10

CHAPTER 4
GEOMETRICAL AND NUMERICAL MODELLING

In this chapter, mesh generation, initial conditions, boundary conditions and

computation models used for numerical simulation are described.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the present work, a three dimensional numerical simulation of fuel injection,
mixing and combustion process in a DI turbocharged diesel engine has been done
using commercially available CFD software named STAR-CD. Since the work is
focused on swirl velocity component at the end of compression, instead of modelling
all the four strokes of the piston, only compression and expansion stroke is simulated
for the three re-entrant bowls. Hence BDC position is taken as the starting point for
the piston movement (CA at BDC assumed as 180).

4.2 COMPUTATION MODELS

In diesel engines, there is a strong relationship between mixture formation and
combustion since both the processes occur simultaneously. The most important
phenomena are the liquid core atomisation, the collision and secondary break-up of
fuel droplets, their momentum, energy and mass exchange with the gas phase and the
droplet-wall interaction. Simultaneously numerous complex chemical reactions occur,
which initiate the auto ignition, the burnout of the premixed phase and the subsequent
turbulent non-premixed combustion. It is a demanding task for the numerical
simulation tools to adequately describe all the above phenomena.
The numerical simulation of flow and mixture formation is based on an
Eulerian description of the gas-phase and on a Lagrangian description of the dropletphase. The interaction between both phases is described by source terms for the

11
momentum, heat and mass exchange. This methodology has been widely used for
spray modelling and is also implemented in the CFD code STAR-CD.

The STAR-CD code used in the current study has integrated several improved
sub-models such as turbulence, gas-wall heat transfer, spray, ignition, combustion,
NOX and soot models for diesel engine combustion computations. In chapter 5, the
details of all the models viz., RNG k-, droplet break-up, shell auto ignition model for
diesel combustion, NOX model, and soot model are explained in detail.

3D simulations are carried out using the PISO algorithm and second order
linear upwind scheme. RNG k- model was used to model the in-cylinder turbulence
effects. As far as fluid properties are concerned, ideal gas law and temperature
dependant constant pressure specific heat are chosen. The calculation was done for
single phase from BDC to dynamic injection timing (air only) and two phase (cylinder
gases and liquid fuel) after dynamic injection timing. The injected fuel properties
were assumed to be those of n-dodecane at an inlet temperature of 303 K. The
injected fuel jet was assumed to disintegrate into droplets immediately after entry into
the cylinder. Fuel evaporation from the drop surface was controlled by the energy
transfer from the gas phase to the liquid phase and local vapor concentration.

4.3 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PARAMETERIZATION

Previous studies [Y Zhu et al. (2004)] have revealed that the bowl geometry
and dimensions, such as the pip region, bowl lip area, and toroidal radius, are all
known to have an effect on the in-cylinder mixing and combustion processes.
Hence CFD parametric analysis was conducted to study the influence of bowl
radius, pip shape, maximum diameter of the bowl on the engine performance and
emissions at full load condition at 2400 rpm. For all the investigated cases, the bowl
volume and squish region volume were kept constant to preserve the same
compression ratio. This condition assures that changes in the performance and
emissions were caused by geometric variations only.

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4.3.1 Effects of the Re-entrant Bowl Radius on Engine Performance and
Emissions
Figure 4.1 shows the three re-entrant bowl shapes with different bowl radius.
All the other relevant parameters (compression ratio, maximum diameter of the bowl,
squish clearance and injection rate) were kept constant. The radius of baseline bowl is
8.5 mm. Mod 1 and Mod 2 are modified bowls. The radius of Mod 1 bowl and
Mod 2 bowl is 9.5 mm and 7.5 mm respectively. In order to have the same
combustion chamber volume, some of the bowl geometrical features need to be varied
according to the main parameter variations.

Fig. 4.1 Three re-entrant bowl shapes with different bowl radius
The influence of the re-entrant bowl radius on engine performance and emissions are
reported in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Effects of the re-entrant bowl radius on engine performance

and emissions
Bowl

NOX @

Soot @

EVO

EVO

188.5

(g/kg-fuel)
21.94

(g/kg-fuel)
0.13

IMEP

ISFC

(bar)

(g/kWh)

10.2

Case name

radius

Baseline

(mm)
8.5

Mod 1

9.5

10.08

191

20.98

0.15

Mod 2

7.5

10.42

184.7

23.7

0.11

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4.3.2 Effects of the Re-entrant Bowl Pip Shape on Engine Performance and
Emissions
Figure 4.2 presents three different re-entrant bowls with different pip shapes.
All the other relevant parameters (compression ratio, maximum diameter of the bowl,
squish clearance and injection rate) were kept constant. Baseline bowl has a vertical
pip. Re-entrant-2 and Re-entrant-3 are modified bowls and have inclined pips.
The Inclination of pip in Re-entrant-2 is 40 with respect to the axis of the bowl and
Re-entrant-3 is 48. In order to have the same combustion chamber volume, some
of the bowl geometrical features need to be varied according to the main parameter
variations.

