacitor Run Motors (CSCR)

These motors have a run capacitor and an auxiliary winding
permanently connected in parallel with the main winding. In
addition, a starting capacitor and a centrifugal switch are also in
parallel with the run capacitor. The switch disconnects as the
motor accelerates. It should be noted that the capacitor startcapacitor run motor utilises the same winding arrangement as the
permanently split capacitor motor when running a full load speed
and the same winding
Arrangement as a
capacitor-start
motor during start up.
86

The advantage of the capacitor start-capacitor run design is

derived from the fact that the start winding and capacitor remain
in the circuit at all times (similar to PSC type motor) and produce
an approximation of two-phase operation at the rated load point,
plus with an additional capacitor in series with the start winding
circuit (similar to the capacitor-start type motor), the starting
current now leads the line voltage, rather than lagging as does
the main winding, dramatically increasing starting torque.
Capacitor start-capacitor run motors feature a low running
current due to an improved power factor caused by the run
capacitor.

87

This results in better efficiency, better power factor, increased

starting torque than in equivalent capacitor-start and split-phase
designs. The capacitor start-capacitor run motor is basically a
combination of the capacitor-start and PSC motor types and is the
best of the single-phase motors.

88

General Performance Characteristic (CSCR Motor)

CSCR motors are the

most powerful singlephase motors and can
be used for quite
demanding
applications, e.g. highpressure water pumps
and vacuum pumps and
other high-torque
applications which
require 1.1 to 11 kW.
89

Open view of Capacitor start / Capacitor run Motor

90

Shaded Pole Motors

The shaded pole motor differs widely from the other single-phase
motors. All of the other designs contain a main and start winding,
differing only in details of the starting method and corresponding
starting circuitry. The shaded pole motor is the most simply
constructed and therefore the least
expensive of the single-phase designs.
It consists of a run winding only plus
shading coils which take the place of
the conventional start winding.

91

Construction of a typical shaded pole motor

The stator is of salient pole construction, having one large coil
per pole wound directly in a single large slot. The shading coils
are short circuited copper straps which are wrapped around one
pole tip of each pole.

92

The placement and resistance of the shading coil is chosen so

that, as the stator magnetic field increases from zero at the
beginning of the AC cycle to some positive value, current is
induced in the shading coil. As previously noted, this current will
create its own magnetic field which opposes the original field.
The net effect is that the shaded portion of the pole is weakened
and the magnetic centre of the entire pole is located at point a.
As the flux magnitude becomes nearly constant across the entire
pole tip at the top of the positive half cycle, the effect of the
shading pole is negligible and the magnetic centre of the pole
shifts to point b. As slight as this shift is, it is sufficient to
generate torque and start the motor.

93

Therefore, the shaded pole motor efficiency suffers greatly due to

the presence of winding harmonic content, particularly the third
harmonic which produces a dip in the speed torque curve at
approximately 1/3 synchronous speed . In addition there are
losses in the shading coils. These factors combine to make the
shaded pole the least efficient and noisiest of the single-phase
designs. It is used mostly in air moving applications where its low
starting torque and the third harmonic dip can be tolerated.

94

General Performance Characteristic (Shaded Pole Motor)

95

Summary of Five Single-Phase Motor Types

96

Single-phase AC motors are not all equal. There are five basic
types, all with different operating characteristics and capabilities.
The differences between each motor type are great enough that
it is important for the user to understand each motor type, where
it makes sense to apply them and how to apply them.
97

Special conditions
A number of special conditions apply to single phase motors
compared to three-phase motors.
Single-phase motors should never run idle because they become
very warm at small loads, therefore it is not recommended to
run the motor less than 25% of full-load.
When the motor runs with an asymmetrical rotating field, the
current in one or both windings may be bigger than the mains
current. These currents cause a loss, and so one or both
windings (which is often seen in case of no load) will become too
warm, even though the mains current is relatively small.

98

Example of asymmetrical operation, where the current in the

two phases is bigger than the mains current

99

Example of run of currents as a function of the load. Please note

that in the operating and starting phases the currents are bigger
than the mains current at 0% load.

100

Voltage issues
It is important to be aware that voltages can be higher than the
mains voltage inside the motor. This is also true for symmetrical
operation.

Example of voltage internally in the 1-phase motor.

At Vsupply = 230 V voltages may be VC =370 V and VA = 290 V
101

2.3 Various starting methods for A.C. induction motors

Starting methods
Today, various methods for starting motors are available.
Changes, such as higher starting currents for new energyefficient motor designs, mean greater focus on starting methods.
This is closely linked to the fact that power quality has become a
much more important issue in recent years, which has in turn led
to greater emphasis on voltage transients associated with the
start-up of large motors.