Fig. 4.2 Three re-entrant bowls with different pip shapes

The influence of the re-entrant bowl pip shape on the engine performance and
emissions are reported in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Effects of the re-entrant bowl pip shapes on engine performance and
emissions
Pip
Case name

inclination

Baseline
Re-entrant-2
Re-entrant-3

(degrees)
40
48

IMEP

ISFC

[bar]

(g/kWh)

10.2
10.15
10.07

188.5
189.5
190.9

NOX @

Soot @

EVO

EVO

(g/kg-fuel)
21.94
21.4
21.2

(g/kg-fuel)
0.13
0.135
0.14

4.3.3 Effect of the Maximum Diameter of the Re-entrant Bowl on Engine

Performance and Emissions

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Figure 4.3 presents three re-entrant bowl shapes with different major diameter.
All the other relevant parameters (compression ratio, bowl upper diameter, squish
clearance and injection rate) were kept constant. The maximum diameter of the
baseline bowl is 66.2 mm. Dia 1 and Dia 2 are modified bowls. The maximum
diameter of Dia 1 bowl and Dia 2 bowl is 9.5 mm and 7.5 mm respectively. In
order to have the same combustion chamber volume, some of the bowl geometrical
features need to be varied according to the main parameter variations.

Fig. 4.3 Three re-entrant bowls with different maximum diameter

The influence of the maximum diameter of the re-entrant bowl on engine performance
and emissions are reported in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Effects of the re-entrant bowl major diameter on engine performance
and emissions
Maximum
Case name

diameter

Baseline

(mm)
66.2

Dia 1

69.5

Dia 2

63

4.3.4 Summary

IMEP

ISFC

(bar)

(g/kWh)

10.2

NOX @

Soot @

EVO (g/kg- EVO (g/kg-

188.5

fuel)
21.94

fuel)
0.13

10.18

188.9

21.8

0.13

10.23

188

22.2

0.125

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Of the six piston bowl variants investigated, no one has shown a significant
improvement in the gross-IMEP and ISFC. The parametric study reveals that the
above geometrical parameters of the re-entrant bowl have little effect on IMEP and
ISFC. Later, it was understood from the literature [Y Zhu et al. (2004)] that all the
above parameters have an impact on IMEP and ISFC, only when high injection
pressure (above 1300 bar) is used.
Because, the high-pressure injection systems inject fuel at a very high velocity,
causing a large amount of droplets to impinge onto the piston walls. The following
modifications will help to reduce the wall impingement.

A larger-diameter combustion chamber

Large bowl radius

Any one of the above modifications in the bowl is required to allow more free spray
travelling throughout the combustion chamber, achieving a better air/fuel mixing and
reducing the wall impingement and therefore the soot formation.

4.4 FINALISATION OF THE RE-ENTRANT BOWL SHAPES FOR THE PRESENT STUDY
In the engine used for current study, the maximum injection pressure was 800
bar. So based on the literatures available for the same engine configuration [Kazutoshi
Mori et al. (1990), Middlemiss I.D. (1978), Felice E.Corcicone et al. (1993)], it was
understood that reducing the throat diameter and increasing the re-entrant angle will
have more impact on enhancing the squish flow and swirl intensification. This will
increase the rate of diffusion combustion and enhance the engine performance.

In order to expedite the latter stage combustion, or diffusion combustion, it is

necessary that the combustion chamber design should be optimized to retain the
kinetic energy of the air through the latter stage of combustion and expedite mixing of
the combustion gas and air-fuel mixture in that stage. Based on the idea of enhancing
the diffusion combustion at the later combustion period, two re-entrant bowls namely
Bowl 2 and Bowl 3 were designed as per the guidelines given in the literatures

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[Kazutoshi Mori et al. (1990), Felice E.Corcicone et al. (1993)]. Both Bowl 2 and
Bowl 3 are represented in Figure 4.4.