102

The principle objective of all methods of motor starting is to

match the torque characteristics to those of the mechanical
load, while ensuring that the peak current requirements do not
exceed the capacity of the supply. Many starting methods are
available, each of which has slightly different characteristics.
As regards those starting methods which are to reduce the
locked-rotor current, the run-up time must not be too long.
Excessive run-up times will cause unnecessary heating of the
winding.

103

Inrush current or locked-rotor current?

When a motor is energized, the resulting initial current transient
is known by various names: inrush current, starting current, or
locked-rotor current.
Mostly, these terms all
refer to the same thing:
a very large current
five to ten times the
full-load current flows
initially.
This surge current drops
as the motor accelerates
up to its running speed.
104

Different starting methods are used in order to reduce the

starting current to comply with local laws and regulations.
Naturally, avoiding huge voltage drops on the mains is a
significant objective in its own right.
The most common starting methods:
Direct-on-line starting,
Star-delta starting,
Auto-transformer starting,
Stator series resistors
Soft starting
Frequency converter starting.

105

Direct-on-line starting
As the name suggests,
direct-on-line starting means
that the motor is started by
connecting it directly to the
supply at rated voltage.
Direct-online starting,
(DOL), is suitable for stable
supplies and mechanically
stiff and well-dimensioned
shaft systems and pumps
qualify as examples of such
systems.
106

Advantages
DOL starting is the simplest, cheapest and most common starting
method. Furthermore it actually. It is the obvious choice
wherever the supply authoritys current limiting restrictions allow
for its use. Power plants may have varying rules and regulations
in different countries; for example, three-phase motors with
locked-rotor currents above 60 A must not use direct-on-line
starting in Denmark. In such cases, it will obviously be necessary
to select another starting method. Motors that start and stop
frequently often have some kind of control system, which consist
of a contactor and overload protection such as a thermal relay.

Small motors which do not start and stop frequently need only
very simple starting equipment, often in the form of a handoperated motor protection circuit breaker.
107

Drawbacks
However, the limitation of this method is that it results in a high
starting current, often several times the rated current of the
motor. Also the starting torque is very high, and may result in
high stresses on the couplings and the driven application.
Full voltage is switched directly onto the motor terminals. For
small motors, the starting torque will be 150% to 300% of the
full-load value, while the starting current will be 300% to 800%
of the full-load current or even higher.
Even so, it is the preferred method except when there are
special reasons for avoiding it.

108

Current speed and Torque speed characteristics

109

Typical circuit diagram of DOL starter

Power wiring diagram

Control wiring diagram

110

Typical circuit diagram of F/R DOL starter

Power wiring diagram

Control wiring diagram 111

Star-delta starting
The objective of this starting
method, which is used with
three-phase induction motors,
is to reduce the starting current.
In starting position, the stator
windings is connected in star (Y).
In the running position, the stator
windings is reconnected to delta
() once the motor has gained
speed.

112

Advantages
Normally, low-voltage motors over 3 kW will be dimensioned to
run at either 400 V in delta () connection or at 690 V in star (Y)
connection. The flexibility provided by this design can also be
used to start the motor with a lower voltage. Star-delta
connections give a low starting current of only about one third of
that found with direct-on-line starting. Star-delta starters are
particularly suited for high inertias, where the load are initiated
after full load speed.

113

Drawbacks
They also reduce the starting torque to about 33%. This method
can only be used with induction motors that are delta connected
to the supply voltage.
If the changeover from star to delta takes place at too low a
speed, this can cause a current surge which rises almost as high
as the corresponding DOL value. During the even small period of
switch over from start to delta connection the motor looses
speed very rapidly, which also calls for higher current pulse after
connection to delta.

114

Current speed and Torque speed characteristics

115

Typical power circuit diagram of Star-Delta starter

F1 Fuses
F2 Thermal cut-out
K1 Main contactor
K2 Delta contactor
K3 Star contactor
M1 Three-phase motor

116

Typical control circuit diagram of Star-Delta starter

S1 Stop push button NO
S2 Start push button NC
K4 timer

117

Comparison of DOL and star-delta starting

The DOL starting method features a very high locked-rotor current which
eventually flattens and becomes constant. The star-delta starting method
features a lower locked-rotor current, but peaks during the starting process as
118
the changeover from star to delta is made.