Based on the work of Kazutoshi Mori et al. (1990), Bowl 2 was designed to
achieve the maximum effective swirl parameter. It was suggested that the effective
swirl parameter increases to the maximum when the re-entrant angle is approximately
20. It was finally concluded that a combustion chamber that gives a high effective
swirl parameter value is very effective in the promotion of diffusion combustion and
reduction of PM.

Bowl 3 was also designed to improve the swirl ratio near TDC of
compression based on Felice E.Corcicone et al. (1993) work. It was
recommended to keep the throat diameter of bowl as 80 % of the maximum
bowl diameter. Reducing the throat diameter can enhance the squish flow
and improve the fuel-air mixing. It was suggested that further reduction of
throat diameter (below 80 % of maximum diameter) have an impact on
durability issues due to more heat under high load and speed conditions.
Furthermore, the reverse squish flow enhanced by narrower diameter tends
to deteriorate the engine performance at retarded injection timings.

4.5 CFD MODEL SET-UP

CFD analyses are carried out on a DI turbocharged, aftercooled engine,
focusing on the influence of the combustion chamber shape on both the mixture
formation and combustion evolution. It has a central, vertically mounted injector and
a concentric re-entrant combustion bowl inside the piston. All the analyses are carried
out for full load at the rated speed of 2400 rpm. The engine used for the study is a
very high specific power engine, thus the study of the operations at maximum power
speed is particularly important. The engine specifications are given in Appendix 1.
Engine operating conditions are given in Table 4.4.

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Table 4.4 Operating conditions for CFD simulation
Engine speed (rpm)
Intake air temperature (K)
Intake air pressure- absolute (bar)
Overall equivalence ratio
Dynamic injection timing
Injection duration
Swirl ratio at IVC
Fuel injected (mg / cycle)

2400
323
1.7
0.49
8 CA bTDC
26 CA
2
58.9

Figure 4.4 shows the three re-entrant bowl shapes with different re-entrant
angle and throat diameter. All the three bowls have the same volume, height and
maximum diameter. Bowl 1 is used as the baseline. For the validation part,
calculations of the compression stroke and expansion stroke are performed and the
solutions are compared with experimental data available for baseline bowl.
Bowl 2 and Bowl 3 are modified bowls. Bowl 2 has a re-entrant angle of 20
and same throat diameter as baseline bowl. Bowl 3 has a re-entrant angle of 43 and
the throat diameter of Bowl 3 is 9 % less than that of baseline bowl. In baseline bowl,
the throat diameter is 87 % of maximum diameter where as in Bowl 3, the throat
diameter is kept as 78 % of maximum diameter of the bowl.

Baseline

Bowl 2

Bowl 3

Fig. 4.4 Geometry of re-entrant bowls

The main geometrical parameters of the re-entrant bowl are shown in Figure 4.5.

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Fig. 4.5 Main geometrical parameters
The matrix of investigated cases is reported in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5 Investigated cases

Parameter

Bowl 1 (Baseline)

Bowl 2

Bowl 3

Throat diameter
(mm)

57.7

57.7

52.2

Re-entrant angle
(degrees)

--

20

43

Bowl radius (mm)

8.5

8.2

In order to keep the same combustion chamber volume, some of the bowl
geometrical features need to be varied accordingly to the main parameter variations.
Nevertheless, among the many geometrical features, only a few of them have been
adjusted to meet the above stated requirement. Before finalising the shapes of Bowl 2
and Bowl 3, a parametric study was conducted for the baseline bowl as discussed in
section 4.3. The significance of the geometrical parameters chosen for the Bowl 2 and
Bowl 3 are explained in section 4.4.
All the computational initial conditions or input parameters were obtained
from the available experimental data of the baseline bowl. The calculations are carried
out for the closed part of the engine cycle. Calculations for all three bowls were
performed from the same initial conditions at same operating conditions.
Compression and expansion strokes are simulated in each of the above three cases to
evaluate the attitude of each bowl to promote mixture formation and combustion, and
to produce pollutants.
In order to analyse the engines performance, the gross indicated work per
cycle (W) was calculated from the cylinder pressure and piston displacement as
W ( Nm)

aB 2
8

p ( ) 2 sin( )

a sin( 2 )

l a sin ( )
2

(4.1)

where a, l, and B are the crank radius (m), connecting rod length (m) and

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cylinder bore (m) respectively. 1 and 2 are the beginning and end of the valveclosed period, respectively.
The indicated power per cylinder is related to the indicated work per cycle by
P (kW )

WN
60000n R

(4.2)
where nR = 2 is the number of crank revolutions for each power stroke per
cylinder and N is the engine speed (rpm).
The indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) is defined as

ISFC ( g / kWh)

30m fuel N
P

(4.3)

where mfuel is the mass of fuel injected per stroke in each cylinder (g/stroke).
In the work done per cycle equation (4.1), the work was only integrated as part
of compression and expansion stroke; the pumping work has not been taken into
account. Therefore the power and ISFC analyses can be viewed as being only
qualitative rather than quantitative in this study.

4.5.1 Computational Mesh and Time Step

In order to solve the governing equations, approximations for the partial
differential equations are required. In finite volume methods, all the differentials are
reduced to algebraic expressions by integrating the governing equations over sub
domains and in this sub domain, the equations are solved subsequently. For using the
CFD code, the computational domain (grid) of the entire geometry of engine cylinder
with bowl is required. The pre processing mainly involves creation of the basic 3D
model, grid generation and fixing of the boundary conditions.
The first and important task in the process of flow simulation is the creation of
a computational grid (mesh) to represent the flow domain. The computational mesh
consists of 0.18 million cells. The entire mesh consists of cylinder and bowl created in

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GAMBIT - a mesh generation utility and is imported into STAR-CD for solutions. A
moving boundary-fitted-coordinate grid was used to accurately represent the
geometry of the combustion chamber. A hexahedral structured mesh is used in the
analysis. Hexahedral cells have been preferred for the grid generation, since they
provide better accuracy and stability than tetrahedral cells. The physical model is
discretized according to the mesh motion using the STAR-CD software. A time step of
t = 6.944e-06 seconds is used throughout the present study. The computational grid
for different crank angle position is shown in Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7.

Fig. 4.7 Computational grid at

TDC position for baseline bowl

Fig. 4.6 Computational grid at

BDC position for baseline bowl
4.6 INITIAL AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
4.6.1. Initial Conditions
The initial conditions were specified at BDC, consisting of a quiescent flow
field at pressure and temperature for full load conditions. An in-cylinder rigid swirl
model was used. The initial conditions of air and fuel are given in Table 4.6.

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Table 4.6 Initial conditions
Working medium
Air
Fuel

Pressure (bar)
1.7
260

Temperature (K)
323
303

4.6.2. Boundary Conditions

In the present case, walls are assumed to be adiabatic with no slip condition. Noslip boundary condition is provided at all the wall boundaries like cylinder head,
cylinder liner and piston bowl bottom. In any flow, Reynolds number of the flow
become very low and turbulent fluctuation is damped considerably, near the walls.
The laminar viscosity starts to play a significant role. Frictional effects at the walls are
not taken into account, i.e., smooth wall option for turbulent flow boundary condition
is used. Standard wall functions are used to calculate the variables at the near wallcells and the corresponding quantities on the wall. Initial turbulent flow parameters
(Turbulent intensity and mixing length) are imposed at the boundaries, setting the
former to 0.05 and the latter approximately 1/10th of the cylinder diameter, referred to
as a characteristic length. Simulation studies are carried out for all the bowls with the
same boundary conditions.

4.7 FLUID PROPERTIES

In the diesel engine combustion, the in-cylinder working medium comprises of
two basic fluids, air and fuel. n-dodecane (C12H26) is used as the fuel in the present
analysis. The properties of air and thermo physical properties of fuel are given in
Table 4.7 and 4.8 respectively.

Table 4.7 In-cylinder air properties

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Property
Density
Viscosity
Specific Heat
Conductivity

During Flow
f (T,P)
Multi Component
Polynomial (1006 J/kg K)
Constant (0.02627 W/m K)

Table 4.8 Fuel properties

Fuel
Molecular weight
Density
Specific heat
Molecular viscosity

n-dodecane (C12H26)
170.34
745.76 kg/m3
2203.67 J/kg K
0.001376 kg/ms

4.8 FUEL INJECTION CHARACTERISTICS

A cylindrical co-ordinate system is created at the cylinder axis and defined as
an injector in the model. The various parameters of the injector are given in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9 Nozzle parameters
Hole diameter

0.206 mm

L / D ratio

4.85

Coefficient of discharge at nozzle exit

0.74

Coefficient of contraction at nozzle exit 0.7

Roughness of nozzle interior surface

1.e-06 m