Auto-transformer starting

As the name clearly states,

auto-transformer starting
makes use of an
auto-transformer coupled
in series with the motor
during starting.

119

The auto-transformer starter contains transformers, often

featuring two or more voltage reductions, which reduce voltage
to provide low-voltage starting by tapping off the secondary
voltage of the auto-transformer, usually at approximately 50%
80% of full voltage. More than one tapping can be used,
depending on the starting torque/current required. Of course,
reduced voltage to the motor will result in reduced locked-rotor
current and torque, but this method gives the highest possible
motor torque per line ampere.
At no point in time is the motor not energised, so it will not loose
speed as is the case with star-delta starting. The time of the
switch between reduced and full voltage can be adjusted to suit
specific requirements.
120

Current speed and Torque speed characteristics

121

Drawbacks
Besides a reduced starting rotor torque, the autotransformer
starting method has yet another disadvantage. Once the motor
has started running, it is switched over to the mains voltage
this will cause a current pulse.
Torque versus voltage
The values for starting torque are reduced at a rate
corresponding to the square of the reduction in volts.
2 2
1 2

2
=
1

2 2
1 2

2
=
1
122

Torque speed characteristics at various voltages

123

Typical power circuit diagram of Auto-transformer starter

124

Typical control circuit diagram of Auto-transformer starter

125

Stators Series Resistance starter

In this method, a voltage-dropping resistance is placed in series

with the motor during starting. The impedance seen by the
power system then is that of the resistance plus that of the
motor.

126

Starting Characteristics:
Motor terminal voltage is reduced from line voltage.
Motor current equals line current.
Starting torque is reduced by the square of the terminal voltage.
Applications:
Usually on low voltage (less than 600 v).
Where current reduction requirements are low, or where load
torque during acceleration is minimal.
Not often used with large motors because of the high heat loss in
the resistors.

127

Typical wiring circuit diagram of Stators Series Resistors starter

128

Soft starting
A soft starter is, a device which ensures a soft start of a motor.

129

Advantages
Soft starters are based on semiconductors. Via a power circuit
and a control circuit, these semiconductors reduce the initial
motor voltage. This results in lower motor torque. During the
starting process, the soft starter gradually increases the
motor voltage, thereby allowing the motor to accelerate the load
to rated speed without causing high torque or current peaks.
Soft starters can also be used to control how processes are
stopped. Soft starters are less expensive than frequency
converters.

130

Current speed and Torque

speed characteristics

131

Possible wiring diagram

R, S, T terminals of
soft starter are
input terminals
while U, V, W are
output terminals.
QF-auto air
breaker,
KM-contactor,
RJ-over heating
protection relay,
RD1-fuse,

132

Drawbacks
They do, however, share the same problem as frequency
converters: they may inject harmonic currents into the system,
and this can disrupt other processes.
The starting method also supplies a reduced voltage to the motor
during start-up. The soft starter starts up the motor at reduced
voltage, and the voltage is then ramped up to its full value.
Run-up time and locked-rotor current (starting current) can be
set.

133

Frequency converter starting (VSD or VFD)

Frequency converters are designed for continuous feeding of
motors, but they can also
be used for start-up only.

134

Current speed and Torque speed characteristics

135

Advantages
The frequency converter makes it possible to use low starting
current because the motor can produce rated torque at rated
current from zero to full speed. Frequency converters are
becoming cheaper all the time. As a result, they are increasingly
being used in applications where soft starters would previously
have been used.
Drawbacks
Even so, frequency converters are still more expensive than soft
starters in most cases; and like soft starters, they also inject
harmonic currents into the network.
136

P2.4 Basic calculation of A.C. induction motor parameters from

its name plate

137

Output power = 18.5 kW

3 phase supply voltage = 400/690 /Y ( +/- 5%)
Frequency = 50 Hz
Line current = 32/18.55 A
Rotational speed = 2935 rpm
Power factor = 0.91
To calculate:
1. Input power (kW)
2. Total power loss (W)
3. Efficiency (%)
4. Slip (%)
5. Torque(Nm)
6. Frequency in the rotor circuit
7. Number of poles

138

1. = 3
= 3 400 32 0.91 = 20174.93 W = 20.18 kW

2. = = 20175 18500 = 1675

3. =

18500

4. =

60
2

5. =

= 20175 = 0.917 = 91.7%

=

1850060
22935

100% =

= 60.2 ()

30002935
3000

100% = 2.17%

6. = = 0.0217 50 = 1.1

50

7. = 120 = 120 3000 = 2

139

140